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1999 by CRC Press LLC
SfafIc and IynamIc
CharacferIsfIcs ol
InsfrumenfafIon
3.1 Static Chaiacteiistics of Instiument Systems
Output/Input Relationship Diift Hysteiesis and
Backlash Satuiation Bias Eiioi of Nonlineaiity
3.2 Dynamic Chaiacteiistics of Instiument Systems
Dealing with Dynamic States Foicing Functions
Chaiacteiistic Equation Development Response of the
Diffeient Lineai Systems Types Zeio-Oidei Blocks
Fiist-Oidei Blocks Second-Oidei Blocks
3.3 Calibiation of Measuiements
Befoie we can begin to develop an undeistanding of the static and time changing chaiacteiistics of
measuiements, it is necessaiy to build a fiamewoik foi undeistanding the piocess involved, setting down
the main woids used to desciibe concepts as we piogiess.
Measuremen is the piocess by which ielevant infoimation about a system of inteiest is inteipieted
using the human thinking ability to defne what is believed to be the new knowledge gained. This
infoimation may be obtained foi puiposes of contiolling the behavioi of the system (as in engineeiing
applications) oi foi leaining moie about it (as in scientifc investigations).
The basic entity needed to develop the knowledge is called Jaa, and it is obtained with physical
assemblies known as sensois that aie used to obseive oi sense system vaiiables. The teims n[ormaon
and |now|eJge tend to be used inteichangeably to desciibe the entity iesulting aftei data fiom one oi
moie sensois have been piocessed to give moie meaningful undeistanding. The individual vaiiables being
sensed aie called measuranJs.
The most obvious way to make obseivations is to use the human senses of seeing, feeling, and heaiing.
This is often quite adequate oi may be the only means possible. In many cases, howevei, sensois aie used
that have been devised by man to enhance oi ieplace oui natuial sensois. The numbei and vaiiety of
sensois is veiy laige indeed. Examples of man-made sensois aie those used to measuie tempeiatuie,
piessuie, oi length. The piocess of sensing is often called ransJuton, being made with tiansduceis.
These man-made sensoi assemblies, when coupled with the means to piocess the data into knowledge,
aie geneially known as (measuiing) instiumentation.
The degiee of peifection of a measuiement can only be deteimined if the goal of the measuiement
can be defned without eiioi. Fuitheimoie, instiumentation cannot be made to opeiate peifectly. Because
of these two ieasons alone, measuiing instiumentation cannot give ideal sensing peifoimance and it
must be selected to suit the allowable eiioi in a given situation.
efer H. Sydenham
Inverry of Sour| Aurro|o
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Measuiement is a piocess of mapping actually occuiiing vaiiables into equivalent values. Deviations
fiom peifect measuiement mappings aie called errors: what we get as the iesult of measuiement is not
exactly what is being measuied. A ceitain amount of eiioi is allowable piovided it is below the level of
unceitainty we can accept in a given situation. As an example, considei two diffeient needs to measuie
the measuiand, time. The unceitainty to which we must measuie it foi daily puiposes of attending a
meeting is aiound a 1 min in 24 h. In oibiting satellite contiol, the time unceitainty needed must be as
small as milliseconds in yeais. Instiumentation used foi the foimei case costs a few dollais and is the
watch we weai; the lattei instiumentation costs thousands of dollais and is the size of a suitcase.
We often iecoid measuiand values as though they aie constant entities, but they usually change in
value as time passes. These dynamic" vaiiations will occui eithei as changes in the measuiand itself oi
wheie the measuiing instiumentation takes time to follow the changes in the measuiand - in which
case it may intioduce unacceptable eiioi.
Foi example, when a fevei theimometei is used to measuie a peison`s body tempeiatuie, we aie looking
to see if the peison is at the noimally expected value and, if it is not, to then look foi changes ovei time
as an indicatoi of his oi hei health. Figuie 3.1 shows a chait of a patient`s tempeiatuie. Obviously, if the
theimometei gives eiiois in its use, wiong conclusions could be diawn. It could be in eiioi due to
incoiiect calibiation of the theimometei oi because no allowance foi the dynamic iesponse of the
theimometei itself was made.
Instiumentation, theiefoie, will only give adequately coiiect infoimation if we undeistand the static
and dynamic chaiacteiistics of both the measuiand and the instiumentation. This, in tuin, allows us to
then decide if the eiioi aiising is small enough to accept.
As an example, considei the electionic signal amplifei in a sound system. It will be commonly quoted
as having an amplifcation constant aftei feedback if applied to the basic amplifei of, say, 10. The actual
amplifcation value is dependent on the fiequency of the input signal, usually falling off as the fiequency
incieases. The fiequency iesponse of the basic amplifei, befoie it is confguied with feedback that
maikedly alteis the iesponse and loweis the amplifcation to get a stable opeiation, is shown as a giaph
of amplifcation gain veisus input fiequency. An example of the open loop gain of the basic amplifei is
given in Figuie 3.2. This lack of unifoim gain ovei the fiequency iange iesults in eiioi - the sound
output is not a tiue enough iepiesentation of the input.
FIGURE 3.1 A patient`s tempeiatuie chait shows changes taking place ovei time.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Befoie we can delve moie deeply into the static and dynamic chaiacteiistics of instiumentation, it is
necessaiy to undeistand the diffeience in meaning between seveial basic teims used to desciibe the iesults
of a measuiement activity.
The coiiect teims to use aie set down in documents called sanJarJs. Seveial standaidized metiology
teiminologies exist but they aie not consistent. It will be found that books on instiumentation and
statements of instiument peifoimance often use teims in diffeient ways. Useis of measuiement infoi-
mation need to be constantly diligent in making suie that the statements made aie inteipieted coiiectly.
The thiee companion concepts about a measuiement that need to be well undeistood aie its Jstrm-
naon, its retson, and its atturaty. These aie too often used inteichangeably - which is quite wiong
to do because they covei quite diffeient concepts, as will now be explained.
When making a measuiement, the smallest inciement that can be disceined is called the Jstrmnaon.
(Although now offcially declaied as wiong to use, the teim reso|uon still fnds its way into books and
iepoits as meaning disciimination.) The disciimination of a measuiement is impoitant to know because
it tells if the sensing piocess is able to sense fne enough changes of the measuiand.
Even if the disciimination is satisfactoiy, the value obtained fiom a iepeated measuiement will iaiely
give exactly the same value each time the same measuiement is made undei conditions of constant value
of measuiand. This is because eiiois aiise in ieal systems. The spiead of values obtained indicates the
piecision of the set of the measuiements. The woid retson is not a woid desciibing a quality of the
measuiement and is incoiiectly used as such. Two teims that should be used heie aie: reeaa||y, which
desciibes the vaiiation foi a set of measuiements made in a veiy shoit peiiod; and the reroJut||y,
which is the same concept but now used foi measuiements made ovei a long peiiod. As these teims
desciibe the outcome of a set of values, theie is need to be able to quote a single value to desciibe the
oveiall iesult of the set. This is done using statistical methods that piovide foi calculation of the mean
value" of the set and the associated spiead of values, called its arante.
The atturaty of a measuiement is coveied in moie depth elsewheie so only an intioduction to it is
iequiied heie. Accuiacy is the closeness of a measuiement to the value defned to be the tiue value. This
FIGURE 3.2 This giaph shows how the amplifcation of an amplifei changes with input fiequency.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
concept will become cleaiei when the following illustiative example is studied foi it biings togethei the
thiee teims into a single peispective of a typical measuiement.
Considei then the situation of scoiing an aichei shooting aiiows into a taiget as shown in Figuie 3.3(a).
The taiget has a cential point - the bulls-eye. The objective foi a peifect iesult is to get all aiiows into
the bulls-eye. The iings aiound the bulls-eye allow us to set up numeiic measuies of less-peifect shooting
peifoimance.
Disciimination is the distance at which we can just distinguish (i.e., disciiminate) the placement of
one aiiow fiom anothei when they aie veiy close. Foi an aiiow, it is the thickness of the hole that decides
the disciimination. Two close-by positions of the two aiiows in Figuie 3.3(a) cannot be sepaiated easily.
Use of thinnei aiiows would allow fnei detail to be decided.
Repeatability is deteimined by measuiing the spiead of values of a set of aiiows fied into the taiget
ovei a shoit peiiod. The smallei the spiead, the moie piecise is the shootei. The shootei in Figuie 3.3(a)
is moie piecise than the shootei in Figuie 3.3(|).
If the shootei ietuined to shoot each day ovei a long peiiod, the iesults may not be the same each
time foi a shoot made ovei a shoit peiiod. The mean and vaiiance of the values aie now called the
reroJut||y of the aichei`s peifoimance.
Accuiacy iemains to be explained. This numbei desciibes how well the mean (the aveiage) value of
the shots sits with iespect to the bulls-eye position. The set in Figuie 3.3(|) is moie accuiate than the
set in Figuie 3.3(a) because the mean is neaiei the bulls-eye (but less piecise!).
At fist sight, it might seem that the thiee concepts of disciimination, piecision, and accuiacy have a
stiict ielationship in that a bettei measuiement is always that with all thiee aspects made as high as is
affoidable. This is not so. They need to be set up to suit the needs of the application.
We aie now in a position to exploie the commonly met teims used to desciibe aspects of the static
and the dynamic peifoimance of measuiing instiumentation.
FIGURE 3.3 Two sets of aiiow shots fied into a
taiget allow undeistanding of the measuiement
concepts of disciimination, piecision, and accu-
iacy. (a) The taiget used foi shooting aiiows allows
investigation of the teims used to desciibe the mea-
suiement iesult. (b) A diffeient set of placements.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
3.1 Static Characteristics ul Instrument Systems
Output]Input Re!atiunship
Instiument systems aie usually built up fiom a seiial linkage of distinguishable building blocks. The
actual physical assembly may not appeai to be so but it can be bioken down into a iepiesentative diagiam
of connected blocks. Figuie 3.4 shows the block diagiam iepiesentation of a humidity sensoi. The sensoi
is activated by an input physical paiametei and piovides an output signal to the next block that piocesses
the signal into a moie appiopiiate state.
A key geneiic entity is, theiefoie, the ielationship between the input and output of the block. As was
pointed out eailiei, all signals have a time chaiacteiistic, so we must considei the behavioi of a block in
teims of both the static and dynamic states.
The behavioi of the static iegime alone and the combined static and dynamic iegime can be found
thiough use of an appiopiiate mathematical model of each block. The mathematical desciiption of system
iesponses is easy to set up and use if the elements all act as lineai systems and wheie addition of signals
can be caiiied out in a lineai additive mannei. If nonlineaiity exists in elements, then it becomes
consideiably moie diffcult - peihaps even quite impiactical - to piovide an easy to follow mathemat-
ical explanation. Foitunately, geneial desciiption of instiument systems iesponses can be usually be
adequately coveied using the lineai tieatment.
The output/input iatio of the whole cascaded chain of blocks 1, 2, 3, etc. is given as:
output/input]
total
output/input]
1
output/input]
2
output/input]
3
.
The output/input iatio of a block that includes both the static and dynamic chaiacteiistics is called
the rans[er [unton and is given the symbol C.
The equation foi C can be wiitten as two paits multiplied togethei. One expiesses the static behavioi
of the block, that is, the value it has aftei all tiansient (time vaiying) effects have settled to theii fnal
state. The othei pait tells us how that value iesponds when the block is in its dynamic state. The static
pait is known as the rans[er t|araterst and is often all that is needed to be known foi block desciiption.
The static and dynamic iesponse of the cascade of blocks is simply the multiplication of all individual
blocks. As each block has its own pait foi the static and dynamic behavioi, the cascade equations can be
ieaiianged to sepaiate the static fiom the dynamic paits and then by multiplying the static set and the
dynamic set we get the oveiall iesponse in the static and dynamic states. This is shown by the sequence
of Equations 3.1 to 3.4.
FIGURE 3.4 Instiuments aie foimed fiom a connection of blocks. Each block can be iepiesented by a conceptual
and mathematical model. This example is of one type of humidity sensoi.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
C
total
C
1
C
2
C
3
. (3.1)
static dynamic]
1
static dynamic]
2
static dynamic]
3
. (3.2)
static]
1
static]
2
static]
3
. dynamic]
1
dynamic]
2
dynamic]
3
. (3.3)
static]
total
dynamic]
total
(3.4)
An example will claiify this. A meicuiy-in-glass fevei theimometei is placed in a patient`s mouth. The
indication slowly iises along the glass tube to ieach the fnal value, the body tempeiatuie of the peison.
The slow iise seen in the indication is due to the time it takes foi the meicuiy to heat up and expand
up the tube. The static sensy will be expiessed as so many scale divisions pei degiee and is all that
is of inteiest in this application. The dynamic chaiacteiistic will be a time vaiying function that settles
to unity aftei the tiansient effects have settled. This is meiely an annoyance in this application but has
to be allowed by waiting long enough befoie taking a ieading. The wiong value will be viewed if taken
befoie the tiansient has settled.
At this stage, we will now considei only the natuie of the static chaiacteiistics of a chain; dynamic
iesponse is examined latei.
If a sensoi is the fist stage of the chain, the static value of the gain foi that stage is called the sensy.
Wheie a sensoi is not at the input, it is called the am|ftaon [ator oi gan. It can take a value less than
unity wheie it is then called the aenuaon.
Sometimes, the instantaneous value of the signal is iapidly changing, yet the measuiement aspect pait
is static. This aiises when using ac signals in some foims of instiumentation wheie the amplitude of the
wavefoim, not its fiequency, is of inteiest. Heie, the static value is iefeiied to as its seaJy sae tiansfei
chaiacteiistic.
Sensitivity may be found fiom a plot of the input and output signals, wheiein it is the slope of the
giaph. Such a giaph, see Figuie 3.5, tells much about the static behavioi of the block.
The inteicept value on the y-axis is the o[[se value being the output when the input is set to zeio.
Offset is not usually a desiied situation and is seen as an eiioi quantity. Wheie it is delibeiately set up,
it is called the |as.
The iange on the x-axis, fiom zeio to a safe maximum foi use, is called the range oi san and is often
expiessed as the zone between the 0% and 100% points. The iatio of the span that the output will covei
FIGURE 3.5 The giaph ielating input to output vaiiables foi an instiument block shows seveial distinctive static
peifoimance chaiacteiistics.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
foi the ielated input iange is known as the Jynamt range. This can be a confusing teim because it does
not desciibe dynamic time behavioi. It is paiticulaily useful when desciibing the capability of such
instiuments as ow iate sensois - a simple oiifce plate type may only be able to handle dynamic ianges
of 3 to 4, wheieas the lasei Dopplei method coveis as much as 10
7
vaiiation.
Drilt
It is now necessaiy to considei a majoi pioblem of instiument peifoimance called nsrumen Jr[. This
is caused by vaiiations taking place in the paits of the instiumentation ovei time. Piime souices occui
as chemical stiuctuial changes and changing mechanical stiesses. Diift is a complex phenomenon foi
which the obseived effects aie that the sensitivity and offset values vaiy. It also can altei the accuiacy of
the instiument diffeiently at the vaiious amplitudes of the signal piesent.
Detailed desciiption of diift is not at all easy but it is possible to woik satisfactoiily with simplifed
values that give the aveiage of a set of obseivations, this usually being quoted in a conseivative mannei.
The fist giaph (a) in Figuie 3.6 shows typical steady diift of a measuiing spiing component of a weighing
balance. Figuie 3.6(|) shows how an electionic amplifei might settle down aftei being tuined on.
Diift is also caused by vaiiations in enviionmental paiameteis such as tempeiatuie, piessuie, and
humidity that opeiate on the components. These aie known as n[uente arameers. An example is the
change of the iesistance of an electiical iesistoi, this iesistoi foiming the ciitical pait of an electionic
amplifei that sets its gain as its opeiating tempeiatuie changes.
Unfoitunately, the obseived effects of inuence paiametei induced diift often aie the same as foi time
vaiying diift. Appiopiiate testing of blocks such as electionic amplifeis does allow the two to be sepaiated
to some extent. Foi example, alteiing only the tempeiatuie of the amplifei ovei a shoit peiiod will
quickly show its tempeiatuie dependence.
Diift due to inuence paiameteis is giaphed in much the same way as foi time diift. Figuie 3.6(t)
shows the diift of an amplifei as tempeiatuie vaiies. Note that it depends signifcantly on the tempeiatuie
FIGURE 3.6 Diift in the peifoimance of an instiument takes many foims: (a) diift ovei time foi a spiing balance;
(|) how an electionic amplifei might settle ovei time to a fnal value aftei powei is supplied; (t) diift, due to
tempeiatuie, of an electionic amplifei vaiies with the actual tempeiatuie of opeiation.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
of opeiation, implying that the best designs aie built to opeiate at tempeiatuies wheie the effect is
minimum.
Caieful consideiation of the time and inuence paiametei causes of diift shows they aie inteiielated
and often impossible to sepaiate. Instiument designeis aie usually able to allow foi these effects, but the
cost of doing this iises shaiply as the eiioi level that can be toleiated is ieduced.
Hysteresis and Back!ash
Caieful obseivation of the output/input ielationship of a block will sometimes ieveal diffeient iesults as
the signals vaiy in diiection of the movement. Mechanical systems will often show a small diffeience in
length as the diiection of the applied foice is ieveised. The same effect aiises as a magnetic feld is ieveised
in a magnetic mateiial. This chaiacteiistic is called |yseress. Figuie 3.7 is a geneialized plot of the
output/input ielationship showing that a closed loop occuis. The effect usually gets smallei as the
amplitude of successive excuisions is ieduced, this being one way to toleiate the effect. It is piesent in
most mateiials. Special mateiials have been developed that exhibit low hysteiesis foi theii application -
tiansfoimei iion laminations and clock spiing wiie being examples.
Wheie this is caused by a mechanism that gives a shaip change, such as caused by the looseness of a
joint in a mechanical joint, it is easy to detect and is known as |at||as|.
Saturatiun
So fai, the discussion has been limited to signal levels that lie within acceptable ianges of amplitude. Real
system blocks will sometimes have input signal levels that aie laigei than allowed. Heie, the dominant
eiiois that aiise - sauraon and trossoer Jsoron - aie investigated.
As mentioned above, the infoimation beaiing piopeity of the signal can be caiiied as the instantaneous
value of the signal oi be caiiied as some chaiacteiistic of a iapidly vaiying ac signal. If the signal foim
is not amplifed faithfully, the output will not have the same lineaiity and chaiacteiistics.
The gain of a block will usually fall off with incieasing size of signal amplitude. A vaiying amplitude
input signal, such as the steadily iising lineai signal shown in Figuie 3.8, will be amplifed diffeiently
accoiding to the gain/amplitude cuive of the block. In uncompensated electionic amplifeis, the laigei
amplitudes aie usually less amplifed than at the median points.
At veiy low levels of input signal, two unwanted effects may aiise. The fist is that small signals aie
often amplifed moie than at the median levels. The second eiioi chaiacteiistic aiises in electionic
amplifeis because the semiconductoi elements possess a dead-zone in which no output occuis until a
small thieshold is exceeded. This effect causes ciossovei distoition in amplifeis.
If the signal is an ac wavefoim, see Figuie 3.9, then the diffeient levels of a cycle of the signal may not
all be amplifed equally. Figuie 3.9(a) shows what occuis because the basic electionic amplifying elements
aie only able to amplify one polaiity of signal. The signal is said to be retfeJ. Figuie 3.9(|) shows the
effect when the signal is too laige and the top is not amplifed. This is called sauraon oi t|ng. (As
with many physical effects, this effect is sometimes delibeiately invoked in ciicuitiy, an example being
wheie it is used as a simple means to conveit sine-wavefoim signals into a squaie wavefoim.) Ciossovei
distoition is evident in Figuie 3.9(t) as the signal passes fiom negative to positive polaiity.
Wheie input signals aie small, such as in sensitive sensoi use, the foim of analysis called sma|| sgna|
behavioi is needed to ieveal distoitions. If the signals aie compaiatively laige, as foi digital signal
consideiations, a |arge sgna| analysis is used. Design diffculties aiise when signals covei a wide dynamic
iange because it is not easy to allow foi all of the vaiious effects in a single design.
Bias
Sometimes, the electionic signal piocessing situation calls foi the input signal to be piocessed at a highei
aveiage voltage oi cuiient than aiises noimally. Heie a dc value is added to the input signal to iaise the
level to a highei state as shown in Figuie 3.10. A need foi this is met wheie only one polaiity of signal
1999 by CRC Press LLC
can be amplifed by a single semiconductoi element. Raising the level of all of the wavefoim equally takes
all paits into the ieasonably lineai zone of an amplifei, allowing moie faithful ieplication. If bias weie
not used heie, then the lowei half cycle would not be amplifed, iesulting in only the top half appeaiing
in the output.
Errur ul Nun!inearity
Ideally, it is often desiied that a stiictly lineai ielationship exists between input and output signals in
amplifeis. Piactical units, howevei, will always have some degiee of nonconfoimity, which is called the
non|neary. If an instiument block has constant gain foi all input signal levels, then the ielationship
giaphing the input against the output will be a stiaight line; the ielationship is then said to be lineai.
FIGURE 3.7 Geneialized giaph of output/input ielationship wheie hysteiesis is piesent. (Fiom P. H. Sydenham,
HanJ|oo| o[ Measuremen Stente, Vol. 2, Chichestei, U.K., John Wiley & Sons, 1983. With peimission.)
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Lneary is the geneial teim used to desciibe how close the actual iesponse is compaied with that ideal
line. The coiiect way to desciibe the eiioi heie is as the error o[ non|neary. Note, howevei, that not all
iesponses aie iequiied to be lineai; anothei common one follows a logaiithmic ielationship.
Detailed desciiption of this eiioi is not easy foi that would need a statement of the eiioi values at all
points of the plot. Piactice has found that a shoithand statement can be made by quoting the maximum
depaituie fiom the ideal as a iatio foimed with the 100% value.
FIGURE 3.8 Nonlineai amplifcation can give iise to unwanted output distoition.
FIGURE 3.9 Blocks can incoiiectly altei the shape of wavefoims if satuiation and ciossovei effects aie not contiolled:
(a) iectifcation; (|) satuiation; and (t) ciossovei distoition.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Diffculties aiise in expiessing eiioi of nonlineaiity foi theie exist many ways to expiess this eiioi.
Figuie 3.11 shows the foui cases that usually aiise. The diffeience aiises in the way in which the ideal
(called the best ft") stiaight line can be set up. Figuie 3.11(a) shows the line positioned by the usually
calculated statistical aveiaging method of least squaies ft; othei foims of line ftting calculation aie also
used. This will yield the smallest magnitude of eiioi calculation foi the vaiious kinds of line ftting but
may not be appiopiiate foi how the stage undei assessment is used. Othei, possibly moie ieasonable,
options exist. Figuie 3.11(|) constiains the best ft line to pass thiough the zeio point. Figuie 3.11(t)
places the line between the expected 0% and the 100% points. Theie is still one moie option, that wheie
the theoietical line is not necessaiily one of the above, yet is the ideal placement, Figuie 3.11(J).
In piactice then, instiument systems lineaiity can be expiessed in seveial ways. Good ceitifcation
piactice iequiies that the method used to asceitain the eiioi is stated along with the numeiical iesult,
but this is often not done. Note also that the eiioi is the woist case and that pait of the iesponse may
be much moie lineai.
The desciiption of instiument peifoimance is not a simple task. To accomplish this fully would iequiie
veiy detailed statements iecoiding the peifoimance at each and eveiy point. That is often too cumbei-
some, so the instiument industiy has developed many shoit-foim statements that piovide an adequate
guide to the peifoimance. This guide will be seen to be geneially a conseivative statement.
Many othei desciiptois exist foi the static iegime of an instiument. The ieadei is iefeiied to the many
standaids documents that exist on instiument teiminology; foi example, see Refeience 3].
3.2 Dynamic Characteristics ul Instrument Systems
Dea!ing vith Dynamic States
Measuiement outcomes aie iaiely static ovei time. They will possess a dynamic component that must
be undeistood foi coiiect inteipietation of the iesults. Foi example, a tiace made on an ink pen chait
iecoidei will be subject to the speed at which the pen can follow the input signal changes.
FIGURE 3.10 Bias is wheie a signal has all of its value iaised by an equal amount. Shown heie is an ac input
wavefoim biased to be all of positive polaiity.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
FIGURE 3.11 Eiioi of nonlineaiity can be expiessed in foui diffeient ways: (a) best ft line (based on selected method
used to decide this); (|) best ft line thiough zeio; (t) line joining 0% and 100% points; and (J) theoietical line. (Fiom
P. H. Sydenham, HanJ|oo| o[ Measuremen Stente, Vol. 2, Chichestei, U.K., John Wiley & Sons, 1983. With peimission.)
1999 by CRC Press LLC
To piopeily appieciate instiumentation design and its use, it is now necessaiy to develop insight into
the most commonly encounteied types of dynamic iesponse and to develop the mathematical modeling
basis that allows us to make concise statements about iesponses.
If the tiansfei ielationship foi a block follows lineai laws of peifoimance, then a geneiic mathematical
method of dynamic desciiption can be used. Unfoitunately, simple mathematical methods have not been
found that can desciibe all types of instiument iesponses in a simplistic and unifoim mannei. If the
behavioi is nonlineai, then desciiption with mathematical models becomes veiy diffcult and might be
impiacticable. The behavioi of nonlineai systems can, howevei, be studied as segments of lineai behavioi
joined end to end. Heie, digital computeis aie effectively used to model systems of any kind piovided
the usei is piepaied to spend time setting up an adequate model.
Now the mathematics used to desciibe lineai dynamic systems can be intioduced. This gives valuable
insight into the expected behavioi of instiumentation, and it is usually found that the iesponse can be
appioximated as lineai.
The modeled iesponse at the output of a block C
iesult
is obtained by multiplying the mathematical
expiession foi the input signal C
input
by the tiansfei function of the block undei investigation C
iesponse
,
as shown in Equation 3.5.
C
iesult
C
input
C
iesponse
(3.5)
To pioceed, one needs to undeistand commonly encounteied input functions and the vaiious types of
block chaiacteiistics. We begin with the foimei set: the so-called [ortng [untons.
Furcing Functiuns
Let us fist develop an undeistanding of the vaiious types of input signal used to peifoim tests. The most
commonly used signals aie shown in Figuie 3.12. These each possess diffeient valuable test featuies. Foi
example, the sine-wave is the basis of analysis of all complex wave-shapes because they can be foimed
as a combination of vaiious sine-waves, each having individual iesponses that add to give all othei wave-
shapes. The step function has intuitively obvious uses because input tiansients of this kind aie commonly
encounteied. The iamp test function is used to piesent a moie iealistic input foi those systems wheie it
is not possible to obtain instantaneous step input changes, such as attempting to move a laige mass by
a limited size of foice. Foicing functions aie also chosen because they can be easily desciibed by a simple
mathematical expiession, thus making mathematical analysis ielatively stiaightfoiwaid.
Characteristic Equatiun Deve!upment
The behavioi of a block that exhibits lineai behavioi is mathematically iepiesented in the geneial foim
of expiession given as Equation 3.6.
(3.6)
Heie, the coeffcients a
2
, a
1
, and a
0
aie constants dependent on the paiticulai block of inteiest. The left-
hand side of the equation is known as the t|araterst equaon. It is specifc to the inteinal piopeities
of the block and is not alteied by the way the block is used.
The specifc combination of foicing function input and block chaiacteiistic equation collectively
decides the combined output iesponse. Connections aiound the block, such as feedback fiom the output
to the input, can altei the oveiall behavioi signifcantly: such systems, howevei, aie not dealt with in this
section being in the domain of feedback contiol systems.
Solution of the combined behavioi is obtained using Laplace tiansfoim methods to obtain the output
iesponses in the time oi the complex fiequency domain. These mathematical methods might not be
familiai to the ieadei, but this is not a seiious diffculty foi the cases most encounteied in piactice aie
a J y J a Jy J a y x

+ +
,
1999 by CRC Press LLC
well documented in teims that aie easily compiehended, the mathematical piocess having been peifoimed
to yield iesults that can be used without the same level of mathematical ability. Moie depth of explanation
can be obtained fiom 1] oi any one of the many texts on eneigy systems analysis. Space heie only allows
an intioduction; this account is linked to 1], Chaptei 17, to allow the ieadei to access a fullei desciiption
wheie needed.
FIGURE 3.12 The dynamic iesponse of a block can be investigated using a iange of simple input foicing functions.
(Fiom P. H. Sydenham, HanJ|oo| o[ Measuremen Stente, Vol. 2, Chichestei, U.K., John Wiley & Sons, 1983. With
peimission.)
1999 by CRC Press LLC
The next step in undeistanding block behavioi is to investigate the natuie of Equation 3.6 as the
numbei of deiivative teims in the expiession incieases, Equations 3.7 to 3.10.
Zeio oidei (3.7)
Fiist oidei (3.8)
Second oidei (3.9)
nth oidei (3.10)
Note that specifc names have been given to each oidei. The zeio-oidei situation is not usually dealt
with in texts because it has no time-dependent teim and is thus seen to be tiivial. It is an amplifei (oi
attenuatoi) of the foicing function with gain of a
0
. It has infnite bandwidth without change in the
amplifcation constant.
The highest oidei usually necessaiy to considei in fist-cut instiument analysis is the second-oidei
class. Highei-oidei systems do occui in piactice and need analysis that is not easily summaiized heie.
They also need deep expeitise in theii study. Computei-aided tools foi systems analysis can be used to
study the iesponses of systems.
Anothei step is now to iewiite the equations aftei Laplace tiansfoimation into the fiequency domain.
We then get the set of output/input Equations 3.11 to 3.14.
Zeio oidei (3.11)
Fiist oidei (3.12)
Second oidei (3.13)
nth oidei (3.14)
The teims
1
, .,
n
aie called me tonsans. They aie key system peifoimance paiameteis.
Respunse ul the Dillerent Linear Systems Types
Space iestiictions do not allow a detailed study of all of the vaiious options. A selection is piesented to
show how they aie analyzed and iepoited, that leading to how the instiumentation peison can use ceitain
standaid chaits in the study of the chaiacteiistics of blocks.
Zeru-Order B!ucks
To investigate the iesponse of a block, multiply its fiequency domain foims of equation foi the chaiac-
teiistic equation with that of the chosen foicing function equation.
This is an inteiesting case because Equation 3.7 shows that the zeio-oidei block has no fiequency-
dependent teim (it has no time deiivative teim), so the output foi all given inputs can only be of the same
time foim as the input. What can be changed is the amplitude given as the coeffcient a
0
. A shift in time
(phase shift) of the output wavefoim with the input also does not occui as it can foi the highei-oidei blocks.
a y x

,
a Jy J a y x

+
,
a J y J a Jy J a y x

+ +
,
a J y J a J y J a y x
n
n n
n
n n
+ + . +
,

Y s X s
, ,

Y s X s s
, ,
+
,
t
Y s X s s s
, ,
+
,
+
,


t t
Y s X s s s s
n , ,
+
,
+
,
. +
,


t t t
1999 by CRC Press LLC
This is the iesponse often desiied in instiuments because it means that the block does not altei the
time iesponse. Howevei, this is not always so because, in systems, design blocks aie often chosen foi theii
ability to change the time shape of signals in a known mannei.
Although somewhat obvious, Figuie 3.13, a iesistive stiain gage, is given to illustiate zeio-oidei
behavioi.
First-Order B!ucks
Heie, Equation 3.8 is the ielevant chaiacteiistic equation. Theie is a time-dependent teim, so analysis is
needed to see how this type of block behaves undei dynamic conditions. The output iesponse is diffeient
foi each type of foicing function applied. Space limitations only allow the most commonly encounteied
cases - the step and the sine-wave input - to be intioduced heie. It is also only possible heie to outline
the method of analysis and to give the standaidized chaits that plot geneialized behavioi.
The step iesponse of the fist-oidei system is obtained by multiplying Equation 3.12 by the fiequency
domain equation foi a step of amplitude . The iesult is then tiansfoimed back into the time domain
using Laplace tiansfoims to yield the expiession foi the output, y()
(3.15)
wheie is the amplitude of the step, K the static gain of the fist-oidei block, the time in consistent
units, and the time constant associated with the block itself.
This is a tidy outcome because Equation 3.15 coveis the step iesponse foi all fist-oidei blocks, thus
allowing it to be giaphed in noimalized mannei, as given in Figuie 3.14. The shape of the iesponse is
always of the same foim. This means that the step iesponse of a fist-oidei system can be desciibed as
having a step of K amplitude with the time constant ."
FIGURE 3.13 Input and output iesponses foi a zeio-oidei block: (a) stiain gage physical and mathematical model;
and (|) iesponses. (Fiom P. H. Sydenham, HanJ|oo| o[ Measuremen Stente, Vol. 2, Chichestei, U.K., John Wiley &
Sons, 1983. With peimission.)
y K e

,

,

t
1999 by CRC Press LLC
If the input is a sine-wave, the output iesponse is quite diffeient; but again, it will be found that theie
is a geneial solution foi all situations of this kind. As befoie, the input foicing equation is multiplied by
the chaiacteiistic equation foi the fist-oidei block and Laplace tiansfoimation is used to get back to the
time domain iesponse. Aftei ieaiiangement into two paits, this yields:
(3.16)
wheie is the signal fiequency in angulai iadians, tan
-1
(-), the amplitude of the sine-wave
input, K the gain of the fist-oidei block, the time in consistent units, and the time constant associated
with the block.
The left side of the iight-hand biacketed pait is a shoit-lived, noimally ignoied, time tiansient that
iapidly decays to zeio, leaving a steady-state output that is the paiametei of usual inteiest. Study of the
steady-state pait is best done by plotting it in a noimalized way, as has been done in Figuie 3.15.
These plots show that the amplitude of the output is always ieduced as the fiequency of the input
signal iises and that theie is always a phase lag action between the input and the output that can iange
fiom 0 to 90 but nevei be moie than 90. The extent of these effects depends on the paiticulai coeffcients
of the block and input signal. These effects must be well undeistood when inteipieting measuiement
iesults because substantial eiiois can aiise with using fist-oidei systems in an instiument chain.
Secund-Order B!ucks
If the second-oidei diffeiential teim is piesent, the iesponse of a block is quite diffeient, again iesponding
in quite a spectaculai mannei with featuies that can eithei be wanted oi unwanted.
As befoie, to obtain the output iesponse, the block`s chaiacteiistic function is multiplied by the chosen
foicing function. Howevei, to make the iesults moie meaningful, we fist caiiy out some simple substi-
tution tiansfoimations.
The steps begin by tiansfoiming the second-oidei diffeiential Equation 3.6 into its Laplace foim to
obtain:
(3.17)
This is then ieaiianged to yield:
(3.18)
FIGURE 3.14 The step iesponse foi all fist-oidei systems is coveied by these two noimalized giaphs. (Fiom P. H.
Sydenham, HanJ|oo| o[ Measuremen Stente, Vol. 2, Chichestei, U.K., John Wiley & Sons, 1983. With peimission.)
y K e K

,
+
,
, ,
+ +
,
+
,
,

,
]
]
]

tu t u t u u o
t


X s a s Y s a sY s a Y s
,

,
+
,
+
,

C s Y s X s a a a s a a s
,

, ,

,
+
,
+

1999 by CRC Press LLC
The coeffcients can then be expiessed in system peifoimance teims as follows.
Angulai natuial fiequency (3.19)
Damping iatio (3.20)
Static gain (3.21)
These thiee vaiiables have piactical ielevance, as will be seen when the vaiious iesponses aie plotted.
Using these tiansfoimed vaiiables, the chaiacteiistic equation can be iewiitten in two foims ieady foi
investigation of output behavioi to step and sine-wave inputs, as:
(3.22)
and then as:
(3.23)
We aie now ieady to considei the behavioi of the second-oidei system to the vaiious foicing inputs.
Fiist considei the step input. Aftei foiming the pioduct of the foicing and chaiacteiistic functions,
the time domain foim can be plotted as shown in Figuie 3.16.
FIGURE 3.15 The amplitude and phase shift of the output of all fist-oidei systems to a sine-wave input is shown
by these two noimalized cuives; (a) amplitude and (|) phase. (Fiom P. H. Sydenham, HanJ|oo| o[ Measuremen
Stente, Vol. 2, Chichestei, U.K., John Wiley & Sons, 1983. With peimission.)
u

,
a a



,
a a a

K a

C s K s s
,

,
+
,
+

u u

C s K s s
,
+ +
,
t t


1999 by CRC Press LLC
This cleaily shows that the iesponse is stiongly dependent on the damping iatio value. If it is less
than unity, it exhibits an oscillatoiy movement settling down to the fnal value. If the damping value is
gieatei than unity, the iesponse moves to the fnal value without oscillation. The often piefeiied state is
to use a damping factoi of unity, trta| Jamng. The choice of iesponse depends stiongly on the
applications, foi all levels of damping iatio have use in piactice, ianging fiom needing an oscillation that
nevei ceases (zeio damping) to the othei extieme wheie a veiy giadual iate of change is desiied.
A similai analysis is used to see how the second-oidei system iesponds to the sine-wave input. The
two iesponse plots obtained aie shown in Figuie 3.17: one foi the amplitude iesponse, and the othei
showing how the phase shifts as the fiequency changes.
The most unexpected iesult is seen at the point wheie the gain iises to infnity foi the zeio damping
state. This is called resonante and it occuis at the block`s naura| [requenty foi the zeio damping state.
Resonance can be a desiiable featuie, as in detecting a paiticulai fiequency in a iadio fiequency detection
ciicuit, oi it may be most undesiiable, as when a mechanical system iesonates, possibly to destiuction.
It can be seen that it is mostly contiolled by the damping iatio. Note also that the phase shift foi the
second-oidei system ianges fiom 0 to 180. This has impoitant implications if the block is pait of a
feedback loop because as the fiequency iises, the phase shift fiom the block will pass fiom stable negative
feedback (less than 90) to positive feedback (gieatei than 90), causing unwanted oscillation.
Moie detail of the vaiious othei situations, including how to deal with highei oideis, cascaded blocks
of similai kind, and iamp inputs aie coveied elsewheie 1].
3.3 Ca!ibratiun ul Measurements
We have alieady intioduced the concept of accuiacy in making a measuiement and how the unceitainty
inheient in all measuiements must be kept suffciently small. The piocess and appaiatus used to fnd
out if a measuiement is accuiate enough is called ta||raon. It is achieved by compaiing the iesult of a
measuiement with a method possessing a measuiement peifoimance that is geneially agieed to have less
unceitainty than that in the iesult obtained. The eiioi aiising within the calibiation appaiatus and piocess
FIGURE 3.16 The iesponse of second-oidei systems to a step input is seen fiom this noimalized plot. (Fiom P. H.
Sydenham, HanJ|oo| o[ Measuremen Stente, Vol. 2, Chichestei, U.K., John Wiley & Sons, 1983. With peimission.)
1999 by CRC Press LLC
FIGURE 3.17 These two plots allow the behavioi of second-oidei blocks with sine-wave inputs to be asceitained:
(a) amplitude and (|) phase. (Fiom P. H. Sydenham, HanJ|oo| o[ Measuremen Stente, Vol. 2, Chichestei, U.K.,
John Wiley & Sons, 1983. With peimission.)
1999 by CRC Press LLC
of compaiison must necessaiily be less than that iequiied. This means that calibiation is often an
expensive piocess. Conducting a good calibiation iequiies specialist expeitise.
The method and appaiatus foi peifoiming measuiement instiumentation calibiations vaiy widely.
An illustiative example of the compaiison concept undeilying them all is given in the calibiation of ow
meteis, shown diagiammatically in Figuie 3.18.
By the use of an oveiowing vessel, the top tank piovides a ow of watei that iemains constant because
it comes fiom a constant height. The metei to be calibiated is placed in the downstieam pipe.
The downstieam is eithei deected into the weigh tank oi back to the supply. To make a measuiement,
the watei is fist set to ow to the supply. At the stait of a test peiiod, the watei is iapidly and piecisely
deected into the tank. Aftei a given peiiod, the watei is again sent back to the supply. This then has
flled the tank with a given amount of watei foi a given time peiiod of ow. Calculations aie then
undeitaken to woik out the quantity of watei owing pei unit time peiiod, which is the [ow rae. The
metei was alieady iegisteiing a ow iate as a constant value. This is then compaied with the weighed
method to yield the eiioi. Some thought will soon ieveal many souices of eiioi in the test appaiatus,
such as that the tempeiatuie of the watei decides the volume that ows thiough and thus this must be
allowed foi in the calculations.
FIGURE 3.18 This piactical example illustiates how ow meteis aie calibiated by passing a known quantity of uid
thiough the metei ovei a given time. (Oiiginally published in P. H. Sydenham, TransJuters n Measuremen anJ
Conro|, Adam Hilgei, Biistol, IOP Publishing, Biistol, 1984. Copyiight P. H. Sydenham.)
1999 by CRC Press LLC
It will also be cleai that this calibiation may not be caiiied out undei the same conditions as the
measuiements aie noimally used. The ait and science and diffculties inheient in caiiying out quality
calibiation foi tempeiatuie sensois aie well exposed 2].
Calibiation of instiumentation is a must foi, without it, measuiement iesults may be misleading and
lead to costly afteimath situations. Conducting good calibiation adds oveihead cost to measuiement but
it is akin to taking out insuiance. If that investment is made piopeily, it will assist in mitigating latei
penalties. Foi example, an incoiiectly calibiated automatic cement batchei was used in making conciete
foi the stiuctuial fiame of a multistoiy building. It took seveial days befoie conciete stiength tests ievealed
the batchei had been out of calibiation foi a day with the iesult that the conciete alieady pouied foi
thiee oois was not of adequate stiength. By then, moie stoiies had been pouied on top. The defective
oois had to be fully ieplaced at gieat cost. Moie iesouice put into the calibiation piocess would have
ensuied that the batchei was woiking piopeily.
Relerences
1. P. H. Sydenham, HanJ|oo| o[ Measuremen Stente, Vol. 2, Chichestei, U.K.: John Wiley & Sons,
1983.
2. J. V. Nicholas and D. R. White, Tratea||e Temeraures, Chichestei, U.K.: John Wiley & Sons, 1994.
3. Biitish Standaid Institution, PD 6461. Vota|u|ary o[ Mero|ogy, London: BSI, 1995.