Is Caste System Intrinsic to Hinduism?

Demolishing a Myth
Author(s): M. V. Nadkarni
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 38, No. 45 (Nov. 8-14, 2003), pp. 4783-4793
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
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I s C a s t e Sys t e m I nt rins ic t o Hinduis m?
De mo lis hing
a
M yt h
This
pa pe r,
cit ing
e vide nce
fro m
t he a ncie nt
s cript ure s , a t t e mpt s
t o e s t a blis h
t ha t Hinduis m - it s ve dic a ndcla s s ic va ria nt s - didno t
s uppo rt
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m;
it
rigo ro us ly
o ppo s e d
it in
pra ct ice
a nd
principle .
Eve n
a ft e r
t he
e me rge nce o f
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m,
Hindu
s o cie t y
s t ill s a w co ns ide ra ble
o ccupa t io na l
a nds o cia l
mo bilit y.
M o re o ve r,
Hinduis m
cre a t e d
le ge nds
t o
impre s s
o n t he
po pula r
mindt he
inva lidit y o f
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
- a
fa ct
furt he r re info rce dby
t he co ns t a nt
e fflo re s ce nce o f re fo rm
mo ve me nt s
t hro ugho ut
his t o ry.
The ca s t e
s ys t e m
s urvive din
s pit e o f
t his be ca us e
o f fa ct o rs
t ha t
ra nge dfro m
t he
s o cio -e co no mic t o t he
e co lo gica l,
which
he lpe d
s us t a in a nd
pre s e rve
ba la nce
a mo ng
co mmunit ie s in a no n-mo de r wo rld.
M V NADKARNI
One ne e dno t
de s pa ir
o f e ve r
kno wing
t he t rut ho f o ne 's
re ligio n,
be ca us e t he funda me nt a ls o f
Hinduis m,
a s o f
e ve ry gre a t re ligio n,
a re
uncha nge a ble ,
a nd
e a s ily
unde rs t o o d.
- M K
Ga ndhi, Yo ungI ndia ,
Oct o be r
6,
1921
I t
is
ne ce s s a ry
t o de mo lis h t he
myt h
t ha t ,ca s t e s ys t e m
is a n
int rins ic
pa rt
o f Hinduis m. This
myt h
is be lie ve d
by
o rt ho do x
e le me nt s wit hin Hinduis m a nda ls o is
pro pa ga t e dby
e le me nt s
o ut s ide Hinduis m wit h t he mis chie vo us int e nt o f
pro s e lyt is ing.
I ro nica lly
bo t h,
t ho ugho ppo s e d
t o e a ch
o t he r,
jo int ly
do a lo t o f
da ma ge .
M o re o ve r, t his
myt h
ha s ha rme dre la t io ns be t we e n t he
s o -ca lle d
uppe r
ca s t e s a ndlo we r ca s t e s . This
pa pe r
int e nds t o
lo gica lly
a ndwit h
do cume nt a ry pro o f
s ho w t ha t Hinduis m - e ve n
ve dic a ndcla s s ica l Hinduis m - no t
o nly
do e s no t
s uppo rt
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m,
but ha s t a ke n lo t s o f
pa ins
t o
o ppo s e
it bo t hin
principle
a nd
pra ct ice , ma king
it o bvio us t ha t ca s t e
s ys t e m
is no t a n int rins ic
pa rt
o f Hindu
ca no n,
philo s o phy
a nde ve n
pra ct ice .
I t will t he n
s ho w t ha t t he ca s t e
s ys t e m e me rge d
a nds urvive ddue t o
t o t a lly
diffe re nt
fa ct o rs ,
which ha d
no t hing
t o do wit h Hindu
re ligio n.
I
Wha t C a s t e
Sys t e m
M e a ns
C a s t e
s ys t e m
a s dis cus s e d he re include s
unt o ucha bilit y
t o o ,
but whe re ve r
ne ce s s a ry
it will be re fe rre dt o
s e pa ra t e ly.
As we
s ha ll
no t e , unt o ucha bilit y
ca me int o t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
muchla t e r.
The
fo llo wing
fe a t ure s a re
ge ne ra lly
t a ke n a s e s s e nt ia l in
cha ra ct e ris ing
ca s t e
s ys t e m.
- I t me a ns no t
s imply
a divis io n o f
la bo ur,
wit h e a ch 'va rna '
a s s o cia t e dwit ha
t ype
o f
o ccupa t io n,
but a ls o a divis io n o f la bo ur
de t e rmine d
by
birt h
pe rmit t ing
no
o ccupa t io na l/s o cia l mo bilit y.
This is wha t
dis t inguis he s
ca s t e fro m cla s s . While t he fo rme r
is
he re dit a ry,
t he la t t e r is no t - a t le a s t in
principle .
- I t is a
rigids ys t e m, s e pa ra t ing
ca s t e fro m
ca s t e ,
wit hre s t rict io ns
o n
int e r-dining
a nd
int e r-ma rria ge ,
due t o a mo rbidfe a r o f 'va rna -
s a nka ra '
(mixt ure
o f
va rna s ).
'C a s t e '
co rre s po nds t o ja t is ,
a nde a ch
va rna is
s uppo s e d
t o be a clus t e r
o fja t is , t ho ugh
t he re is s o me t ime s
a mbiguit y
a bo ut which
ja t i be lo ngs
t o which va rna . I t is va rna s
t ha t a re cit e din
ca no n,
no t
ja t is .
Re s t rict io ns o n
int e r-dining
a nd
int e r-ma rria ge pe rt a ine d
no t
me re ly
t o va ra s but a ls o t o
ja t is .
- I t is a hie ra rchica l
s ys t e m,
o ne be lo w t he o t he r in rit ua l
(o r
purit y)
s t a t us ,
wit h s e ve ra l dis a bilit ie s
impo s e d
o n t he fo urt h
va rna o f s hudra s a nde ve n mo re o n t he unt o ucha ble s kno wn a s
'a nt ya ja s '.
I t wa s
no t , ho we ve r,
hie ra rchica l in
po we r
a ndwe a lt h
a t le a s t a s be t we e n t he
uppe r
ca s t e s . Dumo nt
t ho ught
t ha t t he
dis t inct io n be t we e n s t a t us a nd
po we r
is ba s ic t o
unde rs t a nding
ca s t e
s ys e m [Dumo nt 1999:65-91].
- The
s ys t e m
is a s s o cia t e dwit ha no t io n o f
purit y
vis -a -vis
po llut io n,
wit hut mo s t
purit y
a t t he le ve l o f bra hmins
de clining
s ucce s s ive ly
wit h
ks ha t riya s , va is hya s ,
a ndt he n s hudra s . At t he
o t he r e nd, unt o ucha ble s a re t re a t e da s mo s t
impure
o r
po llut e d.
At o ucho f t he m is
s uppo s e d
t o
po llut e
o t he rs
including
s hudra s .
A
gra da t io n
o f
hie ra rchy
a nd
po llut io n
wa s fo und
a mo ng
un-
t o ucha ble s
t o o ,
fo r
e xa mple , bha ngis (s ca ve nge rs )
co ns ide re da s
mo re
po llut e d
t ha n
s a y,
ma ha rs
(a gricult ura l la bo ure rs ). I nit ia lly
t he no t io n o f
purit y
vs
po llut io n ma y
ha ve be e n ba s e do n t he
ne e dt o ma int a in
cle a nline s s ,
but it s o o n
de ve lo pe d
int o a n
ins t it ut io na lis e d fo rm whe re
po llut io n
wa s a s s o cia t e dwit hbirt h.
The
uppe r
ca s t e s whe n
po llut e dco uld, ho we ve r,
ge t
rido f t he ir
po llut io n t hro ugh
rit ua lba t ha nds ucho t he r
e xpia t o ry
me a s ure s .
The no t io n o f
purit y
a nd
po llut io n de ve lo pe d
int o a
po we rful
ins t rume nt t o
dis co ura ge
a nd
pre ve nt
va rna s a nka ra .
- The who le
s ys t e m a lo ng
wit hit s t a bo o s a ndre s t rict io ns is
a ut he nt ica t e d
by re ligio n
o r
ca no n, giving
it a
re ligio us s a nct it y.
- At t he fo unda t io n o f t he who le
s ys t e m
t he re is a
pro duct io n
s ys t e m,
whichis s ubs is t e nce -o rie nt e d a nd
lo ca lly
ba s e dra t he r
t ha n o rie nt e dt o
la rge r
ma rke t ,
a nd
pro duct io n
re la t io ns
be ing
o f
pa t ro n-clie nt t ype ,
ba s e do n mut ua l
de pe nde nce .
Sucha
s ys t e m
is no t
ne ce s s a rily ge a re d
fo r t he
ge ne ra t io n
o f e co no mic
s urplus
a ndit s
a ppro pria t io n,
a s it wa s no t o rie nt e dt o t he
la rge r
ma rke t
but t o lo ca l ne e ds .
I I
Our
Appro a ch
t o t he De mo lit io n o f t he
M yt h
I
re je ct t o t a lly
t he
myt h
t ha t ca s t e
s ys t e m,
a s de fine d
by
t he s e
fe a t ure s e it he r
co lle ct ive ly
o r
s ingly,
fo rms a n
int e gra lpa rt
o f
Hinduis m.
Why
Hinduis m is no t va rna dha rma unde rs t o o da s
ja t i
o r birt h
ba s e d, willbe co me cle a r in t he co urs e o f t his
pa pe r.
Hinduis m ca n be
de fine d,
a s
Ga ndhiji
did, a s s e a rchfo r
t rut h,
no n-vio le nce ,
co mpa s s io n
fo r a ll
be ings
a ndt o le ra nce . C o ns is -
t e nt wit hit s co mmit me nt t o s e a rchfo r
t rut h,
it is a ls o ma rke d
by
libe ra lis m. Hinduis m is a
dyna mic re ligio n,
no t fixe do r
Eco no mic a ndPo lit ica l
We e kly
No ve mbe r 8, 2003 4783
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re ve a le do nce fo r
a ll,
a ndhe nce ca nno t be ide nt ifie d
e xclus ive ly
wit h t he
re ligio n
o f t he Ve da s a nd
Upa nis ha ds ,
no r wit h t he
re ligio n e xpo unde dby
'Dha rma s ha s t ra s ',
no r wit ht he Hinduis m
o f t he t hre e e mine nt
Acha rya s
-
Sha nka ra ,
Ra ma nuja
a nd
M a dhva ,
no r a ls o
e xclus ive ly
wit h me die va l Hinduis m a nd
mo de rn Hinduis m. All t he s e
pha s e s re pre s e nt
Hinduis m, a nd
ha ve co nt ribut e dt o it s
de ve lo pme nt .
M o re o ve r, t he re is no
dis jo int e dne s s
be t we e n diffe re nt
pha s e s
o f
Hinduis m, e a ch
de riving
it s
ins pira t io n
fro m t he
pre vio us
o ne s . I n t ha t s e ns e ,
t he re is bo t h
cha nge
a nd
co nt inuit y
in Hinduis m. Since ho we ve r,
it is
a cce pt e d by
a ll a s
be yo nd co nt ro ve rs y
t ha t me die va l
Bha kt i mo ve me nt wa s a
pro t e s t a ga ins t
ca s t e
s ys t e m
a nds ince
it is
e qua lly
we ll kno wn t ha t mo de m Hinduis m a s
e xpla ine dby
Swa mi
Vive ka na nda ,
Auro bindo a ndo t he rs a ls o ha s
re je ct e d
ca s t e
s ys t e m,
t he fo cus o f t his
pa pe r
is o n
pre vio us
o r cla s s ica l
pha s e s
o f Hinduis m. I t is t his e a rlie r
Hinduis m,
which
ma y
be
t e rme da s cla s s ica l
Hinduis m,
t ha t is t a ke n a s
s uppo rt ive
t o t he
ca s t e
s ys t e m,
a ndit is t his
myt h
t ha t is
be ing
de mo lis he d
by
t his
pa pe r.
Our
gre a t e r
a t t e nt io n t o t he
pre vio us pha s e s
o f Hinduis m
is t hus no t be ca us e Hinduis m is de fine din t e rms o f t he s e
pha s e s ,
but
s imply
be ca us e t he co nt e nt io n co nce rns t he s e
pha s e s .
The
myt h
is de mo lis he d in t he
fo llo wing wa y:
(i) by s ho wing
t ha t t he re is no
s t ro ng
co rre la t io n be t we e n
Hinduis m a ndca s t e
s ys t e m,
e it he r
s pa t ia lly
o r
t e mpo ra lly;
(ii) by s ho wing
t ha t e ve n a ft e r t he ca s t e
s ys t e m e me rge d
in Hindu
s o cie t y,
t he re wa s co ns ide ra ble s o cia l a nd
o ccupa t io na l mo bilit y,
a ndt ha t no ne o f t he
de fining
fe a t ure s o f ca s t e
s ys t e m
lis t e da bo ve
we re
s t rict ly
o bs e rve d in
pra ct ice pa rt icula rly
in t he cla s s ica l
pe rio d;
(iii) by s ho wing
t ha t fa r fro m
s uppo rt ing
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m,
Hindu
ca no n a nd
philo s o phy
we re
a ct ua lly
a ga ins t ca s t e
s ys t e m
ba s e d
o n birt h;
(iv) by s ho wing
t ha t ,
in
a ddit io n, Hinduis m cre a t e d
le ge nds
t o
impre s s
t he
po pula r
mindt ha t t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
is immo ra l a nd
inva lid;
(v) by s ho wing
t ha t wit hin t he fra me wo rk o f Hinduis m, t he re
t o o k
pla ce
s e ve ra l mo ve me nt s
a ga ins t
ca s t e ,
s t a rt ing
fro m Bha kt i
mo ve me nt s
co nt inuing
t o mo re mo de rn mo ve me nt s ;
(vi) by s ho wing
t ha t ca s t e
s ys t e m e me rge d
a nds urvive din
s pit e
o f Hinduca no n a nd
philo s o phy,
be ca us e o f fa ct o rs which ha d
no t hing
t o do wit h Hindu
re ligio n.
I ll
No C o rre la t io n be t we e n Hinduis m
a ndC a s t e
Sys t e m
The s t a t e me nt t ha t t he re is no co rre la t io n be t we e n Hinduis m
a ndca s t e
ma y
s o und
s urpris ing
t o
ma ny.
I f no t in
e xa ct ly
t he
s a me
wo rds ,
t his is t he s um a nds ubs t a nce o f wha t
Dumo nt ,
t he mo s t
highly re ga rde da ut ho rit y
o n ca s t e
s ys t e m,
a ndla t e r
e ve n Ga il Omve dt
-
no t kno wn t o be a n a dmire r o f Hinduis m
- ha dt o
s a y [Dumo nt
Omve dt
1994:31-32].
Dumo nt re fe rs t o
ca s t e dis t inct io ns
including
e ve n unt o ucha ble
ca s t e s ,
a mo ng
C hris t ia ns in I ndia in diffe re nt
re gio ns .
The dis crimina t io n
a ga ins t
unt o ucha ble C hris t ia ns is re fle ct e d in t he fo rm o f t he ir
s e pa ra t e s e a t ing
in churche s , a nde ve n
s e pa ra t e
buria l
gro unds .
Eve n
t o da y,
o ne ca n s e e a dve rt is e me nt s in
ne ws pa pe rs s e e king
'C a t ho lic bra hmin'
s po us e s
fo r C a t ho lic bra hmins . I s la m,
s uppo s e d
t o be a n
e ga lit a ria n re ligio n,
is no t fre e fro m ca s t e s
a t le a s t in s o ut hAs ia . Dumo nt hims e lf re fe rs t o diffe re nt co m-
munit ie s wit hin 'a s hra fs ', who a re
s uppo s e d
t o be high ca s t e ,
a nda ls o 'no n-a s hra fs ' who ha ve a lo we r s t a t us .
Amo ng
t he
no n-a s hra fs a ls o ,
t he re a re t hre e le ve ls o f s t a t us :
'(1)
t he co nve rt s
o f
s upe rio r
ca s t e ,
who a re
ma inly ra jput s
-
e xce pt
fo r t ho s e
who ha ve be e n a dmit t e d int o t he
a s hra f; (2)
a
la rge
numbe r
o f
pro fe s s io na l gro ups co rre s po nding
t o t he a rt is a n ca s t e s o f t he
Hindus , ...; (3)
co nve rt e dunt o ucha ble s who ha ve
pre s e rve d
t he ir
funct io ns . The s e
gro ups
inde e d s e e m t o be
e ndo ga mo us ....
[Dumo nt 1999:208].
The re is no
co mme ns a lit y
a ls o be t we e n
a s hra fs a ndno n-a s hra fs , due t o diffe re nce in t he ir s t a t us
[ibid:
207].
The re is ca s t e
s ys t e m a mo ng
Buddhis t s o f Sri La nka a ls o .
So me
linga ya t s
cla im t ha t
t he y
a re no n-Hindus be ca us e
t he y
do
no t
a cce pt
t he Ve da s a ndt he va rna
dha rma ,
a nd
ye t t he y
t o o
a re no t fre e fro m ca s t e s a ndrit ua l
gra da t io n.
Ba s a ve s hwa ra
(Ba s a va nna ),
who le dt he Bha kt i mo ve me nt who s e fo llo we rs
be ca me kno wn a s ve e ra s ha iva o r
linga ya t s
in Ka rna t a ka , wa s
t ruly a ga ins t
ca s t e
s ys t e m.
But
unfo rt una t e ly,
he co uld no t
s ucce e d in
pre ve nt ing
ca s t e
s ys t e m
a mo ng his
la t t e r-da y
'fo llo we rs '. On t he o t he r
ha nd,
Ga il Omve dt
po int s
o ut t ha t
a mo ng
Hindus s e t t le dfo r
ma ny
ge ne ra t io ns
in
Surina m,
We s t
I ndie s , M a urit ius , Ba li,
Fiji
a ndo t he r ce nt re s o ut s ide I ndia ,
ca s t e
s ys t e m
wa s we a k, a lmo s t no n-e xis t e nt . The re t o o k
pla ce
int e r-mixt ure mo re
fre e ly, including int e r-dining
a ndint e r-
ma rria ge ,
a ndno o ne t o o k va rna -ba s e dca s t e s
s e rio us ly,
t ho ugh
ide nt it ie s in t e rms o f
re gio na lja t is (s uch
a s M a rva ris a nd
Guja ra t is )
ha ve no t
dis a ppe a re d.
Ga il Omve dt , t he re fo re ,
s a ys s ignifica nt ly
t ha t ca s t e is mo re a fe a t ure o f s o ut hAs ia t ha n o f Hinduis m
pe r
s e , t a king
ro o t in t his
re gio n
be ca us e o f it s
pe culia r
s o cia l a nd
e co no mic cha ra ct e ris t ics .
No w we
ma y
e xa mine co rre la t io n be t we e n Hinduis m a ndca s t e
s ys t e m
o ve r t ime . The firs t re fe re nce t o t he fo ur va rna s co me s
in t he t e nt hma nda la o f
Rg
Ve da , in t wo ve rs e s o f Purus ha Sukt a
(quo t e d
in a no t he r s e ct io n
be lo w). Acco rding
t o s e ve ra l s cho la rs
who ha ve ma de
de e p
re s e a rcho n t he t he me , t he t e nt hma nda la
wa s
chro no lo gica lly
t he la s t t o be
co mpo s e d.
The re is a
go o d
co ns e ns us o n t he
po int
t ha t
pre vio us
t o t his , t he re wa s no va rna
s ys t e m
in ve dic
s o cie t y.
M a ha bha ra t a a nd
Bha ga va t a
Pura na a ls o
me nt io n t ha t in Krit a
yuga ,
t he re wa s no
ca s t e ,
but
o nly
o ne va rna
o f huma n
be ings
- t ha t o f t he childre n o f Viva s wa t a M a nu
[Arvind
Sha rma
2000:136]. He nce ,
t he wo rd
ma na va ,
po pula r
in a ll I ndia n
la ngua ge s .
Pura na s a ndo t he r Hindu
s cript ure s
ha ve
pre s e rve d
t he ra cia l
me mo ry
o f a
go lde n a ge
in t he
pa s t
whe n
t he re wa s no ca s t e .
Acco rding
t o B R Ambe dka r, t he re we re
o nly
t hre e va rna s in
ve dic
s o cie t y,
a ndno fo urt h va rna o f s hudra s . He
s a ys ,
t he
e co no my
ha da dva nce d
e no ugh
t o
give
ris e t o a divis io n o f la bo ur
but t he re wa s no
hie ra rchy.
He re fe rs t o o t he r
co s mo lo gie s
in
Hindut e xt s , but
t he y
a re a ll s e cula r, wit ho ut hint o f a
hie ra rchy
a ndwit ho ut hint o f a divine
o rigin.
He fe e ls t he re fo re t ha t t he
t wo ve rs e s in Purus ha Sukt a a re a n
int e rpo la t io n,
a dde dmuch
la t e r a ft e r t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
wa s e s t a blis he d.
Acco rding
t o him
s hudra s a s a n e t hnic
gro up
we re a
pa rt
o f
ks ha t riya s ,
a nda
pa rt
o f
Arya n s o cie t y
it s e lf. He do e s no t
a cce pt
t he
t he o ry
o f we s t e rn
s cho la rs
a cco rding
t o which s hudra s a nd unt o ucha ble s we re
o rigina lly no n-Arya ns
who we re de fe a t e d
by Arya ns ,
a ndt a ke n
int o t he ve dic
s o cie t y giving
t he m a lo we r s t a t us . On t he o t he r
ha nd,
s hudra s we re
ve ry
mucha
pa rt
o f t he
rulings o cie t y,
s e ve ra l
o f t he m
be ingkings .
As
pe r
Ambe dka r,
t he y
fe ll fro m
gra ce
a nd
be ca me t he fo urt hva rna whe n bra hmins
s t o ppe dpe rfo rming
t he
rit e o f
'upa na ya na '
fo r t he m a s a
re ve nge a ga ins t
ha ra s s me nt a nd
ins ult s s uffe re d
by
t he m a t t he ha nds o f s o me s hudra
kings .
He
a ls o
s a ys
t ha t
unt o ucha bilit y
is a
po s t -Buddhis t phe no me no n,
which
e me rge d
a s a re s ult o f Hindus
givingup
s a crifice o f a nima ls
a nd
be e f-e a t ing
unde r t he influe nce o f Buddhis m, but
t he y
we nt
4784 Eco no mic a ndPo lit ica l
We e kly
No ve mbe r 8, 2003
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t o s ucha n e xt re me t ha t t ho s e who co nt inue dt o e a t be e f we re
re ga rde d
a s unt o ucha ble s .2
Whe t he r o r no t o ne
a cce pt s
Ambe dka r's
t he o ry
o f
o rigin
o f
s hudra s a nd
unt o ucha ble s , s cho la rs a re
a gre e d
t ha t
va rna -s ys t e m
ba s e do n birt his
ve ry
mucha
po s t -ve dic3
fe a t ure ,
a ndunt o uch-
a bilit y
is a
po s t -Buddhis t phe no me no n.
This me a ns t ha t a t s o me
t ime ,
ma ybe
fo r a bo ut firs t ha lf o f t he
lo nghis t o ry
o f Hinduis m
s ince 4000 BC Et o t he
pre s e nt da y,
t he re wa s Hinduis m but no
ca s t e
s ys t e m.
This is s o e ve n
a cco rding
t o Ambe dka r hims e lf.
And,
a s we s ha lls e e in t he co ncluding
pa rt
o f t his
pa pe r,
Hinduis m
ca n s urvive a ft e r t he
co lla ps e
o f ca s t e
s ys t e m.
I V
So cia la nd
Occupa t io na l M o bilit y
No t
I ns ignifica nt
The mo de lo f ca s t e
s ys t e m
a s de fine din t e rms o f fe a t ure s lis t e d
in t he firs t s e ct io n he re
ha rdly
e ve r wo rke din
pra ct ice .
The re
ha ve
a lwa ys
be e n
e xce pt io ns
t o e a cho f t he s e fe a t ure s a ndt o
e a cho f t he ca s t e rule s a ndre s t rict io ns . Act ua l
o ccupa t io ns
ha ve
s ince ce nt urie s de via t e dfro m t he va rna t he o re t ica lmo de l.
Dha rma s ha s t ra s t he ms e lve s a llo we d
e xce pt io ns
unde r
'a pa ddha rma ', whe re by pe rs o ns
who co uldno t ma ke t he ir live -
liho o dunde r t he
o ccupa t io ns
o f t he ir o wn
va rna ,
co uldt a ke t o
o t he r
o ccupa t io ns .
Bra hmins
by
birt hha ve t a ke n no t
o nly
t o
prie s t ho o d,
whichis t he ir va rna ba s e d
o ccupa t io n,
but a ls o t o
s e ve ra l
o t he rs , including
ma nua lla bo ur. I t is no t unus ua lt o find
bra hmin co o ks in t he s e rvice o f s che dule dca s t e
(fo rme rly
'un-
t o ucha ble s ')
a nds che dule dt ribe minis t e rs a ndo fficia ls .
Ha vya ka
bra hmins in Ka rna t a ka ha ve no t
o nly
o wne d
ga rde n
la nds but
a ls o ha ve be e n
do ing
ma nua lla bo ur in t he m. Shudra s ,
a pa rt
fro m
do ing
ma nua lla bo ur a nda rt is a n
jo bs ,
whichis t he ir va rna ba s e d
o ccupa t io n,
ha ve
t ra dit io na lly
s e rve da s s o ldie rs
t o o , ma king
t he
dis t inct io n be t we e n
ks ha t riya s
a nds hudra s
quit e
blurre d.
Ambe dka r hims e lf ha s
give n
s e ve ra l
e xa mple s
o f s o cia la nd
o ccupa t io na l mo bilit y during
t he ve dic a nd
upa nis ha dic pe rio d.
Ra ikva , Ja na s hrut i a ndKa va s a Ailus ha we re a dmit t e dt o a s hra ms
fo r ve dic
le a rning
e ve n a ft e r
re ve a ling
t he ir lo w ca s t e s t a t us .
C hha ndo gya Upa nis ha d
ha s a
s ignifica nt s t o ry
o f
Sa t ya ka ma
Ja ba la . He
s o ught
a dmis s io n t o t he a s hra m
(he rmit a ge )
o f Ga ut a ma
ris hi (no t Ga ut a m
Buddha )
fo r ve dic
le a rning.
On
be ing
a s ke d
fro m wha t
fa mily
he
co me s ,
Ja ba la
fra nkly
t e lls t he ris hi: 'I do
no t kno w
t his , s ir,
o f wha t
fa mily
I a m. I a s ke d
my
mo t he r. She
a ns we re d
me ,
"I n
my yo ut h,
whe n I we nt a bo ut a
gre a t
de a la s
a ma ids e rva nt , I
go t yo u.
So I do no t kno wo f wha t
fa mily yo u
a re . I a m Ja ba la
by
na me a nd
yo u
a re
Sa t ya ka ma by
na me ". So
I a m
Sa t ya ka ma
Ja ba la , s ir'. The ris hi wa s s o
ple a s e d
wit hhis
t rut hfulne s s ,
he
pro mpt ly
init ia t e dhim a s his
pupil
[Ra dha kris hna n
1994:406-07].
So
ma ny
ris his ca me fro m o bs cure
o rigin
t he m-
s e lve s ,
t ha t t he re is a
pro ve rb
which
s a ys
t ha t o ne s ho uldno t
a s k a bo ut 'ris hi-mo o la '
(o rigin
o r birt ho f a
ris hi). Sa ge
Pa ra s a ra
wa s bo rn o f a
Shva pa ka
wo ma n,
Ka pinja la
o f a C ha nda la wo ma n,
a nd
M a da na pa la
o f a bo a t wo ma n. Ris his ha da much
highe r
rit ua l
s t a t us t ha n bra hmins who we re me re
prie s t s .
Va lmiki
(a ut ho r
o f
Ra ma ya na )
a nd
Vya s a (a ut ho r
o f
M a ha bha ra t a ,
a nde dit o r a nd
co mpile r
o f
ve da s )
a nde ve n t he
gre a t
Va s is t ha
be lo nge d
t o t he
cla s s o f t he s o -ca lle dlo wbirt h.
Ka lida s a ,
t he
gre a t e s t
o f
gre a t po e t s
in Sa ns krit a ls o ca me fro m a
ve ry
humble a ndo bs cure
o rigin.4
Eve n a s la t e a s 12t h
ce nt ury, Vijna ne s hwa ra
in his
co mme nt a ry
(M it a ks ha ra )
o n
Ya jna va lkya
Smrit i s a id'nrin
pa t i
it i
nripa h,
na
t u
ks ha t riya h
it i ne ma h'
(who s o e ve r pro t e ct s pe o ple
is fit t o be
a king; he ne e dno t a s a rule be a
ks ha t riya ').
The Bha kt i mo ve me nt ,
bo t hin t he s o ut ha ndno rt ho f
I ndia ,
s a w
ma ny
s a int
po e t s
co mingfro m t he s o -ca lle dlo we r ca s t e s .
The y
we re mo re
pro mine nt
t ha n bra hmin a nd
uppe r
ca s t e s in t he
mo ve me nt . The re we re s o
ma ny
s ha ra na s
(ma le s a int s )
a nd
s ha ra ne s
(fe ma le s a int s )
in Ba s a va nna 's Bha kt i mo ve me nt in
Ka rna t a ka t ha t M NJa va ra ia h
(1997)
ha s writ t e n a who le bo o k
o f mo re t ha n 300
pa ge s
o n t he m. I t is t hus e vide nt t ha t t he re
wa s co ns ide ra ble s o cia l
mo bilit y
in t he
po s t -ve dic s o cie t y t o o ,
no t t o me nt io n t he ve dic
s o cie t y
whe re it wa s
ve ry
e vide nt .
Be ca us e o f t his
mo bilit y,
t he re wa s no
una nimit y
a bo ut which
ca s t e is a bo ve whichca s t e , be ca us e e a chco ns ide re dit s e lf s u-
pe rio r
t o t he o t he r.
The y co mpe t e d
wit ho t he rs in o bs e rva nce
o f
purit y
rule s t o s ho wt ha t
t he y
we re
s upe rio r
t o o t he rs . Thus ,
quit e
a fe wca s t e s co ns ide re dt he ms e lve s t o be
ks ha t riya s ,
while
uppe r
ca s t e s co ns ide re dt he m t o be s hudra s . To
ga in
a
highe r
ra nk in t he ca s t e
s ys t e m, t he y pra ct is e d
wha t t he
uppe r
ca s t e s
pra ct is e d,
like
upa na ya na (s a cre d
t hre a d
ce re mo ny),
a nde ve n
ce rt a in 'ho ma s ' a nd
puja s .
Such
a t t e mpt s
a re ca lle d a s
s a ns krit is a t io n
by
M NSriniva s
(1977), t hro ugh
which
e ve nt ua lly
s e ve ra lca s t e s
ga ine d
in ca s t e s t a t us . Sa ns krit is a t io n a s a
pro ce s s
t hro ugh
whichwho le ca s t e s
ga ine d
in ca s t e s t a t us co uldno t ha ve
be e n a
pure ly
20t h
ce nt ury phe no me no n, t ho ughs cho la rly
a t -
t e nt io n ha s be e n
mo s t ly
co nfine dt o t he mo de rn
pe rio d.
Eve n
ma rria ge s
be t we e n diffe re nt va rna s we re no t ra re . I t mus t
ha ve be e n be ca us e o f t he ir
s ignifica nt
o ccurre nce , t ha t t he re is
a me nt io n o f diffe re nt
t ype s
o f
ma rria ge s
in Hindut e xt s ba s e d
o n which
ja t is
we re e vo lve d. Whe n t he hus ba ndis fro m a
highe r
ca s t e t ha n t ha t o f t he
wife ,
t he
ma rria ge
wa s ca lle da s
'a nulo ma ';
whe n re ve rs e wa s t he
ca s e ,
it wa s ca lle da s
'pra t ilo ma '.
While t he
fo rme r
t ype
wa s
t o le ra t e d, t he la t t e r wa s
de s pis e d.
The re wa s
a no t he r
t ype
o f cla s s ifica t io n a ls o ;
a cco rding
t o it , a lo ve
ma rria ge
wa s ca lle da s
'ga ndha rva ',
a nda
ma rria ge
whe re t he wo ma n wa s
fo rce dint o
ma rria ge
wa s ca lle da s 'ra ks ha s a '. The fo rme r wa s
t o le ra t e da ndt he la t t e r wa s
de s pis e d.
I t is e vide nt fro m lit e ra t ure
t ha t no t a ll
ma rria ge s
we re
a rra nge dby pa re nt s ,
a ndmixe d
ma rria ge s
we re no t ra re . I t is t hus no t a
s urpris e
t ha t ca s t e dis t inc-
t io ns a re no t ba s e do n ra cia lo r co lo ur dis t inct io n,
t ho ugh
va rna
me a nt co lo ur. Ra ce a ndco lo ur
ve ry
muchcut a cro s s ca s t e s s ince
a ncie nt
da ys
in I ndia s o t ha t a
pe rs o n's
ca s t e ca nno t be de t e rmine d
o n t he ba s is o f his /he r co lo ur o r ra cia lo r
ge ne t ic pe culia rit ie s .
Jus t
a s it is
po s s ible
t o find
uppe r
ca s t e
pe o ple
wit hbla ck
co mple xio n,
it is
e qua lly po s s ible
t o find
pe rs o ns
wit hfa ir
co mple xio n a mo ng
t he s o -ca lle dlo we r ca s t e s a ndunt o ucha ble s . This co uldno t ha ve
be e n s o wit ho ut a
s ignifica nt de gre e
o f
int e r-ma rria ge s .
Bo t hRa ma
a ndKris hna a re bla ck
go ds
but
highly
a do re da nd
wo rs hippe d.
The
o ccupa t io na l
a nds o cia l
mo bilit y
a s we lla s t he int e r mixt ure
o f ca s t e s ca nno t be
re ga rde d
a s
infringe me nt s
o f ca no n o r a s ra re
e xce pt io ns .
As we s ha llno ws e e , e ve n ca no n it s e lf didno t
re s pe ct
t he cus t o m o f
de t e rmining
s t a t us a ndcha ra ct e r o n t he ba s is o f birt h.
V
C a no n a ndC a s t e
We firs t t a ke
up
s uch
pa rt s
o f t he ca no n t ha t a re
(wro ngly)
int e rpre t e d
t o be
s uppo rt ive
o f ca s t e
s ys t e m,
a ndt he n t a ke
up
s uch
pa rt s
a s a re
dire ct ly
a nd
de finit ive ly a ga ins t
ca s t e
s ys t e m
ba s e do n birt h.
I t is
o nly
in t he dha rma s ha s t ra s
(dha rma
s ut ra s a nd
s mrit is )
t ha t we find
s uppo rt
t o t he ca s t e
s ys t e m,
a ndno t in o t he r ca no n.
Ho we ve r. dha rma s ha s t ra s ne ve r ha dt he s a me s t a t us a s o t he r
ca no n kno wn a s s hrut i
(Ve da s
a nd
Upa nis ha ds )
a ndit is la id
do wn t ha t whe ne ve r t he re is a co nflict be t we e n t he s hrut i a nd
Eco no mic a ndPo lit ica l
We e kly
No ve mbe r
8, 2003 4785
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s mrit i
lit e ra t ure ,
it is t he fo rme r t ha t
pre va ils .
I t is
M a nus mrit i,
whichis
pa rt icula rly s uppo rt ive
o f ca s t e
s ys t e m
but whe re it
co nflict s wit hVe da s a nd
Upa nis ha ds ,
t he la t t e r wo uld
pre va il.
Tho ughBha gva dgit a (Git a )
is no t
re ga rde d
a s a
pa rt
o f s hrut i,
Git a is
highly re ga rde d
a s s a cre da ndis
ve ry
mucha
pa rt
o f
cla s s ica lHinduis m. As we s ha ll
jus t
s e e e ve n t he Git a is
a ga ins t
ca s t e
s ys t e m
ba s e do n
birt h,
a ndno t
s uppo rt ive
t o it . Thus , t o
t he e xt e nt t ha t dha rma s ha s t ra s co nflict wit hs hrut i a ndt he Git a ,
t he la t t e r
pre va ils . Apa s t ha mbha
dha rma s ut ra
ma y
ha ve
s up-
po rt e dunt o ucha bilit y,
but it s e e ms t o be re a dmo re
by
t ho s e who
like t o a t t a ck Hinduis m wit hit t ha n
by
it s fo llo we rs ! I t is
ha rdly
re ga rde d
a s ca no n, e ve n if
a ny
Hinduha s he a rdo f it .
Tho ugh
dha rma s ha s t ra s a re
s uppo s e d
t o
s uppo rt
ca s t e
s ys t e m,
t he re is
ha rdly una nimit y
a bo ut it
a mo ng
t he m. Fo r
e xa mple ,
a s
Ambe dka r
po int e d
o ut ,
t ho ugha cco rding
t o
dha rma s ut ra s ,
a
s hudra is no t e nt it le dt o
upa na ya na ,
Sa nms ka ra
Ga na pt i e xplicit ly
de cla re s s hudra s t o be
e ligible
fo r it . He a ls o s ho ws t ha t
a cco rding
t o
Ja imini,
t he a ut ho r o f Purva M ima ms a , s hudra s co uld
pe rfo rm
ve dic rit e s . Ambe dka r re fe rs a ls o t o
Bha ra dwa ja
Sra ut a Sut ra
(V28)
a nd
Ka t ya ya na
Sra ut a Sut ra whichco nce de
e ligibilit y
t o
s hudra s t o
pe rfo rm
ve dic rit e s
[Va s a nt
M o o n 1990:198-99]. Ka ne
po int s
o ut t ha t in
s pit e
o f s o me o t he r dha rma s ha s t ra s
s a ying
t o
t he
co nt ra ry,
"Ba da ri
e s po us e d
t he ca us e o f t he s hudra s a nd
pro po unde d
t he vie wt ha t a ll
(includings hudra s )
we re e nt it le d
t o
pe rfo rm
ve dic s a crifice s "
[Ka ne 1990].
I nt e re s t ingly,
M a nus mrit i it s e lf s ho ws t he
wa y
t o de mo lis hit s
o wn
s uppo rt
t o t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
ba s e do n birt h. I n
cha pt e r
4,
ve rs e 176
cle a rly
s t a t e s : 'Dis ca rdwe a lt ha ndde s ire if
t he y
a re
co nt ra ry
t o
dha rma , a nde ve n dha rma it s e lf if it le a ds t o un-
ha ppine s s
o r a ro us e s
pe o ple s ' indigna t io n'.
Dha rma he re do e s
no t me a n
re ligio n
in t he we s t e rn s e ns e , but rule s o f co nduct . I f
va rna
dha rma ,
o r rule s o f co nduct
go ve rning
va rna s , a ndca s t e
fo r t ha t ma t t e r, le a dt o
unha ppine s s
o r t o
pe o ple indigna t io n,
a s
t he y ce rt a inly
do ,
M a nus mrit i it s e lf
s a ys
t ha t s uchdha rma ca n
be dis ca rde d. Wha t t he n is
dha rma ,
a cco rding
t o M a nus mrit i?
The firs t ve rs e in
cha pt e r
2 o f M a nus mrit i is a
re ply
t o t his
que s t io n.
I t
s a ys :
"Kno wt ha t t o be t rue dha rma , whicht he wis e
a ndt he
go o d
a ndt ho s e who a re fre e fro m
pa s s io n
a ndha t re d
fo llo wa ndwhich
a ppe a ls
t o t he he a rt ".5 M a ha t ma Ga ndhi wa s
fo ndo f
quo t ing
t his ve rs e in his le ct ure s .
Acco rding
t o t his
ve rs e ,
if t he wis e a ndt he
go o d,
who a re fre e fro m
pa s s io n
a nd
ha t re d,
do no t
a cce pt
ca s t e
s ys t e m
ba s e do n birt ha s it do e s no t
a ppe a l
t o t he
he a rt ,
t he
s ys t e m
ca n be dis ca rde d
a cco rding
t o t he M a nus mrt i
it s e lf. So mucht o t he
s uppo rt
o f M a nus mrit i fo r t he ca s t e
s ys t e m.
Purus ha Sukt a in
Rg
Ve da
(X90)
ha s o ft e n be e n cit e d, mo re
t ha n
M a nus mrit i,
a s
a ut he nt ica t ing, s a nct ifying
a nd
glo rifying
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m.
The
pe rt ine nt
ve rs e s a re a s fo llo ws :
Ya t purus ha m vya da dhuhu
krit idha
vya ka lpa ya ln
M ukha m
kinma s ya
ko w ba hu
Ka uru
pa da uchye t e // (11t ' ve rs e )
whe n
(go ds )
divide dPurus ha , int o ho w
ma ny pa rt s
did
t he y
cut
him
up?
Wha t wa s his mo ut h?Wha t a rms
(ha dhe )?
Wha t
(t wo
o bje ct s )
a re s a id
(t o
ha ve
be e n)
his
t highs
a ndfe e t ?
Bra hma no s ya
nukha ma s it
ba hu
ra ja nya h
krit a h/
uru
t a da s ya ya dva is hya h
pa dbhya m
s hudro
a ja ya t a // (12'h ve rs e )
The bra hma na wa s his
mo ut h, t he
ra ja nya (king
o r
ks ha t riya )
wa s
ma de his a rms : t he
be ing
ca lle dt he
va is hya ,
he wa s his
t highs ;
t he s hudra
s pra ngfro m his fe e t (5'
6)
As is no t e da bo ve , Ambe dka r co ns ide rs t he s e ve rs e s t o be a n
int e rpo la t io n
o n s e ve ra l
gro unds , including
t he fa ct t ha t while
t he
s t yle
o r fo rma t o f t he t wo ve rs e s is o f a
que s t io n-a nd-a ns we r
t ype ,
t he o t he r ve rs e s in t he
purus ha
s ukt a a re na rra t ive in
s t yle .
Eve n if it is t a ke n a s a
ge nuine pa rt
o f t he
o rigina lpurus ha
s ukt a ,
a ndno t a n
int e rpo la t io n,
it ca nno t be
int e rpre t e d
a s
s uppo rt ive
t o ca s t e
s ys t e m
ba s e do n birt ha nd
hie ra rchy.
I t is
e s s e nt ia lly
a
me t a pho r t a king
t he
s o cie t y
t o be a n
o rga nic
who le , o f which
t he fo ur va rna s ba s e do n divis io n o f la bo ur a re int rins ic
pa rt s .
The re is
no t hing
t o indica t e t ha t
t he y o ught
t o be ca s t e s o r
ja t is
a s
pre s e nt ly
unde rs t o o d. The re fe re nce is
e vide nt ly
t o
o ccupa t io ns
o r wo rk o f
re s pe ct ive
va ma s ,
whichne e dno t
ne ce s s a rily
be ba s e d
o n birt h. The re is a ls o
no t hingpre s cript ive
o r
re co mme nda t o ry
a bo ut t he t wo ve rs e s . I t is
o nly
indica t ive o f t he e xis t e nce o f
divis io n o f
la bo ur,
wit he a chva rna
co rre s po nding
t o t ha t
pa rt
o f t he
bo dy
o f t he
prime va lpurus ha
wit hwhicht he wo rk o r
o ccupa t io n
o f t he
re s pe ct ive
va rna is a s s o cia t e d. Since
va is hya s
a nds hudra s
s uppo rt
t he
s o cie t y t hro ugh
t he ir e co no mic o r
pro -
duct ive
wo rk, t he y
we re t a ke n
re s pe ct ive ly
a s
co ming
o ut o f t he
t highs
a ndfe e t o f t he
purus ha ,
wit ho ut
ne ce s s a rily hint ing
a t
a ny
lo wly
s t a t us o f t he ir wo rk.
Simila rly
s ince
ks ha t riya s '
wo rk in
wa rfa re invo lve d
ma inly
t he us e o f t he ir
a rms ,
t he y
we re t a ke n
a s
co ming
o ut o f t he a rms o f t he
purus ha .
Since bra hmins ' wo rk
co ns is t e do f
re cit ing
ma nt ra s a nd
pre s e rving
Ve da s
t hro ugh
o ra l
t ra ns mis s io n,
t he y
we re t a ke n a s
co ming
o ut t he
purus ha '
s mo ut h.
I n a
light e r
ve in,
it co uldbe s a idt ha t t his wa s a ls o be ca us e
bra hmins a re
t ra dit io na lly
de s cribe da s
'bho ja na priya h' (lo ve rs
o f
fo o d)!
I f t he int e nt io n be hindt he t wo co nt ro ve rs ia l ve rs e s wa s
t o
s a nct ify
a hie ra rchica l o rde r,
t he y
co ulda s we llha ve de s cribe d
bra hmins a s
co ming
o ut o f t he he a do f t he
purus ha .
I t wa s
pe rha ps
s e e n
by
t he ve dic
s a ge
who
co mpo s e d
t he
purus ha
s ukt a t ha t
bra hmin
prie s t s mo s t ly
us e dt he ir mo ut hra t he r t ha n t he ir he a d
while
re cit ing
t he ma nt ra s ! The re is t hus no ne e dfo r ha rd
fe e lings
due t o t he t wo ve rs e s in
purus ha
s ukt a .
The Git a is
a lle ge d
t o
s uppo rt
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
o n t he ba s is
o f t hre e ve rs e s . The
ke y quo t a t io n
in t his co nt e xt is fro m 13t h
ve rs e in ch4 whe re t he Lo rdt e lls
Arjuna
-
C ha t urva rnya m ma ya
s ris ht a m
Guna ka rma
vibha ga s ha h
The fo ur va rna s we re cre a t e d
by
me o n t he ba s is o f cha ra ct e r a nd
o ccupa t io n.
I n ve rs e 31 o f ch2,
Arjuna
is
ca jo le d
int o
fight ing
o n t he
gro und
t ha t he is a
ks ha t riya
fo r who m t he re is
no t hing
mo re
glo rio us
t ha n a
right e o us
wa r.
Aga in
in ve rs e 47 o f ch18 t he Lo rds t a t e s
t ha t o ne s ho uld
pe rfo rm
o ne 's o wn dha rma e ve n if de vo ido f
me rit a ndno t fo llo w a no t he r's e ve n if
we ll-pe rfo rme d.7
Ve rs e 13 in chI Vho lds t he
ke y
t o t he
unde rs t a nding
o f t he
o t he r t wo a s we ll. Kris hna re fe rs t o t he fo ur
va rna s ,
s a ying
e xplicit ly
t ha t
t he y
we re cre a t e do n t he ba s is o f
guna (na t ure ,
a pt it ude , cha ra ct e r)
a ndka rma
(wo rk, a ct io n, o ccupa t io n).
He
do e s no t a t a llre fe r t o birt ha s t he ba s is fo r t he fo urfo ld
divis io n,
whichis
o nly
a divis io n o f la bo ur whe re e a cho ne fo llo ws a n
o ccupa t io n
ba s e do n
a pt it ude
o r na t ura linclina t io n. Fa r fro m
s uppo rt
t o t he ca s t e
s ys t e m,
K M Pa nikka r co ns ide rs it a s co n-
s t it ut ing
a
de va s t a t ing
a t t a ck o n ca s t e ba s e do n birt h.8 Ka ne
s a ys
t ha t if Kris hna wa nt e dt o ma ke birt ha s t he ba s is o f his divis io n
o f
la bo ur,
he co uld
e a s ily
ha ve s a id
'ja t i-ka rma -vibha ga s ha h'
o r
'ja nma -ka rma -vibha ga s ha h',
ins t e a d o f
'guna -ka rma -
vibha ga s ha h'
a s
a ct ua lly
s t a t e d[Ka ne
1990:1635-36].
He
po int e d
o ut
cle a rly
t o
'guna '.
This is a ls o co ns is t e nt wit hwha t
Kris hna
re plie dt o
Arjuna 's s pe cific que s t io n in
Ut t a ra git a .
4786 Eco no mic a ndPo lit ica l
We e kly
No ve mbe r
8,
2003
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Once t his is
cle a r,
it fo llo ws t ha t t he dha rma re fe rre dt o in t he
o t he r t wo ve rs e s
(1I I 31,
a ndXVI I I
47)
a ls o is ba s e do n
guna
a ndno t birt h. I n t he M a ha bha ra t a wa r,
pe rs o ns
no t bo rn a s
ks ha t riya s
a ls o
pa rt icipa t e d
in t he wa r a s
pe r
t he ir
inclina t io n,
s va bha va o r
guna .
So t he re wa s
no t hing
ca s t e is t in Kris hna 's
a s kingArjuna
t o
fight
like a
ks ha t riya . Simila rly,
t he a dvice t o
fo llo w o ne 's o wn s va dha rma
o nly
me a ns t ha t o ne ha s t o fo llo w
o ne 's
a pt it ude
a nd
qua lit ie s ,
a nds e e whe re o ne 's
co mpa ra t ive
a dva nt a ge
lie s . A t a le nt e d
pe rs o n ma y
be a ble t o
pe rfo rm ma ny
t a s ks be t t e r t ha n
o t he rs ,
but s he ca nno t a ffo rdt o do
s o ,
a nds he
wo ulda chie ve mo re
by co nce nt ra t ing
o n whe re he r
co mpa ra t ive
a dva nt a ge
lie s . The
principle
o f
co mpa ra t ive a dva nt a ge ,
ins t e a d
o f a bs o lut e
a dva nt a ge ,
is fo llo we din int e rna t io na lt ra de be t we e n
co unt rie s . Wha t Kris hna a dvo ca t e dwa s t o a s k us t o fo llo w t he
mo re s cie nt ific a nd
pra ct ica lprinciple
o f
co mpa ra t ive a dva nt a ge
a s t ha t wo uldma ximis e s o cia l a s we ll a s individua lwe lfa re . The re
is
no t hing
ca s t e is t a bo ut his a dvice .
C o mpa ra t ive a dva nt a ge
he re
ca n a ls o be t a ke n in t he
dyna mic
s e ns e , o f
po t e nt ia l
t ha t ca n be
re a lis e d,
a ndno t in t e rms o f
pre s e nt
o r a ct ua l
guna
in a s t a t ic s e ns e .
The
s t o ry
o f Sha mbuka in
Ra ma ya na
is a ls o cit e da s
s uppo rt ing
ca s t e
s ys t e m
t o a n e xt re me e xt e nt . I t is t he
s t o ry
o f a s hudra who
wa s kille do n t he a dvice o f minis t e rs
by
Ra ma a s a
punis hme nt
fo r
do ing pe na nce
a nd
ne gle ct ing
his ca s t e dut ie s . The
s t o ry
a ppe a rs
in Ut t a ra Ka nda , whichis no t a
pa rt
o fVa lmiki's
Ra ma ya na
which e nds wit h Ra ma 's re t urn t o
Ayo dhya
in Yuddha ka nda .
P V
Ka ne ,
a n e mine nt Sa ns krit
s cho la r,
is o f t he vie w t ha t Ut t a ra
Ka nda wa s
cle a rly
a 'wo rk o f la t e r
int e rpo la t o rs '
[ibid: Vo l 1,
Pa rt
1,
p 389].
The
int e rpo la t io n
wa s do ne a t a t ime whe n va rna
s ys t e m
de t e rio ra t e da nd
go t
e s t a blis he do n t he ba s is o f birt hin
a
rigid
fo rm. Sha mbuka 's
s t o ry
is no t co ns is t e nt wit h
ma ny
e xa mple s
o f
pe rs o ns
o f s o -ca lle d lo w birt h
be ing
init ia t e dint o
a s hra ms a s
pupils by
ris his , a nd
be co ming
ris his t he ms e lve s .
M a t a nga
ris hi is me nt io ne din Va lmiki
Ra ma ya na
wit h
highre ga rd.
He ca me fro m a ca s t e t ha t
ma y
be
re ga rde d
a s unt o ucha ble in
t o da y'
s
pa rla nce .
Ra ma me t him t o
pa y
his
re s pe ct s during
his fo re s t
s o jo urn.
No w we
ma y
t a ke no t e o f t ho s e
pa rt s
o f cla s s ica l Hinduca no n,
which ca nno t co -e xis t ca s t e
s ys t e m
a ndha ve co nde mne dt he
pra ct ice
o f
de t e rmining
o ne 's cha ra ct e r a nds t a t us o n t he ba s is
o f birt ho r 'kula '
(fa mily).
Ve da nt a
philo s o phy
de cla re s t ha t t he re is
divinit y
in
e ve ry
le ct ure . Kris hna
s a ys
in ve rs e 30 o f ch 6: 'He who s e e s M e in
a ll
t hings
a nds e e s a ll
t hings
in
M e ,
ne ve r be co me s
de pa rt e d
fro m
M e , no r a m I lo s t t o him'. The
pre ce ding
a nd
s ucce e ding
ve rs e s
in t he Git a a ls o
co nve y
t he s a me
me s s a ge .
The lo rd
s a ys a ga in:
'He who
judge s ple a s ure
a nd
pa in
in o t he rs
by
t he s a me s t a nda rd
a s he
a pplie s
t o
hims e lf,
t ha t
yo gi
is t he
highe s t ' (ch6.32).
Ho w
ca n t his a dvice be co ns is t e nt o r co -e xis t wit h
s uppo rt
t o ca s t e
dis t inct io ns ba s e do n birt h?I n t he 16t h
cha pt e r,
t he Lo rdna rra t e s
t he virt ue s he lo o ks fo r in huma n
be ings
a nd
s a ys
t ha t t ho s e who
po s s e s s
t he m a re divine .
Amo ng
t he s e virt ue s a re : no n-vio le nce ,
t rut h,
co mpa s s io n
t o
a ll,
a bs e nce o f
a nge r
a nd
ha t re d,
giving
cha rit y
a nds e rvice
s e lfle s s ly, fo rgive ne s s ,
no n-co ve t o us ne s s a nd
mo de s t y (ch16,
v
1-3).
I t fo llo ws t ha t
high
birt his
ha rdly
re le va nt .
Rg
Ve da
e mpha s is e s e qua lit y
o f a ll huma n
be ings .
I t
go e s
t o
t he e xt e nt o f
s a ying,
which s o unds
quit e
mo de rn: 'No o ne is
s upe rio r,
no ne infe rio r. All a re bro t he rs
ma rching
fo rwa rdt o
pro s pe rit y'.9
The ide a t ha t a llhuma n
be ings
a re
e qua l
be fo re
go dirre s pe ct ive
o f ca s t e a ndt ha t a ll a re e nt it le dt o re ce ive his
light
co me s o ut
cle a rly
fro m t he
fo llo wing:
Rucha nm no dhe hi bra hma ne s hu
Rucha m
ra ja s una s kridhi I
Rucha m vis hve s hus hudre s hu
M a yi
dhe hi rucha rucha m
11
-Ta it t iriya
Sa mhit a V 7.6 3-4
Put
light
in o ur bra hma na s ,
put
it in o ur chie fs
(kings ),
(put ) light
in
va is hya s
a nds hudra s ,
put light
in me
by yo ur light .10
I t
ma y
s o und
s urpris ing
t o crit ics o f Hinduis m but is a fa ct
t ha t Hindu
s cript ure s
ha ve ba cke dlibe ra lis m a ndhuma nis m
by
unde rmining
birt h,
upho lding
cha ra ct e r a ndba s ic wo rt ho f
pe rs o ns
a s
be ing
mo re
impo rt a nt .
M a ha bha ra t a ma ke s t his
po int ve ry
s t ro ngly,
t o a n e xt e nt t ha t it re fle ct s a re vo lt
a ga ins t
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
ba s e do n birt h:
Na kula m vrit t a hina s ya
Pra ma na init i me na t ihi /
Ant e s hwa pij ja t a na m
Vrit t a me va
vis his hya t e
//
-
M a ha bha ra t a ,
Udyo ga
Pa rva ,
C h 34,
v 41.
I t me a ns :
High
birt hca n be no ce rt ifica t e fo r a
pe rs o n
o f no cha ra ct e r. But
pe rs o ns
wit h
go o d
cha ra ct e r ca n
dis t inguis h
t he ms e lve s
irre s pe c-
t ive o f lo w birt h.
M a ha bha ra t a
e mpha s is e s
t he s a me
po int a ga in
e ls e whe re t o o :
Ya s t uShudro da me s a t ,e
dha rme cha s a t a t o t t hit a h/
t a rn bra hma na ma ha m
ma nye
writ t e n hi bha ve t
dvija h
//
-
M a ha bha ra t a ,
Va na pa rva ,
C h
216,
vs 14-15.
I t me a ns :
Tha t s hudra who is e ve r
e nga ge d
in
s e lf-co nt ro l,
t rut ha nd
righ-
t e o us ne s s ,
I
re ga rd
him a bra hmin. One is a t wice -bo rn
by
co nduct
a lo ne .
i
Ut t a ra git a ,
which is a ls o a
dia lo gue
be t we e n Kris hna a nd
Arjuna ,
ma ke s t he s a me
po int .
Whe n
Arjuna s pe cifica lly
a s ks
Kris hna ho w va rna is de t e rmine d, he
re plie s :
Na
ja t ih
ka ra na m t a t a
guna h ka lya na ka ra na m
/
Vrit a s t ha ma pi
cha nda la m
t a rn de va h bra hma na m viduh//
I t me a ns :
Birt his no t t he
ca us e , my frie nd; it is
virt ue s , whicha re t he ca us e
o f we lfa re . Eve n a C ha nda la
o bs e rving
t he vo w is co ns ide re da
bra hma na
by
t he
go ds .12
The ve rs e a bo ve co rro bo ra t e s o ur
int e rpre t a t io n
o f t he t hre e
co nt ro ve rs ia l ve rs e s fro m t he
Bha ga va dgit a quo t e d
a bo ve .
The
s t o ry
o f
Sha nka ra cha rya (8t hce nt ury), pro s t ra t ing
be fo re
a C ha nda la is we ll kno wn. Whe n t he la t t e r s t o o din t he
wa y
o f
t he fo rme r, he wa s a s ke dt o mo ve
a wa y.
The C ha nda la a s ke d
him whe t he r t he
Acha rya 's
be ha vio ur wa s co ns is t e nt wit h his
philo s o phy.
He a s ke dfurt he r:
Vipro ya m Shva pa cho ya m it ya pi
ma ha n
ko ya m
Vibhe da bhra ma h
(wha t
is t his
co nfus ing
dis t inc-
t io n be t we e n a bra hmin a nda n
unt o ucha ble ?). Sha nka ra cha rya
t he n
pro s t ra t e s
be fo re him a s be fo re a
guru
a ndbre a ks o ut int o
five ve rs e s kno wn a s M a nis ha Pa ncha ka m. He re it e ra t e s his
a dva it a
philo s o phy,
but in his
ve ry
firs t ve rs e he
s a ys
t ha t a
pe rs o n
who kno ws t he
Supre me ,
whe t he r he is a C ha nda la o r a t wice -
bo rn, is a
guru
fo r him.
(C ha nda lo a s t u
s a t u
dvijo a s t ugururit ye s ha
ma nis ha
ma ma ).13 Ra ma nuja cha rya
who ca me in 12t h
ce nt ury,
de fie dca s t e e ve n mo re
po we rfully. M a dhva cha rya (13t hce nt ury)
in his Bra hma s ut ra
bha s hya
de cla re s : 'Eve n t he lo w bo rn
(un-
t o ucha ble s )
ha ve t he
right
t o t he na me a nd
kno wle dge
o f
go d
if
t he y
a re de vo t e dt o him.14
Tirukkura l, a n a ncie nt t e xt ve ne ra t e d
by
Ta mils a s Ta mil
Ve da ,
Eco no mic a ndPo lit ica l
We e kly
No ve mbe r
8,
2003
4787
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a ut ho re d
by
Tiruva lluva r,
s a ys :
Le t him who t hinks
ine quit y
be
wa rne dt ha t ruin a wa it s him'
(116t ha pho ris m). Aga in,
'Allme n
a re bo rn a like ;
t he diffe re nce s a re due t o diffe re nce s in wha t
t he y
do .'
(972nda pho ris m).15
The re is a n e nt ire
Upa nis ha d,
na me d
Va jra s uchika ,
de vo t e d
t o a n a t t a ck o n ca s t e
s ys t e m
ba s e do n birt h. The na me o f t he
Upa nis ha d
ca n be t ra ns la t e da s 'Thunde rbo lt
s ugge s t ive ',
which
fit s it s cla im t o bla s t
igno ra nce re s po ns ible
fo r
le a ding
t o ca s t e
dis t inct io ns a nd
a wa yfro m go d.
I t is in
pro s e
a nds ma llin
s ize ,
ha vingo nly
nine s ho rt
pa ra gra phs .
I t is include da s t he la s t
Upa nis ha d
in S Ra dha kris hna n e dit e dThe
Principa lUpa nis ha ds
a lo ng
wit hhis t ra ns la t io n
[Ra dha kris hna n 1994:935-38].
The
fo llo wings umma ry
a cco unt is ba s e do n it . The
Upa nis ha d
is
a rgume nt a t ive
in
s t yle
a nd
be gins
wit ha fe w
que s t io ns
(in
s e co nd
pa ra ):
'Who is
ve rily,
t he bra hma na
(bra hmin)?
I s he
t he individua ls o ul
(Jiva )?
I s he t he
bo dy?
I s he cla s s ba s e do n
birt h
(ja t i)?
I s he t he
kno wle dge ?
I s he t he de e ds
(Ka rma )?
I s
he t he
pe rfo rme r
o f rit e s ?' The n it a ns we rs t he
que s t io ns
o ne
by
o ne . A bra hmin ca nno t be t he individua l
s o ul,
s ince s o ulis
t he s a me in
pre vio us
birt hs . He ca nno t be t he
bo dy
be ca us e t he
bo dy
co ns is t s o f
phys ica l
e le me nt s ,
whicha re co mmo n t o a ll
huma n
be ings .
He ca nno t be de t e rmine d
by
birt h,
be ca us e
ma ny
s a ge s
a t t a ine d
high
ra nk
irre s pe ct ive
o f birt h. He ca nno t a ls o be
de t e rmine d
by kno wle dge ,
a s t he re we re
ma ny ks ha t riya s
a nd
o t he rs who t o o a t t a ine d
highe s t kno wle dge
a nd
wis do m,
a nd
kno wle dge
ha s no t be e n a n e xclus ive fe a t ure o f bra hmins . De e ds
a ls o ca nno t ma ke a bra hmin, s ince a llhuma n
be ings
ca n do
go o d
wo rk.
Simila rly,
rit e s a nd
cha rit y
ca n a ls o be do ne
by
a ll. Who
t he n is
re a lly
a bra hmin?He is t he o ne who kno ws his s e lf like
a n a ma la ka fruit
(go o s e be rry)
o n his
pa lm,
wit ho ut
ca ring
fo r
dis t inct io ns o f
birt h,
be ing
de vo ido f
infirmit ie s ,
na rro wne s s a nd
e go ,
a ndwho funct io ns a s t he
in-dwe llings pirit
o f a ll
be ings .
At t he e nd,
t he
Upa nis ha d
ca lls
upo n
a ll t o me dit a t e o n t he
Supre me , re mo ving
a lldis t inct io ns a nd
e go is m
fro m mind. The re
is no ne e dfo r furt he r
pro o f
t o s ho wt ha t Hindu
philo s o phy
a nd
re ligio n
a re
a ga ins t
ca s t e
s ys t e m,
a ft e r
re a ding
t his
Upa nis ha d.
VI
Le ge nds
a s a
We a po n a ga ins t
C a s t e
Sys t e m
Apa rt
fro m s uchdire ct
pre a ching
dis cus s e d
a bo ve ,
Hinduis m
fo ught
ca s t e is m a nd
unt o ucha bilit y by cre a t ingle ge nds
t o o . Such
le ge nds a ppe a le d
t o
po pula r
mind
dire ct ly.
A
le ge nd
a bo ut
Sha nka ra cha rya
ha s
a lre a dy
be e n
pre s e nt e d
a bo ve .
Tiruppa n
Alva r
(10t hce nt ury C E),
a n unt o ucha ble de vo t e e o f
Lo rd
Ra nga na t ha ,
wa s ins ult e d
by
a
prie s t
fo r
s t a nding
in t he
wa y
t o t he
t e mple .
The
t e mple
do o rs didno t
o pe n
t o t he
prie s t ,
but a vo ice ca me fro m wit hin t he s a nct um s a nct o rum t ha t unle s s
t he
prie s t
t a ke s t he Alva r o n his s ho ulde rs a ndcircuma mbula t e s
t he
t e mple
t hre e t ime s a nd
brings
him in t he Lo rd's
pre s e nce ,
t he do o rs wo uldno t
o pe n.
The
prie s t
ha dt o
o be y,
a nd
t he re a ft e r,
Tiruppa n
Alva r wa s ha ile da s a
gre a t
s a int .
A s imila r
le ge nd
is a bo ut Ka na ka da s a
(16t hce nt ury).
Whe n
he wa s no t a dmit t e dint o
Udupi
Shri Kris hna
t e mple by
t he
prie s t s ,
t he ido lis s a idt o ha ve t urne dit s fa ce a ro unds o t ha t Ka na ka da s a
co uldha ve t he da rs ha n
(s ight )
o f t he lo rd
t hro ugh
a ba ck windo w.
I t is s t ill kno wn a s Ka na ka na Kindi
(Ka na ka 's windo w).
The re a re s imila r
le ge nds
in o t he r
re gio ns
o f I ndia t o o . An
int e re s t ingle ge nd
co nce rns
wo rking
cla s s bha kt i-s a int s o f
M a ha ra s ht ra who ca me fro m lo w ca s t e s . The
le ge nd
re fle ct s
po igna nt ly
t he
e mpa t hy
fe lt
by
lo rdVit t ha la fo r his
wo rking
cla s s
de vo t e e s who
s t ruggle
fo r t he ir live liho o da nd
ye t
a re
de e ply
de vo t e dt o him. The lo rd
re s po nds by de e ply ide nt ifying
hims e lf
wit h t he de vo t e e s a nd
pa rt icipa t e s
in t he ir wo rk a ndt o il, a nd
brings
t he m e mo t io na l re lie f. I t is
a ls o a
wa y
o f
ra is ing
t he s t a t us
o f ma nua l la bo ur in t he
e ye s
o f
pa rt icula rly
t he
uppe r
ca s t e s fo r
t he lo rdhims e lf do e s t his la bo ur o f lo ve fo r his de vo t e e s . The re
is s ucha
le ge nd
a bo ut s e ve ra l,
but is
pa rt icula rly int e re s t ing
in
t he ca s e
o fJa na ba i,
a wo ma n s a int fro m a da lit ca s t e .
C ho kha me la ,
a
co nt e mpo ra ry
da lit
s a int -po e t ,
ha s immo rt a lis e dt his
le ge nd
in
o ne o f his
po e ms :
He s co urs t he flo o r a nd
po unds
t he
gra in,
s we e ps
rubbis hfro m he r
ya rd,
ha s t e ns t o fe t ch
wa t e r,
t he Lo rdo f t he whe e l,
a nd
pla it s
ha ir wit h his o wn
ha nds ,
s it t ing
a t
pe a ce , pe e ring
do wn,
he
quickly
kills lice .
C ho kha
s a ys
lo ve s ' la bo ur t his .
He ca re s lit t le fo r
gre a t ne s s .
16
VI I
M o ve me nt s
Aga ins t
C a s t e wit hin Hinduis m
The mo s t
pro mine nt
mo ve me nt wit hin t he fra me wo rk o f
Hinduis m t o
fight a ga ins t
ca s t e is m wa s t he Bha kt i mo ve me nt .
Tho ugh
s t a rt e dfirs t in Ta mil Na dua s
e a rly
a s in 6t h
ce nt ury
C E
by
Sha iva s a int s ,
it fo unda
po we rful e xpre s s io n a ga ins t
ca s t e
s ys t e m
whe n Ve e ra s ha iva mo ve me nt wa s le d
by
Ba s a va nna in
Ka rna t a ka in 12t h
ce nt ury.
The Bha kt i mo ve me nt de mo cra t is e d,
bro a d-ba s e da ndhuma nis e dHinduis m a s ne ve r be fo re . Eve n if
it
ma y
no t ha ve s ucce e de din
e limina t ing
ca s t e
s ys t e m,
it
bro ught
ho me t he
impo rt a nt
fa ct t ha t ca s t e dis t inct io ns ba s e do n birt h
ca n ha ve no
s a nct it y
in t he
e ye s
o f
go d.
The mo ve me nt
e ffe ct ive ly
unde rmine dt he
a ut ho rit y
o f t e xt s , which
s uppo rt e d
ca s t e ,
t ho ugh
a fa ls e
impre s s io n
wa s a ls o cre a t e dmo re
by uppe r
ca s t e s t ha n
by
lo we r ca s t e s t ha t Ve da s
s uppo rt e d
ca s t e . As a
re s ult ,
s e ve ra l
Bha kt i s e ct s de cla re dt ha t
t he y re je ct e d
t he
a ut ho rit y
o f t he Ve da s ,
pro mine nt a mo ng
t he m
be ing
t he Ve e ra s ha iva mo ve me nt a nd
Sikhis m.
The Bha kt i mo ve me nt cut a cro s s no t
o nly
ca s t e s ,
but e ve n
re ligio ns
a nd
s pre a d
a llo ve r I ndia . Ka bir in no rt h
I ndia ,
Shis huna l
Sha rif in
Ka rna t a ka ,
a ndShirdi Sa i Ba ba in M a ha ra s ht ra we re
bo r
a s
M us lims ,
but we re a
pa rt
o f Bha kt i mo ve me nt a nd
highly
re s pe ct e dby
Hindus . The mo ve me nt
e xplicit ly
a nd
po we rfully
co nde mne dca s t e
s ys t e m, includingunt o ucha bilit y.
Ba s a va nna 's
mo ve me nt in Ka rna t a ka wa s mo s t
a ggre s s ive ly a ga ins t ca s t e ,
a nd
include ds e ve ra lda lit s ha ra na s a nds ha ra ne s a s
po int e d
o ure a rlie r.
Ba s a va nna we nt t o t he e xt e nt o f
ge t t ing
a bra hmin
dis ciple 's
da ught e r
ma rrie dt o a n unt o ucha ble
dis ciple 's
s o n,
ca us ing
a
s e rio us co mmo t io n. Ba s a va nna wa s fa r a he a do f his t ime . Since
t he lo we r ca s t e s we re fro m t he
wo rking
cla s s , he
pre a che ddignit y
o f ma nua l la bo ur a s a n
impo rt a nt principle
o f his
philo s o phy.
The Bha kt i mo ve me nt in M a ha ra s ht ra a ls o wa s
ve ry
s imila r,
dra wings a int -po e t s
fro m t he lo we r ca s t e
wo rkingcla s s , t ho ugh
it include dbra hmins t o o . The mo ve me nt in M a ha ra s ht ra wa s
s t a rt e d
by
a n o ut ca s t e
bra hmin,
Sa nt
Jna ne s hwa r, who s e
fa mily
lo s t ca s t e be ca us e his
fa t he r,
a
s a nnya s i
re no unce d
s a nnya s a
a nd
go t
ma rrie do n
re ce iving
a
me s s a ge
fro m
go d
t o t ha t e ffe ct . The
mo ve me nt in M a ha ra s ht ra t o o
e mpha s is e d dignit y
o f ma nua l
la bo ur. The re is t hus
quit e
a lo t o f e vide nce t o s ho wt ha t Hinduis m
co ns t a nt ly, de libe ra t e ly
a nd
co ns cio us ly fo ught a ga ins t
ca s t e
s ys t e m
a nd
unt o ucha bilit y
fro m t ime t o t ime , e ve n be fo re t he
mo de rn a ge
a ndbe fo re t he influe nce o f we s t e rn ide a s .
4788 Eco no mic a ndPo lit ica l
We e kly
No ve mbe r
8, 2003
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Apa rt
fro m t he s ca t t e re da nd
s po ra dic
a t t a cks o n ca s t e
s ys t e m,
t he re we re a ls o co nce rt e d
a t t e mpt s
t o lift individua lco mmunit ie s
o f unt o ucha ble s a s a who le a ndt o
bring
t he m int o t he ma ins t re a m.
The s e
a t t e mpt s
s t a rt e dfro m t he 19t h
ce nt ury
it s e lf. Two
glo rio us
e xa mple s ma y
be t a ke n - t ha t o f e zha va s in Ke ra la a ndna da rs
in Ta mil Na du. Bo t h
e xa mple s
re la t e t o t he
pre -inde pe nde nce
pe rio d
o f la t e 19t ht o
e a rly
20t h
ce nt ury.
The s e
e xa mple s
a re
o f
gre a t
int e re s t a s
t he y
invo lve dt wo da lit co mmunit ie s
e le va t ing
t he ir ca s t e s t a t us
e nt ire ly t hro ugh
s e lf-e ffo rt s a nd
ve ry
much
wit hin t he fra me wo rk o f Hinduis m.
The y
ha ve be e n muchmo re
s ucce s s ful t ha n o t he r e ffo rt s
invo lving
co nve rs io n t o o t he r fa it hs
fo r t he
purpo s e
o f e le va t io n in s o cia l s t a t us .
Shri
Na ra ya n
Guru
(1854-1928)
wa s t he chie f fo rce be hind
e le va t ing
t he s o cia l s t a t us o f
e zha va s ,
who is ve ne ra t e d
by
t he m
a s we ll a s
by
o t he rs . He
ga ve
t hre e
s lo ga ns
t o his fo llo we rs : "One
ca s t e ,
o ne
re ligio n,
a ndo ne
go d
fo r ma n". "As k
no t , s a y
no t ,
t hink no t ca s t e ." "Wha t e ve r be t he
re ligio n,
le t ma n
impro ve
hims e lf."
Tho ugh
a
re ligio us le a de r,
his
re ligio n
wa s no t s e ct a ria n
a nd
e mpha s is e d
t ha t a ll huma n
be ings
a re
e qua l
be fo re
go d.
He
wa nt e dt o
t o t a lly
re mo ve a ll ca s t e co ns cio us ne s s . Whe n he s a w
t ha t t he ca s t e Hindus didno t
pe rmit
t he
e nt ry
o f e zha va s a nd
o t he r da lit s int o
t e mple s ,
he firs t s t a rt e d
building
ne w
t e mple s
fo r t he m int o which no n-da lit s t o o co ulde nt e r. The n he s t a rt e d
ve dic s cho o ls whe re da lit
prie s t s
co uldbe t ra ine dbo t hin rit ua ls
a ndt he
philo s o phy
o f Hinduis m.
Ne xt ,
he
e nco ura ge dge ne ra l
a nds e cula r e duca t io n fo r
a ll,
by s t a rt ing
s cho o ls a nd
co lle ge s .
His init ia l
t e mple buildingpro gra mme
wa s
o nly
t o mo bilis e his
co mmunit y,
but his la t e r
e mpha s is
wa s mo re o n
ge ne ra l
e duca t io n
s o t ha t a ll e zha va s a ndo t he r da lit s co uld
ge t pro pe rly
e duca t e d
a nds e e k
go o do ppo rt unit ie s .
He a ls o s t a rt e dcre dit
co o pe ra t ive
s o cie t ie s s o t ha t t he
de pe nde nce
o f da lit s o n
highe r
ca s t e s wa s
a vo ide d.
Thus ,
t he
gurus o ught
a ll-ro und
de ve lo pme nt
o f da lit s .
Like
Ga ndhiji,
he a ls o t rie dt o
cha nge
t he a t t it ude s o f
uppe r
ca s t e s .
He didno t
pre a ch
ha t re do f
uppe r
ca s t e s t o his
fo llo we rs ,
a s he
didno t wa nt a rift be t we e n t he m. An
e xa mple
o f his s ucce s s
in t his
re ga rd
is t he
s uppo rt
he re ce ive dfro m
pro gre s s ive
s e ct io ns
o f
uppe r
ca s t e s ,
whichre s ult e din a s a va rna
pro ce s s io n
in
s uppo rt
o f da lit s '
e nt ry
in t o t he fa mo us Va iko m
t e mple duringt e mple
e nt ry s a t ya gra ha
s t a rt e d
by Ga ndhiji. Na ra ya na
Gurua nd
Ga ndhiji
wo rke d
t o ge t he r
in
t e mple e nt ry
mo ve me nt .
Na ra ya na
Gurudid
no t co nfine hims e lf
o nly
t o his o wn
co mmunit y
o f e zha va s . The re
we re o t he r co mmunit ie s
a mo ng
unt o ucha ble s in
Ke ra la , whichwe re
e ve n lo we r in s o cia l s t a t us t ha n e zha va s . But t he
guru
invo lve d
t he m t o o in his
a t t e mpt s
t o e le va t e t he s t a t us o f a ll da lit s .17
Tho ugh
t he na da rs didno t s e e m t o ha ve ha dt he
a dva nt a ge
o f a cha ris ma t ic a nd
re ligio us
le a de r like
Na ra ya na
Guru,
t he y
a ls o did
e qua lly
we ll unde r t he ir s e cula r le a de rs . The e le va t io n
o f ca s t e s t a t us ca me
ma inly t hro ugh
t he
s pre a d
o f e duca t io n a nd
s kills ,
mut ua l
s e lf-he lp by ma king
cre dit a va ila ble fo r
s t a rt ing
e nt e rpris e s , by he lping
ca s t e me mbe rs s e cure
jo bs by funct io ning
a s a n info rma l
e mplo yme nt e xcha nge
a nd a ls o
t hro ugh
Sa ns krit is a t io n.18 The me mbe rs o f bo t h t he s e co mmunit ie s -
e zha va s a ndna da rs a re no w
highly
lit e ra t e a nd
o ccupy impo rt a nt
po s it io ns .
Na da rs ha ve a ls o
e me rge de co no mica lly s t ro ng,
cre -
a t ing
a niche fo r t he ms e lve s in
indus t ry
a ndco mme rce .
The
e xa mple
o f e zha va s a ndna da rs o ffe rs
impo rt a nt
le s s o ns
fo r da lit s . I t is no t
e no ugh
t o buildt he ir o wn
o rga nis a t io n me re ly
t o
s pre a da wa re ne s s ,
ma ke de ma nds a nd
pro t e s t a ga ins t injus t ice ,
but it is a ls o
e qua lly ne ce s s a ry
t o la unchco ns t ruct ive
pro gra mme s
fo r t he we lfa re o f t he
co mmunit y.
The
t e nde ncy
t o
re ly ma inly
o n
ma king
de ma nds o n t he
go ve rnme nt
t o
pro mo t e
s o cia l we lfa re
a mo ng
da lit s is no t
e no ugh. By it s
ve ry na t ure , go ve rnme nt
bure a ucra cy
ha s limit a t io ns in
pro mo t ing
s o cia l we lfa re a nd
s o cia l
mo bilit y.
The co mmunit ie s ' o wn e ffo rt s a t co ns t ruct ive
pro gra mme s
a re a ls o
ne ce s s a ry.
The s e
pro gra mme s ma y
be t o
induce da lit
pa re nt s
t o s e ndt he ir childre n t o
s cho o ls ,
t o
he lp
t he m
in
ge t t ingt ra ining
a nds kills fo r
jo bs
o ut s ide t he ir t ra dit io na l
vo ca t io ns , t o
pro vide guida nce
a nd
he lp
t o t ho s e who wis ht o
migra t e
fro m
villa ge s
t o t o wns a ndcit ie s a nd
he lp
in
ge t t ingjo bs
a ndho us e s ,
pre ve nt ing
a ddict io n t o
liquo r
a nds o o n. The
co mmunit y o rga nis a t io ns
o f bo t hna da rs a nde zha va s t o o k ca re
o f t he me mbe rs o f t he ir co mmunit ie s like
pa re nt s .
Once da lit
o rga nis a t io ns
t a ke
up
co ns t ruct ive
pro gra mme s , he lp
will co me
t o t he m in a
bigwa y
fro m
priva t e
s o urce s t o o like
vo lunt a ry
a nd
s o cia l s e rvice
o rga nis a t io ns
a nd
phila nt hro pic
a s s o cia t io ns .
The s ucce s s ful
e xa mple
o f e zha va s a ndna da rs a ls o ha s s ho wn
ho w irre le va nt a re co nve rs io ns t o o t he r fa it hs t o s o lve da lit
pro ble m.
Ano t he r
impo rt a nt
le s s o n,
pa rt icula rly
fro m Shri
Na ra ya na Guru,
is t ha t his mo ve me nt wa s no t a dve rs a ria lin
cha ra ct e r. He bro ke
t hro ughuppe r
ca s t e re s is t a nce t o s o cia l
cha nge ,
wit ho ut
ma king
e ne mie s o f t he m. He co ulde ve n e nlis t
t he ir
co o pe ra t io n
a nd
s uppo rt .
He wa s Ga ndhia n in his
a ppro a ch.
I n I ndia n
e t ho s ,
co ncilia t io n s e e ms t o ha ve be e n fa r mo re s uc-
ce s s ful in
e ffe ct ingcha nge
t ha n co nfro nt a t io n.
Adiffe re nce be t we e n e zha va a ndna da r
mo ve me nt s , ho we ve r,
is t ha t t he fo rme r wa s no t co nce nt ra t e d
o nly
o n o ne
co mmunit y,
but a ime da t
re a ching
a ll unt o ucha ble s a ndlo we r ca s t e s which
s uffe re ds o cia l
de priva t io n.
I t wa s a s e rio us
a t t e mpt
t o hit o ut
a t rit ua l
hie ra rchy,
whiche xis t e d
a mo ng
da lit s t he ms e lve s . Succe s s
in t his
t a s k, ho we ve r,
pe rha ps
wa s no t a s
gre a t
a s in
e le va t ing
t he s t a t us o f e zha va s . Bo t hna da rs ' a nde zha va s ' mo ve me nt s
ho we ve r,
we re s ucce s s fulin
s ignifica nt ly re ducing
s o cia l
de p-
riva t io n
a mo ng
t wo
nume rica lly impo rt a nt
unt o ucha ble co mmu-
nit ie s ,
whichha da ls o a
highe r
le ve lo f s o cia ls t a t us t ha n o t he rs
a mo ng
da lit s .
The re ha ve be e n mo re mo ve me nt s in mo de m
Hinduis m,
which
a re no t ca s t e o r
co mmunit y
ba s e da ndha ve
he lpe d
t o e nricht he
mo ra la nd
s pirit ua l
life o f t he ir fo llo we rs - s ucha s t ho s e le d
by
Ra ma kris hna
M is s io n, Auro bindo , Bra hma kuma ris , I SKON,
Shri
Sa t ya
Sa i Ba ba a ndM a t a
Amrit a na nda ma yi.
The ir ma in
s ignifica nce
fo r t his
pa pe r
is t ha t
t he y
ha ve s ho wn t ha t Hinduis m
ca n
ve ry
we ll t hrive wit ho ut ca s t e
s ys t e m.19
VI I I
Ho wt he n didC a s t e
Sys t e m Eme rge
a ndSurvive ?
I f a llt ha t is co nt e nde da bo ve is t rue a ndif Hinduis m a s a
re ligio n
a nd
philo s o phy
wa s
a ga ins t
ca s t e
s ys t e m
ba s e do n birt h, a nde ve n
in
pra ct ice ,
it
o ppo s e d
t he
s ys t e m,
ho wdidit
e me rge
a nds urvive
fo r s o
lo ng?Simply be ca us e ,
t he
s ys t e m pe rfo rme d
ce rt a in funct io ns
t ha t we re va lue d
by
t he
s o cie t y.
The s e funct io ns ha d
no t hing
t o
do wit h
re ligio n, be inge nt ire ly
in t he 'a ihika '
(munda ne ) s phe re .
The unfo rt una t e
pa rt
o f t he
s t o ry
is t ha t ca s t e ide nt it ie s ha ve
o ut live dt he s e funct io ns . The s e funct io ns
ma y
no wbe e nume r-
a t e da nd
e xpla ine d.
(i)
A
Sys t e m
o f C he cks a nd Ba la nce s
The va ma
s ys t e m
wa s no t
jus t
a divis io n o f la bo ur. I t wa s a ls o
a
s ys t e m
o f che cks a ndba la nce s s ucht ha t t he re is no co nce n-
t ra t io n o f
po we r
in
a ny
va rna o r cla s s . I t wa s mo re a
s ys t e m
t o
a vo idco nce nt ra t io n o f
po we r
t ha n o ne me a nt fo r
a ppro pria t io n
o f e co no mic
s urplus .
As
pe r
t he va ma
s ys t e m,
bra hmins we re
Eco no mic a ndPo lit ica l
We e kly
No ve mbe r
8, 2003
4789
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no t
s uppo s e d
t o s e e k
re ga lpo we r.
The ir
dut y
wa s t o s e e k
kno wle dge
a nd
pre s e rve
t he Ve da s a nd
ca rry
o n t he ve dic t ra dit io n.
The y
we re no t
s uppo s e d
t o a ma s s we a lt ha ndha dt o
de pe nd
o n o t he r
va rna s fo r t he ir s us t e na nce .
Acco rding
t o
dha rma s ha s t ra s ,
'a
bra hma na
(bra hmin)
s ho uldno t ha nke r a ft e r
gift s ;
he
ma y
co lle ct
t he m
o nly
fo r his
live liho o d,
a bra hma na
t a king
mo re t ha n wha t
is
re quire d
fo r his ma int e na nce incurs
de gra da t io n' [Ka ne
1990:
Vo l
I I ,
Pa rt
1,
p
531 ]. As Dumo nt
s a ys
t he re wa s a cle a r
s e pa ra t io n
o f rit ua ls t a t us fro m ma t e ria l
po we r.
While t he
dut y
o f
ks ha t riya s , pa rt icula rly
o f
kings ,
wa s t o
ma int a in la wa nd
o rde r,
pro t e ct
dha rma a ndde fe nd
pe o ple , t he y
t o o ha dno a bs o lut e
po we r.
I t wa s t he ir
dut y
t o co ns ult t he ir
minis t e rs a ndlis t e n t o
pe o ple
a ndme e t t he ir
grie va nce s .
The '
minis t ry
co ns is t e do f
re pre s e nt a t ive s
o f a ll
va rna s ,
including
s hudra s . B R Ambe dka r cit e s
Sha nt ipa rva
o f
M a ha bha ra t a ,
in
whichBhis hma a dvis e s Yudhis t hira
(Dha rma ra ja )
t o ha ve fo ur
bra hmins ,
e ight ks ha t riya s ,
21
va is hya s
a ndt hre e s hudra s a s
minis t e rs t o
guide
him in t he a ffa irs o f t he s t a t e
[M o o n 1990:112].
The
re la t ive ly la rge
a llo ca t io n t o
va is hya s ma y
be re fle ct ive o f
t he ir nume rica l
ma jo rit y
a s
a gricult uris t s
t he n,
a pa rt
fro m t he ir
be ing
me rcha nt s t o o . I t is a ls o
po s s ible
t ha t
va is hya s
we re t he
la rge s t
s o urce o f re ve nue fo r t he s t a t e a ndhe nce we re
give n
gre a t e r re pre s e nt a t io n.
I f t he
king
wa s una ble t o
upho ld
dha rma
o r
pro t e ct pe o ple
a ndt he ir
pro pe rt y,
he co ulde ve n be re mo ve d
by
t he minis t e rs wit h t he
s uppo rt
o f
pe o ple , a cco rding
t o
dha rma s ha s t ra s . A
pict ure
o f
ha rmo ny
a nd
pe rfe ct
a llia nce
ma y
no t
a lwa ys
ha ve be e n
o bt a ine d,
but it wa s a t le a s t t he ide a l.
(ii)
Divis io n o f La bo ur -
Ea s y Acquis it io n
o f Skills
a nd
Kno wle dge
Tho ugh
t he re wa s
s ignifica nt
s o cia l
mo bilit y init ia lly,
va rna s
be ca me
gra dua lly he re dit a ry a ndja t i s ys t e m
e vo lve dwit hincre a s -
ing
divis io n o f la bo ur a nd
s pe cia lis a t io n.
I t wa s e a s ie r fo r s kills
a nd
kno wle dge
t o be
impa rt e d
wit hin
fa mily
fro m fa t he r t o
childre n a s t he re we re no t ra de s cho o ls o r
po lyt e chnics
a s s uch.
Educa t io n in s kills a nd
kno wle dge re quire d
in
he re dit a ry
o ccu-
pa t io ns be ga n quit e e a rly right
a t ho me fro m childho o d. As
fa milie s be ca me
s pe cia lis e d
in a rt s a ndcra ft s ,
t he y
flo uris he d
a nd
s o ught
e ve n dis t a nt ma rke t s . Ka ne o bs e rve s t ha t
"pro fe s -
s io na lca s t e s we re
we a lt hy
a ndwe ll
o rga nis e d"
a s s e e n fro m
dha rma s ha s t ra s a nd
e pigra phic
re co rds . The
o rga nis a t io n
ha d
re a che ds uch
s o phis t ica t io n
t ha t t he re we re
la rge r pro fe s s io na l
a s s o cia t io ns ca lle da s
'ga na ',
a nd
villa ge
le ve la s s o cia t io ns ca lle d
a s
's a ngha ' [Ka ne
1990: Vo l
I I , Pa rt I ,
pp
66-67]. Ka ne o bs e rve s
furt he r t ha t 't he s udra
gra dua lly
ro s e in s o cia l s t a t us s o fa r a s
o ccupa t io n
wa s co nce rne da ndco uldfo llo w a ll
o ccupa t io ns
e xce pt
t ho s e
s pe cia lly
re s e rve dfo r t he
bra hma na ,
s o muchs o
t ha t s udra be ca me e ve n
kings
a ndM a nu
(I V.61)
ha d
e xpre s s ly
t o
e njo in upo n
bra hma na s no t t o dwe llin t he
kingdo m
o f a s udra '
[ibid: 121].
I nt e re s t ingly,
while
va is hya s
a nds hudra s we re s o
o rga nis e d
in
pro fe s s io na l
a s s o cia t io ns o r
guilds ,
t he re we re no s uch
o rga nis a t io ns
fo r bra hmins . As Ka ne
s a ys ,
't he bra hma na s ha d
no
o rga nis e dco rpo ra t e bo dy
like fo r
Anglica n
churchwit hit s
hie ra rchy
o f
a rchbis ho ps , bis ho ps
a ndo t he r divine s '
[ibid: 118].
I t is o ft e n
a rgue d
t ha t
be ing
a t t he
t o p
o f t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
bra hmins
de s igne d
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
a nd
pe rpe t ua t e d
it
by givingre ligio us
s a nct it y.
But
t he y
didno t ha ve a n
o rga nis a t io n
t o e nfo rce it . The
ca s t e
s ys t e m
co uldno t ha ve co nt inue dbe ca us e o f a s ma ll
mino rit y,
whichha dne it he r
re ga l
no r
mo ne t a ry po we r.
I t co nt inue d
o nly
be ca us e a ll ca s t e s
a cce pt e d
it a s in t he ir int e re s t .
(iii)
De ce nt ra lis e d
De mo cra cy
-
Lo bby Gro up
Whe n t he va rna s t ra ns fo rme dt he ms e lve s int o e t hnic e ndo -
ga mo us gro ups
ba s e do n
birt h,
t he y de ve lo pe d
t he ir o wn ca s t e /
ja t i pa ncha ya t s
t o de cide t he ir o wn a ffa irs ,
re ducing
t he ir de -
pe nde nce
o n t he
king.
The ca s t e
pa ncha ya t s
s e t t le d
dis put e s
wit hin t he ca s t e in a n
ine xpe ns ive
a nd
pro mpt wa y. The y
a ls o
impa rt e d
t re me ndo us s o cia l
s t a bilit y. Kings
ca me a nd
we nt ,
but
t he
s o cie t y
re ma ine ds t a ble in
s pit e
o f a ll
inva s io ns ,
wa rs a nd
po lit ica lins t a bilit y.
The
pa ncha ya t s
lo o ke da ft e r t he we lfa re o f
t he me mbe rs o f t he ir ca s t e s in a de ce nt ra lis e d
wa y.
The ca s t e
s ys t e m pro vide d
a me cha nis m fo r de ce nt ra lis e d
de mo cra cy.
Tho ugh
t his me cha nis m
pro vide ds t a bilit y,
it a ls o ma de a t le a s t
t he me die va lHindu
s o cie t y
mo re co ns e rva t ive . The
pa ncha ya t s
s t rict ly dis co ura ge d
int e r-ca s t e
ma rria ge s
a nd
s e ve re ly punis he d
e lo pe me nt
in lo ve a ffa irs , be ca us e int e r-ca s t e
ma rria ge s
ha dt he
po t e nt ia l
o f
we a ke ningca s t e -pa ncha ya t s .
The
s e pa ra t io n
o f ca s t e
fro m ca s t e wa s ma de mo re
rigid.
The ho ldo f ca s t e
pa ncha ya t s ,
t ho ugh
we a ke ne d
co ns ide ra bly
a ft e r
inde pe nde nce ,
ha s no t
va nis he da t le a s t in a fe wca s e s . We s t illhe a r ne ws
re po rt s
o f lo ve rs
a cro s s ca s t e s
int e nding
t o
ma rry
drive n t o s uicide . This is mo re
co mmo n in rura l
I ndia ,
including
t he s o -ca lle dlo w ca s t e s a nd
unt o ucha ble s . The co nt inue dho ldo f ca s t e
pa ncha ya t s
is e ns ure d
by
co nt inue d
de pe nde nce
o f fa milie s o n me mbe rs o f t he ir ca s t e
during
birt h,
we dding
a nd
de a t h,
a nde xco mmunica t io n
by
ca s t e
pa ncha ya t
is s t illco ns ide re da ma t t e r o f t e rrible
dis gra ce
a nds ha me .
C a s t e
pa ncha ya t s
o r t he ir mo re mo de rn a va t a r - ca s t e lo bbie s
- a re
s imply
ins t rume nt s t o
pre s e rve
ca s t e ide nt it ie s o r e t hnic
ide nt it ie s ,
t o s e e k co nce s s io ns fro m o r ma ke de ma nds o n t he
la rge r
s o cie t y
o r t he s t a t e . I n t his
fo rm,
t he y
a re
co mple t e ly dis jo int e d
fro m t he t ra dit io na l no t io ns o f rit ua l
s t a t us , purit y
a nd
po llut io n.
(iv) Eco lo gica l
Ro le
The re is a ls o a n
e co lo gica l
dime ns io n t o t he ca s t e
s ys t e m, bro ught
o ut
by
M a dha v
Ga dgil
in 1983
[Ga dgil
1983; Ka vo o ri
2002].
The
ca s t e
s ys t e m pe rfo rme d
a n
impo rt a nt
funct io n o f
re ducingco mpe -
t it io n fo r a nd
a vo idingo ve re xplo it a t io n
o f na t ura l re s o urce s .
Only
fis he rme n ca s t e co uld
go
fo r
fis hing,
a ndt he ir ca s t e
pa ncha ya t s
e vo lve drule s fo r s us t a ina ble
e xplo it a t io n
o f fis he rie s .
Only
hunt e rs '
ca s t e co uld
go
fo r
hunt ing
wildlife in t he
fo re s t s ,
e xce pt
t he
king
who didit
o cca s io na lly
fo r
ple a s ure
a nda ls o t o kill
ma n-e a t ing
t ige rs ,
whichint rude dint o
villa ge s . Only
cha ma r o r co bble r ca s t e
ha dt he
right
t o t he de a da nima ls a ndt he ir s kin. C a s t e
pa ncha ya t s
e vo lve drule s fo r
re s t rict inghunt ing
in
pa rt icula r
s e a s o ns , o r
pa rt icula r
a nima ls s o t ha t wildlife is
pro t e ct e d
a ndno t drive n t o
e xt inct io n. C e rt a in fo re s t a re a s kno wn a s s a cre d
gro ve s (kno wn
a s 'de va ra ka du' in Ka nna da , o r 'de v-ra n' in
M a ra t hi,
o r
'pa vit hra -
va na ' in
Sa ns krit )
we re o ut o f bo unds fo r
a ny hunt ing
o r e ve n
cut t ing
gre e n
t re e s . The ca s t e
s ys t e m
a ls o funct io ne din a
wa y
s o a s t o
co nt ro lt he
gro wt h
o f
po pula t io n by cre a t ing
ba rrie rs fo r
ma rria ge .
Aft e r
giving
s e ve ra lillus t ra t io ns , M a dha v
Ga dgil
o bs e rve s :
The ca s t e
s o cie t y
ha dt hus
de ve lo pe d
t wo
s pe cia l
me cha nis ms t o
re gula t e
t he
e xplo it a t io n
o f na t ura l re s o urce s . The
o ccupa t io na l
s pe cia lis a t io n
o f e a chca s t e e ns ure dt ha t
a ny pa rt icula r
re s o urce
wa s
prima rily
if no t
e xclus ive ly
ut ilis e d
by
o ne
pa rt icula r
ca s t e .
The int ra -ca s t e
t e rrit o ria lit y
t he n
s pre a d
t he
e xplo it a t io n e ve nly
o ve r
ge o gra phica l re gio ns [Ga dgil1938:282].
Ga dgilpo int s
o ut bo t h
po s it ive
a nd
ne ga t ive wa ys
'o f
vie wing
t his
e co lo gica ls t e a dy
s t a t e ':
I t
ma y
be vie we d
po s it ive ly
a s a de s ira ble s t a t e o f ma n
living
in
ba la nce wit hna t ure .
Alt e rna t ive ly, it
ma y be vie we d
ne ga t ive ly
4790 Eco no mic a ndPo lit ica l
We e kly
No ve mbe r
8,
2003
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a s a s t a t e o f
s t a gna t io n.
Fo r if t he re s o urce s a re us e din a ba la nce d
fa s hio n, t he re wo uldbe no
pre s s ure s
fo r cult ura l
cha nge
a nd
t e chno lo gica l
inno va t io n. This is no do ubt wha t
ha ppe ne d
a ndt he
I ndia n
s o cie t y
re ma ine d
la rge ly
ba la nce d
(o r s t a gna nt !) fre e zing
it s ca s t e
s ys t e m
fo r
pe rha ps
t wo a ndha lf mille nnia be t we e n t he
t ime o f Buddha whe n t he
a gricult ura l
co lo nis a t io n o f mucho f t he
s ubco nt ine nt wa s
co mple t e
a ndt he
be ginning
o f t he Brit is hrule .
But va lue
judgme nt s a pa rt ,
a n
impo rt a nt co ns e que nce
o f t he I ndia n
ca s t e
s ys t e m
wa s t his a t t a inme nt o f
e co lo gica l a ppro xima t e s t e a dy
s t a t e
[ibid:282-83].
(v) Se curit y
o f Live liho o d a nd
Emplo yme nt
An
impo rt a nt
fe a t ure o f ca s t e
s ys t e m
wa s it s lo ca lis e d
s ys t e m
o f
pro duct io n
ba s e do n
ja t iwis e
divis io n o f la bo ur fo r
me e t ing
lo ca l
ne e ds ,
ra t he r t ha n t he ne e ds o f t he
la rge r
ma rke t . As
M N Sriniva s
e xpla ins
in a
po s t humo us ly publis he d
a rt icle ,
t he
ba s e o f t his lo ca lis e d
pro duct io n
wa s no t
ne ce s s a rily
a
villa ge ,
but a clus t e r o f
ne ighbo uringvilla ge s ,
e a ch clus t e r
ha ving
o ne
o r mo re
"we e kly
ma rke t s ,
whe re
villa ge rs
a ndit ine ra nt t ra de rs
wo uld
ga t he r
t o
e xcha nge go o ds ,
o r
buy pa ying
ca s h. The clus t e r
co uld cla im a
la rge de gre e
o f
s e lf-s ufficie ncy
a s fa r a s t he
pro duct io n
o f ba s ic ne e ds wa s co nce rne d..."
[Sriniva s 2003]
I n
mo s t
pa rt s
o f t he
I ndia ,
t he re
de ve lo pe d
a
s ys t e m
o f
ma king
a nnua l
pa yme nt s
in kindo r
ca s h,
a s s o o n a s
ha rve s t ing
wa s
do ne ,
fo r
s e rvice s re nde re d
by villa ge a rt is a ns , ba rbe rs , wa s he rme n,
a gri-
cult ura lla bo ure rs a ndt he like . The
s ys t e m
o f
pa yme nt
wa s no t
o n
pie ce -wo rk,
but invo lve dt he
principle
t ha t
t a king
ca re o f t he
a rt is a ns a ndla bo ure rs a ndt he ir ba s ic ne e ds wa s t he
re s po ns ibilit y
o f la nd
o wning
fa milie s . Whe ne ve r t he re we re
s pe cia l
o cca s io ns
o f
urge nt
ne e ds ucha s
ma rria ge ,
t he
wo rking
cla s s fa milie s we re
give n s pe cia l he lp.
M N Sriniva s re fe rs t o diffe re nt na me s o f
t his
s ys t e m
in diffe re nt
pa rt s
o f I ndia :
"ja jma ni
in t he
no rt h,
ba ra
ba lut e in M a ha ra s ht ra ,'mira s i' in M a dra s , 'a da de ' in
M ys o re .
The
re la t io ns hip
be t we e n t he
ja jma n
a ndhis ka min is
une qua l,
s ince t he la t t e r is
re ga rde d
a s infe rio r"
[Sriniva s 1980:14].
The
co nt inuing
t e ns io ns be t we e n la nd
o wning
co mmunit ie s a ndco m-
munit ie s which
t ra dit io na lly
we re
s ubs e rvie nt , re s ult ing
s o me -
t ime s int o a t ro cit ie s
a ga ins t
t he la t t e r o we t he ir
o rigin
t o t his
pa t ro n-clie nt re la t io ns hip
a ndit s
bre a kdo wn,
ra t he r t ha n t o
a ny
ca no nica l
s uppo rt
t o ca s t e
s ys t e m.
This ins t it ut io n in t he
pa s t
a t le a s t
re co gnis e d
t he
right
t o wo rk a ndlive liho o d, a ndin t he
pro ce s s
co nt ro lle d
co mpe t it io n.
The
re la t io ns hip
be t we e n
pa t ro n
a ndclie nt e xt e nde d
be yo nd
ge ne ra t io ns ,
a ndin t he t ra dit io na l
s ys t e m
a t
le a s t ,
it wa s no t
o pe n
t o a la ndlo rdt o
pre fe r
a ne w clie nt
me re ly
be ca us e he
cha rge d
lo we r fo r t he s e rvice s o ffe re d. No r co uldt he clie nt s e e k a lt e r-
na t ive
e mplo yme nt
o ut s ide his t ra dit io na l
pa t ro n
fo r a
highe r
wa ge
-
a t le a s t no t whe n his s e rvice s we re ne e de d
by
his
pa t ro n.
I t wa s t he
o bliga t io n
o f t he
pa t ro n
t ha t t he clie nt a ndhis
fa mily
didno t s t a rve . The much
ma ligne d'Apa s t ha mbha
Dha rma s ut ra '
e ve n
s a ys
t ha t if a n
une xpe ct e dgue s t
co me s a ndt he re is limit e d
fo o d,
t he he a do f t he
fa mily
a ndhis
fa mily
me mbe rs ha ve t o
cut do wn t he ir o wn
fo o d,
but no t t ha t o f t he s e rva nt s . The la t t e r
ha ve t o ha ve t he ir
pro pe r
me a l. The
gue s t
s ho uldno t be fe da t
t he
e xpe ns e
o f s e rva nt s
[Ka ne ,
Vo l
I ,
Pa rt
1,
pp 57-58].
The
s ys t e m
wa s
ce rt a inly
no t a n ide a l o ne wit ho ut ble mis h.
All t he
s ho rt co mings re s ult ing
fro m
pa t ro n-clie nt re la t io ns hip,
curbingco mpe t it io n
a nds ubs is t e nce o rie nt e d
pro duct io n
fo l-
lo we dfro m t he
s ys t e m.
I n co ndit io ns o f
fre que nt dro ught s
a nd
highpo lit ica l ins t a bilit y
s ince t he me die va l
a ge ,
wha t ma t t e re d
mo s t wa s fo o d
s e curit y,
mo re t ha n
gro wt h.
Ye t , e ve n unde r t his
s ys t e m,
a rt s a ndcra ft s flo uris he dma de
po s s ible by s pe cia lis a t io n
a nddivis io n o f
la bo ur, e s pe cia lly
unde r
po lit ica l pa t ro na ge ,
a s
ha ppe ne d
fo r
e xa mple
unde r t he
Vija ya na ga ra kings
a nd
M ugha l
e mpe ro rs .
I t wa s no wo nde r t ha t ca s t e
s ys t e m
s urvive dunde r
s uch
s e curit y.
Ne it he r t he M us lim rule rs no r t he Brit is hint e rfe re d
wit h t he
s ys t e m. M a ny
Hindus
ma y
ha ve be e n co nve rt e d,
but
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
wa s imbibe dint o t he ne w
re ligio ns
o f I s la m
a nd
C hris t ia nit y
in I ndia , s ince t he
ja jma ni s ys t e m
a ndo t he r
funct io ns o f ca s t e
s ys t e m
ha d
no t hing
t o do wit h
re ligio n.
I X
C o lla ps e
o f C a s t e a s a
Sys t e m
A
po s t humo us ly publis he d pa pe r by
M N Sriniva s
(2003)
ca rrie s t he a s s e rt ive t it le - 'An
Obit ua ry
o n C a s t e a s a
Sys t e m'.
Pa ra do xica lly,
t he
s ys t e m
ha s
e xpire d
but ca s t e ide nt it ie s re ma in
a nds ho w no
s ign
o f
go ing.
I t lo o ks , ca s t e
s ys t e m
is de a dbut
it s
gho s t
re ma ins . C a s t e a s a
s ys t e m
is t a ke n t o me a n
by
Sriniva s
a s
invo lving ma inly
it s lo ca lis e ds o cia l
pro duct io n
ba s e ,
s ubs is -
t e nce
e co no my,
a nd
ja t i (ca s t e )
ba s e d
o ccupa t io ns .
C a s t e a s a
s ys t e m,
ho we ve r, co ve rs a ll t he fe a t ure s lis t e din t he
be ginning
o f t his
pa pe r
a ndit s funct io ns lis t e din t he
pre ce ding
Se ct io n VI I I .
Sriniva s re fe rs
s pe cifica lly
t o t he la s t funct io n dis cus s e d he re .
But o t he r funct io ns a ls o we re no le s s
s ignifica nt
in
de t e rmining
t he s t ruct ure o f t he
s ys t e m.
C a s t e a s a
s ys t e m
ha s
co lla ps e dt o da y
be ca us e a ll it s funct io ns ha ve
co lla ps e d.
I t ha s lo s t wha t e ve r
re le va nce , ro le ,
ut ilit y
a nd
jus t ifica t io n
it
ma y
ha ve ha d.
Se ve ra l fa ct o rs co nt ribut e dt o t he
co lla ps e
o f t he
s ys t e m
-
e t hica l,
po lit ica l s o cia l,
e co no mic a nd
t e chno lo gica l. Tho ugh
t he
s ys t e m ga ve
s o me
s t a bilit y
a nde ve n
s e curit y,
it lo s t o n t he s ide
o f huma ne ne s s a nds o cia l
jus t ice .
All kinds o f
indignit ie s
we re
impo s e d
o n lo we r ca s t e s , t he ir a cce s s t o
le a rning
wa s
ba rre d,
a nd
t he y
we re
pus he d
t o une nvia ble a ndinhuma n
po s it io ns .
I t
wa s t hus t ha t t he ca s t e
s ys t e m, pa rt icula rly
it s e xt re me fo rm -
unt o ucha bilit y,
be ca me
dis gra ce d
a ndco nde mne d
right
fro m
Buddha 's
t ime ,
a nd
a ga in
fro m t he me die va l
a ge ,
a ndt he n
a ga in
in t he mo de m t ime s .
The funct io na l
s ignifica nce
o f t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
a ls o va nis he d,
ma king
it s
co lla ps e
a ll t he mo re ine vit a ble . A
ma jo r
fa ct o r is
t he
e me rge nce
o f t he mo de rn s t a t e a s a much
s t ro nge r,
much
mo re
po we rful
a nd
pe rva s ive
ins t it ut io n t ha n it e ve r wa s wit h
it s diffe re nt
wings
- t he
e xe cut ive , judicia ry
a nd
le gis la t ure ,
a ble
t o e xe rcis e
po we rs
o n a ll. Hinduis m ha s
a cce pt e d
t he
e me rge nce
o f t he mo de m s t a t e t o e na ct it s o wn
la ws , including pe rs o na l
la ws ,
a ndt he
s phe re
o f dha rmic la ws
re gula t ing
t he co nduct o f
pe o ple
in
da y-t o -da y
life ha s s hrunk
ve ry s ignifica nt ly.
The re is
t hus no ne e dfo r e it he r dha rma s ha s t ra s whichs e rve da s de fa ct o
le gis la t io n
in dha rmic
ma t t e rs ,
no r fo r ca s t e
pa ncha ya t s
which
a ct e da s
judicia ry.
To t he e xt e nt t ha t t he ir ro le s t ill
co nt inue s ,
it is muchle s s
po we rful
a ndis
s upe rce de dby
t he ro le o f t he s t a t e .
Fo r t he s a me re a s o n, t he ro le o f t he va rna
s ys t e m
in
pro viding
a
s ys t e m
o f che cks a ndba la nce s a ls o ha s va nis he d. The
le ga lly
e na ct e d
co ns t it ut io n, a cce pt e dby
a ll,
pro vide s
no w a
s ys t e m
o f
che cks a ndba la nce s t o ma int a in
e quilibrium
a nd
s t a bilit y.
Since in t he
ba rga in,
de ce nt ra lis e d
de mo cra cy
o f t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
ha s bro ke n do wn, a ne w
t ype
o f de ce nt ra lis e d
de mo cra cy,
whichis
villa ge
ba s e d,
ha s t a ke n it s
pla ce .
I t do e s no t ne e d
a ny
a ut he nt ica t io n
by re ligio n,
but is ba cke d
by
t he C o ns t it ut io n a nd
s t a t e
po we r,
whichis mo re
impo rt a nt .
Fo r s o me
t ime ,
t he do mi-
na nt ca s t e s
(which
a re no t t he s a me a s
rit ua lly uppe r ca s t e s ) ma y
t ry
t o
hija ck
t he
villa ge pa ncha ya t s ,
but it is a
lo s ing
ba t t le . The
s ys t e m
o f re s e rva t io n fo r ba ckwa rdca s t e s a ndunt o ucha ble s a nd
a ls o fo r wo me n will
gra dua lly
but
de finit e ly
re duce t he ro le o f
Eco no mic a ndPo lit ica l
We e kly
No ve mbe r 8, 2003 4791
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do mina nt ca s t e s . The s e cula r a ndinclus ive fo rce s will
pre va il
o ve r t he ca s t e fo rce s be fo re
lo ng,
e ve n if
t he y
ha ve no t
a lre a dy
do ne
s o in s o me a re a s . The
po lit ica l
co ns e ns us
a ga ins t
ca s t e
s ys t e m
a ndt he
po we r
o f a dult fra nchis e in
de mo cra cy
will e ns ure t he
s ucce s s o f de mo cra t ic a nds e cula r fo rce s a ndde fe a t ca s t e fo rce s .
The ne xt
fa ct o r,
which wo rke d
a ga ins t
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m,
wa s
t he ris e o f mo de rn s e cula r e duca t io n. Educa t io n ne e dno t be a nd
is no t
fa mily-ba s e d t ho ugh fa mily
e duca t io n will
s upple me nt
o ut s ide e duca t io n. I t is in s cho o ls a nd
co lle ge s including
t ra de
s cho o ls , pro fe s s io na l co lle ge s
a nd
po lyt e chnics
t ha t s kills a nd
e duca t io n a re
pro vide d.
Thus t he ne e dfo r
he re dit a ry o ccupa t io n
is no w
re dunda nt ,
a nds o cia l
mo bilit y
will be much mo re .
The ne e dfo r
he re dit a ry principle
in
o ccupa t io n
is no w re dun-
da nt a ls o be ca us e o f t he ris e o f ne w
o ccupa t io ns
a ndt he e xt inct io n
o f s e ve ra l o ld
o ccupa t io ns .
The
dyna mics
o f t he
gro wt h
o f
dive rs it y
o f
o ccupa t io ns
is s ucht ha t t he
he re dit a ry principle
lo o ks
t o t a lly
o ut da t e da ndno ns e ns ica l. The info rma t io n
a ge
ha s t hro wn
up
a n
o pe ning
fo r ne w
o ccupa t io ns ,
which ca nno t be cla s s ifie d
int o t he
s phe re
o f t he fo ur t ra dit io na l va rna s . I t is
wro ng
t o
int e rpre t
t ha t a ll t he int e lle ct ua l t a s ks we re
a s s igne de xclus ive ly
t o bra hmins in t he t ra dit io na l va ra
s ys t e m.
Bra hmins ha dno
mo no po ly
o f int e lle ct e ve n if
t he y
ha ds o me
mo no po ly
t o
s t udy
t he Ve da s a ndo fficia t e a s
prie s t s .
Eve n t he
mo no po ly
a s
prie s t s
ha s be e n bro ke n, wit hdiffe re nt
ja t is a rra nging
t he ir o wn
prie s t s
fro m o ut s ide t he ca s t e o f bra hmins a nd
e vo lving
t he ir o wn rit ua ls .
The ins t it ut io ns s t a rt e d
by
Shri
Na ra ya na
Guru a nd M a t a
Amrit a na nda ma yi
ha ve be e n
t ra ining prie s t s
fro m a ll ca s t e s
including
wo me n. The e xclus ive ro le o f bra hmins in
co nduct ing
rit ua ls a ndce re mo nie s is
highly e xa gge ra t e d.
I n
a ny ca s e ,
it co uld
no t ha ve be e n
e xclus ive ly int e lle ct ua l,
be ca us e
e ve ry
t a s k -
re ga l,
wa rfa re ,
a gricult ure ,
a rt s a ndcra ft s
re quire d
t he ro le o f int e lle ct .
This is e ve n mo re s o in t he
mo de rn a ge , pa rt icula rly
t he info r-
ma t io n
a ge ,
unde r which
e ve ry
s e ct o r de ma nds t he ro le o f int e lle ct
a ndinfo rma t io n a ndno t o ne s e ct o r a lo ne . The re a s o n
why
t his
po int
is e la bo ra t e dis be ca us e t he ne w int e lle ct ua l t a s ks o f t he
info rma t io n
a ge
ca nno t be
me cha nica lly int e rpre t e d
a s bra hma nica l.
C a n we
s a y
t ha t t he
s t udy
a ndre s e a rch in me dicine fit s int o
bra hmin
va rna ,
but
pra ct ice
o f me dicine int o s hudra
va ra ?
Ho w
ca n we
s e pa ra t e
t he t wo ?
Jus t a s ne w
pro fe s s io ns
a nd
o ccupa t io ns e me rge d, quit e
a fe w
o ld
o ccupa t io ns
ha ve va nis he d. So me o f t he m ha ve mo ve d
right
int o ho me s a nddo no t
a ny lo nge r re quire s pe cia lis e do ccupa t io ns
a ndca s t e
gro ups ,
t ha nks
ma inly
t o
t e chno lo gica l cha nge .
The
s ys t e m
o f t o ile t s ha s
unde rgo ne
a
re vo lut io na ry cha nge during
t he la s t 50
ye a rs
e ve n in rura l
a re a s ,
ma king
it
t o t a lly unne ce s s a ry
t o ha ndle huma n wa s t e a nd
ca rry
it o n he a da s in t he
pa s t .
To ile t s
ha ve mo ve dins ide t he ho me s
no w,
a nd
fa mily
me mbe rs t he m-
s e lve s cle a n t he m. Se ve ra l t a s ks which we re co ns ide re da s
dirt y
a nd
po llut ing
ne e dno t be do ne no w
dire ct ly by ha nd,
a ndca n
be ha ndle d
by
t o o ls a ndma chine s . I t is no w
po s s ible
t o be cle a n
a nd
hygie nic
e ve n while
ha ndling
t he s o -ca lle d
dirt y
t a s ks . Thus
a ny
ra t io na le fo r
s e pa ra t e
ca s t e s fo r
do ing dirt y jo bs
a ndfo r
is o la t ing
t he m is no w
t o t a lly
lo s t .
Alvin To ffle r
(1980)
in his bo o k, The ThirdWa ve , ha s
po int e d
o ut t o t he re ce nt
phe no me no n
o f wha t he ca lls t he
'pro s uming'
o r
'pro s ume r',
o cca s io ne d
by
t he
blurring
line be t we e n
pro ducing
a nd
co ns uming.
This re fe rs t o
'do -it -yo urs e lf
kit s a nd s e lf-
s e rvice ,
which is
be co ming
mo re
pro mine nt .
Fro m furnit ure
pie ce s
t o ca rs t o
co mput e rs ,
s e ve ra l
t hings
a re
s upplie d
wit h
s t e p-
by-s t e p
ins t ruct io ns fo r
a s s e mbling
t he m a t ho me s . This ha s
re duce dt he co s t t o
pro duce r
a ndt he
price
t o co ns ume rs . Wha t
is
mo re ,
t he co ns ume r
e njo ys
t he t hrill o f
do ing
it
o ne s e lf,
o f
cre a t ing
s o me
t hing.
This
phe no me no n
is no t limit e dt o co m-
mo dit ie s a ndha s inva de ds e rvice s t o o .
Thus ,
we do t he
da ily
s ha ve o urs e lve s wit h
s a fe t y ra zo r, t a king
o ve r a
pa rt
o f t he t a s k
o f ba rbe r.
M a ny
o f
us ,
wit ho r wit ho ut
wa s hing
ma chine s ,
wa s h
o ur clo t he s o urs e lve s a ndiro n t he m t o o . The s o cia l
s ignifica nce
o f a ll t his is t ha t t he o ldwa ll o f dis t inct io n be t we e n a rt is a ns a nd
a rm-cha ir co ns ume r is
fa lling a pa rt .
The o lddivis io n o f la bo ur
s e pa ra t ing
ma nua lt a s ks fro m t he int e lle ct ua lis
lo s ing
it s
me a ning.
I n t his
co nt e xt ,
ArvindSha rma ' s
re int e rpre t a t io n
o f t he
purus ha
s ukt a in t he 10t hma nda la o f
Rg
Ve da is o f int e re s t .
Acco rding
t o
Sha rma ,
t he re fe re nce he re ne e dno t be t o s o cia l s t ruct ure a s
s uch,
but t o
co mbining
in t he s a me individua l diffe re nt dut ie s
o ne ha s t o
pe rfo rm during
o ne 's life ,
-
le a rning, he lping
in t he
ma na ge me nt
o r
go ve rna nce
o f t he
co mmunit y
a ndt he
co unt ry
a s in a
de mo cra cy (vo t e r be ing
t he
king) including o ffe ring
milit a ncy
s e rvice whe n
ne e de d,
pa rt icipa t io n
in e co no mic o r
pro fe s s io na l
a ct ivit ie s a nds e rvice t o
s o cie t y including
ma nua l
la bo ur
(fo r
o ne 's o wn be ne fit a ndfo r t he
s o cie t y).
I n his wo rds :
'The ide a is t ha t a ll va rna s a re co nt a ine din
e ve ry
individua lfro m
no w o n ins t e a do f
e ve ry
individua l
be ing co mpris e d
wit hin o ne
o f t he va rna s '
[Sha rma 1996].
M N Sriniva s
(2003)
re fe rs t o a co mbina t io n o f ne w fo rce s
in
o pe ra t io n, re s po ns ible
fo r t he de s t ruct io n o f t he ca s t e
s ys t e m.
The s e fo rce s ha ve le dt o t he bre a kdo wn o f t he ca s t e -ba s e dmo de
o f s o cia l
pro duct io n
in t urn
le a ding
t o t he
co lla ps e
o f t he ca s t e
s ys t e m.
The ne w fo rce s a re bre a kdo wn o f t he
ja jma ni s ys t e m,
e me rge nce
o f t he
la rge r
ma rke t a ndde cline o f t he
villa ge
ba s e d
s ubs is t e nce
pro duct io n,
urba nis a t io n,
a nda bo ve a ll t he ris e o f
de mo cra cy
ba s e do n a dult fra nchis e .
Alo ng
wit h
t he s e ,
t he re is
wide s pre a da cce pt a nce
o f ne wva lue s -
e qua lit y, s e lf-re s pe ct ,
a nd
huma n
dignit y.
He cit e s s e ve ra l ins t a nce s o f ho w
villa ge
a rt is a n
ba s e d
pro duct io n
ha s
give n pla ce
t o
fa ct o ry pro duct io n
- ma s s
pro duce d
e dible o il
re pla cing
t he o il-s e e d
pre s s ing
ca s t e ,
fa ct o ry
pro duce dpla s t ic
a nda luminum ve s s e ls
re pla cing
t he
villa ge po t t e r
ca s t e ,
urba n t e xt ile s
re pla cing
t he
villa ge
we a ve ra nds o o n. Sriniva s
o bs e rve s
s ignifica nt ly:
"The mo ra l is t ha t
ide o lo gica l
a t t a cks o n
hie ra rchy
a ndbra hma nica lcla ims t o
s upre ma cy
fa ile dt o cre a t e
a n
e ga lit a ria n
s o cia l o rde r s ince a t t he lo ca l le ve l t he
pro duct io n
o f ba s ic ne e ds wa s
int rins ica lly
bo und
up
wit h
ja t i" (p 458).
La s t ,
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
ha s a ls o lo s t it s
e co lo gica l
ro le a nd
re le va nce ,
a s o bs e rve d
by
M a dha v
Ga dgil
hims e lf in t he s a me
pa pe r
in whichhe
po int e d
o ut t his ro le o f t he ca s t e
s ys t e m.
The
re s o urce s unde r t he co nt ro l o f lo ca l co mmunit ie s ha ve be e n
de ple t e ds ignifica nt ly,
t ha nks t o t he ir t a ke o ve r
by
t he s t a t e a nd
t he ir
e xplo it a t io n by
t he
la rge r
ma rke t fo rce s . "Thus a lie na t e d
fro m t he ir
e co lo gica l
re s o urce ba s e whichwa s
de ple t ingra pidly,
t he I ndia n ca s t e
s o cie t y
wa s
rude ly
t hro wn o ut o f t he
e co lo gica l
s t e a dy
s t a t e ma int a ine d
pe rha ps
fo r mo re t ha n a hundre d
ge ne ra t io ns "[Ga dgil
1983:283]. The re ce nt
a t t e mpt s
a t
re ge ne ra -
t io n o f lo ca l na t ura lre s o urce s
t hro ugh
lo ca l co mmit t e e s unde r
s che me s like Jo int Fo re s t
M a na ge me nt ,
a re no t ba s e do n ca s t e
but a re s e cula r.
M o re o ve r, wit h t he bre a kdo wn o f s o cia l ba s e
o f
pro duct io n,
it is do ubt ful if t he ca s t e -ba s e d
o ccupa t io ns
will
e ve r
ge t
a ne w le a s e o f life .
I t is e vide nt fro m t he a bo ve
a na lys is
t ha t t he
e me rge nce
a s we ll
a s s urviva l o f t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
ha d
no t hing
t o lo wit hHinduis m
a s a
re ligio n.
The ca s t e
s ys t e m
wa s
pure ly
s o cia l
phe no me no n,
ve ry
muchin t he munda ne
s phe re .
I t is a ihika
s phe re (munda ne ),
a ndno t
pa ra ma rt hika
o r
a dhya t mika (s pirit ua l). Be ing
in a ihika
s phe re ,
rule s o f co nduct a ndcus t o m a re lia ble t o
cha nge
fro m
t ime t o
t ime ,
a ndno t
e t e rna lly
fixe d, a s Hindut e xt s t he ms e lve s
co nce de . The
s uppo rt
t o it
give n by dha rma s ha s t ra s including
4792 Eco no mic a ndPo lit ica l
We e kly
No ve mbe r
8,
2003
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
M a nus mrut i co uldbe
o nly
a re s ult o f t he s o cia l
s ignifica nce
a nd
ro le o f t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
o f t he
t ime ,
a ndno t t he ca us e o f it .
Dha rma s ha s t ra s re fle ct e dwha t is
a lre a dy
t he re in t he
s o cie t y.
The y
a ls o
a ppro ve dre je ct io n
o f it like whe n M a nus mrt i
(I V176)
indica t e d
cle a rly
t ha t
a ny
dha rmic rule co uldbe
re je ct e d
if it le d
t o
pe o ple 's unha ppine s s
a nd
indigna t io n.
The re ca n be no
gro und
fo r fe a r t ha t dha rma s ha s t ra s wo uld
give
a ne wle a s e o f life t o
t he ca s t e
s ys t e m ins pit e
o f it s
be ing
re dunda nt a ndirre le va nt in
t he mo de rn
a ge .
M o s t o f t he ve rs e s in dha rma s ha s t ra s ha ve
t he ms e lve s be co me irre le va nt , a t le a s t t ho s e
pa rt s s uppo rt ing
ca s t e
s ys t e m.
On t he o t he r
ha nd,
t he
co lla ps e
o f t he ca s t e
s ys t e m
wo ulda ls o
po s e
no t hre a t t o t he co nt inua t io n a nds urviva lo f
Hinduis m. Hinduis m ha s be e n
t hriving
Avit hre ne we d
vigo ur
t ha nks t o s uchle a de rs a s
Sa t ya
Sa i
Ba ba ,
M a t a
Amrit a na nda ma yi
a ndSri Sri
Ra vis ha nka r,
a ndins t it ut io ns like Ra ma kris hna
M is s io n,
Bra hma kuma ris a ndI SKONo n a n
e nt ire ly
no n-ca s t e ba s is . This
is be ca us e ca s t e is no t int rins ic t o ba s ic
principle s
a ndt e ne t s o f
Hinduis m a s e ns hrine din Hinduca no n. Hinduis m it s e lf ha s
fo ught
a ndis s t ill
fight inga ga ins t
ca s t e is m in a
s ignifica nt wa y.
I f ca s t e
s ys t e m
we re int rins ic t o
Hinduis m,
Shri
Na ra ya na
Guru
a ndM a t a
Amrit a na nda ma yi
wo uldno t ha ve wo rke dwit hin t he
fra me wo rk o f Hinduis m. M i
Addre s s
fo r co rre s po nde nce :
mv.na dka mi @re diffma io .co m
No t e s
[This
is a
pa rt
o f
my
I C SSRNa t io na l
Fe llo ws hip Pro je ct
in
pro gre s s .
I a m
gra t e ful
t o
I C SSR, pa rt icula rly
t o V RPa ncha mukhi, cha irma n,
fo r fina ncia l
s uppo rt
a nda ca de mic
e nco ura ge me nt .
K T
Pa ndura ngi
wa s
quit e he lpful
pa rt icula rly
in
lo ca t ing
s o me re fe re nce s . I ha ve be ne fit e dfro m co mme nt s
a nd
s ugge s t io ns
ma de whe n I
pre s e nt e d
a dra ft ve rs io n o f t his a t t he C e nt re
fo r M ult i
Dis ciplina ry De ve lo pme nt Re s e a rch, Dha rwa d,
o n
April29, 2003.
M y he a rt y
t ha nks t o a ll t he
pa rt icipa nt s
a t t he
s e mina r, pa rt icula rly
t o
P RPa ncha mukhi who invit e dme t o
give
t his t a lk, t o DN
Dha na ga re
who s e
co mme nt s we re
s pe cia lly he lpful
in
cla rifyingmy po int s furt he r, a ndt o
C B
Tiga di
who cha ire d. The us ua l dis cla ime rs
a pply.]
1 Dr Ambe dka r finds R S Sha rma 's
s uppo rt
he re : 'I t is e vide nt t he n t ha t
t he s hudra s
a ppe a r
a s a s o cia l cla s s
o nly
t o wa rds t he e ndo f t he
pe rio d
o f At ha rva Ve da
[chro no lo gica lly
t he la s t o f t he
Ve da s ],
whe n t he Purus ha
Sukt a ve rs io n o f t he ir
o rigin ma y
ha ve be e n ins e rt e dint o t he 10t hbo o k
o f t he
Rg
Ve da .' R S Sha rma
-
Sudra s in Ancie nt I ndia , p 29, a s cit e d
in ArvindSha rma
(2000)
C la s s ica l Hindu
Tho ught ,
Ne w
De lhi, Oxfo rd
Unive rs it y Pre s s , p
142.
2 Se e Dr B RAmbe dka r's t wo bo o ks - Who we re t he Shudra s ?Ho w
The y
Be ca me t he Fo urt hVa rna in
I ndo -Arya n So cie t y (1947)
a ndThe Unt o uch-
a ble s - Who we re
The y,
a nd
Why The y
Be ca me Unt o ucha ble s
(1948),
bo t h
re print e d
in Dr Ba ba s a he b Ambe dka r:
Writ ings
a nd
Spe e che s ,
Vo l
7,
e d
by
Va s a nt M o o n, M umba i: Go vt o f
M a ha ra s ht ra ,
Educa t io n
De pt ,
1990.
3
Dipa nka r Gupt a Sa ys :
"I t wa s we ll a ft e r t he Ve dic
pe rio d,
a ft e r e ve n
t he
pe rio d
o f
M a urya n e mpire ,
t ha t t he no t io n o f
unt o ucha bilit y
ca me
int o
be ing.
I n
Sa t a pa t ha
Bra hma na , t he chie f o r t he no ble is a dvis e d
t o e a t fro m t he s a me ve s s e l a s vis , a ndco mmo ne r. ...I n t he
Rg
Ve da
t he re is no me nt io n o f unt o ucha ble e it he r. ....t wa s
o nly
a ro unds e co nd
ce nt ury
AD t ha t t he s t ra t um o f unt o ucha ble s a nd t he no t io n o f
unt o ucha bilit y
be ca me e vide nt fo r ins t a nce in
Apa s t ha mbha
Dha rma s ut ra ". Se e his
I nt e rro ga t ing
C a s t e -
Unde rs t a ndingHie ra rchy
a ndDiffe re nce in I ndia n
So cie t y, (2000), Sa ge ,
Ne w De lhi,
p
190.
4 Fo r
e xa mple s
o f t his
t ype ,
s e e ArvindSha rma
(2000), o p
cit , C hl9 o n
'Va rna ',
pp
132-180.
5 The t wo ve rs e s in
o rigina l
a re
(re s pe ct ive ly):
Pa rit ya je t
a rt hka mo u
yo w s ya t a m
dha rma
va rjit o w/
dha rma chya pi
s ukho da rka
lo ka vikris ht a me va cha //(M a nus 4.176)
vidva dbhihs e vit a hs a dbhir
nit ya m
a dve s ha
ra gibhih/
hrida ye na bhya nujna t o
yo
dha rma s t va m nibo dha t a //
(M a nus 2.1).
6 The t ra ns la t io n a s
by
Dr
Ambe dka r,
Va s a nt M o o n
(e d), (1990) o p cit ,
p
22.
7 ArvindSha rma
(2000, o p cit , pp 161-4)
ha s ide nt ifie dt he s e t hre e ve rs e s
a nddis cus s e dt he m. The
int e rpre t a t io n
he re is ba s e do n t his , but
go e s
a lit t le furt he r. The
principle
o f
co mpa ra t ive a dva nt a ge
a t t ribut e dt o Git a
he re is no t in Sha rma 's dis cus s io n. But wit ho ut s uch
int e rpre t a t io n,
a
full s e ns e ca nno t be ma de o f ve rs e 35 in ch 3 a ndve rs e 47 in ch
18,
bo t ho f whichha ve t he s a me
me s s a ge ,
wit ht he firs t ha lf o f t he t wo ve rs e s
be ing
co mmo n.
8 As
quo t e dby
ArvindSha rma
(2000) ibid, p
163.
9 The Sa ns krit
o rigina l
is
'Ajye s t ha s o
a ka nis ht ha s o e t e s a mbhra t a ro
va ha duhu
s a ubha ga ya ' (Rg
Ve da V
60.5).
Tra ns la t io n a nd
o rigina l
fro m
K T
Pa ndura ngi (1999,
s e co nd
e dn)
- I ndia n
Tho ught
o n Huma n Va lue s ,
Ba nga lo re : Bha ra t iya Vidya Bha va n, p
3.
10
Origina l
a ndt ra ns la t io n fro m P V Ka ne
o p cit , Vo l I I , Pa rt I , p
34.
11 The
o rigina l
o f t his ve rs e t a ke n fro m P V
Ka ne , o p cit ,
Vo l V, Pa rt I I ,
p 1006, a ndt he t ra ns la t io n fro m ArvindSha rma
(2000), o p cit , p 158;
Ka ne cit e s s e ve ra lmo re ve rs e s o n t he s a me t he me , s e e
e s p
Vo l I I , Pa rt I ,
p
101.
12 As
quo t e dby
ArvindSha rma
(2000), o p cit , p
165. His s o urce is S V Oka
(1957) Ut t a ra git a
wit h a Tra ns la t io n int o
Englis h
a nd
Appe ndice s ,
Po o na , Bha nda rka r Orie nt a lRe s e a rch
I ns t it ut e , p
44.
13 Fo r bo t ht he
o rigina l
a ndt ra ns la t io n, s e e Swa mi I s wa ra na nda Giri
(2000,
s e co nd
e dn)
Po rt ra it
o f
Guru: Le ct ure s o n M a ne e s ha Pa ncha ka m
o f
Acha rya
Shre e Sha nka ra , M t Abu: Sa mvit
Sa dha na la ya , e s p pp
xiv-xviii.
14 K T
Pa ndura ngi
dre w
my
a t t e nt io n t o t his
quo t a t io n.
15 At le a s t t wo t ra ns la t io ns o f Kura la re a va ila ble in Englis h: C
Ra ja go pa la cha ri
(1999;
firs t e dn
1965)
- Kura l: The Gre a t Bo o k
o f Tiruva lluva r, M umba i:
Bha ra t iya Vidya
Bha va n
(co nt a ining
s e le ct e d
po rt io ns ); a nd,
P S Sunda ra m
(1990)-
Tiruva lluva r: The Kura l,
Tra ns la t e dfro m
t he Ta milwit ha n
I nt ro duct io n,
Ne w De lhi:
Pe nguin
Bo o ks
(co nt a iningco mple t e wo rk).
16 As t ra ns la t e d
by
Ro hini M o ka s hi-Pune ka r
(2002)
On t he Thre s hho ld:
So ngs o f C ho kha me la , Ne wDe lhi: The Bo o k Re vie w
Lit e ra ry Trus t , p
65.
17 Fo r a mo re de t a ile da cco unt o f e zha va s ' s ucce s s
(a ls o
kno wn a s
izha va s ),
s e e C iria c K
Pula pilly (1976)
'The I zha va s o f Ke ra la a ndt he ir His t o ric
St ruggle
fo r
a cce pt a nce
in Hindu
So cie t y'
in Be ldwe ll L Smit h
(e d)
Re ligio n
a ndSo cia l C o nflict in So ut hAs ia , Le ide n: EJ Brill; a nd, Sa t hya
Ba i Siva da s a ndP Pra bha ka ra Ra o
(2002) Na ra ya na
Guru- The So cia l
Philo s o phe r o f Ke ra la , M umba i:
Bha ra t iya Vidya
Bha va n.
18 Se e Ro be rt L
Ha rdgra ve
Jr
(1969)
The Na da rs
o f
Ta inil Na du: The
Po lit ica lC ult ure
o fa C o mmunit y, Oxfo rd
Unive rs it y Pre s s , a nd
Unive rs it y
o f C a lifo rnia Pre s s , L I
Rudo lph
a ndS H
Rudo lph(1969) M o de rnit y
o f
Tra dit io n - Po lit ica l
De ve lo pme nt
in I ndia ,
C hica go
a ndLo ndo n:
Unive rs it y
o f
C hica go
Pre s s .
19 The s e mo ve me nt s ha ve be e n dis cus s e da t a lit t le
gre a t e r le ngt h
in
my
e a rlie r
pa pe r
in
EPW,
'Et hics a ndRe le va nce o f C o nve rs io ns ...', Ja nua ry
18, 2003, pp
227-35.
20 M a dha v
Ga dgil(1983)
'The I ndia n C a s t e
Sys t e m
a s a His t o rica l
Ada pt a t io n:
An
Eco lo gica lPe rs pe ct ive ',
Ne wQue s t 41,
Se pt e mbe r-Oct o be r, pp
279-
83; a ls o s e e Purne nduS Ka vo o ri
(2002)
'The Va rna
Tro phic Sys t e m:
An
Eco lo gica l The o ry
o f C a s t e Fo rma t io n', EPW, 37(12)
M a rch23.
Re fe re nce s
Dumo nt , Lo uis
(1999,
firs t
publis he d1970): Ho mo Hie ra rchicus : The C a s t e
Sys t e m
a ndI t s
I mplica t io ns ,
Oxfo rdI ndia
Pa pe rba ck,
Ne w De lhi.
Ga dgil,
M a dha v
(1983):
'The I ndia n C a s t e
Sys t e m
a s a His t o rica l
Ada pt a t io n:
An
Eco lo gica l Pe rs pe ct ive ',
Ne w Que s t 41, Se pt e mbe r-Oct o be r.
Ja va ra ia h, M a Na
(1997):
Da lit a
Va rga da
Sha ra na ruM a t t u
Sha ra ne ya ru
-
Ondu
Adhya ya na ,
Siddha rt ha Gra nt ha ma le (in Ka nna da ), M ys o re .
Ka ne , P V
(1990;
firs t
publis he d
1930):
His t o ry
Dha rma s ha s t ra
(Ancie nt
a ndM e die va l
Re ligio ns
a ndC ivilLa win
I ndia ),
Vo lume s I - V, Bha nda rka r
Orie nt a lRe s e a rch
I ns t it ut e ,
Pune .
Ka vo o ri, Purne nduS
(2002):
'The Va rna
Tro phic Sys t e m:
An
Eco lo gica l
The o ry
o f C a s t e Fo rma t io n', EPW, 37(12)
M a rch23.
M o o n, Va s a nt
(e d) (1990):
Who we re t he Shudra s ?Ho w The y Be ca ne t he
Fo urt hVa rna in
I ndo -Arya n So cie t y (1947);
The Unt o ucha ble s
- Who
we re
The y,
a nd
Why The y
Be ca me Unt o ucha ble s
(1948) by
BRAmbe dka r,
in Dr Ba ba s a he b Ambe dka r:
Writ ings
a nd
Spe e che s , Vo l 7, Go ve rnme nt
o f
M a ha ra s ht ra , Educa t io n
de pa rt me nt ,
M a ha ra s ht ra .
Omve dt , Ga il
(1994):
Da lit s a ndDe mo cra t ic Re vo lut io n,
Sa ge Publica t io ns ,
Ne w De lhi.
Ra dha kris hna n, S
(1994;
firs t
publica t io n 1953):
The
Principa lUpa nis ha ds ,
Ha rpe r C o llins , Ne w De lhi.
Sha rma , Arvind
(1996):
Hinduis m
fo r
o ur Time s , Oxfo rd
Unive rs it y Pre s s ,
De lhi.
-
(2000):
C la s s ica l Hindu
Tho ught ,
Oxfo rd
Unive rs it y Pre s s , Ne w De lhi.
Sriniva s , M N
(1977;
firs t e dit io n
1966): 'Sa ns krit is a t io n' in So cia l
C ha nge
in M o de rn I ndia , Orie nt
Lo ngma n,
Ne w De lhi.
-
(1980;
firs t
publis he d1969): I ldia : So cia l St ruct ure , Hindus t a n
Publis hing
C o rpo ra t io n,
De lhi.
-
(2003):
'An
Obit ua ry
o n C a s t e a s a
Sys t e m', EPW, Vo l
38(5), Fe brua ry
1.
To ffle r, Alvin (1980): 'The Ris e o f t he Pro s ume r' in The ThirdWa ve , Willia m
M o rro wa ndC o , Ne w Yo rk.
Eco no mic a ndPo lit ica l
We e kly
No ve mbe r
8,
2003 4793
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