Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
= = =
The reason for this is that, as shown by Fig. 4, the area of a sphere round the source through
with a beam of ray passes, increases as the square of the distance r. in the vacuum (in air), therefore
If we plot the counting rate (r) versus the distance r on a log-log scale, we obtain a straight line of
slope 2.
[5]
Fig. 4: Law of distance relating to rays
which are propagated in a straight line from
a point of source.
From the regression lines from the measured values in Fig. 4, applying the exponential expression
( )
b
r a r =
we obtain the value
b =-2.07 0.01
for the exponent
this thus proves the applicability of the inverse square law
Fig. 5: Counting rate plotted against
distance (log-log plot).
[6]
Experiment 1
Setup according to Fig. 6.
The distance between the front edge of the source rod and the counting tube window is
approximately 4cm; consequently, the absorption plates can be easily inserted into the radiation path.
Fig. 6: Experiment set-up for measuring the half-value thickness of different materials.
Measure the impulse counting rate as a function of the distance between the source and the counter
tube. Plot the counting rate against distance (log log plot).
[7]
II. Absorption of and rays
An energetic electron can scatter easily from a nucleus, because it is so light, losing energy by
radiation (accelerated charged particles radiate). The radiation appears in a secondary
bremsstrahlung (braking radiation) photon. This process can be used to generate continuous
energy-spectrum X-rays. Also present would be atomic transition photons of definite energy
characteristic of the impacted material, typical refractory such as tungsten (W) or tantalum (Ta).
In a series of such interactions involving electrons and photons, a single primary entity of either type
may thus produce multiple secondary (tertiary, etc.) entities of lower and lower individual energy. A
spectacular example is the air shower produced by a very energetic cosmic ray proton, which
involves electrons and photons in increasing numbers and decreasing energies, spreading by
scattering to cover many square miles at ground level, where they can be detected as arising from a
single primary by their coincident arrival at widely separated plastic scintillation photomultiplier
detectors.
It makes sense to consider and rays together, though one is charged and the other not, because
each can release the other type in a cascade or shower involving more and more entities at lower and
lower energies. This is because both interact electromagnetically. In these processes it is important
to realize that electrons are forever for our purposes (conservation of leptons, light elementary
particles) , but photons may come and go. Electrons freed by gammas were previously bound to
atoms or molecules, whereas new photons can be created (or old ones vanish).
The gamma ray photon (energy related to frequency by Planck's constant: E =h ) has three
fundamental interactions, successively dominant as photon energy increases in the order:
a) photoelectric effect with atomic electron all photon energy transferred to electron,
primary photon disappears,
b) Compton effect photon interacts with free electron primary photon disappears and
secondary photon appears (lower energy), electron recoils with remaining energy,
c) pair production photon interacts with positively charged nucleus - primary photon
disappears and non-pre existing positron-electron pair (charge conserving) appear with
kinetic energy equal to excess over pair rest mass energy (1.02 MeV). Positron eventually
finds a different (atomic) electron and annihilates with emission of two gamma rays
photons, each with 0.511 MeV energy (conserving the rest mass energy of the annihilated
e
+
-e
-
pair).
[8]
Theory
The attenuation of the gamma rays or beta rays when they pass through an absorber of thickness d
is expressed by the exponential law
( )
( )
ud
e o N d N
=
,
Where (d) is the impulse counting rate after absorption in the absorber, and (o)
the impulse
counting rate when no absorber material and depends on the energy of the gamma quantum.
The relative contributions of these three effects to total absorption depends primarily on the energy of
the quanta and on the atomic number of the absorber (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7: Absorption of gamma rays by leads as
a function of the energy (
Co
=fraction due to
Compton effect
Ph
=fraction due to
photoelectric effect
Pa
=fraction due to pair .
formation). The total absorption coefficient
(attenuation coefficient) =
Co +
PH +
Pa
We can see from the /E curves in the Fig. 7 that lead is particularly suitable as an absorber of
gamma rays of low or high energy.
[9]
The attenuation of the gamma rays therefore takes place predominantly in the electron shell of the
absorber atoms. The absorption coefficient should therefore be proportional to the number of
electrons in the shell per unit volume, or approximately proportional to the density of of the
material.
The mass attenuation coefficient / is therefore roughly the same for the different materials.
Lead: ( = 11.34gcm
-3
)
=0.62cm
-1
, s
=0.009 cm
-1
d
1/2
=1.12cm, sd
1/2
=0.02 cm
/ = 0.055cm
2
g
-1
s
/
=0.001cm
2
g
-1
Aluminium: ( = 2.69gcm
-3
)
=0.15cm
-1
, s
=0.001 cm
-1
d
1/2
=4.6cm, sd
1/2
=0.3 cm
/ = 0.056cm
2
g
-1
s
/
=0.004cm
2
g
-1
Iron: ( = 7.86gcm
-3
)
=0.394cm
-1
, s
=0.006 cm
-1
d
1/2
=1.76cm, sd
1/2
=0.03 cm
/ = 0.050cm
2
g
-1
s
/
=0.001cm
2
g
-1
Concrete: ( = 2.35gcm
-3
)
=0.124cm
-1
, s
=0.009 cm
-1
d
1/2
=5.6cm, sd
1/2
=0.4 cm
/ = 0.053cm
2
g
-1
s
/
=0.004cm
2
g
-1
Plexiglass: ( = 1.119gcm
-3
)
=0.078cm
-1
, s
=0.004 cm
-1
d
1/2
=8.9cm, sd
1/2
=0.5 cm
/ = 0.066cm
2
g
-1
s
/
=0.003cm
2
g
-1
[10]
Fig. 8: Impulse counting rate as a function
of the thickness d of the absorber. The half-value
thickness d
1/2
of tha material is defined as the
thickness at which the impulse counting rate is
reduced by half, and can be calculated from the
absorption coefficient in accordance with
2
2 1
In
d
/
=
From the regression lines from the measured values in Fig. 8 we obtain the following values for the
=b and for d
1/2
and / with the relevant standard errors, using the exponential expression
2
2 1
In
d
/
=
From the regression lines from the measured values in Fig. 8 we obtain the following values for d
1/2
and /, with the relevant standard errors, using the exponential expression
ae
N
bd
=
The net result, for betas and gammas, is pretty closely exponential absorption
, with the coefficient
depending on absorber material.
[11]
Experiment 2.
The procedure and evaluation are shown here for an exemplary experiment for -quanta; however,
they can also be performed in an analogous manner for electrons. In the latter case, the Sr-90 source
rod from the radioactive sources set (09047.50) and the absorption plate set for -radiation
(909024.00) must be used.
Begin by counting the background for one minute to check that the equipment operates properly. The
background is partly from cosmic rays and partly from radioactive materials, which are normally
present in the ground and in building materials.
The -rays from
60
Co can easily be shielded. Put one of the thin aluminum absorbers (made of four
ply aluminum foil) on a tray between the counter and the source. Count for one minute. Add more
of the thin aluminum absorbers and determine the counting rate each time, until the counting rate
becomes approximately constant. Hence, to establish this background constant counting rate
accurately, eventually leaving a background due mainly to
60
Co gammas which are little affected by
the thin aluminum absorber.
Determine the half-value thickness d
1/2
and absorption coefficient.