Thesis Fredy Final

ASSESSMENT OF CLIMATE INDICES IN
DRYLANDS OF COLOMBIA

Fredy Hernando NEIRA MENDEZ

Con el apoyo del Programa Alan, Programa de becas de alto nivel de la Unin Europea
para Amrica Latina, beca n E04M034769CO

Supported by the Programme Alan,
the European Union Programme of High Level Scholarships for Latin America,
scholarship No.(E04M034769CO).

Al artfice de mi existencia,
A Mery y Ricardo los Autores de mis das
A Ada, Julian y Juan

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work has been possible thanks to the contributions of many people.

First I owe my special gratitude to the ALBAN programme for the funding to develop
this Master Programme in Europe. I wish to gratefully acknowledge the invaluable help of
my promoter Prof. Dr. ir. Donald Gabriels for his guidance and supervision and his interest in
study desertification in Latin America.

I want to give special thanks to the IDEAM, University of Valle in Colombia and the
PHI-LAC project for supporting me with data of meteorological stations. Specially thanks to
Yesid Carvajal and Martha Liliana in Cali, Colombia.

I also want to give my thanks to my friends Wim Verstraete and Vernon Dabalos for
their help and support.

The support, love and sacrifice of my family and friends from Colombia.

ABSTRACT

Climate indices are used to determine drylands in seven different geographical zones
of Colombia. These zones are selected from previous studies as the areas with land
degradation and desertification problems. With secondary information of 391 stations the
following indices are evaluated: Lang (1915), Thornthwaite (1948), De Martonne (1926),
Emberger (1930), UNEP (1997) and Bagnouls-Gaussen (1957). From those, only the Lang,
UNEP and Thornthwaite indices show drylands in Colombia although all of them result in
different classification for each region.

Aggressivity of rainfall is evaluated using the Modified Fournier Index (MFI)
(Arnoldus, 1980). The Caribbean, Magdalena, Santanderes and Nario are the zones with
higher aggressivity of rainfall. The Guajira zone however has index values between low and
very low aggressivity.

Seasonality of rainfall is evaluated using the Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI)
(Oliver, 1980). For almost all the zones, the areas with high seasonality are those classified as
dry lands, and the areas with low seasonality are the more humid ones.

The Erosivity index (ErIn) is estimated using the CORINE (1995) methodology. The
Caribbean zone shows a high erosivity index. Santanderes, Nario and Magdalena zones have
moderate to high values. The Guajira and Cauca zones have dominant moderate values and the
Cundiboyacense between low to moderate erosivity.

SAMENVATTING

Klimaatindexen worden gebruikt voor het bepalen van droge gebieden in
verschillende geografische zones van Colombia. Deze zones werden geselekteerd uit
vroegere studies als gebieden onderhevig aan landdegradatie en desertificatie problemen. Met
meteorologische gegevens van 391 weerstations worden de volgende indexen berekend:
Lang (1915), Thornthwaite (1948), De Martonne (1926), Emberger (1930), UNEP (1997) en
Bagnouls-Gaussen (1957). Enkel de Lang, UNEP en Thornthwaite indexen toonden de
droge gebieden in Colombia aan, alhoewel met al de indexen verschillende ariditeitsklassen
werden bekomen.

De aggresiviteit van de neerslag werd gevalueerd met de Aangepaste Fournier
Index (Modified Fournier Index MFI) (Arnoldus, 1980). De Caribbean, Magdalena,
Santanderes en Nario zijn de zones met de hoogste neerslagaggressiviteit. De Guarjira zone
heeft evenwel een lage tot zeer lage neerslagaggressiviteit.

De seizoensverdeling van de neerslag werd gevalueerd door middel van de Neerslag
Concentratie Index (Precipitation Concentration Index PCI) (Oliver, 1980). Voor nagenoeg al
de zones werden de gebieden met de hoogste seizoensverdeling geklasseerd als droge
gebieden, de zones met weinig (laag) seizoensverdeling zijn dan meer humied.

De erosiviteitsindex (ErIn) werd bepaald volgens de CORINE (1995) methode. De
Caribbean zone heeft een hoge erosiviteitsindex. Santanderes, Nario en Magdalena hebben
middelmatige tot hoge waarden. Ook de Guajira en Cauca zones hebben overwegend
middelmatige waarden terwijl in de Cundiboyacense zone er een laag tot middelmatige
erosivitiet heerst.

i

ILLUSTRATIONS

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Location of Colombia in South America................................................................. 15
Figure 2. Main Natural Regions of Colombia (IGAC, 1999) ................................................ 15
Figure 3. Micro Regions of Colombia (IGAC, 1999)............................................................ 16
Figure 4. Lang climate classification of Colombia (IDEAM, 2001) ..................................... 21
Figure 5. De Martonne classification of Colombia (IDEAM, 2001) ..................................... 22
Figure 6. Thornthwaite classification of Colombia (IDEAM, 2001)..................................... 23
Figure 7. Average Annual Precipitation Distribution in Colombia (IDEAM, 2001) ............. 24
Figure 8. Land use and cover in Colombia (IGAC, 2003)..................................................... 28
Figure 9. Main processes of soil degradation in Colombia (IDEAM 2001)........................... 29
Figure 10. Zones with potential of desertification in Colombia (IDEAM, 2001). ................ 32
Figure 11. Location of the study zones................................................................................... 34
Figure 12. Location of meteorological stations and precipitation distribution in the Guajira
zone................................................................................................................................. 43
Figure 13. Location of climate stations and precipitation distribution in the Caribbean
plateaus ........................................................................................................................... 45
Figure 14. Precipitation distribution and meteorological stations in the Santanderes and Cesar
zone................................................................................................................................. 46
Figure 15. Precipitation distribution and climate stations in the Cundiboyacense high plateau
......................................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 16. Precipitation distribution and meteorological stations in the High Magdalena River
basin................................................................................................................................ 48
Figure 17. Precipitation distribution and meteorological stations in the Cauca valley .......... 49
Figure 18. Precipitation distribution and climate stations in Nario and Popayan high
plateaus ........................................................................................................................... 50
ii
Figure 19. Climate classifications of the Guajira peninsula .................................................. 52
Figure 20. Omberothermic curves for the Guajira peninsula ................................................ 54
Figure 21. Climate classifications of the Caribbean plateaus ................................................ 58
Figure 22. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index distribution in the Caribbean plateaus ....................... 59
Figure 23. Omberothermic curves for some stations of the Caribbean plateaus ................... 60
Figure 24. Climate classifications of the Santanderes and Cesar zone................................. 63
Figure 25. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index distribution in the Santanderes and Cesar zone......... 64
Figure 26. Omberothermic curves different stations in the Santanderes and Cesar .............. 65
Figure 27. Climate classifications of the Cundiboyacense high plateau ............................... 68
Figure 28. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index distribution in the Cundiboyacense High plateau...... 69
Figure 29. Omberothermic curves for the Cundiboyacense high plateau.............................. 70
Figure 30. Tatacoa named desert........................................................................................ 73
Figure 31. Climate zones of the High Magdalena River basin.............................................. 74
Figure 32. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index distribution in the High Magdalena River basin ....... 75
Figure 33. Omberothermic curves for the Magdalena river basin......................................... 76
Figure 34. Climate classifications of the Cauca valley.......................................................... 78
Figure 35. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index distribution in the Cauca valley................................. 79
Figure 36. Omberothermic curve for the Cauca valley.......................................................... 80
Figure 37. Climate classifications of the Nario and Popayan high plateaus........................ 83
Figure 38. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index of Nario and Popayan............................................. 84
Figure 39. Omberothermic curves for the Nario and Popayan high plateaus...................... 85
Figure 40a -40b. Linear relationship between PCI1 and PCI2 in the study zones ............... 87
Figure 41. Seasonal and Temporal Rainfall Distribution of the Guajira peninsula............... 88
Figure 42. Seasonal and Temporal Rainfall Distribution in the Caribbean plateaus............. 89
Figure 43. PCI Distribution in the Santanderes and Cesar zone............................................ 90
Figure 44. PCI Distribution in the Cundiboyacense high plateau ......................................... 90
Figure 45. PCI Distribution in the High Magdalena River Basin.......................................... 91
Figure 46. Distribution of the PCI in the Cauca valley.......................................................... 91
Figure 47. Distribution of the PCI in the Nario and Popayan high plateaus ....................... 92
Figure 48. Linear relationship between MFI1 and MFI2 for all the regions ........................ 93
Figure 49. Distribution of the MFI in the Guajira peninsula .................................................. 94
iii
Figure 50. Distribution of the MFI in the Caribbean plateaus............................................... 95
Figure 51. Distribution of the MFI in the Santanderes and Cesar zone................................ 95
Figure 52. Distribution of the MFI in the Cundiboyacense high plateau ............................ 96
Figure 53. Distribution of the MFI in the High Magdalena River Basin............................... 96
Figure 54. Distribution of the MFI in the Cauca valley.......................................................... 97
Figure 55. Distribution of the MFI in the Nario and Popayan high plateaus...................... 97
Figure 56. Distribution of ErIn for the Guajira and Caribbean zones................................ 99
Figure 57. Distribution of ErIn for the Santanderes and Magdalena zones ....................... 99
Figure 58. Distribution of ErIn for the Cundiboyacense and Cauca zones...................... 100
Figure 59. Distribution of ErIn for the Nario and Popayan high plateaus ..................... 100

LIST OF FIGURES

Table 1. Distribution of Soil Orders in Colombia (IGAC, 2000). ........................................ 27
Table 2. Percentage of area affected by erosion in Colombia (IDEAM, 2001).................... 30
Table 3. Degree of land degradation by aridity and erosion in Colombia (MinAmbiente,
2000) ............................................................................................................................... 31
Table 4. Climate types proposed by Richard Lang (1915) .................................................... 36
Table 5. Climate types proposed by De Martonne (1923).................................................... 37
Table 6. Climate types of Emberger (1932).......................................................................... 38
Table 7. Thornthwaite climate classification (1948) ........................................................... 38
Table 8. UNEP (1997) Climate classification....................................................................... 39
Table 9. BGI climate classification (1952) .......................................................................... 40
Table 10. Precipitation Concentration Index classification .................................................. 41
Table 11. Modified Fournier Index scale............................................................................. 41
Table 12. Variability class of Modified Fournier Index ....................................................... 42
Table 13. Aridity class of BGI .............................................................................................. 42
Table 14. Erosivity Index (ErIn)........................................................................................... 42
Table 15. Aridity indices of Guajira peninsula..................................................................... 51
Table 16. Bagnouls - Gaussen climate classification for the Guajira peninsula.................. 54
iv
Table 17. Aridity indices of Caribbean Plateaus .................................................................. 55
Table 18. Climate classification using Bagnouls - Gaussen index ...................................... 59
Table 19. Climate classifications of the Santanderes and Cesar zone ................................. 61
Table 20. Climate classification using Bagnouls - Gaussen................................................ 64
Table 21. Climate indices of the Cundiboyacense high plateau ........................................... 66
Table 22. Climate classification using Bagnouls - Gaussen................................................ 69
Table 23. Climate classifications of the Low Magdalena basin ........................................... 71
Table 24. Bagnouls - Gaussen classification of the High Magdalena River basin.............. 75
Table 25. Climate classifications of the Cauca valley .......................................................... 77
Table 26. Climate classification using Bagnouls - Gaussen................................................. 79
Table 27. Climate classifications of the Nario and Popayan High plateaus ....................... 82
Table 28. Bagnouls Gaussen climate classification.......................................................... 84
Table 29. Relationship between PCI1 and PCI2................................................................... 86
Table 30. Climate classification using Bagnouls - Gaussen................................................. 92
Table 31. Areas (ha) and percentage of drylands per study zone according to different
climate indices .............................................................................................................. 103

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. OBJECTIVES 2
1.2. LIMITATIONS 3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1. DRYLANDS 4
2.1.1. Hyperarid environments 5
2.1.2. Arid areas 6
2.1.3. Semiarid areas 6
2.1.4. Dry Subhumid areas 6
2.2. EROSION 7
2.2.1. Types of soil erosion 8
2.2.2. Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) 9
2.2.3. Erosivity indices 12
3. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF COLOMBIA 14
3.1. NATURAL REGIONS OF COLOMBIA 14
3.1.1. Caribe Region 17
3.1.2. Pacific Region 18
3.1.3. Andes Region 18
3.1.4. Orinoquia Region 19
3.1.5. Amazonas region 19
3.1.6. Insular region 19
3.2. CLIMATE OF COLOMBIA 20
3.3. SOILS OF COLOMBIA 25
3.4. LAND USE 27
3.5. LAND DEGRADATION IN COLOMBIA 28
3.5.1. Erosion 29
vi
3.5.2. Desertification 31
4. METHODOLOGY 33
4.1. STUDY AREAS 33
4.2. DATA SOURCES 35
4.3. DELINEATION OF ARID ZONES 35
4.3.1. Lang climate classification (1915) 36
4.3.2. Aridity index of De Martonne (1923) 37
4.3.3. Aridity index of Emberger (1932) 37
4.3.4. Thornthwaite classification (1948) 38
4.3.5. UNEP Arid Index (1997) 38
4.3.6. Bagnouls Gaussen classification method (1952) 39
4.4. RAIN EROSIVITY AND CONCENTRATION INDICES 40
4.4.1. Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI) 40
4.4.2. Modified Fournier Index (MFI) 41
4.4.3. Erosivity Index (ErIn) 42
5. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY ZONES 43
5.1. GUAJIRA PENINSULA 43
5.2. CARIBBEAN PLATEAUS 44
5.3. SANTANDER AND CESAR VERTIENTES 45
5.4. CUNDIBOYACENSE HIGH PLATEAU 46
5.5. HIGH MAGDALENA RIVER BASIN 48
5.6. CAUCA VALLEY 49
5.7. NARIO AND POPAYAN HIGH PLATEAUS 50
6. CLIMATE TYPES AND ARIDITY INDICES 51
6.1. GUAJIRA PENINSULA 51
6.2. CARIBBEAN PLATEAUS 55
6.3. SANTANDERES AND CESAR ZONE 60
6.4. CUNDIBOYACENSE HIGH PLATEAU 66
6.5. HIGH MAGDALENA BASIN 71
6.6. CAUCA VALLEY 77
6.7. NARIO AND POPAYAN HIGH PLATEAUS 81
vii
7. RAINFALL AGGRESSIVITY INDICES 86
7.1. PRECIPITATION CONCENTRATION INDEX (PCI) 86
7.2. MODIFIED FOURNIER INDEX (MFI) 92
7.3. EROSIVITY INDEX of CORINE (1995) 98
8. CONCLUSIONS 101
9. REFERENCES 106

Introduction

1

1. INTRODUCTION

In Colombia drylands have been estimated using different climate classifications.
Most of them have been applied in different latitudes and are very accurate for temperate
regions. As Colombia is located in the equatorial and tropical zones it is necessary to
evaluate the most accurate indices to determine drylands in this latitudes.

Drylands are related to land degradation processes which make them susceptible to
desertification. When erosion occurs in drylands becomes into desertification, which can be
a serious problem due to the irreversibility of the process. Water erosion is the main soil
degradation process in Colombia, reducing the productive capacity of the soils and the
irreversible loss of other natural resources.

The magnitude of the erosion problem and the degree of development depends of
factors such as slope, soil cover, management practices and soil type and rainfall which
determine erodibility and erosivity respectively.

This study is done in order to analyse relationships between different arid indices
applied for Colombia, using meteorological data of some of the main areas considered
dry by the National Institute of Meteorology and Environment IDEAM. Drylands
differ from one to another classification system, but in most of them cover approximately
one fourth of the country as drylands. For this study seven zones are selected from those
which are declared in process of desertification by the Ministry of Environment in
Colombia. The study zones are The Guajira Peninsula, The Caribbean plateaus,
Santander and Cesar, The Cundiboyacense high plateau, The High Magdalena river
basin, The Cauca valley and the Nario and Popayan high plateaus.

Climate data of those regions was collected from secondary studies, using 391
meteorological stations from the years 1971 to 2000.
Introduction

2

The climate indices used to determine drylands are: Lang (1915), Thornthwaite
(1948), De Martonne (1923), Emberger (1932), UNEP (1997) and Bagnouls - Gaussen
(1952).

Aggressivity of rainfall or erosivity will be evaluated using the Modified Fournier
Index (MFI). The Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI) will be used to estimate the
temporal variation of the monthly rainfall.

Finally, the Erosivity index will be estimated using CORINE methodology (1995),
which is based on the Modified Fournier Index and the Bagnouls - Gaussen Index.

1.1. OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this study is to determine an arid index showing the best
representation for different regions in Colombia.

A comparison is made between the climate indices of De Martonne (1923), UNEP
(1997), Thornthwaite (1948), Lang (1915), Emberger (1932) and Bagnouls-Gaussen (1952)
for delineating the climate zones.

An evaluation is made of the erosivity of the rainfall using the Modified Fournier
Index (MFI), the rain distribution using the Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI) and the
erosivity index proposed by the CORINE project (1995) methodology.

A delineation of drylands prone to desertification is made at a regional level in
Colombia using different aridity indices.

Introduction

3
1.2. LIMITATIONS

Although there are more climate data available, only the meteorological stations
that record data from three decades were used. Different events as El Nio and La Nia
were not analyzed.

Drylands in Colombia are not really delineated. Several studies show different areas
which are considered dry but all of them vary according to the methodology or the
classification system used. In this study the boundaries of the drylands were selected from
the micro regions study, which was done at a national scale, and those regions are not
completely homogeneous in climate characteristics.

Delineation of climate has been done using an interpolation method but the effect of
relief and winds over precipitations is not studied.
Literature review

4

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. DRYLANDS

The term drylands refers to lack of water or water deficit in the soil to support
primary production and nutrient cycling. The definition implies that the moisture input
given by precipitation is lower than the moisture losses through evapotranspiration during
one part of the year or even all the year around and in successive years.

Drylands can experience large in between-year variability in precipitation and they
are not uniform. They differ in degree of moisture limitation and in the period they
experience. Drylands can be classified based on climate and environmental attributes but
their boundaries are neither static nor abrupt due to the high inter-annual variability in
mean rainfall and to the occurrence of droughts that can last for several years (Gabriels,
2006).

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNCCD approach
recognized four drylands subtypes: dry-subhumid, semiarid, arid and hyperarid drylands,
based on an increasing level of aridity or moisture deficit. The level of aridity is given by
the ratio of the mean annual precipitation to the mean annual potential evapotranspiration
which is the amount of moisture that, if it were available, would be removed from a given
land area by evaporation and transpiration. The long-term mean of this ratio is termed the
"Aridity Index" (AI). Drylands are areas with an AI value of less than 0.65 (UNEP, 1997).

Susceptible drylands are those other than polar and sub polar with an AI between
0.05 and 0.65 which are arid, semiarid and dry-subhumid areas susceptible to
desertification (Gabriels, 2006).

Literature review

5
Drylands occurs in 40 percent of the earths surface with 20 percent of the global
population (UNEP, 1997). Drylands are vulnerable to degradation and to natural droughts
which induce stresses on plant, animal and human population. Land degradation processes
occurring in drylands, induced by both human activities and climate changes, called
desertification.

In Latin America, the population living in drylands, as reported by UNDP/UNSO in
1997 was about 120 million or 29% of the total population. The same source reports for
that time 103 million ha classified as arid (5%); 285 million ha as semiarid (14%) and 150
million ha as dry subhumid (7.5%) of a total of 538 million ha (26.5%) classified as
drylands.

For Latin America, Dregne (1991) reports a total area of 306 million ha affected by
desertification, which is approximately 17% of the total land area and around 72% of all
used drylands. For the same sub-continent, the project UNEP/GLASOD reports in 1997
that about 79 million ha of drylands are affected by human-induced soil degradation, 4.5%
of total Latin American land area.

2.1.1. Hyperarid environments

These zones are considered the true deserts and are not considered prone to
desertification, with a very limited and highly variable rainfall amounts (up to 100%) on a
monthly basis without seasonal inter annual rainfall regime. Those areas have year-long
periods without rainfall. The aridity index (P/ETP) is less than 0.05 (AI<0.05). The annual
precipitation in winter rainfall is less than 50 mm and in summer rainfall less than 100 mm.
Perennial vegetation is largely confined to river beds, with some growth of annual plants in
favourable sites. Grazing is severely restricted or impossible and irrigation must be
practiced.

Literature review

6
2.1.2. Arid areas

Those areas are characterized by a mean annual precipitation between 50 - 200 mm
per year in winter rainfall areas and 100 - 300 mm in summer rainfall areas. Inter annual
variability is between 50 to 100 % range. Use of underwater resources is highly susceptible
to climate variability and pastoralism is possible but without mobility (AI = 0.03-0.2). The
vegetation includes woody shrubs, succulents, some perennial grasses and many annual
grasses. Grazing and irrigation is practiced, rainfed cropland does not occur.

2.1.3. Semiarid areas

Those areas have high seasonal rainfall regimes and mean values up to 600 mm in
summer rainfall areas and 500 mm in winter regimen. Interannual variability is between 25
to 50 %. Grasslands and sedentary agriculture are susceptible to seasonal and inter annual
moisture deficiency. AI = 0.2 0.5. The main land use is grazing, extensive rainfed
cropland in wetter parts. Typical coverage are grasslands, shrubs and woodlands.

2.1.4. Dry Subhumid areas

Areas with highly seasonal rainfall regimes and with less than 25% of inter annual
variability. Those areas are also susceptible to degradation caused by seasonality of the
rainfall, drought periods and intensive with human use. AI = 0.2 0.65. Typical
vegetations are grasslands, savannahs, woodlands, with rainfed cropland and grazing. Mean
precipitation values of 500-850 during winter rainfall and from 600 to 1000 in the summer
rainfall.

Literature review

7
2.2. EROSION

Soil erosion is the detachment and movement of soil particles by the erosive forces
of wind or water. Soil detached and transported away from one location is often deposited
at some other place. While soil erosion can be controlled, it is almost impossible to stop
completely. The process may be natural or accelerated by human activity. Depending on
the local landscape and weather conditions, erosion may be very slow or very rapid (Soil
Survey Staff, 1993).

Soil erosion can be natural or of human origin. Erosion that takes place naturally,
without the influence of human activity, is termed geological or natural erosion (Brady,
2002). Accelerated erosion is largely the consequence of human activity. The primary
causes are tillage, grazing, and cutting of timber.

Water erosion results from the removal of soil material by flowing water. A part of
the process is the detachment of soil material by the impact of raindrops. The soil material
is suspended in runoff water and carried away. Four kinds of accelerated water erosion are
commonly recognized: sheet, rill, gully, and tunnel (piping).

The mechanics of soil erosion by water occurs in three steps (Brady, 2002):

- Detachment of soil particles from the soil mass by raindrop impact
- Transportation of the detached particles downhill by floating, rolling, dragging and
splashing.
- Deposition of the transported particles at some lower place in the landscape.
Literature review

8
2.2.1. Types of soil erosion

Natural erosion

Natural erosion is a process that transforms soils into sediment. Soil erosion that
takes place naturally, without the influence of human activity, is termed geological erosion
(Brady, 2002). It is a natural levelling process. Natural erosion has sculptured landforms on
the uplands and built landforms on the lowlands. Its rate and distribution in time controls
the age of land surfaces and many of the internal properties of soils on the surfaces.

Accelerated erosion

Accelerated erosion is largely the consequence of human activity. The primary
causes are tillage, grazing, and cutting of timber. The rate of erosion can be increased by
activities other than those of humans. Fire that destroys vegetation and triggers erosion has
the same effect. The spectacular episodes of erosion, such as the soil blowing on the Great
Plains of the Central United States in the 1930s, have not all been due to human habitation.
Frequent dust storms were recorded on the Great Plains before the region became a grain-
producing area. "Natural" erosion is not easily distinguished from "accelerated" erosion on
every soil. A distinction can be made by studying and understanding the sequence of
sediments and surfaces on the local landscape, as well as by studying soil properties
(USDA, 1993).

Erosion can be accelerated through the activities of human beings such as the
removal of surface vegetation and residue cover in agricultural cultivation, forest
harvesting, rangeland grazing, surface mining, urban and highway construction. Tillage
Literature review

9
implements, forest harvesting equipment, mining activities, and construction equipment all
disturb the soil structure, which can also reduce the soil's resistance to detachment.

2.2.2. Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)

Several methods and equations to estimate and predict soil erosion by water have
been proposed. Most common worldwide applied is the Universal Soil Loss Equation
(USLE). The equation development started with Zings equation (1940), and the final form
was defined by Wischmeier and Smith (1978). This equation was modified into the
Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (Renard, 1997). This equation is a model to predict
sheet and rill erosion based on six major factors: rainfall erosivity (R), soil erodibility (K),
slope length factor (L), the slope steepness (S) and the erosion control practices (P). The
product of those factors is equal to the total soil loss (A) written in the equation:
A = R x K x L x S x C x P
Where soil loss (A) is expressed in tons per hectares.

The Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R)

R is defined as the aggressivity of the rainfall to induce soil erosion or the potential
ability of rain to cause erosion. R is equal to the product of kinetic energy (E) of a
rainstorm. Raindrops parameters necessary to quantify rainfall erosivity are the size,
distribution and terminal velocity of individual raindrops (Gabriels, 2006).

Wischmeier and Smith (1958), based in an extensive statistical analysis that the best
correlation with soil loss is given by a storms maximum intensity of 30 minute duration
(EI
30
). The factor R is the calculated by the equation:
R = EI
30

Where R = Erosion index of the storm (MJ.mm/ha.h)
E = total kinetic energy of the storm (MJ/ha)
I
30
= Maximum intensity during 30 min of the storm (mm/h)
Literature review

10

The erosive power of the raindrops is determined by the kinetic energy of the
rainfall, which is determined by the distribution and the fall velocity of the raindrops
(Poessen, 1992).

Kinetic Energy (E)
The energy supplied by falling drops to produce erosion is the kinetic energy (E),
calculated by Morgan (1980) as follows:
2
2
1
mv KE =
Where m = mass of the falling raindrops (kg)
V = terminal velocity of the falling raindrops (ms
-1
)

Kinetic energy is considered the major factor initiating soil detachment (Lal, 1988)
and the other soil erosion process depend on the rate of particle detachment which
increases with heavy rains, large drops and kinetic energy.

Rainfall intensity (I)
Rainfall intensity is defined as the instantaneous rate of rainfall occurring at a point.
Precipitation intensity is defined by WMO as the amount of precipitation, collected per unit
time interval. According to this definition, precipitation intensity data can be derived by the
measurement of precipitation amount using an ordinary precipitation gauge.

The Soil Erodibility Factor (K)

K is the soil erodibility factor which represents susceptibility of soil to erosion
measured under a standard unit plot condition. Main soils properties influencing this factor
are: texture, organic matter, soil structure and permeability of the soil profile.

Literature review

11
The Topographic Factor (LS)

L is the slope length factor, representing the effect of slope length on erosion. It is
the ratio of soil loss from the field slope length to that from a 22.1 meter length on the same
soil type and gradient. Slope length is the distance from the origin of overland flow along
its flow path to the location of either concentrated flow or deposition. Fortunately,
computed soil loss values are not especially sensitive to slope length and differences in
slope length of more or less 10% are not important on most slopes, especially flat
landscapes.

S represents the effect of slope steepness on erosion. Soil loss increases more
rapidly with slope steepness than it does with slope length. It is the ratio of soil loss from
the field gradient to that from a 9% slope under otherwise identical conditions. The relation
of soil loss to gradient is influenced by density of vegetative cover and soil particle size.

The Crop Management Factor (C)

C is the cover-management factor. The C-factor is used to reflect the effect of
cropping and management practices on erosion rates. It is the factor used most often to
compare the relative impacts of management options on conservation plans. The C-factor
indicates how the conservation plan will affect the average annual soil loss and how that
soil-loss potential will be distributed in time during construction activities, crop rotations or
other management schemes.

The Conservation Practice Factor (P)

P is the support practice factor. The RUSLE P-factor reflects the impact of support
practices and the average annual erosion rate. It is the ratio of soil loss with contouring
and/or strip-cropping to that with straight row farming up-and-down slope. P-factor
Literature review

12
differentiates between cropland and rangeland or permanent pasture. Both options allow for
terracing or contouring, but the cropland option contains a strip-cropping routine whereas
the rangeland/permanent-pasture option contains an "other mechanical disturbance" routine
(Renard et al 1995).

2.2.3. Erosivity indices

The EI
30
index has been used in many places but for tropical conditions it is not
entirely satisfactory. Lal (1976) reported that this index might underestimate the kinetic
energy of tropical storms and Hudson & Jackson (1959) found in Zimbabwe that this index
was not efficient.

As a result, other indices have been proposed by different authors. Erosivity indices
are used to assess a storm or the rainfall pattern which describes its capacity to erode soil
from unprotected field (Wischmeier, 1959).

Hudson (1971) defined the KE > 1 index as the sum of the kinetic energies in
storms with intensities greater than 1 in.h
-1
(25.4 min.h
-1
). This index was based on the
concept that there is a threshold value of intensity at which rain starts soil erosion. This
index could be more adequate for tropical soils with well structured profiles and high
infiltration rates.

Lal (1976) proposed the AI
m
index to assess rainfall erosivity. The AI
m
index is
defined as the product of total rainfall (A) in cm and maximum intensity (Im) in cm.h
-1
for
a minimum duration of 7.5 minutes.

Fournier (1960) defined a rainfall distribution index (FI), as the ratio between main
rainfall for the wettest month of the year (p
m
) and the annual precipitation (P) using the
formulae:
P
p
FI
m
2
=
Literature review

13

Arnoldus (1980) determined that the Fournier index (FI) and EI
30
were poorly
correlated (r
2
=0.55) and he proposed a Modified Fournier Index (MFI), considering the
rainfall of all the months. The new index proposed was:
P
p
MFI
2
=
Where p : monthly rainfall
P : annual rainfall

Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI) was proposed by Oliver (1980), and it
expresses the seasonal and annual rainfall variability in %. Low values of PCI indicate a
uniform rainfall distribution and high values represents a high concentration of rainfall or
seasonality. PCI index can be estimated using rainfall concentration of a mean year (PCI1)
and using multi-annual data (PCI2). Oliver (1980) and Michiels (1992) demonstrated that
PCI was appropriate to evaluate and compare concentration of rainfall between stations.

The formulae to calculate PCI proposed by Oliver (1980) is:
( )
2
2
2
2
. 100

= =
p
p
P
p
PCI
Where p : monthly rainfall
P : annual rainfall

The CORINE (1995) project applied in Europe an erosivity index (ErIn) based in
the Modified Fournier index which gives a variability class (Vc) and the Bagnouls
Gaussen Index which gives an aridity class (Ac). Both classes are combined to give the
erosivity index, which is equal to the product of variability class and aridity class.
ErIn = Vc x Ac
General Description of Colombia

14

3. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF COLOMBIA

Colombia is located in the Northwest of South America, on the equatorial line with
most of its land in the Northern hemisphere, between latitudes 122646 N in the Guajira
peninsula and 4 1230 S in the Amazon river and within 60 5054 W longitude on the
Island of San Jos in the Negro river, limit between Colombia, Brazil and Venezuela and
79 0233 W longitude in Cabo Manglares in the Pacific Ocean (figure 1). The
continental surface area of the country is 1141748 km
2
.

Colombia has no seasons, but due to its geographic location in the equatorial and
tropical latitudes and topographic characteristics, Colombia has several kinds of climates.
The temperature varies with altitude, from very hot in the lowlands to very cold in the high
mountains. Moisture condition varies also from hyperarid in the Guajira desert to hyper
humid regions in the Pacific region. Rainfall precipitation varies from less than 500 mm per
year in the Guajira peninsula to more than 11000 mm in the Pacific region.

Colombia has also extra territories as the archipelagos of San Andrs, San Bernardo
and El Rosario scattered in the Caribbean Sea, the islands of Bar and Tierra, in the
Caribbean sea, and the islands of Malpelo, Gorgona and Gorgonilla in the Pacific Ocean.

3.1. NATURAL REGIONS OF COLOMBIA

Geographical, topographical and climate conditions make of Colombia a very
heterogeneous country. Those differences are marked in six main natural regions: The
Caribe, Pacific, Andes, Orinoquia, Amazonas and Insular (figure 2).

15

Figure 1. Location of Colombia in South America

Figure 2. Main Natural Regions of Colombia (IGAC, 1999)
Colombia Colombia
1 Caribe
2 Pacific
3 Andes
4 Orinoquia
5 Amazonas
6 Insular
2
5
4
5
3
1
2
6
6
1 Caribe
2 Pacific
3 Andes
4 Orinoquia
5 Amazonas
6 Insular
2
5
4
5
3
1
2
6
6

16

Figure 3. Micro Regions of Colombia (IGAC, 1999)
6
48
8
40
45
7
54
50
26
46
34
27
38
47
39
24
4
14
13
36
3
37
22
44
25
43
5
9
29
12
52
17
11
49
33
51
28
31
15
42
21
23
32
1
18
30
35
41
2
REGION MICRO REGIONS
1 San Andres archipelago
INSULAR
2 Pacific cays and islands
3 Guajira Peninsula
4 Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
5 Magdalena river delta
6 Caribean Savannahs
7 Sinu and San J orge Valleys
8 Mompox depression
CARIBE
9 Uraba golf
10 Northwest of Western Andes
11 Southwest of Western Andes
12 Baudo serrania
13 Atrato and San J uan Valeys
PACIFICO
14 Pacific plateaus
36 Piedemontellanero
37 Llanuras dedesborde piedemonte
38 Llanuras del rio Meta
39 Llanuras del rio Orinoco
40 Llanuras rios Meta Guaviare
41 Pantanosdel rioArauca
ORINOQUIA
42 Serrania dela Macarena
43 Piedemonte Amazonico
44 Llanuras del rio Caqueta
45 Llanuras Guaviare - Inirida
46
47
Putumayo Caqueta
Penillanuras sur pto Inirida
48 Llanuras Inirida -Yari
49 Amazonas meridional
50 LlanurasdeIgaraParana Putumayo
51 ConfluenciaApaporis Caqueta
52 Serranias ymontes isla
53 Llanuras guaviare Inirida enOrinoco
AMAZONAS
54 Llanuras deCaqueta, Yari,Miriti yParana
REGION MICROREGIONS
15 Nario high plateau
16 Fosa del Patia
17 NororienteCordOcc
18 AltiplanodePopayan
19 Cauca valley
20 Cauca canyon
21 MacizoColombiano
22 CordCentralmeridional
23 MacizoVolcanico
24 Montaa Antioquegna
25 AltoMagdalena
26 Magdalenamedio
27 VertMagdalenenseCOr
28 Altiplano Cundiboyacense
29 Montaa Santandereana
30 Fosa Suarezy Chicamocha
31 Macizode Santurban
32 Catatumbo
33 Serrania Motilones
34 Vert Llanera Cord Or
ANDES
35 Vert Amazonica Cord Or
REGION MICROREGIONS
6
48
8
40
45
7
54
50
26
46
34
27
38
47
39
24
4
14
13
36
3
37
22
44
25
43
5
9
29
12
52
17
11
49
33
51
28
31
15
42
21
23
32
1
18
30
35
41
2
REGION MICRO REGIONS
1 San Andres archipelago
INSULAR
2 Pacific cays and islands
3 Guajira Peninsula
4 Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
5 Magdalena river delta
6 Caribean Savannahs
7 Sinu and San J orge Valleys
8 Mompox depression
CARIBE
9 Uraba golf
10 Northwest of Western Andes
11 Southwest of Western Andes
12 Baudo serrania
13 Atrato and San J uan Valeys
PACIFICO
14 Pacific plateaus
36 Piedemontellanero
37 Llanuras dedesborde piedemonte
38 Llanuras del rio Meta
39 Llanuras del rio Orinoco
40 Llanuras rios Meta Guaviare
41 Pantanosdel rioArauca
ORINOQUIA
42 Serrania dela Macarena
43 Piedemonte Amazonico
44 Llanuras del rio Caqueta
45 Llanuras Guaviare - Inirida
46
47
Putumayo Caqueta
Penillanuras sur pto Inirida
48 Llanuras Inirida -Yari
49 Amazonas meridional
50 LlanurasdeIgaraParana Putumayo
51 ConfluenciaApaporis Caqueta
52 Serranias ymontes isla
53 Llanuras guaviare Inirida enOrinoco
AMAZONAS
54 Llanuras deCaqueta, Yari,Miriti yParana
REGION MICROREGIONS
15 Nario high plateau
16 Fosa del Patia
17 NororienteCordOcc
18 AltiplanodePopayan
19 Cauca valley
20 Cauca canyon
21 MacizoColombiano
22 CordCentralmeridional
23 MacizoVolcanico
24 Montaa Antioquegna
25 AltoMagdalena
26 Magdalenamedio
27 VertMagdalenenseCOr
28 Altiplano Cundiboyacense
29 Montaa Santandereana
30 Fosa Suarezy Chicamocha
31 Macizode Santurban
32 Catatumbo
33 Serrania Motilones
34 Vert Llanera Cord Or
ANDES
35 Vert Amazonica Cord Or
REGION MICROREGIONS

17
The main regions are divided in micro regions with topographic and climate
characteristics. Figure 3 shows the 54 micro regions differentiated in Colombia by the
Colombian Institute of Geography Agustin Codazzi (IGAC). From those, the driest micro
regions will be selected in order to evaluate the arid indices using information of
meteorological stations. The selected areas will be described later.

3.1.1. Caribe Region

The Caribe region with approximately 11 millions hectares is located in the North
zone of the country to the Atlantic Ocean, from the Guajira peninsula to the Urab gulf.
This is a level region, crossed by main rivers as Magdalena, Cauca, San Jorge and Sin,
which form near the coast wetlands and marshy areas. This region with 1400 km of coast
border, between Venezuela and Panama, presents varied geographic features as gulfs, bays
and river deltas. The climate is very warm (27C), with six months of rain and six dry
months. Mostly 20% of the national population is located in this region (DANE, 2001)
which makes this region as the second important in the country.

The Caribe region presents micro regions with very contrasting characteristics: the
Guajira desert with less than 500 mm of water per year; the Mompox wetlands, under the
sea level; the hills, savannah, the both marine and fluvial plateaus, with 1000 to 2000 mm
of water per year (IDEAM, 2001); and finally the Sierra Nevada de Santa Martha, a group
of mountains separated from the Andes but from the same genesis, characterized for high
slope lands, different climate levels, from hot (24C) to perpetual snow, and precipitations
from 1000 to 3000 mm per year (IDEAM, 2001). In the driest zones the soils are neutral to
slightly alkaline and the more humid zones soils are dominantly acid. The main activities
are livestock and crops such as banana, sugar cane, cotton, tobacco and some fruits.

The Caribbean region is composed by the micro regions: Guajira peninsula, Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta, Magdalena River Delta, Caribbean Savannahs, Sin and High San
Jorge valleys, Momposina depression and Urab golf.

18
3.1.2. Pacific Region

Between the borders of Panama and Ecuador, with approximately 101000 km
2
(10.1
millions ha) limited by the Pacific Ocean and the Western mountain range of the Andes,
this region is a long plain interrupted to the north by small mountainous areas, crossed by
infinity of rivers of torrential character, short, due to the proximity to the sea of the
mountain range. The warm climate and the high rainfall amount make of this region a
promise in flora subject and fauna. The population is very low due to the unfavourable
healthy conditions caused by high temperature and rainfall.

This region is characterized by high precipitation with values from 4000 mm per
year in the South to more than 11000 mm in the North (IDEAM, 2001). Although almost
all the region still with native forest, the colonization processes in the latest years, due to
the social internal conflict of the country, is changing the land use from native forest to
agricultural lands in the southern part and wood extraction in the North.

3.1.3. Andes Region

This region occupies around 313000 km
2
(31.3 millions ha), equal to 27.4% of the
total area of the country. It is formed by three mountain ranges including plateaus and
valleys. Geologically, it is formed by volcanic material, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks and quaternary sediments. Due to the variation of elevation, this region has different
temperature levels, from the hottest valleys (Magdalena and Cauca) to the Paramus and
Glaciers (more than 4800 meters above sea level). The precipitation is variable along this
region, from 500 to 5000 mm per year (IDEAM, 2001).

The Andes is the main region of the country, with almost 70% of the population
living there in activities as agriculture, livestock and industry. In the valleys of the rivers
Cauca and Magdalena, with the warm climate and typically tropical vegetation, the
agriculture is extensive. In the mountain ranges with tempered climate there is agricultural

19
development with coffee and plantain culture. The high plateaus with more fresh climate,
are very favourable to the development of human activity, with abundant cattle, cereals,
horticulture and potato.

3.1.4. Orinoquia Region

With 300263 km
2
, (26.3% of the national territory) and a density of 3.3 inhabitants
by km
2
, it occupies a vast zone to the East of the Andes mountain range. It is an immense
plateau, crossed by several rivers flowing to the Orinoco. The climate is warm and dry,
with original natural savannah vegetation with grass. The flooding system caused by the
rivers in the wet season made of this a very rich region in fauna. The population is low and
the majority is dedicated to the livestock with low productivity. In the recent years new
crops have been introduced such as oil palm. The precipitation in this region is from 2000
to 3000 mm per year with homogeneous temperatures around 27C.

3.1.5. Amazonas region

Located in the South East of Colombia with 327315 km
2
(almost 30% of the
country). The Amazonas region consists of an immense plain, slightly to moderate
undulated. The density of population is 0.6 inhabitants per km
2
, indicative of an
uninhabited extension. Although its vegetation is mainly typical tropical rainforest, some
crops have been introduced by the recently colonization process. This region presents
precipitation values between 2500 and 5000 mm per year. The Amazonas region is
considered a very fragile ecosystem.

3.1.6. Insular region

This region represents a complex of archipelagos, islands and cays in the Caribbean
Sea and in the Pacific Ocean.

20

3.2. CLIMATE OF COLOMBIA

Some climate classifications have been made for Colombia by the Institute of
Meteorology and Environment IDEAM. The most common used are Caldas Lang
(1915), De Martonne (1928) and Thornthwaite (1948).

Using the Lang classification, Colombia shows all the climate types from desert to
very humid. Desert occurs mainly in the North (in the Guajira peninsula) and some other
small areas that are not shown at this scale. The arid areas are located mostly in the Caribe
region: one part in the south of the Guajira peninsula and the other part to the west of Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta. The semiarid climate zone is mainly in a great part of the Caribe
region and in part of the Andes, spread out in different localities. The semi humid climate
is presented in a great part of the Andes and in the Orinoquia regions with the southern belt
of the Caribe region and the Insular areas. Those four climate types are considered dry and
they included more than 25% of the country as is shown in figure 4. The Amazonas region
is completely humid and the Pacific region is between humid and very humid.

Using the classification of De Martonne, the country appears to be more humid. The
desert climate is restricted to less than 1% of the country in the North, in one small plot of
the Guajira peninsula, which in this case is the only arid region of the country. The
semiarid climate corresponds almost to all the rest of the Caribe region and in some areas
in the Andes, occupying 10% of its surface. The rest of the Andes, the Orinoquia, the
Amazonas and the Insular regions are between humid and very humid and the Pacific
region is very humid with no seasonal variation during the year. According to this
classification, drylands in Colombia are reduced to almost 10 % of the country, mainly in
the Caribe and small spots in the Andes (figure 5).

The classification of Thornthwaite climate classification based in water deficit and
excess in mm per year is shown in figure 6. Although this classification does not show

21
desert regimes, it differs from de Martonne and is more similar with Lang for dry climates.
The Guajira climate varies from arid to Semiarid, most of the Caribe region, Part of the
Andes and the Insular region are considered dry.

Figure 4. Lang climate classification of Colombia (IDEAM, 2001)
0 100 200 Km
12N
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
2S
4S
69 71 73 75 77 79
69 71 73 75 77
12N
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
Desertic
Arid
Semiarid
Semi Humid
Humid
Very Humid
< 20
20 40
40 60
60 100
100 160
> 160
Climatic class
Lang Factor
P/T
0 100 200 Km 0 100 200 Km
12N
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
2S
4S
69 71 73 75 77 79
69 71 73 75 77
12N
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
Desertic
Arid
Semiarid
Semi Humid
Humid
Very Humid
< 20
20 40
40 60
60 100
100 160
> 160
Climatic class
Lang Factor
P/T
Desertic
Arid
Semiarid
Semi Humid
Humid
Very Humid
< 20
20 40
40 60
60 100
100 160
> 160
Climatic class
Lang Factor
P/T

22

Figure 5. De Martonne classification of Colombia (IDEAM, 2001)
0 100 200 Km
12N
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
2S
4S
69 71 73 75 77 79
69 71 73 75 77
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
Arid
Semiarid
Sub Humid
Humid
Very Humid
Extremely Hum
< 5
5 10
10 20
20 35
35 100
> 100
Climatic class Arid index
0 100 200 Km 0 100 200 Km
12N
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
2S
4S
12N
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
2S
4S
69 71 73 75 77 79 69 71 73 75 77 79
69 71 73 75 77 69 71 73 75 77
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
Arid
Semiarid
Sub Humid
Humid
Very Humid
Extremely Hum
< 5
5 10
10 20
20 35
35 100
> 100
Arid
Semiarid
Sub Humid
Humid
Very Humid
Extremely Hum
< 5
5 10
10 20
20 35
35 100
> 100

23

Figure 6. Thornthwaite classification of Colombia (IDEAM, 2001)

The precipitation in Colombia is determined by spatial and temporal variations of
the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone joining the general circulation of the tropical and
0 100 200 Km
12N
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
2S
4S
69 71 73 75 77 79
69 71 73 75 77
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
> 1000
500 1000
0 500
Arid
Semiarid
Dry
Humid
Slightly Humid
Mod Humid
Very Humid
Extremely Humid
Climatic class
Water deficit
(mm/ year)
0 500
500 1000
1000 1500
1500 2000
> 2000
Water excess
(mm/ year)
0 100 200 Km 0 100 200 Km
12N
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
2S
12N
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
2S
4S
69 71 73 75 77 79
4S
69 71 73 75 77 79
69 71 73 75 77 69 71 73 75 77
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
10N
8N
6N
4N
2N
0
> 1000
500 1000
0 500
Arid
Semiarid
Dry
Humid
Slightly Humid
Mod Humid
Very Humid
Extremely Humid
Climatic class
Water deficit
(mm/ year)
0 500
500 1000
1000 1500
1500 2000
> 2000
Water excess
(mm/ year)

24
subtropical winds and the interaction of these factors with the relief of the country. The
distribution of the precipitation is heterogeneous and complex. In some regions the dry
season is more predominant (more than six months) than the rainy season. Other regions
have two dry and two rainy seasons during the year: In some areas as in the Pacific, the
rainy season cover almost the whole year in contrast with the arid and desert zones with a
dry season for almost the whole year around. Figure 7 shows the average annual
precipitation distribution in Colombia (IDEAM, 2001).

Figure 7. Average Annual Precipitation Distribution in Colombia (IDEAM, 2001)

25

3.3. SOILS OF COLOMBIA

Colombia has a great diversity of soils due to the different climate, geology,
topography and vegetation but most of the soils are not suitable for agriculture. 50% of the
soils of the country should be preserved in forest or natural reserve: the Paramus in the
Andes region which play an important role in the maintenance and regulation of water
resource for the population (Cortez, 1994). 30% of the soils are located on steep slopes
with serious limitations for agriculture in the Andes region. Almost all the Amazonas and
Pacific regions should be kept in forest due to the susceptibility of their soils to erosion and
the high rainfall values, above 4000 mm of water per year (Malagn, 2003). Part of the
Orinoquia and Caribe wetlands which act as water flooding regulators and also play an
important role in the natural productivity of local fauna and migrating birds, which come
from the northern part of America to the South in the winter season (Aguilera and Neira,
1998). Another restriction for agricultural use of the lands are water limitation as the
Guajira desert and the presence of very acid and old soils with high aluminium content in
the Orinoquia and Amazonas (IDEAM, 2001).

The fertile soils for agriculture use occupies only around 20% of the total area of the
country, located mainly in the inter Andes valleys (Cauca and Magdalena rivers) and part
in the Caribe and in the High Plateaus of the Andes regions (IDEAM, 2001).

Nowadays, Colombia is confronting serious problems of soil degradation, due to the
deforestation, mismanagement, over grazing and pollution as main factors involved in the
erosion and acidification of the soils. In mangroves and wetlands ecosystems oxidation
problems occurs due to drainage practices.

In the Andes region the dominant soils are formed by volcanic ash. Those Andisols
are present in slope lands and are characterized by moderate to good fertility but with very
high susceptibility to soil erosion and landslides.

26

In the Amazonas region (around 80% of the undulate landscape) and part of the
Orinoquia (the well drained high plateau), the main soils are Ultisols and Oxisols,
characterized by the high acidity. These soils have a poor fertility level, mainly Ultisols and
Oxisols, with high aluminium contents being toxic for most crops.

The Amazonas is characterized by high temperatures and high precipitation well
distributed along the year which determine the kind of ecosystem: tropical rain forest. In
the Orinoquia, where the temperature is also high but the precipitation is distributed in one
part of the year, the type of ecosystem is a tropical savannah with common occurrence of
petroferric horizons. The Amazonas has high biomass productivity and the Orinoquia has
very low biomass productivity (Malagn, 2003). The Orinoquia floodplain soils,
originating from quaternary sediments and variable floods with aeolian influence is
classified mainly as Spodosols.

The Caribe region is in contrast with the other three regions in climate, parent
material and vegetation type. Soils in this region have 2/1 shrinking and swelling clays
such as Vertisols, Mollisols, suitable for agriculture and livestock production and Aridisols
in the Guajira peninsula, limited by the presence of salts and sodium. The natural savannah,
with acid soils is also present in the western part of this region.

Entisols, Inceptisols and Alfisols occur all over the country in few amounts.
Entisols occur predominantly in river floodplains and erosional landscapes, while the
Inceptisols are in more slightly slopes and the Alfisols in high alluvial terraces.

Histosols occur in two main micro regions in the Andes zone: the Cucunuba
lacustrae valley and the high Putumayo, in the South of the country.


27

Table 1. Distribution of Soil Orders in Colombia (IGAC, 2000).

ORDER Hectares % of the country
Entisols 22567734 19.8
Inceptisols 33624988 26.5
Mollisols 2741320 2.4
Alfisols 2534637 2.2
Andisols 8954567 7.8
Histosols 3041274 2.7
Vertisols 1615033 1.4
Ultisols 24613701 21.6
Oxisols 10879165 12.5
Aridisols 651248 0.6
Spodosols 718725 0.6
Others (water) 2232408 2.0

3.4. LAND USE

The IGAC (Geographic Institute Agustin Codazzi) reports for the year 2003 the
coverage and land use in Colombia: forest land covers 50.7% of the total area of the
country, grasslands 26.6% and savannah 10.8% (both used for cattle and livestock),
agricultural lands 3.7%, lagoons and wetlands 2.6% and Paramus 1.9%.

According to IGAC, grassland is the land use which tends to increase while forest
lands are decreasing considerably in the last fifty years.

The actual land use is affecting the biodiversity, the agricultural productivity and
the environment producing erosion, affecting the quality of the natural resources and
increasing socio economical conflicts (figure 8).

28

Figure 8. Land use and cover in Colombia (IGAC, 2003)

3.5. LAND DEGRADATION IN COLOMBIA

There are several processes that express land degradation. Some of them are
physical which refer to the loss of vegetal coverage, soils and water by deforestation,
erosion or desertification. Others involve biochemical processes that reduce the quality of
the resources in considerable way, such as the slow depletion of soil fertility through the
loss of organic matter and micro organisms, compaction or nutrients lixiviation.

In Colombia, activities such as deforestation, burning, overgrazing, use of
pesticides, excessive use of soluble fertilizers, mismanagement of irrigation water,
excessive tillage with inadequate machinery, use of mono cultures, clean agricultural
systems, among others are some factors that favours the development of land degradation
processes. One of the main degradation processes is the soil erosion, which is the most
dangerous and related with the decrease of quality level of the population involved (Leon,
2003). Erosion is also the most common degradation process due to the relief of the
country, agricultural activities and human settlements which are located mainly in the
Andes region. Other land degradation problems in Colombia are: desertification, mass
movements, sedimentation, coastal and glacier erosion (IDEAM, 2001).


29

Figure 9. Main processes of soil degradation in Colombia (IDEAM 2001)

3.5.1. Erosion

In Colombia, erosion has been estimated by three institutions. The National Institute
of Natural Renewable Resources - INDERENA (former Ministry of Environment) made
the first estimation in 1977. The IGAC made two studies, in 1987 using aerial photographs
and in 1998 through satellite images. The IDEAM (Institute of Environmental Studies)
made two estimations, in 1998 and in 2000 using models. Table 2 shows the erosion degree
levels reported and the volume in hectares of soils affected.

DEGRADATION PROCESSES
Erosion by mining and
constructions
Complex erosion
Aeolian erosion
Gully Erosion
River bed erosion
Sheet erosion
Karstic erosion
Marine Erosion
Sedimentation
Meteorization
Mass movement
No
DEGRADATION PROCESSES
Erosion by mining and
constructions
Complex erosion
Aeolian erosion
Gully Erosion
River bed erosion
Sheet erosion
Karstic erosion
Marine Erosion
Sedimentation
Meteorization
Mass movement
No

30

Table 2. Percentage of area affected by erosion in Colombia (IDEAM, 2001)

Degree of
erosion
INDERENA
1977
IGAC
1987
IDEAM
1998
IGAC
1998
IDEAM
2000
Without erosion 24.8 48.5 0 14.7 52
Not perceived 44.9 4.6
Slight 36.4 28.0 45.5 19.5 9.5
Moderate 12.8 12.9 11.1 11.3 8.9
Severe 0.6 7.8 7.8 3.3 10.8
Bad Lands 1.6 0.7 0.5 14.2
Others 23.8 2.1 35.6 5.8
TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100

The differences in the degrees of erosion calculated by these institutions may look
confusing. This can be explained by the detail level of every study and the methodologies
used. The IGAC determines the actual erosion using aerial photographs or satellite images.
Depending on the scale and the time, the erosion evidences can not be shown in the remote
sense images. The IDEAM, which is the official institution in charge of the meteorology
and climatology affairs, has made some estimations or predictions using the precipitation
data and soil characteristics.

While IDEAM reports for 2000 around 25% of the lands with severe erosion, the
IGAC shows for the same year around 4% with the same erosion degree. Same
divergences appears are shown for the slight class (19.5 % by IGAC and 9.5% by IDEAM)
or zones without erosion (14.7% by IGAC and 52% by IDEAM).

In Colombia more than 2300000 hectares are affected by accelerated erosion
because of land mismanagement, with an erosion rate higher than 1.8 tons per hectar per
year.


31
3.5.2. Desertification

Desertification is considered as a process of loss of the soil productivity in dry
subhumid, semiarid and arid regions. The UNECCD (United Nation Convention to
Combat Desertification and Drought) proposed an aridity index between 0.05 and 0.65 to
delineated arid, semi arid and dry subhumid zones, defined as the ratio between total
precipitation and potential evapotranspiration. A sample of 1409 meteorological stations
was taken for this.

In Colombia, the areas with higher aridity index (AI), are La Guajira with the
minimal AI value of 0.17 in Urbia; Magdalena with AI of 0.29 in Santa Marta; Atlntico
with AI 0.38 in Barranquilla; Bolivar with AI of 0.48 in Cartagena; all of them in the
Caribe region. In the North Andes, close to Venezuela Norte de Santander with AI of 0.51
in Ccuta; Santander with AI of 0.53 in Cepit (Chicamocha river basin); Cundinamarca
with AI of 0.54; Huila with AI of 0.60 in Baraya; Sucre with AI of 0.61 in San Pedro;
Cesar with AI of 0.61 in Valledupar; Valle with 0.65 in Cali and Boyac with AI of 0.65 in
Villa de Leiva. The first report from the Ministry of Environment about desertification in
Colombia appeared in 2000 using salinity and erosion in dry lands as indicators of
desertification. In this report, 56.4% of the dry lands are affected with very high level of
aridity and erosion.

Table 3. Degree of land degradation by aridity and erosion in Colombia (MinAmbiente, 2000)
Degree of aridity
and erosion
Area Km2
% of dry lands
affected
Very high 39677 20.5
High 69537 35.9
Moderate 50606 26.2
Low 33689 17.4
Total dry land
affected
193510 16.9 of the country

The main areas in Colombia affected by current desertification processes are
Guajira, Santander, Boyac, Norte de Santander, Cauca, Nario, Huila, Tolima, Atlntico,

32
Magdalena, Sucre and Cesar, with around 4828875 affected hectares (4.1% of the country).
From those 0.45% is very high, 0.19% high, 0.73% moderate, 1.77% low and 1.12% very
low. This study suggests other 0.7% in desertification process (Leon, 2003).

Potential areas of land degradation by desertification in Colombia (IDEAM, 2001)
were determined based on the susceptibility of soils to erosion, soil genesis, the arid index
by UNCCD, xerophytic vegetation, ustic or arid soil moisture regime and evidence of
erosion and salinization. The most susceptible soils to desertification are located mainly in
the Caribe and Orinoquia regions, followed by some parts in the Andes and some local
areas in the Amazonas region (figure 10). Those areas show an extension of approximated
15% of the country (Del Rosario, 2002).

Figure 10. Zones with potential of desertification in Colombia (IDEAM, 2001).
Methodology

33

4. METHODOLOGY

4.1. STUDY AREAS

The areas selected in this study are based on the results obtained by the Colombian
Ministry of Environment and the report of Colombia for the UNCCD (IDEAM, 2001 and
MinAmbiente, 2002). Those studies show the actual and potential land degradation and
desertification areas in Colombia. Different maps were produced such as the erosion map,
the actual and the potential desertification maps. Those maps were obtained from climate
data, soil surveys, satellite images and vegetation maps.

The maps show the main areas that can be considered as dry, integrating not only
climate but also criteria as vegetation, relief, soil and use. Although all of them are quite
similar in the regions that are classified either dry or with desertification or with land
degradation problems, it was necessary to select common areas, with similar conditions of
relief and altitude which are also parameters influencing the weather conditions. Due to the
complexity of environments in Colombia, the definition of micro regions by the IGAC was
used to select and delineate the zones were land degradation and desertification of drylands
at national scale were reported. In this way, the boundaries of the zones selected are natural
allowing assess rainfall in more or less homogeneous geographic conditions of Colombia,
with several climate regimes in terms of precipitation, moisture and temperature.

In total, seven study zones were selected. Two of them were selected from the
Caribe natural region: the Guajira peninsula and the Caribbean plateaus, because they are
geographically a mountainous micro region (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta) dividing the
two sectors, which is a prolongation of the Andes structure in the North of the country.
Five zones were selected from the Andes natural region: two of them are located in
lowlands and belong to the valleys of Cauca and Magdalena rivers. One zone is located at
Methodology

34
the northeast of the country in a typical landscape of middle and high mountains the
Santanderes and Cesar Mountainous zone. The other two are high plateaus, one in the
centre of the country named Cundiboyacense high plateau and the other in the south
Nario and Popayan high plateaus including a deep valley of the Pata River and steep
mountains. The figure 11 shows the location of the selected study zones. The selected
zones are not completely drylands but include the most important areas with precipitation
deficits and desertification processes such as land degradation and erosion with influence
of human activities (mainly agricultural).

Figure 11. Location of the study zones
1
2
3
4
5
7
6
1
2
3
4
5
Guajira Peninsula
Caribbean plateaus
Santander and Cesar
Cundiboyacense High plateau
High Magdalena River Basin
6
7
Cauca valley
Nario and
Popayan
High plateaus
1
2
3
4
5
7
6
1
2
3
4
5
Guajira Peninsula
Caribbean plateaus
Santander and Cesar
Guajira Peninsula
Caribbean plateaus
Santander and Cesar
6
7
Cauca valley
Nario and
Popayan
High plateaus
Methodology

35
4.2. DATA SOURCES

Meteorological information was obtained from secondary information from FAO,
CAZALAC, WMO database and from the programme PHI-LAC (Programa de Hidrologa
Internacional para Latino America y el Caribe) of the UNESCO in cooperation with
CAZALAC (Centro para el Agua en Zonas Aridas y Semiridas en Latino Amrica y el
Caribe). Information used was only multitemporal annual average values. All the
information belongs to stations of the National Institute of Environmental Studies
(IDEAM). Information of 391 meteorological stations covering the study zones was used,
from 1971 to 2000. Missing data of precipitation and temperature was estimated using the
multi-annual average for the same month. Additionally, multitemporal values of PCI and
MFI were obtained from the project The list of the meteorological stations used is
presented in the appendices.

4.3. DELINEATION OF ARID ZONES

Arid zones can be delineated using an Index of Moisture Deficit or Aridity Index.
To calculate the aridity index it is necessary to determine the moisture loss or potential
evapotranspiration (PET). This can be done in three ways: first, using lysimeters or
evapotranspiration pans to obtain direct measurements. Although this is the most accurate
procedure, at a global scale is impractical. Second, using Penman-Monteith (1948)
empirical formula, but these calculations require a large input of direct meteorological data,
which at a global scale is also impractical due to the lack of available data. The final and
most practical approach is the Thornthwaite method (1948), based in the relationship
between mean monthly temperatures and average number of daylight hours per month.
This is more practical but also less accurate due to the underestimation of PET for drylands
and overestimation for humid and cold environments.

To determine differences in climate types, five indices are used: Lang (1915), De
Martonne (1923), Thornthwaite (1948) Precipitation Effectiveness and Emberger (1932).
Methodology

36
These indices require only the two general available climate parameters for almost all the
meteorological stations: precipitation and temperature. Bagnouls-Gaussen classification
method (1952) was used determining the number of dry and wet months, based also in
monthly precipitation and temperature.

Spatial distribution for every region was determined with the Inverse Distance
Weighted (IDW) interpolator method, using Arc/view software. This method assumes that
each input point has a local influence that diminishes with distance. It weights the points
closer to the processing cell than those farther away. A specified number of points, or
optionally all points within a specified radius, can be used to determine the output value for
each location. The climate zones were delineated using the boundary classes for each
climate index and the surface area was calculated using the software Arc/view version 3.2.

4.3.1. Lang climate classification (1915)

Richard Lang (1915) established a climate classification based on a ratio factor
between precipitation and temperature, from which six climate types are proposed. The
Lang climate factor (L) is obtained with the relationship between the mean annual
precipitation (P) in mm and the annual average temperature (T) in C, using the following
formula:
L = P/T
Where, L : Lang Factor,
P : Mean annual precipitation
T: Mean annual temperature
Table 4. Climate types proposed by Richard Lang (1915)
Lang Factor P/T Climate type Symbol
0 20 Desert D
20.1 40 Arid A
40.1 60 Semiarid SA
60.1 100 Subhumid SH
100.1 160 Humid H
> 160 Very humid VH

Methodology

37
4.3.2. Aridity index of De Martonne (1923)

De Martonne index is calculated using the mean annual precipitation (P) and the
mean temperature (T). The basic of De Martonne formula gives an index of aridity (IM)
which is expressed in the formula:
10 +
=
t
P
IM

P = Annual average rainfall (mm)
t = Annual average temperature (C)

Table 5. Climate types proposed by De Martonne (1923)
Aridity Index (IM) Climate type
0 10 Arid
10 20 Semiarid
20 24 Mediterranean
24 28 Semi-humid
28 35 Humid
35 55 Very humid
> 55 Extremely humid

4.3.3. Aridity index of Emberger (1932)

Emberger index is based in climate data associated with vegetation zones. He
established a moisture quotient using the northern limit of his arid zone in north-west
Africa. The Emberger index (IE) is obtained with the mean annual precipitation and mean
temperature of both the coldest and hottest months and is determined using the formula:
2 2
* 100
m M
P
IE
=
Where,
P = Annual average rainfall (mm)
M = Average temperature of the hottest month (C)
m = Average temperature of the coldest month (C)
Methodology

38
Table 6. Climate types of Emberger (1932)
Aridity Index (IE)
Climate type
> 90 Humid
50 90 Subhumid
30 50 Semiarid
< 30 Arid

4.3.4. Thornthwaite classification (1948)

Thornthwaite (1948) precipitation effectiveness index PE is based on temperature
and precipitation, defined by the formula:
=
12
1
9 / 10
10
115
n
T
P
x PE
where, P = Monthly precipitation (inches)
T = Temperature (F), n = months = 12

Table 7. Thornthwaite climate classification (1948)
PE Index Climate type
< 16 Arid
16 31 Semiarid
32 63 Subhumid
64 127 Humid
> 127 Wet

4.3.5. UNEP Arid Index (1997)

UNEP (1997) has defined the aridity index as the ratio of precipitation (P) to
potential evapotranspiration (ETo). ETo is determined by the Thornthwaite formula:

a
I
Tm
Nm ETo )
10
( 16

=
where: ETo= monthly potential evapotranspiration (mm).
Tm = mean monthly temperature ( C).
Methodology

39
Nm = adjustment factor related to hours of daylight.
I = Heat annual index. This is calculated for every month (i):
=
=
12
1
514 . 1
) 5 / (
i
Tm I
a
is a parameter calculated using the equation:
49239 . 0 01792 . 0 000071 . 0 000000675 . 0
2 3
+ + = I I I a

Four climate types have been defined according to the annual ratio P/PET.

Table 8. UNEP (1997) Climate classification
Index P/PET Climate type
< 0.05 Hyper-arid zone
0.05 0.2 Arid
0.2 0.5 Semiarid
0.5 0.65 Dry subhumid
0.65 - 1 Subhumid
> 1 Humid

4.3.6. Bagnouls Gaussen classification method (1952)

This classification is based on the average monthly temperature and precipitation. It
gives more precise climate classification and the climate identification is obtained by
determining separately the numbers of dry and wet months. The Gaussen common aridity
index is defined in the way as the dry, or arid month, corresponds to the month having the
ratio between precipitation (P) and temperature (T) less than two. These two parameters are
plotted as an omberothermic chart on the same graph doubling the values on the scale of
precipitation. The dry months are those which the mean temperature curve is higher than
the precipitation one. The Bagnouls-Gaussen Aridity index (BGI) is calculated as
=
=
12
1
* ) 2 (
i
i i i
k p t BGI
Where t is the average monthly air temperature, k is a coefficient indicating the
number of months in which 2t>p and p
i
is the average rainfall of the month i (i=1 to 12).
Methodology

40
Table 9. BGI climate classification (1952)
Index P/PET Climate type
> 130 Very Dry
50 130 Dry
0 50 Moist
0 Humid

The Bagnouls Gaussen index allows to determine dry periods along the year. Dry
months here are considered when the monthly precipitation is lower than 2 times mean
monthly temperature. The BGI dry period is compared with half the ETo, which is
considered as the level sufficient to meet water requirements of dryland crops (FAO, 1983).
Although ETo should be calculated using Penmans method, in this case is calculated using
Thornthwaite method due to the lack of available data.

4.4. RAIN EROSIVITY AND CONCENTRATION INDICES

Using the mean monthly and yearly precipitation data, the Precipitation
Concentration Index and Climate aggressivity (Modified Fournier Index) (by Arnoldus,
1980) were evaluated. Through a geo-statistical method the interpolation of these variables
was done in order to assess the spatial distribution. For this, IDW method of spatial
analysis in Arc/view was used. First, the Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI) is
estimated yearly and then monthly. The climate aggressivity was evaluated using the
Modified Fournier Index (MFI).

4.4.1. Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI)

The Precipitation Concentration Index (PCI) was proposed by Oliver (1980) to
define temporal aspects of the rainfall distribution within a year. It is expressed in %
according to the formula:

2
2
100
P
p
PCI
i
=

Methodology

41
Where, p = Monthly precipitation (mm)
P = Annual precipitation (mm)

The PCI permits grouping of data sets according to the derived value, with
increasing values indicating increasing monthly rainfall concentration

Table 10. Precipitation Concentration Index classification
PCI Concept
8.3 10 Uniform
10 15 Moderately seasonal
15 20 Seasonal
20 50 Highly seasonal
50 - 100 Irregular

4.4.2. Modified Fournier Index (MFI)

Arnoldus (1980) modified the (FI) index into a Modified Fournier Index (MFI)
considering the rainfall amounts of all months in the year.
=
=
12
1
2
i
P
p
MFI

p is monthly precipitation and P is annual precipitation.

Table 11. Modified Fournier Index scale
MFI Description Class
< 60 Very low 1
60 90 Low 2
90 120 Moderate 3
120-160 High 4
> 160 Very high 5

For every Index a linear and quadratic relationship was evaluated between the
monthly average and the index estimated for the average yearly value.

Methodology

42
4.4.3. Erosivity Index (ErIn)

The erosivity index (ErIn) is estimated according to the CORINE project
methodology (1995), which uses the modified Fournier index (MFI) and the Bagnouls-
Gaussen index (BGI).

The Modified Fournier index is classified in variability classes and the Bagnouls-
Gaussen index in aridity classes as follows:

Table 12. Variability class of Modified Fournier Index
Variability Class
(Vc)
Description Range
1 Very low < 60
2 Low 60 to 90
3 Moderate 90 to 120
4 High 120 to 160
5 Very high > 160

Table 13. Aridity class of BGI
Aridity Class
(Ac)
Description Range
1 Humid 0
2 Moist > 0 to 50
3 Dry > 50 to 130
4 Very dry > 130

Both classes are combined to give the erosivity index, which is equal to the product
of variability class and aridity class.
ErIn = Vc x Ac

Table 14. Erosivity Index (ErIn)
Erosivity Index
(ErIn)
Description Range
1 Low < 4
2 Moderate 4 to 8
3 High > 8

Description of the study zones

43

5. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY ZONES

5.1. GUAJIRA PENINSULA

The Guajira Peninsula has an aeolian landscape located in the north-eastern top of
Colombia, with an extension of 1136381 hectares, mainly flat and around sea level, with
predominant wind erosion and partly xerophytic vegetation.

This region is considered the driest area of Colombia (IDEAM, 2001). The mean
annual precipitation is less than 500 mm. According to the IDEAM, this region includes
hyperarid, arid and semiarid moisture regimes. Mean temperatures during the whole year
are between 28 and 32C. The Guajira region is also considered a desertification region due
to the erosion processes, which in this case is caused more by wind than by water. For the
Guajira study zone climatologic information of 24 stations was used. Figure 12 shows the
distribution of the precipitation and the location of the meteorological stations.

Figure 12. Location of meteorological stations and precipitation distribution in the Guajira zone
1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
7
5
0
0
0
0
1
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
5
0
0
0
0
1
9
0
0
0
0
0
Meteorological
Stations
$
Precipitation
(mm/year)
< 200
200 - 300
300 - 400
400 - 500
500 - 600
0 50 100 Km
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$ $
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$ $
$
$
$
1
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13
14 1
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24
1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
7
5
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0
0
0
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0
0
0
0
0
1
8
5
0
0
0
0
1
9
0
0
0
0
0
Meteorological
Stations
$
Precipitation
(mm/year)
< 200
200 - 300
300 - 400
400 - 500
500 - 600
Meteorological
Stations
$
Precipitation
(mm/year)
< 200
200 - 300
300 - 400
400 - 500
500 - 600
Precipitation
(mm/year)
< 200
200 - 300
300 - 400
400 - 500
500 - 600
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$ $
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$ $
$
$
$
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14 1
5
16
17
18
19
20 21
22
24

44

5.2. CARIBBEAN PLATEAUS

This zone is located in the Caribbean region, in the northern part of Colombia and
includes wide plateaus relatively close to the sea level, with undulated surfaces and some
hilly landscapes. This region is composed of the Sin and High San Jorge Valleys, the
Caribbean Savannahs and the Magdalena delta. The Mompox depletion is not considered
here because this region forms a great wetland, flooded by the waters of San Jorge, Cauca
and Magdalena rivers.

The Caribbean plateaus zone has a surface area of 5928835 hectares from which
IDEAM (2001) reports around 5 million hectares as dry lands with soil degradation
problems and susceptible to potential desertification.

The climate in this region is very hot all the year around, with mean temperatures
above 27C due to the low altitudes (less than 500 m.a.s.l.). Mean annual precipitation
varies from 750 to 2500 mm and most of the region lies between 1000 to 1500 mm per
year. For this zone 93 meteorological stations were available, with data from 1971 to 2000.

This zone is very heterogeneous in precipitation. The lower values are found in the
north, with less than 500 mm per year, increasing to the southwest. The highest values are
in the Uraba Gulf, with more than 2000 mm per year (figure 13).


45

Figure 13. Location of climate stations and precipitation distribution in the Caribbean plateaus

5.3. SANTANDER AND CESAR VERTIENTES

This zone is located in the northeast of the Andes Cordillera in Colombia. Formed
by dry deep valleys, badlands and eroded high plateaus in mountain areas of the micro
regions of Catatumbo, Suarez and Chicamocha Canyons, Santurban Macizo, Motilonia
Serrania and Meseta of Bucaramanga with an area of 3680000 hectares from which around
587.400 are in desertification process. Severe erosion problems are present in some areas
such as the Chicamocha valley and Bucaramanga mesa.

The precipitation varies from less than 1000 up to 2000 mm per year and the mean
temperature varies with the altitude and lies between 27C in the lowest lands to around
14C in the highest lands. The 67 meteorological stations used are shown in the figure 14.
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
Precipitation
(mm/year)
500 - 750
750 - 1000
1000 - 1500
1500 - 2000
2000 - 2500
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$ $
$
$
$
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25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32 33
34
35
36
37
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60
61
62
63
64
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66
67 68
70
72
73
76
77
78
79 80
81
82
83
85
86
87
88
89
91
94
95
96 97
98
99
100
101
103
104
106
107
108
109
110
111
113
115
116
39
42
45
51
55
58
59
74
84
90
92
3
102
105
112
114
7
0 50 100 Km
Climatic stations
$
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000 700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
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Precipitation
(mm/year)
500 - 750
750 - 1000
1000 - 1500
1500 - 2000
2000 - 2500
Precipitation
(mm/year)
500 - 750
750 - 1000
1000 - 1500
1500 - 2000
2000 - 2500
$
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25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32 33
34
35
36
37
38
40
41
43
44
46
47
48
49
50
52
53
54
56
57
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67 68
70
72
73
76
77
78
79 80
81
82
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85
86
87
88
89
91
94
95
96 97
98
99
100
101
103
104
106
107
108
109
110
111
113
115
116
39
42
45
51
55
58
59
74
84
90
92
3
102
105
112
114
7
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
Climatic stations
$

46

Figure 14. Precipitation distribution and meteorological stations in the Santanderes and Cesar zone

5.4. CUNDIBOYACENSE HIGH PLATEAU

This region is located in the central Andes Cordillera. Although the name is high
plateau, it includes also hills and Island Mountains. The surface area of the zone selected is
around 1061600 ha. Altitudes in this zone are between 1500 up to 3000 meters which result
in moderate temperatures between 13 up to 21C. Precipitation in general is very
1000000 1100000 1200000 1300000
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Precipitation
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Climatic stations
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Climatic stations

47
heterogeneous, some areas can be very low (around 600 mm per year) but in other areas it
can be higher (around 2400 mm per year).

This region is characterized by high intensity agricultural and industrial activities,
which make the lands more susceptible to degradation by human impact. Water erosion is a
common problem and some areas are affected by severe erosion turning them into
badlands. The erosion is related to human influence although there are some parts
considered as naturally dry such as Candelaria semi-desert in Villa de Leiva. Areas
affected are non continuous and those have relatively high precipitations but only during a
few months. Data was used from 40 climatic stations (figure 15).

Figure 15. Precipitation distribution and climate stations in the Cundiboyacense high plateau

1
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Precipitation
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Climatic stations $
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1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
Precipitation
(mm/year)
500-750
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1000-1500
Precipitation
(mm/year)
500-750
750-1000
1000-1500
Climatic stations $
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
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48
5.5. HIGH MAGDALENA RIVER BASIN

This zone is formed by intra mountain dry valleys located in Tolima, Huila and
Cundinamarca departments and affluent of the Magdalena River, in the lower part of the
Central and Eastern Andes Cordillera. The surface area of the selected zone is around
3964342 hectares. IDEAM (2001) reports that in Huila 572200 ha of lands with
desertification processes and 769600 ha in Tolima. The temperature range in this region is
between 18C and 27C, with altitudes lower than 300 up to 1700 m.a.s.l. Annual
precipitation values vary from less than 800 mm per year in the driest areas up to almost
2000 mm per year. This region includes an arid area known as the Tatacoa desert, with
an extension of around 304108 ha located at an average altitude of 440 m.a.s.l, and with
average annual temperature of 28C and less than 1000 mm of annual precipitation.
Although Tatacoa is considered a desert, climate classifications or arid indices indicate that
this is a semiarid or arid region (MinAmbiente, 2000). Data was available from 87 climate
stations (figure 16).

Figure 16. Precipitation distribution and meteorological stations in the High Magdalena River basin
Precipitation
(mm/year)
750-1000
1000-1500
1500-2000
2000-2500
Climatic stations
$
$
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700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
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Precipitation
(mm/year)
750-1000
1000-1500
1500-2000
2000-2500
Climatic stations
$
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Precipitation
(mm/year)
750-1000
1000-1500
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2000-2500
Climatic stations
$
Precipitation
(mm/year)
750-1000
1000-1500
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2000-2500
Climatic stations
$
Precipitation
(mm/year)
750-1000
1000-1500
1500-2000
2000-2500
Climatic stations
$
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700000 800000 900000 1000000
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700000 800000 900000 1000000
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49

5.6. CAUCA VALLEY

This zone is located in the lowlands between the Western and Central Andes
Cordilleras and corresponds with the Cauca River Valley micro region, characterized by
temperatures above 19C, with altitudes lower than 1800 m.a.s.l. and a mean annual
precipitation between 1000 and 2000 mm. The surface area of the Cauca valley is 1069330
ha, from which around 501100 ha are having desertification processes (IDEAM, 2001).
Data was available from 32 climate stations.

Figure 17. Precipitation distribution and meteorological stations in the Cauca valley
700000 800000
9
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Precipitation
(mm/year)
750-1000
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# Climatic stations
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# Climatic stations
Precipitation
(mm/year)
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# Climatic stations
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50
5.7. NARIO AND POPAYAN HIGH PLATEAUS

This zone is located in the south of the Colombian Andes and includes the micro
regions of Nario high plateau, Popayan high plateau and the Pata valley with some hills
and mountains associated to this landscape. This region shows moderate erosion to
badlands, mainly in the Pata valley and slight to moderate erosion in the high plateaus. The
area of the zone is 2015347 ha.

Temperatures of the zone vary from 10C in the highlands of Nario and Popayan
to 24C in the lower part of the Pata valley. The precipitation is higher in the high
mountains, with values above 2000 mm per year, and lower values are found in the Pata
valley, with less than 1000 mm per year. Altitude is from less than 600 up to around 3000
m.a.s.l.. Unfortunately, there is not many information available of the stations located in
the dry Pata valley considered in great part having desertification process (MinAmbiente,
2002). Data was available for this zone from 38 climate stations.

Figure 18. Precipitation distribution and climate stations in Nario and Popayan high plateaus
6
0
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450000 500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
Precipitation
(mm/year)
750-1000
1000-1500
1500-2000
2000-2500
2500-3000
3000-4000
500-750
> 4000
$
$
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Climatic Stations $
0 50 100 Km
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Precipitation
(mm/year)
750-1000
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1500-2000
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500-750
> 4000
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Climatic Stations $
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
Climate types and aridity indices

51

6. CLIMATE TYPES AND ARIDITY INDICES

6.1. GUAJIRA PENINSULA

According to the Lang classification the Guajira has a desert climate in all the
area, which is the driest class for this index. The Thornthwaite classification gives a
dominant arid climate, which is also the driest class. The de Martonne and UNEP indices
are quite similar, varying from arid to semiarid. With the Emberger index all the stations
are classified as humid (table 15).

Table 15. Aridity indices of Guajira peninsula
Num
Lang
FL
Thornthwaite
IT
De Martonne
IM
UNEP
Emberger
IE
1 19.8 Desert 15.0 Arid 14.4 Semiarid 0.32 Semiarid 658 Humid
3 10.4 Desert 7.8 Arid 7.5 Arid 0.17 Arid 344 Humid


52
Using the IDW algorithm in Arc/view, it is possible to see the spatial arrangement
between the Lang, Thornthwaite, de Martonne and UNEP classifications (figure 19). With
the Emberger index all the stations are classified as humid, due to the fact that it considers
the differences between the medium temperature of the hottest and the coldest months, and
for this case is less than 5C, which is very low. It seems that this classification type is
more adequate for temperate regions with high variations of temperature between seasons.
Using the Lang factor the whole region is considered Desert with values from 7.1 to 19.2.
With the Thornthwaite index, the zone is classified as arid with values from 5.4 to 14.5.
Both classifications give the lowest value for all the stations.

Figure 19. Climate classifications of the Guajira peninsula
5 5 0 i s
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
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Climatic
type
<20 Desert
Lang
factor
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
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<10
Arid
Climatic
type
Thornwaite
Index
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
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Climatic
type
De Martonne
Index
<16 Arid
16-31 Semiarid
0
0 50 100 Km
K l t r
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.2-0.5 Semiarid
0.05-0.2 Arid
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
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0 50 100 Km
5 5 0 i s
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
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Climatic
type
<20 Desert
Lang
factor
Climatic
type
<20 Desert
Lang
factor
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
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<10
Arid
Climatic
type
Thornwaite
Index
<10
Arid
Climatic
type
Thornwaite
Index
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
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0
Climatic
type
De Martonne
Index
<16 Arid
16-31 Semiarid
0
0 50 100 Km
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
7
5
0
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1
8
0
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0
0
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0
1
9
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Climatic
type
De Martonne
Index
<16 Arid
16-31 Semiarid
Climatic
type
De Martonne
Index
<16 Arid
16-31 Semiarid
0
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
K l t r
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.2-0.5 Semiarid
0.05-0.2 Arid
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
7
5
0
0
0
0
1
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
5
0
0
0
0
1
9
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km
K l t r
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.2-0.5 Semiarid
0.05-0.2 Arid
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.2-0.5 Semiarid
0.05-0.2 Arid
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
7
5
0
0
0
0
1
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
5
0
0
0
0
1
9
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km

53

With the de Martonne index, part of the region (59 %) is considered as the lower
class Arid and the rest as Semiarid. The UNEP index is less marginal and considers
56% of the zone as Arid, which is not the lowest class for this Index. The remaining part
is classified as Semiarid. The Lang and Thornthwaite indices are quite similar and differ
from the de Martonne and the UNEP indices which are also similar between them. The
Guajira zone is considered completely as Dry-Land due to the fact that all stations have
been classified among the categories below the subhumid class for Lang, Martonne,
Emberger and UNEP indices, except for the Emberger index which considers the region
totally as Humid.

Using Bagnouls - Gaussen classification method the stations show in general a long
dry season from nine to eleven dry months per year and a very short rainy season from less
than three months in this zone. The driest months of the Guajira peninsula are from
December to August and in almost half of the stations from November to September.
October is the most humid month and September and November vary from arid to humid.
In almost all the stations at least 9 months are considered arid. With the calculated annual
BGI, all the stations are classified as Moist, even the station number 10 that has values of
precipitation lower than 2 times temperature (2T) during all the year.

Table 16 resumes the results of the monthly classification comparing the
precipitation value and the temperature. The months with mean monthly precipitation (in
mm), lower than two times temperature (in C) are represented as arid (A). Semihumid (S)
are those with precipitation values between two and three times the temperature and humid
(H) are those with precipitation values higher than three times the temperature.

Figure 20 shows the monthly relationship between precipitation and temperature for
some stations of the Guajira zone. 0.5 ETo is showing that in all the stations, the level for
dry period (DP) is higher than the calculated with BGI.


54
Table 16. Bagnouls - Gaussen climate classification for the Guajira peninsula
Code JAN FEB MARAPR MAYJUN JUL AUG SEP OCTNOVDEC BGI DESCRIPTION
1 A A A A S A A A H H H A 23 Moist
2 A A A A S A A A H H S A 26 Moist
3 A A A A A A A A A H A A 33 Moist
4 A A A A H A A A H H S A 25 Moist
5 A A A A S A A A H H S A 24 Moist
6 A A A A A A A A H H S A 28 Moist
8 A A A A A A A A S H A A 34 Moist
10 A A A A A A A A A A A A 37 Moist
11 A A A A A A A A A S A A 37 Moist
13 A A A A A A A A S H S A 24 Moist
14 A A A A A A A A S H H A 26 Moist
15 A A A A A A A A A H H H 28 Moist
16 A A A A A A A A A S S A 35 Moist
17 A A A A A A A A A H S A 34 Moist
19 A A A A A A A A S H H S 26 Moist
20 A A A A A A A A S H A A 31 Moist
21 A A A A A A A A A H H A 27 Moist
22 A A A A A A A A S H H S 29 Moist
23 A A A A A A A A A S S A 35 Moist
A = Arid, S = Semihumid, H = Humid

Figure 20. Omberothermic curves for the Guajira peninsula
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
J an Feb Mar Apr May J un J ul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
Station 18
Station 12
0.5 ETo
2T
P
0.5 ETo
2T
P
BGI
BGI
DP
DP
Station 22
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
2T
P
BGI
DP
0.5 ETo
Station 11
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
P
BGI
2T
DP
0.5 ETo
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
Station 18
Station 12
0.5 ETo
2T
P
0.5 ETo
2T
P
BGI
BGI
DP
DP
Station 22
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
2T
P
BGI
DP
0.5 ETo
Station 22
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
2T
P
BGI
DP
0.5 ETo
Station 11
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
P
BGI
2T
DP
0.5 ETo
Station 11
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
P
BGI
2T
DP
0.5 ETo

55

From figure 20 it is clear that the mean temperature has no significant variation
during the year and is more or less constant. With a dry period of nine months, and BGI
indices between 23 and 37 for all the stations of the Guajira region, this zone is completely
moist, using the BGI yearly classification range.

6.2. CARIBBEAN PLATEAUS

The different aridity indices show different results for this zone. Lang classification
shows that the region is dominant dry with almost 90.5% of the area between desert to
semiarid class. Using Thornthwaite index dry lands are reduced to 24.5%, the UNEP
classified 16.4% and finally for the de Martonne only 4% of the area. Using the Emberger
Index the whole zone is classified as humid, with very high values of aridity index. Table
17 shows the aridity indices estimated for every station. Figure 21 shows the spatial
distribution for the same indices. The Emberger classification is not representative because
the whole zone is considered as humid.

Table 17. Aridity indices of Caribbean Plateaus

Num
Lang
FL
Thornthwaite
IT
De Martonne
IM
UNEP
Emberger
IE
25 24.7 18.5 Semiarid 18.1 Semiarid 0.40 Semiarid 620 Humid
26 29.6 22.1 Semiarid 21.6 Mediterran 0.48 Semiarid 743 Humid
27 37.1 28.2 Semiarid 27.2 Semihumid 0.60 Dry subhumid 922 Humid
28 31.5
Arid
Arid
Arid
Arid
24.0 Semiarid 23.2 Mediterran 0.52 Dry subhumid 931 Humid
29 48.1 Semiarid 35.7 Subhumid 34.3 Humid 0.75 Subhumid 1607 Humid
30 35.4 Arid 26.4 Semiarid 25.6 Semihumid 0.56 Dry subhumid 1359 Humid
32 31.6 Arid 23.7 Semiarid 23.1 Mediterran 0.51 Dry subhumid 833 Humid
36 52.5 Semiarid 39.3 Subhumid 37.9 Very Humid 0.83 Subhumid 1191 Humid

56
Num
Lang
FL
Thornthwaite
IT
De Martonne
IM
UNEP
Emberger
IE
44 94.5 Subhumid 71.0 Humid 68.5 1.51 Humid 3982 Humid
47 77.0 Subhumid 57.9 Subhumid 55.8
Extremely
Humid
1.23 Humid 3245 Humid
50 30.2 Arid 22.9 Semiarid 22.3 Mediterran 0.49 Semiarid 839 Humid
58 40.5 Semiarid 30.5 Semiarid 29.5 Humid 0.65 Dry subhumid 717 Humid
70 71.6 Subhumid 53.7 Subhumid 51.7 Very Humid 1.14 Humid 1624 Humid
72 38.7 Arid 29.2 Semiarid 28.1 Humid 0.62 Dry subhumid 684 Humid

57
Num
Lang
FL
Thornthwaite
IT
De Martonne
IM
UNEP
Emberger
IE
98 23.3 Arid 17.5 Semiarid 16.9 Semiarid 0.37 Semiarid 984 Humid
102 62.9 Subhumid 47.1 Subhumid 45.5 Very Humid 1.00 Subhumid 1427 Humid
107 12.9 Desert 9.7 Arid 9.4 Arid 0.21 Semiarid 545 Humid

The Thornthwaite and the UNEP indices are quite similar. Using Lang index the
region is more dry and more humid using the de Martonne and the Emberger indices.


58

Figure 21. Climate classifications of the Caribbean plateaus

The Lang classification is the one that indicates more drylands in the Caribbean
plateaus. Note that the de Martonne and UNEP classification show the southern part with
the highest class while with the Lang index this zone is classified mostly as subhumid. This
area is located close to the Uraba gulf where the precipitation is higher than in the rest of
the Caribbean plateaus. With the Thornthwaite index this part is not shown as humid. In
this case the Thornthwaite index does not indicate areas with more humid regimes.

700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1
> 1
0.2-0.5
0.5 0.65
Subhumid
Humid
Semi arid
Dry subhumid
0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
Climatic
type
< 20 Desert
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
Factor
60-100 Subhumid
0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
<16 Arid
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
Subhumid
0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
0 50 100 Km
Climatic
type
De Martonne
Index
<10 Arid
35-55 Very humid
10-20 Semiarid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1
> 1
0.2-0.5
0.5 0.65
Subhumid
Humid
Semi arid
Dry subhumid
0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000 700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1
> 1
0.2-0.5
0.5 0.65
Subhumid
Humid
Semi arid
Dry subhumid
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1
> 1
0.2-0.5
0.5 0.65
Subhumid
Humid
Semi arid
Dry subhumid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
Climatic
type
< 20 Desert
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
Factor
60-100 Subhumid
0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000 700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
Climatic
type
< 20 Desert
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
Factor
60-100 Subhumid
Climatic
type
< 20 Desert
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
Factor
60-100 Subhumid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
<16 Arid
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
Subhumid
0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000 700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
<16 Arid
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
Subhumid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
0 50 100 Km
Climatic
type
De Martonne
Index
<10 Arid
35-55 Very humid
10-20 Semiarid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000 700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
Climatic
type
De Martonne
Index
<10 Arid
35-55 Very humid
10-20 Semiarid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
De Martonne
Index
<10 Arid
35-55 Very humid
10-20 Semiarid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
35-55 Very humid
10-20 Semiarid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid

59
According to the Bagnouls - Gaussen classification there are 4 stations classified as
humid and the remaining 89 as Moist, with BGI values from 3 to 28. There is not any
station considered as Dry, although 85 of the 93 stations show a dominant dry period of
four months: from December to March.

Table 18. Climate classification using Bagnouls - Gaussen index
Dry months
per year
Number of
stations
BGI
values
Class
Area
(ha)
0 - 2 4 0 Humid 901864
3 - 5 85 3 - 19
6 - 10 4 20 - 28
Moist 5006971

The BGI values are lower, compared with the Guajira region. 89 stations have
values lower than 20. Figure 22 shows the distribution of BGI values in the Caribbean
plateaus. The highest values are in the North, which also corresponds to the stations with
more dry months of the zone, BGI values decrease to the Southwest, where the amount of
dry months per year decreases.

Figure 22. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index distribution in the Caribbean plateaus

60
Figure 23 shows the omberothermic curves of precipitation (P), Temperature (2T)
and 0.5 ETo. The dry period determined by the BGI, in all the stations is shorter than if 0.5
ETo is used.

Figure 23. Omberothermic curves for some stations of the Caribbean plateaus

6.3. SANTANDERES AND CESAR ZONE

In this zone there is a high difference between the Lang index with the UNEP
Thornthwaite and de Martonne indices. These classifications consider respectively 53%,
9%, 7% and 2% Dry-Lands. The Lang and the de Martonne indices are in the extremes
while the UNEP and Thornthwaite indices are quite similar. The Emberger index values are
very high and all of the stations are classified as Humid.

Station 98
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
T
e
m
p
C
Station 87
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
T
e
m
p
C
Station 26
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
T
e
m
p
C
Station 51
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
2T
P
BGI
DP
2T
P
BGI
DP
2T
P
BGI
DP
2T
P
BGI
DP
0.5 ETo
0.5 ETo
0.5 ETo
0.5 ETo
Station 98
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
T
e
m
p
C
Station 87
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
T
e
m
p
C
Station 26
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
T
e
m
p
C
Station 51
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
2T
P
BGI
DP
2T
P
BGI
DP
2T
P
BGI
DP
2T
P
BGI
DP
0.5 ETo
0.5 ETo
0.5 ETo
0.5 ETo

61
Table 19. Climate classifications of the Santanderes and Cesar zone

Num
Lang
FL
Thornthwaite
IT
De Martonne
IM
UNEP
Emberger
IE
124 21.2 Arid 16.0 Arid 15.3 Semiarid 0.34 Semiarid 441 Humid
126 53.0 Semiarid 31.6 Subhumid 29.9 Humid 0.51 Dry subhumid 1931 Humid
131 110.1 Humid 62.9 Subhumid 59.5 0.97 Subhumid 5624 Humid
135 107.6 Humid 71.4 Humid 68.3 1.33 Humid 5331 Humid
138 114.6 Humid 71.1 Humid 67.6
Extremely
Humid
140 86.8 Subhumid 59.6 Subhumid 57.0 1.15 Humid 4815 Humid
Extremely
Humid
149 102.5 Humid 70.4 Humid 67.3
Extremely
Humid
Extremely
Humid
157 46.1 Semiarid 28.3 Semiarid 26.7 Semihumid 0.47 Semiarid 1914 Humid

62
Num
Lang
FL
Thornthwaite
IT
De Martonne
IM
UNEP
Emberger
IE
161 61.2 Subhumid 37.2 Subhumid 35.3 Very Humid 0.62 Dry subhumid 2356 Humid
164 96.0 Subhumid 66.1 Humid 63.4
Extremely
Humid
Extremely
Humid

Figure 24 demonstrates that dry lands are spread over the area and are not
continuous. For the Lang classification, the northern part is completely dry, with some
inclusions in the South. For the other indices, only a small part in the North is dry and other
small areas appear in the South. The non continuous distribution can be explained due to
this region is a complex of mountains and hills with different altitudes and intra-
mountainous valleys and canyons which gives a very heterogeneous and complex
distribution of wind and precipitation in this zone.

63

Figure 24. Climate classifications of the Santanderes and Cesar zone
35-55 Very humid
10-20 Semiarid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.2-0.5
0.65 - 1
Semi arid
SubHumid
> 1
Humid
0.5-0.65 Dry subhumid
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
35-55 Very humid
10-20 Semiarid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
35-55 Very humid
10-20 Semiarid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.2-0.5
0.65 - 1
Semi arid
SubHumid
> 1
Humid
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.2-0.5
0.65 - 1
Semi arid
SubHumid
> 1
Humid
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km

64
The Bagnouls - Gaussen Index gives a dominant Moist class with BGI values
lower than 16. Dry periods differ in this zone from 0 to 8 dry months per year. The BGI
index values vary from North to South with the highest values in the North and irregular
distribution in the central part. Figure 25 shows the BGI values and the distribution of dry
periods.

Table 20. Climate classification using Bagnouls - Gaussen
Dry months
per year
Number of
stations
BGI values
Area
(ha)
0 24 0 Humid 629654
1-2 20 1-4
3 - 5 19 5 - 12
6 - 8 4 12-16
Moist 3361407

Figure 25. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index distribution in the Santanderes and Cesar zone


65

The BGI values are quite different for each station because they are located at
altitudes from 90 to more than 3000 m.a.s.l., with mean temperatures from 28C in the
lowest altitudes to 11C in the highest altitudes. Figure 26 shows the curves of
precipitation, ETo and 2T for some stations at different altitudes.

Figure 26. Omberothermic curves different stations in the Santanderes and Cesar

Some of the stations have two moist seasons with two short dry periods, and others
one moist long humid period with a very short dry period. The dry months are from
December to February and in some cases till March.

The same figure shows ETo calculated Thornthwaite formula (1948). The curve
of ETo indicates that the dry period is higher than using the BGI. For the stations 163
and 168, there appears another dry period from June to July. The station 120 shows also a
second dry period from June to August.

Station 120, 1100 masl
J an Feb Mar Apr May
J un J ul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
20
0
10
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
T
e
m
p
C
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
J an
Feb Mar Apr
May J un J ul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
J an
Feb Mar Apr
May J un J ul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
T
e
m
p
C
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
BGI
0.5 ETo
P
2T
BGI
0.5 ETo
P
2T
BGI
0.5 ETo
P
2T
BGI
0.5 ETo
DP DP
DP
DP
J an Feb Mar Apr May
J un J ul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
20
0
10
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
T
e
m
p
C
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
J an
Feb Mar Apr
May J un J ul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
J an
Feb Mar Apr
May J un J ul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
T
e
m
p
C
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
BGI
0.5 ETo
P
2T
BGI
0.5 ETo
P
2T
BGI
0.5 ETo
P
2T
BGI
0.5 ETo
DP DP
DP
DP

66
6.4. CUNDIBOYACENSE HIGH PLATEAU

For this zone, the Lang and UNEP classifications are quite similar in surface area,
but not all the same stations are considered by both indices as Dry. The UNEP index
indicates that 45% of the zone is Dry given by 23 stations and the Lang index indicates
almost 44% with 20 stations. Table 21 shows the different stations and those classified as
Dry are highlighted. The Thornthwaite classification gives almost 13% of the zone as
Dry. With the de Martonne classification less than 1% and with the Emberger index all
the stations are classified as Humid.

Table 21. Climate indices of the Cundiboyacense high plateau
Num
Lang
FL
Thornthwaite
IT
De Martonne
IM
UNEP
Emberger
IE
205 46.5 Semiarid 44.8 Subhumid 27.3 Semihumid 0.76 Subhumid 2300 Humid

67
Num
Lang
FL
Thornthwaite
IT
De Martonne
IM
UNEP
Emberger
IE
221 59.8 Semiarid 36.7 Subhumid 35.0 Very Humid 0.63 Dry subhumid 2955 Humid
224 101.5 Humid 58.4 Subhumid 55.5 Extr Humid 0.92 Subhumid 7196 Humid

Using the Lang classification, the drylands in the Cundiboyacense zone are located
in three areas, one in the South and the two others in the centre of the zone. Using the
UNED index, the north-eastern part of the zone appears also as dry land. Both
classification systems accord with the main problems of erosion reported in this zone. They
include in the northern part, Villa de Leyva, La Candelaria desert, and in the South,
Soacha, Sabrinsky and Mondoedo badlands. Using Thornthwaite classification, the
northern and central part have less surface area of drylands, which is classified as dry with
the Lang and UNEP indices, does not appear (figure 27).

68

Figure 27. Climate classifications of the Cundiboyacense high plateau

The Bagnouls - Gaussen Index gives a dominant Moist class with BGI values
lower than 16 (able 22). Dry periods differ from 0 to 8 dry months per year. Although there
is a clear variation of BGI values from north to south (with the highest values in the North).
The distribution in the central part is irregular. Figure 28 shows the values of BGI and the
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1
0.2-0.5
0.5 0.65
Subhumid
Semi arid
Dry subhumid
35-55 Very humid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
Climatic
type
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1
0.2-0.5
0.5 0.65
Subhumid
Semi arid
Dry subhumid
35-55 Very humid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
35-55 Very humid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
Climatic
type
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km

69
distribution of dry periods. 17 stations of the 40 stations evaluated show a period of Dry
months from December till February, using BGI.


Number of
stations
Dry months
per year
BGI values
Area
(ha)
23 0 0 Humid 576860
13 1
4 2 - 3
0 - 10 Moist 478797

Figure 28. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index distribution in the Cundiboyacense High plateau

Areas classified as moist correspond partly to drylands classified using the Lang
index. The southern moist part is the only one that is drylands according to the Lang,
Thornthwaite and UNEP indices.


70
Figure 29 shows the curves of precipitation (P), Temperature (2T) and ETo of
some stations evaluated in the Cundiboyacense high plateau. Using the BGI classification,
dry periods are less than three months but if ETo is used, the dry period increases and
some stations (i.e. 185 and 186) show a second dry period from June to September of
almost the same magnitude. BGI also seems to underestimate in this case the dry periods.

Figure 29. Omberothermic curves for the Cundiboyacense high plateau

Station 188 (Macheta), 2100 masl
Months
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
T
e
m
p
C
Station 186 (Duitama), 2532 masl
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
Station 185 (Mosquera), 2550 masl
Jan Feb Mar Apr
May
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
Station 187 (El Hato), 3100 masl
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
BGI
ETo
BGI
P
2T
BGI
BGI
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
DP
DP
DP
DP
ETo
P
2T
ETo
0
P
2T
ETo
Station 188 (Macheta), 2100 masl
Months
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
T
e
m
p
C
Station 186 (Duitama), 2532 masl
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
Station 185 (Mosquera), 2550 masl
Jan Feb Mar Apr
May
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
Station 187 (El Hato), 3100 masl
Months
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
BGI
ETo
BGI
P
2T
BGI
BGI
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
DP
DP
DP
DP
ETo
P
2T
ETo
0
P
2T
ETo

71

6.5. HIGH MAGDALENA BASIN

In this zone, 33% of the area is considered dry according to the Lang Index. The
Thornthwaite and UNEP classifications result in only 1% and the de Martonne, and the
Emberger index considers all the area as humid. In this case there is a high difference
between Lang index and the remaining four indices.

Table 23. Climate classifications of the Low Magdalena basin
Num
Lang
FL
Thornthwaite
IT
De Martonne
IM
UNEP
Emberger
IE
247 101.7 Humid 69.7 Humid 66.6
Extremely
Humid
Extremely
Humid
256 111.1 Humid 76.1 Humid 72.4
Extremely
Humid

72
Extremely
Humid
299 113.3 Humid 81.5 Humid 78.3
Extremely
Humid

73
Extremely
Humid 1.20 Humid 1458 Humid
320 93.1 Subhumid 65.2 Humid 62.4
Extremely
Humid

The dry part in this zone is located along the Magdalena River in the centre of the
zone from North to South and includes the named Tatacoa desert. This part is delineated
using only the Lang index. The Tatacoa Desert (figure 31) and other areas with severe
erosion and xerophytes are not shown using the Thornthwaite or UNEP indices. In this case
the Lang index is the only one that is representing the dry lands for this zone. The Tatacoa
named desert (figure 30) is a dry ecosystem of badlands and xerophitic vegetation of
more than 300000 hectares delineated clearly using aerial photographs. The fact that this
region is not considered as dry land using the UNEP or Thornthwaite climate classification,
may be due to the lack of available stations.

Figure 30. Tatacoa named desert

74

Figure 31. Climate zones of the High Magdalena River basin
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1 SubHumid
> 1
Humid
Climatic
type
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
35-55
Very humid
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55
Extremely
humid
700000 800000 900000 1000000
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1 SubHumid
> 1
Humid
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1 SubHumid
> 1
Humid
Climatic
type
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
Climatic
type
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
700000 800000 900000 1000000 700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
35-55
Very humid
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55
Extremely
humid
35-55
Very humid
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55
Extremely
humid
700000 800000 900000 1000000 700000 800000 900000 1000000
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km

75

Using the Bagnouls - Gaussen classification, the Magdalena zone is considered
between humid and moist. From the 97 stations, 54 are considered humid and 43 moist
with BGI values lower than 8. 23 stations show a dry period between 2 to 3 months and
only 4 have 4 months of dry period (table 24).

Table 24. Bagnouls - Gaussen classification of the High Magdalena River basin

Number of
stations
Dry months
per year
BGI values
Area
(ha)
54 0 0 Humid 2069781
16 1
23 2 - 3
1 - 6
4 4 7 - 8
Moist 1894561

Figure 32. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index distribution in the High Magdalena River basin

76

Comparing the BGI and the ETo by Thornthwaite, values for determining dry
months are also lower if two times the temperature is used than if half of the ETo is used.
Figure 33 shows the precipitation values (P), half ETo, and temperature (2T) for some
stations of the Magdalena zone. From this figure dry periods using BGI occur only in
station 270 and it last only two months, between August and September, but using ETo
the dry period appears in all stations and lasts for almost three months.

Figure 33. Omberothermic curves for the Magdalena river basin

Dry period in the Magdalena zone does not occur from December to February as is
common for the previous study zones, but here from June or July to September, which is
the second shortest dry period compared to the other zones.

Station 248, (1550 masl)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Jan Feb Mar Apr
May
Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
DP
0.5 ETo
DP
BGI
Station 270 (370 masl)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
0.5 ETo
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May
Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
T
e
m
p
C
DP
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
T
e
m
p
C
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May
Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
P
2T
0.5 ETo
P
2T
0.5 ETo
DP
Station 248, (1550 masl)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Jan Feb Mar Apr
May
Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
DP
0.5 ETo
DP
BGI
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
0.5 ETo
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May
Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
T
e
m
p
C
DP
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
T
e
m
p
C
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May
Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
P
2T
0.5 ETo
P
2T
0.5 ETo
DP

77

6.6. CAUCA VALLEY

The Cauca valley zone has 51% of drylands when the Lang factor classification is
applied. Using the Thornthwaite index 10% is considered dry and with the UNEP index
only 8.6%. With de Martonne and the Emberger indices the entire zone is humid.

Table 25. Climate classifications of the Cauca valley
Num
Lang
FL
Thornthwaite
IT
De Martonne
IM
UNEP
Emberger
IE
353 115.8 Humid 80.3 Humid 76.7
Extremely
Humid 1.57 Humid 7249 Humid

78
From the 33 stations, 20 are classified as dry with the Lang index, 5 with the
Thornthwaite and 6 with the UNEP indices. Stations 322 and 339 are classified as arid
using Lang factor, which is after Desert the lower dry class, but using UNEP the same
stations are classified as dry subhumid or the higher dry class, closer to humid.

Figure 34. Climate classifications of the Cauca valley
Climatic
type
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
700000 800000 700000 800000
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
35-55 Very humid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
0 50 100 Km
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1 SubHumid
> 1
Humid
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
0 50 100 Km
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
Climatic
type
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
Climatic
type
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
700000 800000 700000 800000
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
35-55 Very humid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
35-55 Very humid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1 SubHumid
> 1
Humid
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.65 - 1 SubHumid
> 1
Humid
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16-32 Semiarid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km

79

Using the BGI classification, this zone is considered from humid to moist. From the
32 stations, 15 show dry period of less than three months. Figure 35 shows the stations with
dry periods and the climate classes delineated using the BGI. The humid class corresponds
to the North of the zone and the Moist to the South.


Number of
stations
Dry months
per year
BGI values
Area
(ha)
17 0 0 Humid 709844
15 1 - 3 1 - 3 Moist 359494

Figure 35. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index distribution in the Cauca valley

The dry period determined by BGI occurs mainly during July to August, although
some stations show another dry period, shorter in January (station 322). If ETo is used to

80
delineate dry periods, the first dry period occurs from June to September and the second is
evident in all the stations, occurring from December to January. Figure 36 demonstrates the
curves of monthly precipitation (P), mean temperature (2T) and monthly half ETo for some
stations of this zone. DP is the dry period using Thornthwaite ETo and BGI the monthly
arid index.

Figure 36. Omberothermic curve for the Cauca valley

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
T
e
m
p
C
0.5 ETo
P
2T
P
0.5 ETo
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
J an
Feb
Mar Apr
May J un J ul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
T
e
m
p
C
2T
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
J an Feb Mar Apr
May
J un J ul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
DP
BGI
0.5ETo
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
J an
Feb
Mar Apr
May J un J ul
Aug
Sep
Oct Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
T
e
m
p
C
2T
0.5ETo
P
DP
BGI
DP
BGI
DP
BGI
DP
BGI
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
T
e
m
p
C
0.5 ETo
P
2T
P
0.5 ETo
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
J an
Feb
Mar Apr
May J un J ul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
T
e
m
p
C
2T
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
J an Feb Mar Apr
May
J un J ul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
DP
BGI
0.5ETo
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
J an
Feb
Mar Apr
May J un J ul
Aug
Sep
Oct Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
T
e
m
p
C
2T
0.5ETo
P
DP
BGI
DP
BGI
DP
BGI
DP
BGI
DP
BGI
DP
BGI
DP
BGI
DP
BGI

81

6.7. NARIO AND POPAYAN HIGH PLATEAUS

This is the zone with less area of drylands according to all classification systems
used. Lang factor gives an area of 8% of the zone, meanwhile De Martonne, UNEP and
Thornthwaite less than 1%.

Using the Lang factor, only 8 stations are classified as dry, 6 of them as semiarid
and 2 as arid that is the lower aridity class. The same two stations are classified as dry
when applying the Thornthwaite, de Martonne and UNEP indices. Both stations are located
in the Pata valley, one in Mercaderes and the other one in Policarpa (department of
Nario). It is clear then that there is a small dry area in this zone but another area is also
classified as dry in Taminango. Other places of this zone do not appear as dry using those
classification systems. In this case, Lang is the only one that classifies those areas as dry.

Table 27 shows the values of the different indices for the stations of the Nario and
Popayan high plateaus. Emberger index shows all the stations as humid. There is not any
difference because the mean monthly temperatures along the year are almost constant. The
difference between the mean maximum and mean minimum temperatures is less than three
degrees (3C) for all the stations.

Figure 37 shows the climate classes according to the Lang, Thornthwaite, de
Martonne and UNEP indices.

82

Table 27. Climate classifications of the Nario and Popayan High plateaus
Num
Lang
FL
Thornthwaite
IT
De Martonne
IM
UNEP
Emberger
IE
364 182.9 Very humid 131.2 Wet 125.9 2.67 Humid 5310 Humid
370 186.4 Very humid 102.1 Humid 96.6
Extremely
Humid

391 101.7 Humid 72.5 Humid 69.5
Extremely
Humid



83

Figure 37. Climate classifications of the Nario and Popayan high plateaus
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
Climatic
type
>160 Very humid
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
35-55 Very humid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
0 50 100 Km
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16 - 32
Semiarid
> 128
Very Humid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.5-0.65 Semiarid
0.65 - 1 SubHumid
> 1
Humid
0 50 100 Km
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
Climatic
type
>160 Very humid
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
Climatic
type
>160 Very humid
20-40 Arid
40-60 Semiarid
Lang
factor
60-100 Subhumid
100-160 Humid
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
35-55 Very humid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
35-55 Very humid
20-24 Mediterranean
24-28 Semihumid
28-35 Humid
Climatic
type
Martonne
Index
> 55 Extremely
humid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16 - 32
Semiarid
> 128
Very Humid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
Climatic
type
Thornthwaite
Index
16 - 32
Semiarid
> 128
Very Humid
32-64
64-128
Subhumid
Humid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.5-0.65 Semiarid
0.65 - 1 SubHumid
> 1
Humid
Climatic
type
UNEP
Index
0.5-0.65 Semiarid
0.65 - 1 SubHumid
> 1
Humid
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km

84
Using the BGI this zone is also considered as humid to moist with BGI values very
low, lower than 7. From the 40 stations, 18 do not have dry months, 15 have from 1 to 2
and 5 stations from 3 to 4 dry months (table 28). Figure 38 shows the stations with dry
periods and the climate classes delineated using the BGI. There are two main humid areas,
one is located to the North and the other at the Southeast of the zone.

Table 28. Bagnouls Gaussen climate classification

Number of
stations
Dry months
per year
BGI values
Area
(ha)
18 0 0 Humid 615973
15 1-2 1 - 3
5 3- 4 4-7
Moist 1399375

Figure 38. Bagnouls - Gaussen Index of Nario and Popayan

85

The dry period determined using BGI occurs in the middle of the year (July to
August). When using ETo to delineate dry periods, the dry period increases from June to
September and the stations of the driest places show another second dry period in January
and February (station 368, Mercaderes). This is the case only for the five stations with 4
dry months. Figure 39 shows the curves of monthly precipitation (P), mean temperature
(2T) and monthly half ETo for some stations of this zone. DP is the dry period using
Thornthwaite ETo and BGI the monthly arid index.

Figure 39. Omberothermic curves for the Nario and Popayan high plateaus

Station 357 (Florida), 1850 masl
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
280
320
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul
Aug
Sep Oct Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
ETo
DP
Station 366 (San Pablo), 1780 masl
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
ETo
DP
BGI
Station 368 (Mercaderes), 580 masl
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul
Aug
Sep Oct Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
ETo
BGI
DP
Station 373 (Nario), 2440 masl
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Jan Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
ETo
DP
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
280
320
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul
Aug
Sep Oct Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
ETo
DP
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
280
320
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul
Aug
Sep Oct Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
ETo
DP
Station 366 (San Pablo), 1780 masl
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
ETo
DP
BGI
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul
Aug
Sep Oct Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
ETo
BGI
DP
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Jan
Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul
Aug
Sep Oct Nov
Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
ETo
BGI
DP
Station 373 (Nario), 2440 masl
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Jan Feb Mar Apr
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Months
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
m
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
T
e
m
p
C
P
2T
ETo
DP
Rainfall aggressivity indices

86
7. RAINFALL AGGRESSIVITY INDICES

7.1. PRECIPITATION CONCENTRATION INDEX (PCI)

Seasonal and Temporal precipitation Concentration Index are calculated for every
station. PCI1, (Seasonal) estimated with the mean monthly precipitation over a number of
years and PCI2 (Temporal) the average of annual PCI calculated with monthly data,
annually. For every region a linear and a quadratic regression is applied in order to
establish the best relationship between those two indices. Table 29 shows for each zone the
results of the linear and quadratic regressions together with the correlation coefficient (R
2
)
which explains if linear or quadratic regressions fits better for the relationship PCI1-PCI2.

Table 29. Relationship between PCI1 and PCI2
Linear Regression Quadratic Regression
STUDY
ZONE
Stations
PCI 2 = a PCI 1 + b R
2
PCI 2 = a PCI 1
b
R
2

Guajira peninsula 24 y = 1.5384x + 6.8366 0.2195 y = 3.9545x
0.7474
0.1924
Caribbean plateaus 93 y = 2.1518x - 10.118 0.7781 y = 0.3378x
1.541
0.7794
Santanderes and Cesar 67 y = 1.7018x - 4.1765 0.6638 y = 0.6859x
1.271
0.6847
Cundiboyacence 40 y = 1.9475x - 6.6883 0.1158 y = 0.494x
1.4104
0.123
High Magdalena 97 y = 1.6414x - 3.7871 0.8105 y = 0.6189x
1.3089
0.8089
Cauca valley 32 y = 1.8343x - 5.8133 0.7105 y = 0.3852x
1.5126
0.704
Nario and Popayan 38 y = 1.1035x + 1.3083 0.4168 y = 1.5242x
0.9077
0.4279

There are not great differences between the linear and quadratic regression. Values
of R
2
between the two methods are similar for every region but there are great differences
between the study zones. The best correlation is showed for the High Magdalena river
basin and for the Caribbean plateaus. Santanderes and Cesar zone and Cauca valley show
some correlation. For the Nario and Popayan high plateaus the correlation is low and for
the Guajira and Cundiboyacense high plateau very low.


87
The same relationship between PCI1 and PCI2 for all the stations of the country is
shown in figures 40a and 40b. The study zones from higher latitudes such as the Caribbean
plateaus and the Guajira Peninsula show values far and higher from the rest of the study
zones. The Guajira peninsula, the zone with more dry lands, lower precipitation values and
more dry months per year, is the zone with a very low correlation and the highest and the
more disperse values. Figure 40a shows the zones with extreme values, in which Cauca
valley and Magdalena Basin show a high concentration of the data.

Figure 40a -40b. Linear relationship between PCI1 and PCI2 in the study zones

Figure 40b
y =2,4378x - 12,071
R
2
=0,9175
8
13
18
23
28
33
38
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
PCI1
P
C
I
2
Zones
Santanderes
Magdalena R Basin
Nario & Popayan
Linear relationship
for all the country
Figure 40b
y =2,4378x - 12,071
R
2
=0,9175
8
13
18
23
28
33
38
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
PCI1
P
C
I
2
Zones
Santanderes
Magdalena R Basin
Nario & Popayan
Linear relationship
for all the country
Figure 40 a.
y =2,4378x - 12,071
R
2
=0,9175
8
13
18
23
28
33
38
43
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
PCI1
P
C
I
2
Zones
Guajira
Caribbean plateaus
Cundiboyaca HP
Cauca Valley
Linear relationship
for all the country
Figure 40 a.
y =2,4378x - 12,071
R
2
=0,9175
8
13
18
23
28
33
38
43
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
PCI1
P
C
I
2
Zones
Guajira
Caribbean plateaus
Cundiboyaca HP
Cauca Valley
Linear relationship
for all the country

88

Figures 41 to 47 show the distribution of PCI1 and PCI2 for each study zone. In
general, there is a pattern in the PCI distribution related with dry lands. The most driest
areas show high seasonality. The areas with higher climate indices or most humid are those
with low seasonality.

For the Guajira peninsula, using PCI1, almost the entire region is considered
seasonal with PCI values between 50 and 20. When PCI2 is used, absolutely all the region
turns into highly concentrated.

Figure 41. Seasonal and Temporal Rainfall Distribution of the Guajira peninsula

The southern part of the Caribbean plateaus, which is the most humid, with the
highest precipitation values has uniform seasonality (PCI1). The driest part in the North is
seasonal. The rest of the area is moderately seasonal. When PCI2 is applied, concentration
increases from South to North. The northern driest places are concentrated to highly
concentrated.

1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
10-15
15-20
PCI1
Moderately
seasonal
Seasonal
Seasonal
Distribution
20-50 Highly
Seasonal
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
7
5
0
0
0
0
1
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
5
0
0
0
0
1
9
0
0
0
0
0
PCI2
Temporal
Distribution
20-50 Highly
Concentrated
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
10-15
15-20
PCI1
Moderately
seasonal
Seasonal
Seasonal
Distribution
20-50 Highly
Seasonal
1100000 1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
7
5
0
0
0
0
1
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
5
0
0
0
0
1
9
0
0
0
0
0
PCI2
Temporal
Distribution
20-50 Highly
Concentrated
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km

89
In the Santanderes and Cesar region, when using PCI1, the zone is considered
uniform in the South, which is the most humid part. The rest of the area is moderately
seasonal. Using PCI2 the driest places in the North and in the centre have a concentrated
temporal rainfall distribution. The rest of the region has moderately concentrated rainfall
distribution.

The Cundiboyacense high plateau has seasonal rainfall distribution (PCI1) from
uniform to moderate seasonality and the temporal rainfall distribution (PCI2) if moderately
concentrated in almost all the area, except in the driest part which is concentrated.

The High Magdalena River Basin and the Nario and Popayan high plateaus show
some uniformity seasonality in the most humid areas when PCI1 is applied but then they
turn into concentrated when PCI2 is used.

The Cauca valley has in almost all the stations uniform seasonality and concentrated
rainfall temporal distribution.

Figure 42. Seasonal and Temporal Rainfall Distribution in the Caribbean plateaus
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
0 50 100 Km
10-15
15-20
Moderately
seasonal
Seasonal
< 10
Uniform
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km
10-15
15-20
Moderately
concentrated
Concentrated
< 20
Highly
Concentrated
PCI1
Seasonal
Distribution
PCI2
Temporal
Distribution
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000 700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
10-15
15-20
Moderately
seasonal
Seasonal
< 10
Uniform
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000 700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
10-15
15-20
Moderately
concentrated
Concentrated
< 20
Highly
Concentrated
PCI1
Seasonal
Distribution
PCI2
Temporal
Distribution

90

Figure 43. PCI Distribution in the Santanderes and Cesar zone

Figure 44. PCI Distribution in the Cundiboyacense high plateau

1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
10-15
15-20
Moderately
concentrated
Concentrated
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
10-15
Moderately
seasonal
< 10
Uniform
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
PCI1
Seasonal
Distribution
PCI2
Temporal
Distribution
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
10-15
15-20
Moderately
concentrated
Concentrated
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
10-15
Moderately
seasonal
< 10
Uniform
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
PCI1
Seasonal
Distribution
PCI2
Temporal
Distribution
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
10-15
Moderately
seasonal
< 10
Uniform
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
10-15
15-20
Moderately
concentrated
Concentrated
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
PCI1
Seasonal
Distribution
PCI2
Temporal
Distribution

91

Figure 45. PCI Distribution in the High Magdalena River Basin

Figure 46. Distribution of the PCI in the Cauca valley
10-15
Moderately
seasonal
< 10
Uniform
700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
10-15
Moderately
concentrated
< 10
Uniform
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
PCI1
Seasonal
Distribution
PCI2
Temporal
Distribution
10-15
Moderately
seasonal
< 10
Uniform
700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
10-15
Moderately
concentrated
< 10
Uniform
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
PCI1
Seasonal
Distribution
PCI2
Temporal
Distribution
700000 800000
10-15
Moderately
seasonal
< 10 Uniform
700000 800000
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
10-15
Moderately
concentrated
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
PCI1
Seasonal
Distribution PCI2
Temporal
Distribution
700000 800000
10-15
Moderately
seasonal
< 10 Uniform
700000 800000
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
10-15
Moderately
concentrated
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
PCI1
Seasonal
Distribution PCI2
Temporal
Distribution

92

Figure 47. Distribution of the PCI in the Nario and Popayan high plateaus

7.2. MODIFIED FOURNIER INDEX (MFI)

MFI1 is estimated with the mean monthly precipitation data over a number of years
and MFI2 with the average of annual MFI, annually. For every region, a linear regression
and quadratic regression is applied in order to establish the best relationship between those
two indices. Table 30 shows for each study zone the results of linear and quadratic
regressions.

Linear regression Quadratic regression
STUDY
ZONE
Stations
MFI 2 = a MFI 1 + b R
2
MFI 2 = a MFI 1
b
R
2

Guajira peninsula 24 y = 1.4163x + 22.548 0.8462 y = 3.6995x
0.8232
0.8804
Caribbean plateaus 93 y = 0.977x + 41.271 0.7761 y = 6.049x
0.6849
0.7698
Santanderes & Cesar 67 y = 1.231x + 6.424 0.9365 y = 1.781x
0.9324
0.9406
Cundiboyacence 40 y = 0.9925x + 22.438 0.8304 y = 3.0884x
0.7976
0.816
High Magdalena 97 y = 1.1272x + 18.333 0.9557 y = 1.8055x
0.927
0.9441
Cauca valley 32 y = 1.1092x + 12.488 0.9807 y = 1.6254x
0.9388
0.9826
Nario and Popayan 38 y = 1.1897x + 4.9437 0.9871 y = 1.2985x
0.9886
0.9879
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
10-15
Moderately
seasonal
< 10
Uniform
0 50 100 Km
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
10-15
0 50 100 Km
Moderately
concentrated
PCI1
Seasonal
Distribution
PCI2
Temporal
Distribution
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
10-15
Moderately
seasonal
< 10
Uniform
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
10-15
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
Moderately
concentrated
PCI1
Seasonal
Distribution
PCI2
Temporal
Distribution

93

Differences between the linear and quadratic regression are very low but they vary
per zone. For the Caribbean, Cundiboyacense and Magdalena zones, the best relation is the
linear regression. For the Guajira, Santanderes, Cauca and Nario, the best relationship is
expressed by a quadratic regression.

With both methods, differences of R
2
between every study zones are lower. All the
regions show a high correlation between MFI1 and MFI2. The best correlation is for the
Santanderes, Magdalena, Cauca and Nario zones with more than 0.93 value of R
2
. The
Caribbean plateau is the zone with lower correlation (0.77).

The relationship between MFI1 and MFI2 for all the stations of the country is
shown in figure 48. Values for the Guajira and Cundiboyacense zones are concentrated in
the lower part. The other study zones show a wide distribution. Caribbean and Santanderes
zones also show dispersed values.

Figure 48. Linear relationship between MFI1 and MFI2 for all the regions
MFI2 =1,084*MFI1 +24,403
R
2
=0,9218
50
100
150
200
250
300
M
F
I
2
MFI
Guajira
Caribbean plateaus
Santanderes
Cundiboyaca HP
Magdalena R Basin
Cauca Valley
Nario & Popayan HP
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
MFI1
Linear (MFI)
MFI2 =1,084*MFI1 +24,403
R
2
=0,9218
50
100
150
200
250
300
M
F
I
2
50
100
150
200
250
300
M
F
I
2
MFI
Guajira
Caribbean plateaus
Santanderes
Cundiboyaca HP
Magdalena R Basin
Cauca Valley
Nario & Popayan HP
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
MFI1
Linear (MFI)

94

Figures 49 to 55 show the distribution of the Modified Fournier Index (MFI1 and
MFI2) for every study zone.

The Guajira peninsula has very low to low values of MFI1. Those values
increase and this zone is dominant moderate to high class with MFI2. The Caribbean,
Santanderes and Magdalena are the zones with higher values of MFI. Those zones are
dominant very high class using MFI2. The Cundiboyacense zone has low to
moderate class of MFI1 and those values increase from moderate to high with MFI2.
Cauca and Nario zones from moderate to high using MFI1 and from High to very
high with MFI2.

Figure 49. Distribution of the MFI in the Guajira peninsula
1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
< 60
90-120
MFI1
Very low
Moderate
DESCRIPTION
60-90
Low
1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
7
5
0
0
0
0
1
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
5
0
0
0
0
1
9
0
0
0
0
0
< 160
90-120
MFI2
Very High
Moderate
DESCRIPTION
60-90
Low
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
< 60
90-120
MFI1
Very low
Moderate
DESCRIPTION
60-90
Low
< 60
90-120
MFI1
Very low
Moderate
DESCRIPTION
60-90
Low
1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
7
5
0
0
0
0
1
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
5
0
0
0
0
1
9
0
0
0
0
0
< 160
90-120
MFI2
Very High
Moderate
DESCRIPTION
60-90
Low
120-160
High
< 160
90-120
MFI2
Very High
Moderate
DESCRIPTION
60-90
Low
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km

95

Figure 50. Distribution of the MFI in the Caribbean plateaus

Figure 51. Distribution of the MFI in the Santanderes and Cesar zone
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000 700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000 700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km

96

Figure 52. Distribution of the MFI in the Cundiboyacense high plateau

Figure 53. Distribution of the MFI in the High Magdalena River Basin
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
90-120 Moderate
60-90
Low
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
90-120 Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
90-120 Moderate
60-90
Low
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
90-120 Moderate
60-90
Low
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
90-120 Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
90-120 Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
700000 800000 900000 1000000
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km

97

Figure 54. Distribution of the MFI in the Cauca valley

Figure 55. Distribution of the MFI in the Nario and Popayan high plateaus
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
60-90
Low
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
700000 800000
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
60 - 90 Low
700000 800000
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km
0 50 100 Km
700000 800000
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
60 - 90 Low
MFI1 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
60 - 90 Low
700000 800000
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
MFI2 DESCRIPTION
< 160
90-120
Very high
Moderate
120-160
High
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km

98
7.3. EROSIVITY INDEX OF CORINE (1995)

The erosivity index (ErIn) estimated using the CORINE methodology is represented
for each study zone using the same interpolation method (IDW) in the figures 56 to 59.

The Guajira peninsula shows 82.7% of the area with moderate erosivity and 17.3%
with high values. Areas with higher values are spread out in the North and South.

The Caribbean plateaus zone has dominant high ErIn values. 93.1% of this zone has
high erosivity and only 6.9% moderate values. The zone with moderate values is located in
the driest North, and in the most humid southern zone. In this case the extreme values of
precipitation (the lowest and the highest) give lower values of erosivity.

The Santanderes and Cesar zone show values of erosivity from 4 to 10. 52% of the
zone consists of moderate values and 48% are high erosivity values. The areas with high
erosivity values are the northern part (except the extreme top) and the extreme Southwest.

The Magdalena river basin shows ErIn values from low to high class. The areas
with higher erosivity index (31%) are located in the middle of the region, from North to
South following the pattern of the lowest place of the valley. The rest of the area, which is
more mountainous and with higher altitudes, has moderate values of ErIn (67%).

The Cundiboyacense high plateau is the zone with lower erosivity values. Those
vary from 2 to 7. 26% of the zone presents low erosivity and 74% moderate. The areas with
lower erosivity ranges are the driest places.

The Cauca valley shows a dominant moderate ErIn values in 95% of the zone and
only 5% of its area, located to the Southeast, shows high erosivity values.

The Nario and Popayan high plateaus have erosivity ranges from low to high.
In this case, there is no relationship between the ErIn values and the moisture regime.

99

Figure 56. Distribution of ErIn for the Guajira and Caribbean zones

Figure 57. Distribution of ErIn for the Santanderes and Magdalena zones
1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
7
5
0
0
0
0
1
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
5
0
0
0
0
1
9
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
High
Moderate
1150000 1200000 1250000 1300000
1
7
5
0
0
0
0
1
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
5
0
0
0
0
1
9
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
High
Moderate
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
High
Moderate
700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000 700000 800000 9000000 100000 1100000
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
High
Moderate
ErIn DESCRIPTION
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
High
Moderate
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
High
Moderate
1100000 1200000 1300000
1
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
High
Moderate
ErIn DESCRIPTION
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
High
Moderate
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
High
Moderate
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
700000 800000 900000 1000000
0 50 100 Km
ErIn
DESCRIPTION
High
Moderate
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
Low
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
700000 800000 900000 1000000
0 50 100 Km
700000 800000 900000 1000000 700000 800000 900000 1000000
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
ErIn
DESCRIPTION
High
Moderate
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
Low
ErIn
DESCRIPTION
High
Moderate
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
Low

100

Figure 58. Distribution of ErIn for the Cundiboyacense and Cauca zones

Figure 59. Distribution of ErIn for the Nario and Popayan high plateaus
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
Moderate
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
Low
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
5
0
0
0
0
1000000 1050000 1100000 1150000
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
Moderate
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
Low
ErIn DESCRIPTION
Moderate
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
Low
700000 800000
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
High
Moderate
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
700000 800000
9
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
High
Moderate
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
ErIn DESCRIPTION
High
Moderate
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
High
Moderate
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
Low
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
6
5
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
500000 550000 600000 650000 700000
0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km 0 50 100 Km
ErIn DESCRIPTION
High
Moderate
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
Low
ErIn DESCRIPTION
High
Moderate
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
Low
Conclusions

101

8. CONCLUSIONS
CLIMATE INDICES

The five climate indices evaluated to delineate dry lands in Colombia, show
different results for every study zone. The Lang and the UNEP indices define a low class
of aridity named desert for Lang and hyperarid for UNEP. The next class is arid,
which is the first class for the other indices (de Martonne, Thornthwaite and Emberger).
The BagnoulsGaussen index does not use the term desert or arid but dry.

The Lang climate index tends to classify more areas as dry than the other indices.
Applying Lang, Colombia has the lowest class of climate types which is desert. This
desert climate is found in the whole Guajira zone (1,136.381 ha) and in the north of the
Caribbean plateaus (11.802 ha). If the Lang index is used, in each of the study zones appear
dry lands and this is related to the erosion and degradation processes reported by secondary
studies, in which other characteristics such as vegetation, erosion and soils are used to
delineate areas with desertification problems.

The Emberger index classifies absolutely all the stations of Colombia as humid,
which is the higher climate class. This index is not suitable in Colombia because it is based
on the differences between the mean temperatures of the hottest and the coldest months. In
the case of Colombia, those differences are very low due to the tropical and equatorial
location of the country. The mean temperatures over the year do not vary more than four
degrees. This index can be applied in seasonal latitudes where the difference of
temperatures in between summer and winter is very high.

The de Martonne index tends to classify every study zone as more humid in
comparison to the other indices, although the entire Guajira zone appears to be between
Conclusions

102
arid and semiarid. This index seems to classify only as dry lands the areas with extreme
low precipitation values.

The UNEP and Thornthwaite indices agree for the Guajira zone, with Lang and de
Martonne, when the whole Guajira zone is classified as dry. With the Thornthwaite index
the whole zone is classified as arid which is the lower class, with the UNEP index half of
the Guajira zone is arid and half is semiarid. In this case, Thornthwaite agrees with Lang,
but UNEP and Lang differ. The Thornthwaite and UNEP indices are also similar for the
Santanderes, Magdalena, Cauca and Nario zones but they differ in the Caribbean and in
the Cundiboyacense zones. With the Thornthwaite index the Caribbean plateaus has 24.5%
of the area as dry and with the UNEP index only 16.6%. In the Cundiboyacense zone the
result is opposite. The UNEP index considers 44.5% of the area as dry, in contrast with the
Thornthwaite index where the result is only 13.2% dry.

Using the Bagnouls-Gaussen classification, based on 2 times temperature and
precipitation, there is a clear differentiation of dry monthly periods. But when the BGI is
calculated annually, all the zones are classified between humid and moist. The fact that
Bagnouls-Gaussen proposes only four categories, then the classification of drylands are
zones with extreme low or no rainfall values and with extremely high temperature. This is
not the case for the latitudes in which Colombia is located. Maximum temperatures in
Colombia are not more than 33C, while Mediterranean or subtropical zones report more
than 38C in the summer. Four classes are not enough to evaluate the climate differences at
regional level in equatorial latitudes.

Determination of dry months using BGI gives less dry periods than when half ETo
calculated with the Thornthwaite formula is used. As ETo by Thornthwaite underestimates
dry periods, then the estimated dry periods in this study should be even longer. In this case,
BGI is not very approximate to assess dry periods based on the temperature for these
latitudes.
Conclusions

103
DRY LANDS

Using the same interpolation method to delineate dry lands for different climate
indices, it is possible to estimate the dryland areas in each zone. Nevertheless it is
necessary to consider the effect of other factors such as relief and wind.

Table 31 shows the area in hectares and the percentage for each study zone according to
the Lang, UNEP, Thornthwaite and de Martonne climatic indices. The Guajira peninsula is the
only zone completely classified as dry by all indices. The other regions show contrasts between
the different indices.

Some areas known as very dry with badlands, like the Tatacoa desert (in the
Magdalena zone), with more than 300000 ha and the Taminango xerophitic ecosystem (in
Nario) appear in those zone as dry lands only with the Lang climate classification. This is not
the case when other indices are used.

Table 31. Areas (ha) and percentage of drylands per study zone according to different
climate indices

LANG UNEP THORNTWAITE MARTONNE
STUDY ZONE
(ha) % (ha) % (ha) % (ha) %
GUAJIRA 1136381 100.0 1136381 100.0 1136381 100.0 1136381 100.0
CARIBE 5365201 90.5 984341 16.6 1455292 24.5 223514 3.8
SANTANDERES 2121912 53.2 345175 8.6 270883 6.8 91073 2.3
CUNDBOY 463137 43.9 469598 44.5 139705 13.2 1287 0.1
MAGDALENA 1333399 33.6 18931 0.5 50617 1.3 0 0.0
CAUCA 544312 50.9 92224 8.6 103648 9.7 0 0.0
NARIO 157733 7.8 17117 0.8 16335 0.8 4954 0.2

Conclusions

104
The Lang climate classification gives more area as drylands than the other indices and
this may be due that it is considering mean annual temperature, which in the case of Colombia
is almost constant all the year.

The UNEP and Thornthwaite indices give less drylands than the Lang index. The
UNEP index is giving less dry lands area may be because the ETo was calculated by
Thornthwaite method, which according to the literature is underestimating ETo for dry periods
or overestimating for humid periods.

Another cause of the differences between the Lang, UNEP and Thornthwaite indices is
the fact that the boundaries for dry class are not the same.

RAINFALL AGRESSIVITY

Relationship between PCI1 and PCI2 varies for each study zone. The Magdalena and
the Caribbean zone show the best correlation (R
2
values of 0.81 and 0.77 respectively), while
the Cundiboyacense and Guajira zones show the lower values (0.12 and 0.21). In the case of
Colombia, relation of PCI1 and PCI2 varies highly between zones.

For almost each study zones, PCI shows higher seasonality in the driest areas than in
the moist areas. Using PCI2, the entire Guajira zone is classified with high seasonality. The
class seasonal appears only in the driest places of the Caribbean, Santanderes and
Cundiboyacense zones. The rest of the areas are considered as moderated seasonal.

Differences between the MFI1 and MFI2 relationship in the different study is
relatively low. The Santanderes, Magdalena, Cauca and Nario zones show coefficient
values of 0.94, 0.96, 0.98 and 0.99 respectively, which is very high. The lower value is
found in the Caribbean plateaus (0.77), still relatively acceptable.

Using the MFI2, in general for all the zones, more than 90% of the area is
considered between high to very high classes of aggressivity index. The zones with
Conclusions

105
relatively more area of very high aggressivity are the Caribbean (with 87% of the area),
Magdalena (83%), Santanderes (70%) and Nario (64%). The Guajira peninsula is the zone
with less aggressivity index, with 57% of the area between low and very low and 43% as
moderate.
EROSIVITY

Using the CORINE methodology, the Caribbean plateaus are the zones with highest
erosivity index. 93% of the area shows values higher than 8. Santanderes, Nario and
Magdalena zones show moderate to high values. The Guajira and Cauca zones have dominant
moderate values in almost all the area and the Cundiboyacense zone is between low to
moderate.

References

106

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