1-1

Chapter 1
Traffic Volume and Capacity
The design of a road should be based on traffic volume that the road will have to
accommodate.
1.1 Design Volume: The usual design control is the design volume, which is the
estimated traffic volume at a certain future year, the design year, taken as 10 to 20
years. For geometric design of roads, Road Development Authority adopts a design
year of 20 years to the future.

The measures of traffic volume on a road are:
(1) Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT), which is the total
traffic volume for the year divided by 365.
(2) Average Daily Traffic (ADT), which is the total volume in
both directions during a given time period divided by the
number of days in that time period

Traffic counts: RDA carries out traffic counts using automatic recorders over a 7 day
period to obtain ADT volumes and hourly traffic volume during this period.

Manual traffic counts are carried out during the daytime for 12 hours from 6.00am to
6.00pm or during a 16 hours period from 6.00am to 10.00pm to obtain the vehicle
composition of the traffic volume obtained from automatic recorder counts.

Origin Destinations Surveys: O-D Surveys are carried out to determine the travel
pattern so that when a new road is constructed or a road improvement is planned, a
traffic assignment could be done to estimate the traffic that will be diverted to the new
or improved facility.

Traffic forecasting: An accurate forecast of future traffic during the design life is
necessary to determine the standards that should be adopted for a particular design.
The forecasting of future traffic is based on:
1. Normal traffic growth on a road due to the increase in
population and resulting socio-economic activity of the
population served by the road
2. Generated traffic, that is the traffic generated as a result of new
development planned for the area or the development that takes
place as a result of provision of new or improved road
3. Diverted traffic, that is traffic that is diverted from other roads
to the new or improved road

1.2 Design Hour Volume (DHV) is the projected hourly volume used for design.
This volume is taken as a percentage of the expected ADT on the highway. On major
roads carrying relatively heavy traffic volumes throughout the year, hourly traffic has
to be used to determine the design volume. However, it will not be economical to use
the maximum peak hour traffic in the design year because this traffic volume will
occur only during a few hours of the year.
Fig 1.1 shows the variation of hourly volume, expressed as a percentage of the ADT
throughout the year. It can be observed that the highest hourly volume occurred was

1-2

about 18% of the ADT. Examination of the curve between 0 and about 30
th
highest
hours, shows that a small increase in the number of hours results in a significant drop
in the percentage of ADT. Beyond 30
th
hour, a large increase in the number of hours
results in only a small change in the ADT. This characteristic of the curve has led to
the decision of using the 30
th
highest hourly volume as the design hourly volume.

In motorized countries it has been found that the 30
th
highest hourly volume is 12% to
15 % of the ADT. However, analysis of traffic in Sri Lanka has confirmed that the
30
th
highest hourly volume is 8% to 9% of ADT. Therefore, for design purpose DHV
is taken as 8% - 9% of ADT.

It has also been shown that the 30
th
highest hourly volume as a percentage of ADT
varies only slightly from year to year, even when significant changes of ADT occur.
However, the 30
th
hour volume should not be indiscriminately used as the Design
Hourly Volume on roads having unusual or high seasonal fluctuation in the traffic
flow

Variation of two-way hourly volume
During the year
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 100 200 300
Hours of the year
H
o
u
r
l
y

v
o
l
u
m
e

(
%
o
f

A
D
T
)
%PHV

Fig. 1.1 Variation of Hourly Volume

1.3 Equivalent Passenger Car Units (PCU)

Traffic on a road is composed of different type of vehicles such as passenger cars,
trucks, buses, vans, motorcycles, bicycles and bullock carts etc. For design purpose,
the various types of vehicles are converted to equivalent passenger car units (PCU).
PCU for a particular type of vehicle is the equivalent number of passenger cars that
will produce the


same effect as that produced by that particular vehicle. It depends on the type of
vehicle, type of terrain, type of the carriageway, the level of service and speed.

30
th
highest hourly volume
30

1-3

Equivalent Passenger Car Unit values used by the Road Development Authority are
given in table 2.1 and 2.2

Table 1.1 Equivalent Passenger Car Units for two-lane two-way roads

PCU Factor Vehicle type
Flat terrain Rolling terrain Mountainous
terrain
Passenger Car 1.0 1.0 1.0
Small Bus 2.0 3.4 6.0
Large Bus 2.2 5.0 10.0
Light Truck 2.0 4.0 7.0
Medium truck 2.2 5.0 10.0
Heavy truck 2.2 5.0 10.0
Motorcycle 0.5 0.5 0.5
Bicycle 1.0 1.0 1.0
Animal drawn cart 4.0 10.0 24.0

Source: Road Development Authority, Planning division

Table 1.2 Equivalent Passenger Car Units for Multi-lane Roads

PCU Factor Vehicle type
Flat terrain Rolling terrain Mountainous
terrain
Passenger Car 1.0 1.0 1.0
Small Bus 1.5 3.0 5.0
Large Bus 1.7 4.0 8.0
Light Truck 1.7 4.0 8.0
Medium truck 1.7 4.0 8.0
Heavy truck 1.7 4.0 8.0
Motorcycle 0.5 0.5 0.5
Bicycle 1.0 1.0 1.0
Animal drawn cart 4.0 10.0 24.0

Source: Road Development Authority, Planning division

1.4 Capacity Analysis

Capacity Analysis is a set of procedures used to estimate the traffic carrying capacity
of facilities over a range of defined operational conditions.

Capacity is defined as the maximum hourly rate at which vehicles (or persons) can
reasonably be expected to traverse a point or a uniform section of a lane or roadway
during a given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions.

Highway Capacity Manual published by the Transport Research Board, USA, is used
by many road authorities around the world to design and plan highways. The
recommendations in this manual should be judiciously applied for designing new
highways or improvement to existing highways in Sri Lanka as the conditions

1-4

prevailing in Sri Lanka with respect to roadway, traffic and driver behaviour are
significantly different to assumptions made in the Highway Capacity Manual.

1.5 Level Of Service (LOS)

Level of Service is defined as a qualitative measure describing operational conditions
within a traffic stream and their perception by the motorists and/or passengers. A level
of service generally describes these conditions in terms of such factors as speed and
travel time, freedom to maneuver, traffic interruptions, comfort, convenience and
safety, defined in terms of density.

Six Levels of Service have been defined from LOS-A through LOS-F
LOS-A: Free flow, unaffected by other users. Free to select desired speed, excellent
level of comfort
LOS-B: Stable flow, but the presence of other vehicles begins to be noticeable.
LOS-C: Stable flow, but operation of individual user is significantly affected by the
interaction with others
LOS-D: Represents high density but still stable flow. Speed and maneuverability is
severely restricted, poor level of comfort and convenience
LOS-E: Operating conditions are at or near capacity level, all speeds are reduced to a
low but relatively uniform value, freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is
extremely difficult
LOS-F: Forced or breakdown flow, queues form, stop and go situation, inflow
exceeds outflow

Level of Service, A to F apply to uninterrupted flow.

Note: Uninterrupted flow facilities have no fixed elements such as traffic signals
external to the traffic system that cause interruption to traffic flow. Traffic flow is
influenced only by the presence of other vehicles in the traffic stream and the
geometric and environmental characteristic of the highway.


1.6 Service Flow Rate

Service Flow rate is the maximum rate of flow which can be accommodated by
various facilities at each level of service A to E. It is the maximum hourly rate under
prevailing conditions while maintaining the designated level of service.



Prevailing Roadway, Traffic and Control Conditions

Roadway Conditions: refer to the geometric characteristics of the highway or street
including the type of facility (e.g. freeway, multi-lane, two-lane highway, signalized
intersection, un-signalized intersection etc), its development environment (e.g. urban,
suburban or rural), the number of lanes, lane widths and shoulder widths, lateral
clearance from obstructions (e.g. lamp posts, road signs and guard rails), design speed
and horizontal and vertical alignment.


1-5

Traffic Conditions: refer to characteristics of the traffic stream using the facility. This
is defined by the distribution of the vehicle types (e.g. trucks, buses, passenger cars)
and amount and distribution of vehicles in lanes and direction.

Control Conditions: refer to type and specific design of control devices and traffic
regulators present (e.g. traffic signals, no passing zones, STOP and YIELD signs, turn
restrictions etc.)

Note: Capacity refers to rate of vehicle or persons flow during a specified period of
interest, which is taken as a peak 15 minutes period.

1.7 Capacity Design of Two-Lane Highways

A two-lane highway is a two-lane road having only one lane for use by traffic in each
direction. Passing of slower vehicles require the use of opposing lanes when sight
distances and gaps in opposing traffic stream permit.

As volume increases the ability to pass decreases and results in formation of platoons
in the traffic stream.

Three parameters are used to describe service quality for two-lane highways.
1. Average Travel Speed
2. Percent Time Delay
3. Capacity Utilization

Average Travel Speed: reflects the mobility function of two-lane highways and is the
length of the highway segment under consideration divided by the average travel time
of all vehicles traversing the segment over some designated interval of time.

Percent Time Delay: reflects both mobility and access functions and is defined as the
average percent of time that all vehicles are delayed while traveling in platoons due to
their inability to pass. Percent time delay is difficult to measure directly in the field.
The percent of vehicles traveling at headways less than 5 seconds can be used as a
surrogate measure in field studies.

Capacity Utilization: reflects the access function and is defined as the ratio of the
demand flow rate to the capacity of the facility.

Design computations cannot be readily performed for two-lane highways because the
number of lanes is fixed. Modifications to grade and alignment however could
improve the operational efficiency.

Two traffic stream characteristics, the average travel speed and percent time delay are
used as operational measures describing quality of service provided to motorists on a
two-lane highway.

Speeds of about 80 kmph are usual on rural two-lane highways in level terrain. But
due to restrictions of road widths, shoulder widths and other deficiencies in road
geometry, safe speeds are much lower on Sri Lanka roads.


1-6

1.8 Ideal Conditions for Two-Lane Highways

1. Design speed is greater than or equal to 96 kmph
2. Lane width greater than or equal to 3.7 m
3. Clear shoulder width greater than or equal to 1.8 m
4. No no passing zones in the highway
5. Only passenger cars in the traffic stream
6. A 50/50 directional distribution of traffic
7. No impediments to through traffic due to traffic control or
turning vehicles
8. Level terrain

The capacity of a two-lane highway under ideal conditions is 2800 pcph total in both
directions.

A no passing zone is defined as one marked for no passing or any road section
where the passing sight distance is 450m or less.

1.9 LOS criteria for two-lane highways

LOS criteria for two lane highways address both mobility and accessibility concerns.
The primary measure of service quality is the percent time delay. Speed and capacity
utilization are secondary measures.

LOS criteria are defined for peak 15 minutes flow periods applicable for sections of
significant length.

LOS-A: The highest quality of traffic service occurs when motorists are able to drive
at their desired speed without strict enforcement. This would result in average speeds
approaching 96 kmph on two lane highways. Passing demand is well below passing
capacity and no platoons of 3 or more vehicles are observed. Drivers are not delayed
by more than 30% of time by slow vehicles. A maximum flow rate of 420pcph total in
both directions may be achieved under ideal conditions.
LOS-B: Traffic flow speeds of about 85 kmph are expected in level terrain. Passing
demand becomes significant and equal to passing capacity. Drivers are delayed upto
45% of time. Service flow rate of 750 pcph total in both directions can be expected.
Number of platoons begins to increase dramatically.

LOS-C: Noticeable increase in the number of platoons formation, platoon size and
frequency of passing impediments are observed. Average speeds still exceed 83 kmph
in level terrain. Traffic flow is stable but is susceptible to congestion due to turning
and slow moving traffic. Percent time delay up to 60%, Service flow rate of 1200
pcph total in both directions can be expected.

LOS-D: Unstable flow is approached. Passing becomes extremely difficult. Passing
demand is high. Passing capacity approaches zero. Platoon size of 5 to 10 vehicles can
be observed. Speed of 80 kmph can still be achieved under ideal conditions. Turning
vehicles and roadside distractions cause major shockwaves in the traffic stream.
Percent time delay approaches 75%. Maximum flow rate of 1800 pcph can be
observed.

1-7


LOS-E: Defines a traffic flow condition on two-lane highways having a percent time
delay of more than 75% under ideal conditions. Speeds will drop to 80 kmph. Passing
is virtually impossible. Platooning becomes intense. Under ideal conditions the
capacity is 2800 pcph in both directions.

LOS-F: represents a heavily congested condition with traffic demand exceeding
capacity. Volumes are lower than capacity, speeds are lower than capacity speed.

1.10 Directional Split of Traffic

Ideal condition for two-lane roads is when the directional split of traffic is 50/50.
When the direction split moves away from the ideal, capacity decreases as shown in
the table below.

Directional split Total capacity Ratio of capacity
to ideal capacity
50/50 2800 1.00
60/40 2650 0.94
70/30 2500 0.89
80/20 2300 0.83
90/10 2100 0.75
100/0 2000 0.71

1.11 Determination of Level of Service

LOS of a given facility under existing conditions or projected traffic demand can be
determined as explained below. The analysis is based on the flow rates for a peak 15
minutes period within the hour of interest, which is usually the peak hour.


1-8




Table 1.3 Level of Service criteria for general two-lane highway segments
v/c ratio ( ratio of flow rate to an ideal capacity of 2800 pcph in both directions

Level terrain Rolling terrain Mountainous terrain
Percent no passing zones Percent no passing zones Percent no passing zones LOS

Percent
Time
Delay
Avg
b
Speed 0 20 40 60 80 100
Avg
b
Speed 0 20 40 60 80 100
Avg
b
Speed 0 20 40 60 80 100
A 30 ! 94 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.04 ! 92 0.15 0.10 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.03 ! 90 0.14 0.09 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.01
B 45 ! 89 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 ! 87 0.26 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.13 ! 87 0.25 0.20 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.10
C 60 ! 84 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.32 ! 82 0.42 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28 ! 79 0.39 0.33 0.28 0.23 0.20 0.16
D 75 ! 81 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.57 ! 79 0.62 0.57 0.52 0.48 0.46 0.43 ! 73 0.58 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.37 0.33
E > 75 ! 73 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 ! 65 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 ! 57 0.91 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.80 0.78
F 100 < 45 - - - - - - <40 - - - - - - <35 - - - - - -


b
Average travel speed of all vehicles with highways with design speeds ! 96 kmph; for highways with lower design speeds reduce speed by 6 kmph for each 16 kmph reduction of design speed below
96kmph; assume speed is not restricted to lower values by regulation

Source: Table 8-1 Highway Capacity Manual, Transport Research Board, National Research Council, Washington DC, USA







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Table 1.4 Adjustment factors for directional distribution (f
d
)
for two-lane highways

Directional
Distribution
100/0 90/10 80/20 70/30 60/40 50/50
Adjustment
factor
0.71 0.75 0.83 0.89 0.94 1.0

Source: Table 8-4 Highway Capacity Manual, Transport Research Board, National Research Council, Washington DC, USA


Table 1.5 Adjustment factor for combined effect of Narrow lanes
And restricted shoulder width (f
w
)
3.7 m lanes 3.4 m lanes 3.0 m lanes 2.7 m lanes Usable
shoulder
width
(m)
LOS
A-D
LOS
E
LOS
A-D
LOS
E
LOS
A-D
LOS
E
LOS
A-D
LOS
E
!1.8
1.0 1.0 0.93 0.94 0.84 0.87 0.70 0.76
1.2
0.92 0.97 0.85 0.92 0.77 0.85 0.65 0.74
0.6
0.81 0.93 0.75 0.88 0.68 0.81 0.57 0.70
0
0.70 0.88 0.65 0.82 0.58 0.75 0.49 0.66

Note: where shoulder width is different on either side of the road use the average width

Source: Table 8-5 Highway Capacity Manual, Transport Research Board, National Research Council, Washington DC, USA


Table 1.6 Average Passenger Car Equivalent for Trucks and Busses
on two-lane highways over different terrain segments

Type of Terrain
Vehicle Type

LOS Level Rolling Mountainous
A 2.0 4.0 7.0
B & C 2.2 5.0 10.0 Trucks E
T
D & E 2.0 5.0 12.0
A 1.8 3.0 5.7
B & C 2.0 3.4 5.7 Buses E
B
D & E 1.6 2.9 6.5

Source: Table 8-6 Highway Capacity Manual, Transport Research Board, National Research Council, Washington DC, USA


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Table 1.7 Values of v/c ratios
a
vs Speed, Percent Grade and
Percent no passing zones for specific grades

Percent no passing zones
Percent Grade
Average
Upgrade Speed (Kmph) 0 20 40 60 80 100
89 0.27 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.12
85 0.42 0.38 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.27
81 0.64 0.59 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.47
73 1.00 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.84
69 1.00 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94
65 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00



3

89 0.25 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.11
85 0.40 0.36 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25
81 0.61 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.47 0.45
73 0.97 0.92 0.88 0.85 0.83 0.81
69 0.99 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92
65 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00



4

89 0.21 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08
85 0.36 0.31 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20
81 0.57 0.49 0.45 0.41 0.39 0.37
73 0.93 0.84 0.79 0.75 0.72 0.70
69 0.97 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.82
65 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92
57 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00



5

89 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.04
85 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13
81 0.48 0.40 0.35 0.31 0.28 0.26
73 0.49 0.76 0.68 0.63 0.59 0.55
69 0.93 0.84 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67
65 0.97 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.81 0.78
57 1.00 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.90
49 1.00 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98




6

89 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
85 0.13 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.04
81 0.34 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.15 0.12
73 0.77 0.65 0.55 0.46 0.40 0.35
69 0.86 0.75 0.67 0.60 0.54 0.48
65 0.93 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.64 0.59
57 1.00 0.91 0.87 0.82 0.79 0.76




7
49 1.00 0.95 0.92 0.90 0.88 0.86

a
Ratio of flow rate to ideal capacity of 2800 pcph, assuming car operation is unaffected by grade
Note: Interpolate for intermediate values of percent no passing zones, round Percent grade to the next higher integer value

Source: Table 8-7 Highway Capacity Manual, Transport Research Board, National Research Council, Washington DC, USA










CE309-Highway Design
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Table 1.8 Adjustment Factors for Directional Distribution
For specific grades (f
d
)

Percent of Traffic
on Upgrade
Adjustment factor
(f
d
)
100 0.58
90 0.64
80 0.70
70 0.78
60 0.87
50 1.00
40 1.20
30 1.50



Source: Table 8-8 Highway Capacity Manual, Transport Research Board, National Research Council, Washington DC, USA




























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CE309-Highway design
Table 1.9 Passenger Car Equivalent for Specific Grades
on two-lane highways E and E
0
Average Upgrade Speed (kmph) Grade % Length of grade
Meters 73 64 48
0 All 1.4 1.3 1.3
400 1.7 1.6 1.5
800 2.0 1.8 1.7
1200 2.3 2.0 1.9
1600 2.6 2.3 2.1
2400 3.4 2.9 2.5
3200 4.6 3.7 2.9
4800 7.3 5.6 3.8




3
6400 11.3 7.7 4.9

400 1.8 1.7 1.6
800 2.2 2.0 1.9
1200 2.7 2.3 2.1
1600 3.2 2.7 2.4
2400 4.7 3.8 3.1
3200 6.9 5.3 3.8
4800 12.5 9.0 5.5




4
6400 22.8 13.8 7.4

400 2.0 1.8 1.7
800 2.5 2.2 2.0
1200 3.1 2.7 2.4
1600 4.0 3.3 2.8
2400 6.3 4.9 3.8
3200 10.2 7.5 4.8
4800 22.0 14.6 7.8




5
6400 55.0 25.0 11.5

400 2.1 1.9 1.8
800 2.8 2.4 2.2
1200 3.7 3.1 2.7
1600 4.9 4.0 3.3
2400 8.5 6.4 4.7
3200 15.3 10.7 6.3
4800 38.0 23.9 11.3




6
6400 90.0 45.0 18.1

400 2.2 2.0 1.9
800 3.2 2.7 2.4
1200 4.3 3.6 3.0
1600 6.1 4.8 3.8
2400 11.5 8.4 5.8
3200 22.8 15.4 8.2
4800 66.0 38.5 16.1




7

6400 A a 28.0
a - Speed not attainable on grade specified. Note: Round percent Grade to next higher integer value

Source: Table 8-9 Highway Capacity Manual, Transport Research Board, National Research Council, Washington DC, USA


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V
v =
PHF

where, v = flow rate for 15 minutes total flow for both directions in vph
V = full hour volume total for both directions in vph
PHF = Peak Hour Factor

Service flow rate for two-lane roads on general terrain segments is given by the equation

SF
i
= 2800 x (v/c)
i
x f
d
x f
w
x f
HV


where, SF
i
is the total service flow rate in both directions for prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions for level of service i in vph

(v/c)
i
is the ratio of flow rate to ideal capacity for level of service i obtained
from table 2.3

f
d
is the adjustment factor for directional distribution of traffic obtained from
table 2.4

f
w
is the adjustment factor for narrow lanes and restricted shoulder widths
obtained from table 2.5

f
HV
is the adjustment factor for the presence of heavy vehicles in the traffic
stream where,
f
HV
= 1/ [1+ P
T
(E
T
1) + P
B
(E
B
1) ]

and, P
T
= Proportion of trucks in the traffic stream
expressed as a decimal

P
B
= Proportion of buses in the traffic stream
expressed as a decimal

E
T
= Passenger Car Equivalent for trucks
Obtained from table 2.6

E
B
= Passenger Car Equivalent for buses
Obtained from table 2.6

Note: General terrain segment is a section of road where the gradient is not more than 3% for
any length less than 1600 meters and where the gradient is more than 3%, the length of such
grade is not more than 800 meters.



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The effect of grade on two-lane roads is more severe than on multi-lane roads because of the
need to use the opposing traffic lane for passing. When the traffic volume increases passing
will become more difficult and even when there are no heavy vehicles in the traffic stream, the
effect of the grade is experienced by passenger cars.

Service flow rates on two-lane road segments on specific grades are adjusted for any given
upgrade speed, by applying an adjustment factor f
g
.

Service flow rate for two lane roads on specific grade segments for any upgrade speed is given
by the equation:

SF
i
= 2800 x (v/c)
i
x f
d
x f
w
x f
g
x f
HV


and, f
g
= 1/ [ 1+ ( P
p
I
p
) ]

f
HV
= 1/ [ 1+ P
HV
( E
HV
1 )

I
p
= 0.02 ( E E
0
)

E
HV
= 1+ ( 0.25 + P
T/HV
)( E 1)

where, SF
i
= Service flow rate for LOS i or speed i, total vph in both directions for
prevailing roadway and traffic conditions

(v/c)
i
= volume/capacity ratio for LOS i or speed i obtained from table 2.7

f
d
= adjustment factor for directional distribution of traffic (table 2.4)

f
w
= adjustment factor for narrow lanes and restricted shoulder widths
(table 2.5)
f
g
= adjustment factor for the effects of grades on passenger cars

f
HV
= adjustment factor for presence of heavy vehicles in the upgrade
traffic stream
P
p
= proportion of passenger cars in the upgrade traffic stream, expressed
as a decimal
I
p
= impedance factor for passenger cars

P
HV
= total proportion of heavy vehicles in the upgrade traffic stream

E
HV
= passenger car equivalent for specific mix on heavy vehicles present
in the upgrade traffic stream

E = base passenger car equivalent for a given percent of grade and a
given speed selected from table 2.9


E
0
= base passenger car equivalent for zero percent grade and a given
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upgrade speed selected from table 2.9

P
T/HV
= proportion of trucks among heavy vehicles

Note: Passenger Car Equivalent values in table 3.7 is from the Highway Capacity Manual and
represents an average mix of trucks, recreation vehicles and buses in the traffic stream. The
average mix is 14% trucks, 4% recreation vehicles and no buses. In Sri Lanka, the vehicle mix
is different. There are no recreation vehicles in the traffic stream. There are buses and lesser
trucks than that assumed in the Highway Capacity Manual. No study has yet been done to
ascertain if the values in the tables of the Highway Capacity Manual need to be amended.

The existence of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream on two-lane highways on grade tends to
increase the platoon formation at the same time as passing restrictions increase. Therefore, it is
necessary to provide climbing lanes for the heavy vehicle to negotiate the grade while allowing
the passenger cars to pass them. It is always advisable to provide a climbing lane if the vehicle
operating speed falls to 15 kmph or less.

Computation of Capacity of two lane roads

Example 1.
A two-lane road in rural area has to be designed for the following roadway and traffic
characteristics.
Roadway characteristics- Design speed : 96 kmph
Lane width : 3.7 m
Paved shoulders : 1.25 m
Terrain : level
No passing zones : nil
Length of segment : 8 km
Traffic characteristics- Directional split : 70/30
Percentage of trucks: 10 %
Percentage of buses : 2 %
Percentage of passenger cars: 88%
What is the capacity of this roadway segment?
What is the maximum flow rate that can be accommodated at Level of Service C?

Solution:

Calculate the service flow rates for LOS-C and LOS-E (capacity)

SF
i
= 2800 x (v/c)
i
x f
d
x f
w
x f
HV

f
HV
= 1/ [1+ P
T
(E
T
1) + P
B
(E
B
1) ]




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1- 16
(v/c)
i
is obtained from table 2.3, for level terrain, % no passing zones = 0, LOS-C

(v/c)
C
= 0.43

For level terrain, % no passing zones = 0, LOS-E, (v/c)
E
= 1.00 (table 2.3)
f
d
= 0.89 for 70/30 directional split from table 2.4

f
w
= 0.92 for shoulder width 1.25, lane width 3.7, LOS-C from table 2.5

f
w
= 0.97 for same conditions but LOS-E from table 2.5

E
T
= 2.2 from table 2.6 for LOS-C and 2.0 for LOS-E , level terrain

E
B
= 2.0 LOS-C and 1.6 for LOS-E

P
T
= 0.10 given 10%

P
B
= 0.02 given 2%

Then, f
HV
(LOS-C) = 1/[1+0.1(2.2-1) + 0.02 (2.0-1)] = 0.88

f
HV
(LOS-E) = 1/[1+ 0.10(2.0-1)+0.02(1.6-1)] = 0.82

Sf
C
= 2800 x 0.43 x 0.89 x 0.92 x 0.88 = 867 vph

SF
E
= 2800 x 1.0 x 0.89 x 0.97 x 0.82 = 1982 vph

Thus the road segment has an expected capacity of 1982 vph in both directions and
can accommodate 867 vph at LOS-C.

If the usable shoulder width is reduced to 0.6 meters and the lane width is reduced to 3.0
meters the road can accommodate only 640 vph at LOS-C and the capacity (LOS-E) will be
reduced to 1790 vph total for both directions.

Example:2
A two lane rural road carries a peak hour volume of 180 vph and has the following
characteristics.
Roadway characteristics Traffic characteristics
Design speed= 96kmph Direction split=60/40
Lane width= 3.4m Percentage of trucks=5%
Shoulder width=0.6m Percentage of buse=5%
Terrain is mountainous Percentage of passenger cars=90
80% no passing zones
length of road segment=16km


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1- 17
At what level of service will the road operate during peak periods, if the flow rate for the peak
15 minutes total for both directions is 87% of the total flow rate for the peak hour?

Solution:
Calculate the service flow rate for each level of service and compare with the actual flow rate.
V
The actual flow rate v =
PHF

Where V = peak hour volume given as 180vph
and PHF= Peak Hour Factor given as 0 .87

Therefore 180=0.87 x v
v=207 vph

SF
i
= 2800 x (v/c)
i
x f
d
x f
w
x f
HV

f
HV
= 1/ [1+ P
T
(E
T
1) + P
B
(E
B
1) ]

From table 2.3, for mountainous terrain and 80% no passing zones, v/c is obtained for
the LOS -A to E

LOS-A, v/c = 0.02
LOS-B, v/c = 0.12
LOS-C, v/c = 0.20
LOS-D, v/c = 0.37
LOS-E, v/c = 0.80
f
d
= 0.94 for 60/40 directional split from table 2.4
f
w
= 0.75 for LOS-A, B, C, and D from table 2.5
f
w
= 0.88 for LOS-E from table 2.5
E
T
= 7 for LOS-A, mountainous terrain, (table 2.6)
E
B
= 5.7 for LOS-A, mountainous terrain, (table 2.6)
E
T
= 10 for LOS-B and LOS-C, mountainous terrain (table 2.6)
E
B
= 6 for LOS-B and LOS-C, mountainous terrain (table 2.6)
E
T
= 12 for LOS-D and LOS-E, mountainous terrain (table 2.6)
E
B
= 6.5 for LOS-D and LOS-E, mountainous terrain (table 2.6)
P
T
= 0.05 given
P
B
= 0.05 given
Then, f
HV
(LOS-A)= 1/[1+0.05(7-1)+0.05(5.7-1) =0.65
f
HV
(LOS-B and C)= 1/[1+0.05(10-1)+0.05(6-1) =0.59
f
HV
(LOS-D and E)= 1/[1+0.05(12-1)+0.05(6.5 -1) =0.55
and, SF(LOS-A) = 2800 x 0.02 x 0.94 x 0.75 x 0.65 = 26 vph
SF(LOS-B) = 2800 x 0.12 x 0.94 x 0.75 x 0.59 = 140 vph
SF(LOS-C) = 2800 x 0.20 x 0.94 x 0.75 x 0.59 = 233 vph
SF(LOS-D) = 2800 x 0.37 x 0.94 x 0.75 x 0.55 = 401 vph



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SF(LOS-E) = 2800 x 0.80 x 0.94 x 0.88 x 0.55 = 1019 vph

If the actual flow rate is compared with these values, it is seen that the actual flow rate
207 vph, which is the peak 15 minute flow is higher than the service flow rate for LOS-
B but lower than service flow rate for LOS-C. Therefore, the road segment operates at
LOS-C.

Example 3
A segment of Mavanella- Hemmathagama road 3.25 km length has a 6% grade. The
terrain is considered mountainous. The road has two lanes 3.7m wide and the shoulders
are 2.4m wide from the edge of carriageway clear from obstructions. 60% of the road
segment has passing prohibition. The directional split of traffic is 70/30 with 12%
trucks, 3% buses and 85% passenger cars in the traffic stream. The effects of other
vehicles may be ignored.
What is the maximum volume that can be accommodated on the grade at a speed of
65kmph (LOS-D) if the Peak Hour Factor is 0.85.

Solution
Compute the service flow rate using the equation
SF
i
= 2800 x (v/c)
i
x f
d
x f
w
x f
g
x f
HV

where, f
g
= 1/[1+P
p
I
p
] and I
p
= 0.02 (E-E
0
)

f
HV
= 1/[1+P
HV
(E
HV
1)]

E
HV
= 1+(0.25+P
T/HV
)(E - 1)

From table 2.7, find (v/c)
D
for 65kmph, 6% grade, 60% no passing zones)
(v/c)
D
= 0.83
f
d
= 0.78 (table 2.8)
f
w
= 1.0 (table 2.5)
E = 10.7 (table 2.9)
E
0
= 1.3 (table 2.9)
P
HV
= P
T
+ P
B
=0 .12 +0 .03 = 0.15
P
T/HV
= P
T
/ P
HV
= 0.12/0.15 =0.80
Then compute f
g
and f
HV

I
p
= 0.02 (E-E
0
) = 0.02(10.7 1.3) =0.188
f
g
= 1/[1+P
p
I
p
] = 1/[1 + (.85 x .188)] = 0.86
E
HV
= 1+(0.25+P
T/HV
)(E - 1) = 1 + (.25 + .80)(10.7 - 1) =11.185
f
HV
= 1/[1+P
HV
(E
HV
1)] = 1/[1 + .15(11.185-1 )] = 0.395
Now, compute the service flow rate for the peak 15 minutes for LOS-D
SF
D
= 2800 x (v/c)
D
x f
d
x f
w
x f
g
x f
HV

= 2800 x .83 x .78 x 1.0 x .86 x .395
= 615 vph
Therefore the maximum volume that can be accommodated at 65 kmph or LOS-D on the grade
is V = 615 x PHF = 615 x .85 = 523 vph