C104 - Engineering Mechanics

Engineering Mechanics C104
MODULE I
Force
The simplest way to define a force is by just thinking of pull or push. More
generally, force is defined as an action that tends to disturb a body. This disturbance can
be thought of as translation, rise, fall, rotation, spinning, and so forth.
Consider a block resting on a table. Connect a cable to the block and start pulling
the block. If the right amount of force is applied, the block will start to move. The amount
of movement obviously depends on the amount and duration of the applied force. The
force can be applied directly to a body, such as pulling a car using a towrope, or
indirectly, such as gravitational force. ravitational force is the force the earth e!erts on
objects that pulls them toward its center. This force is known as the weight of the object
and can be obtained by using a weighing scale.
" force is that which can cause an object with mass to accelerate. Force has both
magnitude and direction, making it a vector #uantity. "ccording to $ewton%s second law,
an object with constant mass will accelerate in proportion to the net force acting upon it
and in inverse proportion to its mass. "n e#uivalent formulation is that the net force on
an object is e#ual to the rate of change of momentum it e!periences. Forces acting on
three&dimensional objects may also cause them to rotate or deform, or result in a change
in pressure. The tendency of a force to cause angular acceleration about an a!is is termed
tor#ue. 'eformation and pressure are the result of stress forces within an object.
(ince anti#uity, scientists have used the concept of force in the study of stationary
and moving objects. These studies culminated with the descriptions made by the third
century )C philosopher "rchimedes of how simple machines functioned. The rules
"rchimedes determined for how forces interact in simple machines are still a part of
physics. *arlier descriptions of forces by "ristotle incorporated fundamental
misunderstandings which would not be corrected until the seventeenth century by Isaac
$ewton. $ewtonian descriptions of forces remained unchanged for nearly three hundred
years.
Charecteristics
Characteristics of force are the magnitude, direction(orientation) and point of
application
Types of forces
Collinear : If several forces lie along the same line-of action, they are said to be
collinear.
Coplanar When all forces acting on a body are in the same plane, the forces are
coplanar.
Civil *ngineering 'epartment, ($C*, +adayiruppu.
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Concurrent Forces
In a concurrent force system, all forces pass through a common point. In the
previous case involving the application of two forces to a body, it was necessary for them
to be collinear, opposite in direction, and e#ual in magnitude for the body to be in
e#uilibrium. If three forces are applied to a body, as shown in the figure, they must pass
through a common point /01, or else the condition, M
o
2 3, will not be satisfied and the
body will rotate because of unbalanced moment. Moreover, the magnitudes of the forces
must be such that the force e#uilibrium e#uations,
F
!
2 3, F
y
2 3, are satisfied.
It is fairly easy to see the reasoning for the first condition. Consider the two
forces, F, and F4, intersecting at point 0 in the figure. The sum of moments of these two
forces about point 3 is obviously e#ual to 5ero because they both pass through 3. If F6
does not pass through 3, on the other hand, it will have some non5ero moment about that
point. (ince this non5ero moment will cause the body to rotate, the body will not be in
e#uilibrium.
Therefore, not only do three nonparallel forces applied to a body have to be
concurrent for the body to be in an e#uilibrium state, but their magnitudes and directions
must be such that the force e#uilibrium con&ditions are satisfied /F
!
2 F
y
2 31. $otice that
there is no need for the moment e#uilibrium e#uation in this case since it is automatically
satisfied
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" concurrent force system contains forces whose lines-of action meet at some one
point. Forces may be tensile (pulling)
Forces may be compressive (pushing)
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Force e!erted on a body has two effects:
The external effect, which is tendency to change the motion of the body or to
develop resisting forces in the body
The internal effect, which is the tendency to deform the body.
$ewton%s laws of motion
$ewton%s laws of motion are three physical laws that form the basis for classical
mechanics, directly relating the forces acting on a body to the motion of the body. They
were first compiled by (ir Isaac $ewton in his work .hilosophiae $aturalis .rincipia
Mathematica, first published on 7uly 8, ,9:;. $ewton used them to e!plain and
investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems. For e!ample, in the third
volume of the te!t, $ewton showed that these laws of motion, combined with his law of
universal gravitation, e!plained +epler%s laws of planetary motion.
First law
There e!ists a set of inertial reference frames relative to which all particles with
no net force acting on them will move without change in their velocity. This law
is often simplified as <" body persists its state of rest or of uniform motion unless
acted upon by an e!ternal unbalanced force.< $ewton%s first law is often referred
to as the law of inertia.
(econd law
0bserved from an inertial reference frame, the net force on a particle of constant
mass is proportional to the time rate of change of its linear momentum=
F 2 d/mv1>dt. This law is often stated as, <Force e#uals mass times acceleration
/F 2 ma1<= the net force on an object is e#ual to the mass of the object multiplied
by its acceleration.
Third law
?henever a particle A e!erts a force on another particle B, B simultaneously
e!erts a force on A with the same magnitude in the opposite direction. The strong
form of the law further postulates that these two forces act along the same line.
This law is often simplified into the sentence, <To every action there is an e#ual
and opposite reaction.<
In the given interpretation mass, acceleration, momentum, and /most importantly1
force are assumed to be e!ternally defined #uantities. This is the most common, but not
the only interpretation= one can consider the laws to be a definition of these #uantities.
$otice that the second law only holds when the observation is made from an inertial
reference frame, and since an inertial reference frame is defined by the first law, asking a
proof of the first law from the second law is a logical fallacy. "t speeds approaching the
speed of light the effects of special relativity must be taken into account.
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Free-body diagrams
Free&body diagrams can be used as a convenient way to keep track of forces
acting on a system. Ideally, these diagrams are drawn with the angles and relative
magnitudes of the force vectors preserved so that graphical vector addition can be done to
determine the resultant.
"s well as being added, forces can also be resolved into independent components
at right angles to each other. " hori5ontal force pointing northeast can therefore be split
into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east. (umming these component
forces using vector addition yields the original force. Aesolving force vectors into
components of a set of basis vectors is often a more mathematically clean way to describe
forces than using magnitudes and directions. This is because, for orthogonal components,
the components of the vector sum are uni#uely determined by the scalar addition of the
components of the individual vectors. 0rthogonal components are independent of each
otherB forces acting at ninety degrees to each other have no effect on each other.
Choosing a set of orthogonal basis vectors is often done by considering what set of basis
vectors will make the mathematics most convenient. Choosing a basis vector that is in the
same direction as one of the forces is desirable, since that force would then have only one
non&5ero component. Force vectors can also be three&dimensional, with the third
component at right&angles to the two other components.
Principle of Transmissibility
The principle of transmissibility states that the condition of eqilibrim or of motion of
a rigid body will remain nchanged if a force F action at a given point of the rigid
body is replace by a force F of the same magnitde and the same direction, bt
acting at a different point, provided that the two forces have the same line of
action.
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Aesolution
The process of reducing a force system to a simpler eqivalent system is called a
reduction. !he process of e"panding a force or a force system into a less simple
eqivalent system is called a resolution
If the force system acting on a body produces no e"ternal effect, the forces are said
to be in balance and the body e"perience no change in motion is said to be in
equilibrium.
Resultant Forces
If two forces P and Q acting on a particle # may be replaced by a single force R,
which has the same effect on the particle. This force is called the resultant of the
forces $ and % and may be obtained by constrcting a parallelogram, sing $
and % as two sides of the parallelogram. !he diagonal that pass throgh #
represents the resltant. This is known as the parallelogram law for the addition
of two forces. !his law is based on e"perimental evidence,& it can not be proved
or derived mathematically.

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For multiple forces action on a point, the forces can be bro'en into the components of
" and y.
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Euilibria
*#uilibrium occurs when the resultant force acting on an object is 5ero /that is,
the vector sum of all forces is 5ero1. There are two kinds of e#uilibrium= static
e#uilibrium and dynamic e#uilibrium.
System in equilibrium
" system is in e#uilibrium when the sum of all forces is 5ero.
For e!ample consider a system consisting of an object that is being lowered
vertically by a string with tension, T, at a constant velocity. The system has a constant
velocity and is therefore in e#uilibrium because the tension in the string /which is pulling
up on the object1 is e#ual to the force of gravity, mg, which is pulling down on the object.
/"ssume up is positive and down is negative.1
!tatic euilibrium
The simplest case of static e#uilibrium occurs when two forces are e#ual in
magnitude but opposite in direction. For e!ample, an object on a level surface is pulled
/attracted1 downward toward the center of the *arth by the force of gravity. "t the same
time, surface forces resist the downward force with e#ual upward force /called the normal
force1. The situation is one of 5ero net force and no acceleration.
.ushing against an object on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the
object does not move because the applied force is opposed by static friction, generated
between the object and the table surface. For a situation with no movement, the static
friction force exactly balances the applied force resulting in no acceleration. The static
friction increases or decreases in response to the applied force up to an upper limit
determined by the characteristics of the contact between the surface and the object
" static e#uilibrium between two forces is the most usual way of measuring
forces, using simple devices such as weighing scales and spring balances. For e!ample,
an object suspended on a vertical spring scale e!periences the force of gravity acting on
the object balanced by a force applied by the <spring reaction force< which is e#ual to the
object%s weight. Csing such tools, some #uantitative force laws were discovered= that the
force of gravity is proportional to volume for objects of constant density /widely
e!ploited for millennia to define standard weights1B "rchimedes% principle for buoyancyB
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"rchimedes% analysis of the leverB )oyle%s law for gas pressureB and Dooke%s law for
springs. These were all formulated and e!perimentally verified before Isaac $ewton
e!pounded his three laws of motion.
'ynamical e#uilibrium
'ynamical e#uilibrium was first described by alileo who noticed that certain
assumptions of "ristotelian physics were contradicted by observations and logic. alileo
reali5ed that simple velocity addition demands that the concept of an <absolute rest
frame< did not e!ist. alileo concluded that motion in a constant velocity was completely
e#uivalent to rest. This was contrary to "ristotle%s notion of a <natural state< of rest that
objects with mass naturally approached. (imple e!periments showed that alileo%s
understanding of the e#uivalence of constant velocity and rest to be correct. For e!ample,
if a mariner dropped a cannonball from the crow%s nest of a ship moving at a constant
velocity, "ristotelian physics would have the cannonball fall straight down while the ship
moved beneath it. Thus, in an "ristotelian universe, the falling cannonball would land
behind the foot of the mast of a moving ship. Dowever, when this e!periment is actually
conducted, the cannonball always falls at the foot of the mast, as if the cannonball knows
to travel with the ship despite being separated from it. (ince there is no forward
hori5ontal force being applied on the cannonball as it falls, the only conclusion left is that
the cannonball continues to move with the same velocity as the boat as it falls. Thus, no
force is re#uired to keep the cannonball moving at the constant forward velocity.
Moreover, any object traveling at a constant velocity must be subject to 5ero net
force /resultant force1. This is the definition of dynamical e#uilibrium= when all the
forces on an object balance but it still moves at a constant velocity.
" simple case of dynamical e#uilibrium occurs in constant velocity motion across
a surface with kinetic friction. In such a situation, a force is applied in the direction of
motion while the kinetic friction force e!actly opposes the applied force. This results in a
net 5ero force, but since the object started with a non&5ero velocity, it continues to move
with a non&5ero velocity. "ristotle misinterpreted this motion as being caused by the
applied force. Dowever, when kinetic friction is taken into consideration it is clear that
there is no net force causing constant velocity motion.
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(C..0AT A*"CTI0$
Types of Forces"Loads#
.oint loads & concentrated forces e"erted at point or location
'istributed loads & a force applied along a length or over an area. !he distribtion
can be niform or non-niform.
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.A0)F*M(==
Guestion ,
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Guestion 4
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Example Problems Example Problems
,.'etermine the magnitude and direction of the resltant of the two forces.
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4.Two structural members ) and C are riveted to the brac'et #. (nowing that the
tension in member ) is * '+ and the tension in , is -. '+, determine the
magnitde and direction of the resltant force acting on the brac'et.
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6.'etermine the magnitude and direction of P so that the resltant of P and the /..-
+ force is a vertical force of 01..-+ directed downward.
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@" cylinder is to be lifted by two cables. +nowing that the tension in one cable is
*.. +, determine the magnitde and direction of the force so that the resltant of
the vertical force of /.. +.
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8 'etermine the force in each supporting wire.
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$%The stoplight is supported by two wires. The light weighs 12-lb and the wires ma'e
an angle of -.
o
with the hori3ontal. What is the force in each wire4
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&%In a ship&unloading operation, a 52..-lb atomobile is spported by a cable. #
rope is tied to the cable at # and plled in order to center the atomobile over its
intended position. !he angle between the cable and the vertical is 0
o
, while the
angle between the rope and the hori3ontal is 5.
o
. What is the tension in the
rope4
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:. The barge ) is pulled by two tugboats " and C. "t a given instant the tension in
cable #) is 62..-lb and the tension in cable ), is 0...-lb. 7etermine the
magnitde and direction of the resltant of the two forces applied at ) at that
instant.
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E. 'etermine the resultant of the forces on the bolt.
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,3. 'etermine which set of force system is in e#uilibrium. For those force systems
that are not in eqilibrim, determine the balancing force reqired to place the
body in eqilibrim.
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,,.Two forces P and Q of magnitde $8-...-lb and %8-0..-lb are applied to the
aircraft connection. (nowing that the connection is in eqilibrim, determine the
tensions !- and !0
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,4.'etermine the forces in each of the four wires.
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,6.The blocks are at rest on a frictionless incline. (olve for the forces 9- and 90
reqired for eqilibrim.
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,@.Fength "2 8 ft, and length ) 2,3 ft and angle 8 5.
o
. 7etermine the angle of
the incline in order to maintain eqilibrim.
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,8.(olve for the resisting force at pin " to maintain e#uilibrium.
MODULE II
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Center of mass
The center of mass of a system of particles is a specific point at which, for many
purposes, the system%s mass behaves as if it were concentrated. The center of mass is a
function only of the positions and masses of the particles that comprise the system. In the
case of a rigid body, the position of its center of mass is fi!ed in relation to the object /but
not necessarily in contact with it1. In the case of a loose distribution of masses in free
space, such as, say, shot from a shotgun, the position of the center of mass is a point in
space among them that may not correspond to the position of any individual mass. In the
conte!t of an entirely uniform gravitational field, the center of mass is often called the
center of gravity H the point where gravity can be said to act.
The center of mass of a body does not always coincide with its intuitive geometric
center, and one can e!ploit this freedom. *ngineers try to design a sports car%s center of
gravity as low as possible to make the car handle better. ?hen high jumpers perform a
<Fosbury Flop<, they bend their body in such a way that it is possible for the jumper to
clear the bar while his or her center of mass does not.
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The so&called center of gravity frame /a less&preferred term for the center of
momentum frame1 is an inertial frame defined as the inertial frame in which the center of
mass of a system is at rest.
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xamples
The center of mass of a two&particle system lies on the line connecting the
particles /or, more precisely, their individual centers of mass1. The center of mass
is closer to the more massive objectB for details, see barycenter below.
The center of mass of a ring is at the center of the ring /in the air1.
The center of mass of a solid triangle lies on all three medians and therefore at the
centroid, which is also the average of the three vertices.
The center of mass of a rectangle is at the intersection of the two diagonals.
In a spherically symmetric body, the center of mass is at the center. This
appro!imately applies to the *arth= the density varies considerably, but it mainly
depends on depth and less on the other two coordinates.
More generally, for any symmetry of a body, its center of mass will be a fi!ed
point of that symmetry.
MOME'T OF I'ERTI(
Moment of inertia, also called mass moment of inertia or the angular mass, /(I units kg
m
4
1 is a measure of an object%s resistance to changes in its rotation rate. It is the rotational
analog of mass. That is, it is the inertia of a rigid rotating body with respect to its rotation.
The moment of inertia plays much the same role in rotational dynamics as mass does in
basic dynamics, determining the relationship between angular momentum and angular
velocity, tor#ue and angular acceleration, and several other #uantities. ?hile a simple
scalar treatment of the moment of inertia suffices for many situations, a more advanced
tensor treatment allows the analysis of such complicated systems as spinning tops and
gyroscope motion.
The symbol I and sometimes J are usually used to refer to the moment of inertia.
The moment of inertia of an object about a given a!is describes how difficult it is to
change its angular motion about that a!is. For e!ample, consider two discs /" and )1 of
the same mass. 'isc " has a larger radius than disc ). "ssuming that there is uniform
thickness and mass distribution, it re#uires more effort to accelerate disc " /change its
angular velocity1 because its mass is distributed further from its a!is of rotation= mass
that is further out from that a!is must, for a given angular velocity, move more #uickly
than mass closer in. In this case, disc " has a larger moment of inertia than disc ).
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The moment of inertia has two forms, a scalar form I /used when the a!is of rotation is
known1 and a more general tensor form that does not re#uire knowing the a!is of
rotation. The scalar moment of inertia I /often called simply the <moment of inertia<1
allows a succinct analysis of many simple problems in rotational dynamics, such as
objects rolling down inclines and the behavior of pulleys. For instance, while a block of
any shape will slide down a frictionless decline at the same rate, rolling objects may
descend at different rates, depending on their moments of inertia. " hoop will descend
more slowly than a solid disk of e#ual mass and radius because more of its mass is
located far from the a!is of rotation, and thus needs to move faster if the hoop rolls at the
same angular velocity. Dowever, for /more complicated1 problems in which the a!is of
rotation can change, the scalar treatment is inade#uate, and the tensor treatment must be
used /although shortcuts are possible in special situations1. *!amples re#uiring such a
treatment include gyroscopes, tops, and even satellites, all objects whose alignment can
change.
The moment of inertia can also be called the mass moment of inertia /especially by
mechanical engineers1 to avoid confusion with the second moment of area, which is
sometimes called the moment of inertia /especially by structural engineers1 and denoted
by the same symbol I. The easiest way to differentiate these #uantities is through their
units. In addition, the moment of inertia should not be confused with the polar moment of
inertia, which is a measure of an object%s ability to resist torsion /twisting1.
Definition
" simple definition of the moment of inertia of any object, be it a point mass or a 6'&
structure, is given by=
where
%dm% is the mass of an infinitesimally small part of the body
and r is the /perpendicular1 distance of the point mass to the a!is of rotation.
Detailed (nalysis
The /scalar1 moment of inertia of a point mass rotating about a known a!is is defined by
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The moment of inertia is additive. Thus, for a rigid body consisting of N point masses m
i

with distances r
i
to the rotation a!is, the total moment of inertia e#uals the sum of the
point&mass moments of inertia=
For a solid body described by a continuous mass density function I/r1, the moment of
inertia about a known a!is can be calculated by integrating the s#uare of the distance
/weighted by the mass density1 from a point in the body to the rotation a!is=
where
J is the volume occupied by the object.
I is the spatial density function of the object, and
are coordinates of a point inside the
body.
'iagram for the calculation of a disk%s moment of inertia. Dere k is ,>4 and r is the radius
used in determining the moment.
)ased on dimensional analysis alone, the moment of inertia of a non&point object must
take the form=
where
M is the mass
R is the radius of the object from the center of mass /in some cases, the length of
the object is used instead.1
k is a dimensionless constant called the inertia constant that varies with the object
in consideration.
Inertial constants are used to account for the differences in the placement of the mass
from the center of rotation. *!amples include=
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k 2 ,, thin ring or thin&walled cylinder around its center,
k 2 4>8, solid sphere around its center
k 2 ,>4, solid cylinder or disk around its center.
Parallel a)is t*eorem
0nce the moment of inertia has been calculated for rotations about the center of mass of a
rigid body, one can conveniently recalculate the moment of inertia for all parallel rotation
a!es as well, without having to resort to the formal definition. If the a!is of rotation is
displaced by a distance R from the center of mass a!is of rotation /e.g. spinning a disc
about a point on its periphery, rather than through its center,1 the displaced and center&
moment of inertia are related as follows=
This theorem is also known as the parallel axes rule and is a special case of Steiner's
parallel-axis theorem.
Perpendicular Axis Theorem
The perpendicular a!is theorem for planar objects can be demonstrated by looking at the
contribution to the three a!is moments of inertia from an arbitrary mass element. From
the point mass moment, the contributions to each of the a!is moments of inertia are
+omposite bodies
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If a body can be decomposed /either physically or conceptually1 into several constituent
parts, then the moment of inertia of the body about a given a!is is obtained by summing
the moments of inertia of each constituent part around the same given a!is.
Common Moments of Inertia
Friction
Friction is the force resisting the relative lateral /tangential1 motion of solid
surfaces, fluid layers, or material elements in contact. It is usually subdivided into several
varieties=
Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. 'ry
friction is also subdivided into static friction between non&moving surfaces, and
kinetic friction /sometimes called slidin friction or dynamic friction1 between
moving surfaces.
!u"ricated friction or fluid friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid
surfaces separated by a layer of gas or li#uid.
#luid friction is also used to describe the friction between layers within a fluid
that are moving relative to each other.
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(kin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a solid body
through a fluid.
Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a
solid material while it undergoes deformation.
Friction is not a fundamental force, as it is derived from electromagnetic force
between charged particles, including electrons, protons, atoms, and molecules, and so
cannot be calculated from first principles, but instead must be found empirically. ?hen
contacting surfaces move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces
converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, or heat. Contrary to earlier e!planations,
kinetic friction is now understood not to be caused by surface roughness but by chemical
bonding between the surfaces. (urface roughness and contact area, however, do affect
kinetic friction for micro& and nano&scale objects where surface area forces dominate
inertial forces.
Friction is distinct from traction. (urface area does not affect friction significantly
because as contact area increases, force per unit area decreases. In traction, however,
surface area is important.
Coulomb friction
Coulomb friction, named after Charles&"ugustin de Coulomb, is a model used to
calculate the force of dry friction. It is governed by the e#uation=
where
#
f
is either the force e!erted by friction, or, in the case of e#uality, the ma!imum
possible magnitude of this force.
K is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting
materials,
#
n
is the normal force e!erted between the surfaces.
For surfaces at rest relative to each other K 2 K
s
, where K
s
is the coefficient of
static friction. This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart. The Coulomb friction
may take any value from 5ero up to #
f
, and the direction of the frictional force against a
surface is opposite to the motion that surface would e!perience in the absence of friction.
Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is e!actly what it must be in order to prevent
motion between the surfacesB it balances the net force tending to cause such motion. In
this case, rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb
appro!imation provides a threshold value for this force, above which motion would
commence.
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For surfaces in relative motion K 2 K
k
, where K
k
is the coefficient of kinetic
friction. The Coulomb friction is e#ual to #
f
, and the frictional force on each surface is
e!erted in the direction opposite to its motion relative to the other surface.
This appro!imation mathematically follows from the assumptions that surfaces
are in atomically close contact only over a small fraction of their overall area, that this
contact area is proportional to the normal force /until saturation, which takes place when
all area is in atomic contact1, and that frictional force is proportional to the applied
normal force, independently of the contact area /you can see the e!periments on friction
from Feonardo 'a Jinci1. (uch reasoning aside, however, the appro!imation is
fundamentally an empirical construction. It is a rule of thumb describing the appro!imate
outcome of an e!tremely complicated physical interaction. The strength of the
appro!imation is its simplicity and versatility L though in general the relationship
between normal force and frictional force is not e!actly linear /and so the frictional force
is not entirely independent of the contact area of the surfaces1, the Coulomb
appro!imation is an ade#uate representation of friction for the analysis of many physical
systems.
!tatic friction
(tatic friction is friction between two solid objects that are not moving relative to
each other. For e!ample, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped
surface. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as $
s
, is usually higher than
the coefficient of kinetic friction.
The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an object
can move. The ma!imum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding
begins is the product of the coefficient of static friction and the normal force= f 2 K
s
#
n
.
?hen there is no sliding occurring, the friction force can have any value from 5ero up to
#
max
. "ny force smaller than #
max
attempting to slide one surface over the other is opposed
by a frictional force of e#ual magnitude and opposite direction. "ny force larger than
#
max
overcomes the force of static friction and causes sliding to occur. The instant sliding
occurs, static friction is no longer applicable and kinetic friction becomes applicable.
"n e!ample of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping
as it rolls on the ground. *ven though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in
contact with the ground is stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather than
kinetic friction.
The ma!imum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes
referred to as limiting friction, although this term is not used universally.
,inetic friction
6; - . a g e
+inetic /or dynamic1 friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each
other and rub together /like a sled on the ground1. The coefficient of kinetic friction is
typically denoted as $
k
, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the
same materials.
*!amples of kinetic friction=
+inetic friction is when two objects are rubbing against each other. .utting a book
flat on a desk and moving it around is an e!ample of kinetic friction.
Fluid friction is the interaction between a solid object and a fluid /li#uid or gas1,
as the object moves through the fluid. The skin friction of air on an airplane or of
water on a swimmer are two e!amples of fluid friction. This kind of friction is not
only due to rubbing, which generates a force tangent to the surface of the object
/such as sliding friction1. It is also due to forces that are orthogonal to the surface
of the object. These orthogonal forces significantly /and mainly, if relative
velocity is high enough1 contribute to fluid friction. Fluid friction is the classic
name of this force. This name is no longer used in modern fluid dynamics. (ince
rubbing is not its only cause, in modern fluid dynamics the same force is typically
referred to as drag or fluid resistance, while the force component due to rubbing is
called skin friction. $otice that a fluid can in some cases e!ert, together with drag,
a force orthogonal to the direction of the relative motion of the object /lift1. The
net force e!erted by a fluid /drag M lift1 is called fluidodynamic force
/aerodynamic if the fluid is a gas, or hydrodynamic if the fluid is a li#uid1.
(ngle of friction
For the friction angle between granular material, see "ngle of repose.
For certain applications it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the ma!imum
angle before which one of the items will begin sliding. This is called the anle of friction
or friction anle. It is defined as=
tanN 2 K
where is the angle from hori5ontal and is the static coefficient of friction between the
objects.
!ther types of friction
Rolling resistance
Aolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular
object along a surface caused by deformations in the object and>or surface. enerally the
force of rolling resistance is less than that associated with kinetic friction. Typical values
6: - . a g e
for the coefficient of rolling resistance are 3.33,.0ne of the most common e!amples of
rolling resistance is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a road, a process which
generates heat and sound as by&products.
Friction is a surface force that opposes motion. The frictional force is directly
related to the normal force which acts to keep two solid objects separated at the point of
contact. There are two broad classifications of frictional forces= static friction and kinetic
friction.
The static friction force /#
sf
1 will e!actly oppose forces applied to an object
parallel to a surface contact up to the limit specified by the coefficient of static friction
/K
sf
1 multiplied by the normal force /#
N
1. In other words the magnitude of the static
friction force satisfies the ine#uality=
The kinetic friction force /#
kf
1 is independent of both the forces applied and the
movement of the object. Thus, the magnitude of the force is e#ual to
#
kf
2 K
kf
#
$
,
where K
kf
is the coefficient of kinetic friction. For most surface interfaces, the coefficient
of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction.
+oefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction /C0F1, also known as a frictional coefficient or friction
coefficient, symboli5ed by the reek letter K, is a dimensionless scalar value which
describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them
together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials usedB for e!ample, ice on
steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of
friction. Coefficients of friction range from near 5ero to greater than one L under good
conditions, a tire on concrete may have a coefficient of friction of ,.;.
O
citation needed
P
?hen the surfaces are conjoined, Coulomb friction becomes a very poor
appro!imation /for e!ample, adhesive tape resists sliding even when there is no normal
force, or a negative normal force1. In this case, the frictional force may depend strongly
on the area of contact. (ome drag racing tires are adhesive in this way. Dowever, despite
the comple!ity of the fundamental physics behind friction, the relationships are accurate
enough to be useful in many applications.
The force of friction is always e!erted in a direction that opposes movement /for
kinetic friction1 or potential movement /for static friction1 between the two surfaces. For
e!ample, a curling stone sliding along the ice e!periences a kinetic force slowing it down.
For an e!ample of potential movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car
6E - . a g e
e!perience a frictional force pointing forwardB if they did not, the wheels would spin, and
the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement. $ote that it is not the direction of
movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the direction of /potential1 sliding between tire
and road.
The coefficient of friction is an empirical measurement L it has to be measured
e!perimentally, and cannot be found through calculations. Aougher surfaces tend to have
higher effective values. Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient
values between 3.6 and 3.9. Jalues outside this range are rarer, but teflon, for e!ample,
can have a coefficient as low as 3.3@. " value of 5ero would mean no friction at all, an
elusive property L even magnetic levitation vehicles have drag. Aubber in contact with
other surfaces can yield friction coefficients from , to 4. 0ccasionally it is maintained
that Q is always R ,, but this is not true. ?hile in most relevant applications Q R ,, a
value above , merely implies that the force re#uired to slide an object along the surface is
greater than the normal force of the surface on the object. For e!ample, silicone rubber or
acrylic rubber&coated surfaces have a coefficient of friction that can be substantially
larger than ,.
)oth static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in
contactB their values are usually appro!imately determined e!perimentally. For a given
pair of surfaces, the coefficient of static friction is usually larger than that of kinetic
frictionB in some sets the two coefficients are e#ual, such as teflon&on&teflon.
In the case of kinetic friction, the direction of the friction force may or may not
match the direction of motion= a block sliding atop a table with rectilinear motion is
subject to friction directed along the line of motionB an automobile making a turn is
subject to friction acting perpendicular to the line of motion /in which case it is said to be
%normal% to it1. The direction of the static friction force can be visuali5ed as directly
opposed to the force that would otherwise cause motion, were it not for the static friction
preventing motion. In this case, the friction force e!actly cancels the applied force, so the
net force given by the vector sum, e#uals 5ero. It is important to note that in all cases,
$ewton%s first law of motion holds.
?hile it is often stated that the C0F is a <material property,< it is better
categori5ed as a <system property.< Cnlike true material properties /such as conductivity,
dielectric constant, yield strength1, the C0F for any two materials depends on system
variables like temperature, velocity, atmosphere and also what are now popularly
described as aging and deaging timesB as well as on geometric properties of the interface
between the materials. For e!ample, a copper pin sliding against a thick copper plate can
have a C0F that varies from 3.9 at low speeds /metal sliding against metal1 to below 3.4
at high speeds when the copper surface begins to melt due to frictional heating. The latter
speed, of course, does not determine the C0F uni#uelyB if the pin diameter is increased so
that the frictional heating is removed rapidly, the temperature drops, the pin remains solid
and the C0F rises to that of a %low speed% test.
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(ppro)imate coefficients of friction
@, - . a g e
Materials
(tatic friction, K
s
'ry S clean Fubricated
"luminum (teel 3.9,
Copper (teel 3.86
)rass (teel 3.8,
Cast iron Copper ,.38
Cast iron Tinc 3.:8
Concrete /wet1 Aubber 3.63
Concrete /dry1 Aubber ,.3
Copper lass 3.9:
lass lass 3.E@
.olythene (teel 3.4 3.4
(teel (teel 3.:3 3.,9
(teel Teflon 3.3@ 3.3@
Teflon Teflon 3.3@ 3.3@
MODULE I--
T*e analysis of trusses
( truss= " truss is a structure made of two force members all pin connected to each
other.
T*e met*od of .oints= This method uses the free&body&diagram of joints in the
structure to determine the forces in each member. For e!ample, in the above structure we
have 8 joints each having a free body diagram as follows
$ote how $ewtonUs third law controls how one introduces on the joints A and on the
joint B. For each joint one can write two e#uations . The moment e#uation is trivially
satisfied since all forces on a joint pass trough the joint. For e!ample, for the above truss
we have 8 joints, therefore we can write ,3 e#uations of e#uilibrium /two for each joint1.
In the above e!ample there are seven unknown member forces /#
AB%
#
B&
% #
&D
% #
'D
% #
'&
%
#
B'
% #
A'
1 plus three unknown support reactions /A% D
x
% D
y
(, giving a total of ,3 unknowns
to solve for using the ,3 e#uations obtained from e#uilibrium.
T*e met*od of sections= This method uses free&body&diagrams of sections of the
truss to obtain unknown forces. For e!ample, if one needs only to find the force in )C, it
is possible to do this by only writing two e#uations. First, draw the free body diagram of
the full truss and solve for the reaction at A by taking moments about D. $e!t draw the
free body diagram of the section shown and take moments about ' to find the force in
B&.
In the method of sections one can write three e#uations for each free&body&diagram /two
components of force and one moment e#uation1.
T*ings to consider=
/ero force members= (ome members in a truss cannot carry load. These
members are called 5ero force members. *!amples of 5ero force members are
the colored members /AB% B&% and D)1 in the following truss.
@4 - . a g e
Consider the following free&body&diagrams
If you sum the forces in the y-direction in the left free&body&diagram, you
will see that #
AB
must be 5ero since it is not balanced by another force. Then if
you sum forces in the y&direction you will find that #
B&
must also be 5ero. If you
sum the forces in the y direction in the right free&body&diagram, you will see that
#
D)
must be 5ero since it is not balanced by another force.
( redundant .oint= (ometimes a joint is redundant. For e!ample, in the
following free&body&diagram the load is directly transmitted from each
member to the one opposite it without any interaction.
)y summing forces along the y-direction one will get #
*
+#
,
, and by summing
forces along the --direction one will get #
.
+#
/
.
Redundant members= (ometimes a structure contains one or more redundant
members. These members must be removed from the truss, otherwise one will
have an insufficient number of e#uations to solve for the unknown member
forces. (lender members are not very useful in compression since they buckle
and, as a result, lose their load carrying capability. For e!ample, in the
following truss one of the two members A& or BD is redundant. To solve the
problem, we remove member BD which will go into compression as a result
of the applied loading /i.e., the diagonal A& will have to increase in length and
the diagonal BD will have to decease in length for the structure to bend to the
right1. If we did not remove this member we would have E unknowns /five
member loads and four support reactions1 and only : e#uations /two for each
joint1.
Mec*anisms= (ometimes there is too much freedom in a structure. For
e!ample, the following structure cannot carry any load since it will
collapse under the load.
@6 - . a g e
+ur0ed members1 Remember t*at t*e t2o forces acting on a t2o-
force-member are along t*e line connecting t*e t2o points on 2*ic*
t*e loads are applied%
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@8 - . a g e
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83 - . a g e
8, - . a g e
Stress and Strain: Basic Terms and Concepts
"nits
In traditional geology the unit of pressure is the "ar, which is about e#ual to
atmospheric pressure. It is also about e#ual to the pressure under ,3 meters of water. For
pressures deep in the earth we use the kilo"ar, e#ual to ,333 bars. The pressure beneath
,3 km of water, or at the bottom of the deepest oceanic trenches, is about , kilobar.
)eneath the "ntarctic ice cap /ma!imum thickness about 8 km1 the pressure is about half
a kilobar at greatest.
In the (I (ystem, the fundamental unit of length is the meter and mass is the
kilogram. Important units used in geology include=
Energy1 7oule= kg&m
4
>sec
4
. Five grams moving at 43 meters per second have an
energy of one joule. This is about e#ual to a sheet of paper wadded up into a ball
and thrown hard.
Force= $ewton= kg&m>sec
4
. 0n the surface of the *arth, with a gravitational
acceleration of E.: m>sec
4
, a newton is the force e!erted by a weight of ,34 grams
or 6.9 ounces. " Fig $ewton weighs about ,8 gramsB therefore one (I $ewton
e#uals appro!imately ; Fig $ewtons.
Pressure= .ascal 2 $ewton>m
4
or kg>m&sec
4
. " newton spread out over a s#uare
meter is a pretty feeble force. "tmospheric pressure is about ,33,333 pascals. "
manila file folder /68 g, ;33 cm
4
area1 e!erts a pressure of about 8 pascals.
)y comparison with traditional pressure units, one bar 2 ,33,333 pascals. 0ne
megapascal /Mpa1 e#uals ,3 bars, one igapascal /pa1 e#uals ,3 kilobars.
, mile 2 84:3 feet
, meter 2 6.4: feet
, hour 2 93 minutes
, minute 2 93 seconds
Stress and Strain
'efinitions of stress, strain and youngs modulus
Introduction
?hen a stretching force "tensile force# is applied to an object, it will e!tend. ?e can
draw its force & e!tension graph to show how it will e!tend. Note: that this graph is true
only for the object for which it was e!perimentally obtained. ?e cannot use it to deduce
the behaviour of another object even if it is made of the same material. This is because
e!tension of an object is not only dependent on the material but also on other factors like
84 - . a g e
dimensions of the object /e.g. length, thickness etc.1 It is therefore more useful to find out
about the characteristic e!tension property of the material itself. This can be done if we
draw a graph in which deformation is independent of dimensions of the object under test.
This kind of graph is called stress- strain cur0e%
Stress #erms
(tress is defined as force per unit area. It has the same units as pressure, and in
fact pressure is one special variety of stress. Dowever, stress is a much more comple!
#uantity than pressure because it varies both with direction and with the surface it acts on.
+ompression
(tress that acts to shorten an object.
Tension
(tress that acts to lengthen an object.
'ormal !tress
(tress that acts perpendicular to a surface. Can be either compressional or
tensional.
!*ear
(tress that acts parallel to a surface. It can cause one object to slide over another.
It also tends to deform originally rectangular objects into parallelograms. The
most general definition is that shear acts to change the angles in an object.
3ydrostatic
(tress /usually compressional1 that is uniform in all directions. " scuba diver
e!periences hydrostatic stress. (tress in the earth is nearly hydrostatic. The term
for uniform stress in the earth is lit*ostatic.
Directed !tress
(tress that varies with direction. (tress under a stone slab is directedB there is a
force in one direction but no counteracting forces perpendicular to it. This is why
a person under a thick slab gets s#uashed but a scuba diver under the same
pressure doesn%t. The scuba diver feels the same force in all directions.
In geology 2e ne0er see stress% ?e only see the results of stress as it deforms materials.
*ven if we were to use a strain gauge to measure in&situ stress in the rocks, we would not
measure the stress itself. ?e would measure the deformation of the strain gauge /that%s
why it%s called a <strain gauge<1 and use that to infer the stress.
!tress
!tress is defined as t*e force per unit area of a material%
i%e% !tress 4 force 5 cross sectional area1
where,
86 - . a g e
6 2 stress,
F 2 force applied, and
A2 cross sectional area of the object.
Units of s 1 $m
&4
or .a.
Strain #erms
(train is defined as the amount of deformation an object e!periences compared to
its original si5e and shape. For e!ample, if a block ,3 cm on a side is deformed so that it
becomes E cm long, the strain is /,3&E1>,3 or 3., /sometimes e!pressed in percent, in this
case ,3 percent.1 $ote that strain is dimensionless.
Longitudinal or Linear !train
(train that changes the length of a line without changing its direction. Can be
either compressional or tensional.
+ompression
Fongitudinal strain that shortens an object.
Tension
Fongitudinal strain that lengthens an object.
!*ear
(train that changes the angles of an object. (hear causes lines to rotate.
Infinitesimal !train
(train that is tiny, a few percent or less. "llows a number of useful mathematical
simplifications and appro!imations.
Finite !train
(train larger than a few percent. Ae#uires a more complicated mathematical
treatment than infinitesimal strain.
3omogeneous !train
Cniform strain. (traight lines in the original object remain straight. .arallel lines
remain parallel. Circles deform to ellipses. $ote that this definition rules out
folding, since an originally straight layer has to remain straight.
In*omogeneous !train
Dow real geology behaves. 'eformation varies from place to place. Fines may
bend and do not necessarily remain parallel.
!train
!train is defined as e)tension per unit lengt*%
8@ - . a g e
!train 4 e)tension 5 original lengt*
where,
7 2 strain,
l
o
2 the original length
e 2 e!tension 2 /l-l
o
1, and
l 2 stretched length
!train *as no units because it is a ratio of lengt*s%
?e can use the above definitions of stress and strain for forces causing tension or
compression.
If we apply tensile force we have tensile stress and tensile strain
If we apply compressi0e force we have compressi0e stress and compressi0e strain%
A useful tip: In calculations stress e!pressed in .a is usually a very large
number and strain is usually a very small number. If it comes out much
different then, you%ve done it wrongV
Terms for 8e*a0ior of Materials
Elastic
Material deforms under stress but returns to its original si5e and shape when the
stress is released. There is no permanent deformation. (ome elastic strain, like in
a rubber band, can be large, but in rocks it is usually small enough to be
considered infinitesimal.
8rittle
Material deforms by fracturing. lass is brittle. Aocks are typically brittle at low
temperatures and pressures.
Ductile
Material deforms without breaking. Metals are ductile. Many materials show both
types of behavior. They may deform in a ductile manner if deformed slowly, but
fracture if deformed too #uickly or too much. Aocks are typically ductile at high
temperatures or pressures.
9iscous
Materials that deform steadily under stress. .urely viscous materials like li#uids
deform under even the smallest stress. Aocks may behave like viscous materials
under high temperature and pressure.
88 - . a g e
Plastic
Material does not flow until a threshhold stress has been e!ceeded.
9iscoelastic
Combines elastic and viscous behavior. Models of glacio&isostasy fre#uently
assume a viscoelastic earth= the crust fle!es elastically and the underlying mantle
flows viscously.
(:I(L !TRE!!

?hat is known as ()ial "or 'ormal# !tress, often symboli5ed by the reek letter
sigma, is defined as the force perpendicular to the cross sectional area of the member
divided by the cross sectional area.
if our metal rod is tested by increasing the tension in the rod, the deformation
increases. In the first region the deformation increases in proportion to the force. That is,
if the amount of force is doubled, the amount of deformation is doubled. This is a form of
Dooke%s Faw and could be written this way= F 2 k /deformation1, where k is a constant
depending on the material /and is sometimes called the spring constant1. "fter enough
force has been applied the material enters the plastic region & where the force and the
deformation are not proportional, but rather a small amount of increase in force produces
a large amount of deformation. In this region, the rod often begins to %neck down%, that is,
the diameter becomes smaller as the rod is about to fail. Finally the rod actually breaks.
The point at which the Elastic Region ends is called the elastic limit, or the
proportional limit. In actuality, these two points are not #uite the same. The Elastic Limit
is the point at which permanent deformation occurs, that is, after the elastic limit, if the
force is taken off the sample, it will not return to its original si5e and shape, permanent
deformation has occurred. The Proportional Limit is the point at which the deformation
is no longer directly proportional to the applied force /Dooke%s Faw no longer holds1.
"lthough these two points are slightly different, we will treat them as the same in this
course.
$e!t, rather than e!amining the applied force and resulting deformation, we will instead
graph the a)ial stress 0erses t*e a)ial strain . (hown below
89 - . a g e
?e have defined the a!ial stress earlier. The a!ial strain is defined as the
fractional change in length or !train 4 "deformation of member# di0ided by t*e
"original lengt* of member# , (train is often represented by the reek symbol
epsilon/1, and the deformation is often represented by the reek symbol delta/1, so we
may write=
/where F
o
is the original length of the member1 (train has no units & since its
length divided by length, however it is sometimes e!pressed as %in.>in.% in some te!ts.
"s we see from figure above, the (tress verses (train graph has the same shape and
regions as the force verses deformation graph in diagram below
. In the elastic /linear1 region, since stress is directly proportional to strain, the
ratio of stress>strain will be a constant /and actually e#ual to the slope of the linear
portion of the graph1. This constant is known as Woung%s Modulus, and is usually
symboli5ed by an E or ;. ?e will use E for Woung%s modulus. ?e may now write
;oung<s Modulus 4 !tress5!train=
8; - . a g e
The value of Woung%s modulus & which is a measure of the amount of force
needed to produce a unit deformation & depends on the material. Woung%s Modulus for
!teel is >? ) -?
$
lb5in
@
, for (luminum E 4 -? ) -?
$
lb5in
@
, and for 8rass E 4 -A ) -?
$
lb5in
@
.
To summari5e our stress>strain>Dooke%s Faw relationships up to this point, we have=
The last relationship is just a combination of the first three, and says simply that
the amount of deformation which occurs in a member is e#ual to the product of the force
in the member and the length of the member /usually in inches1 divided by Woung%s
Modulus for the material, and divided by the cross sectional area of the member. To see
applications of these relationships, we now will look at several e!amples. (tress and
(train
Consider a lump of clay. ?e can stretch it, s#uee5e it or twist it. In terms
of physics, we say that we apply <tensile<, <compressional< or <torsional< forces,
respectively. In order to #uantitatively describe our fun, we define the <stress< which we
apply to the clay across any cross section of it as the force per unit area. $ote that these
dimensions are those of pressure, and are e#uivalent to energy per unit volume /<energy
density<1=
$ > m
4
2 7 > m
6
.
The resulting <strain< /deformation1 which the clay e!periences is defined as the
fractional e!tension perpendicular to the cross section we are considering. For instance,
when stretching a cylindrical piece of clay of radius , cm, with a force of ,33 dynes, the
stress is ,33 > dynes per s#uare cm. The cross section is a circular cut perpendicular to
the force we applied to the clay, and the strain is parallel to the force. If its initial length
was ,3 cm, and it stretched an additional 4 cm, the strain which it e!perienced was 4 cm >
,3 cm 2 3.4. $ote that the strain is dimensionless. $ote also that we did 433 ergs of work
/,33 dynes times 4 cm e!tension1 to stretch the clay.
The graph of stress versus strain for a material is a veritable cornecopia of information=
The slope of the curve at any point is called the <Woung%s Modulus<, and has dimensions
of force over area. Its numerical value is indicative of the <stiffness< of the material=
smaller values indicate that less stress is re#uired for more strain. Fikewise, larger values
of Woung%s Modulus indicate that more stress is re#uired for a given strain. $ote that
8: - . a g e
strain may be tensile, compressive or torsionalB in general, the stress versus strain curve
will differ for each material, and for each type of stress. The <strength< of the material is
the ma!imum value of the stress before breakage. The <e!tensibility< is the ma!imum
value of the strain before breakage. The <toughness< is the area under the curve between
the vertical dashed lines, and is e#ual to the energy re#uired to break the object. The
partial area under the curve up to a given strain /less than the e!tensibility1 is the <work
of e!tension<.
Fet us revisit the collision in of this chapter. "ssume for a moment that the driver%s head
had a mass of 8 kg, and that the area of that portion of the head which hit the windshield
was 48 cm
4
. The compressive strength of bone is about ,9 ! ,3
;
.a /$ > m
4
1. From the
definition of pressure as the force per unit area, we find that the force on the head
re#uired to fracture the skull would be @33,333 $ /remember to convert the area from cgs
to (I unitsV1. This implies an acceleration of :3,333 m > s
4
/from F 2 m a1, and if the
driver%s head came to rest in 6 ms, the inital velocity would have to have been 4@3 m > sV
"s a further e!ample of stress and strain, consider a spring. ?e will treat the spring as a
one dimensional object, so the only stress will be e!tensional /or compressional, which
will be the negative of e!tension1, and the units will be force per unit e!tension. ?ithin a
range of e!tension, the spring obeys <Dooke%s Faw<, which states that Woung%s Modulus
is a constant= the stress versus strain curve is a straight line=
F 2 & k !,
where k /which is positive1 is Woung%s Modulus, here called the <spring constant< /with
dimensions of force over length1, and ! is the amount of e!tension. The negative sign
indicates that the force is in the opposite direction of e!tension= if you e!tend the spring,
the force tries to restore it to its original length. Fikewise, if you compress the spring /!
R 31, the force attempts to e!pand the spring, again to its original length. The area under
the curve is
C 2 ,>4 k /!1
4
,
which gives the work of e!tension, or alternatively, the amount of potential energy stored
in the spring. ?e will return to this model when we deal with arterial walls which we will
treat as springs.
Finally, we mention that the stress versus strain curve is not necessarily the same during
the rela!ation of stress as it was during the loading /application1 of the stress. This
phenomenon is called <hysteresis<, and the ratio of the area under the rela!ation curve to
that under the loading curve /for a given strain1 is called the <resiliance< /usually
e!pressed as a percentage1.
8E - . a g e
!*ear !tress B !train
!3E(R!TRE!!
In additional to "!ial /or normal1 (tress and (train /discussed in topic 4.,and
4.41, we may also have what is known as (hear (tress and (hear (train.In 'iagram , we
have shown a metal rod which is solidly attached to the floor. ?e then e!ert a force, F,
acting at angle theta with respect to the hori5ontal, on the rod. The component of the
Force perpendicular to the surface area will produce an "!ial (tress on the rod given by
Force perpendicular to an area di0idedbyt*earea,

The component of the Force parallel to the area will also effect the rod by producing a
(hear (tress, defined as Force parallel to an area di0ided by t*e area, where the reek
letter, Tau, is used to represent (hear (tress. The units of both "!ial and (hear (tress will
normally be lb>in
4
or $>m
4
.
!*ear!train1
7ust as an a!ial stress results in an a!ial strain, which is the change in the length divided
by the original length of the member, so does shear stress produce a shear strain. )oth
()ial !train and !*ear !train are shown in figure above. The shear stress produces a
displacement of the rod as indicated in the right drawing in figure above. The edge of the
rod is displaced a hori5ontal distance, from its initial position. This displacement /or
hori5ontal deformation1 divided by the length of the rod F is e#ual to the !*ear !train.
*!amining the small triangle made by = L and the side of the rod, we see that the (hear
(train, is also e#ual to the tangent of the angle gamma, and since the amount of
displacement is #uite small the tangent of the angle is appro!imately e#ual to the angle
itself.
"s with "!ial (tress and (train, (hear (tress and (train are proportional in the elastic
region of the material. This relationship may be e!pressed as C 4 !*ear !tress5!*ear
!train= where is a property of the material and is called the Modulus of Aigidity /or at
times, the (hear Modulus1 and has units of lb>in
4
. The Modulus of Aigidity for (teel is
appro!imately ,4 ! ,3
9
lb>in
4
.
If a graph is made of !*ear !tress 0ersus !*ear !train, it will normally e!hibit the
same characteristics as the graph of ()ial !tress 0ersus ()ial !train. There is an
93 - . a g e
Elastic Region in which the (tress is directly proportional to the (train. The point at
which the Elastic Region ends is called the elastic limit, or the proportional limit. In
actuality, these two points are not #uite the same. The Elastic Limit is the point at which
permanent deformation occurs, that is, after the elastic limit, if the force is taken off the
sample, it will not return to its original si5e and shape, permanent deformation has
occurred. The Proportional Limit is the point at which the deformation is no longer
directly proportional to the applied force /Dooke%s Faw no longer holds1. "lthough these
two points are slightly different, we will treat them as the same in this course. There is a
Plastic Region, where a small increase in the (hear (tress results in a larger increase in
(hear (train, and finally there is a Failure Point where the sample fails in shear.
To summari5e our shear stress>strain>Dooke%s Faw relationships up to this point, we have=
T*ermal !tress= !train B Deformation - I
Changes in temperatures causes thermal effects on materials. (ome of these thermal
effects include thermal stress, strain, and deformation. The first effect we will consider is
thermal deformation. Thermal deformation simply means that as the <thermal< energy
/and temperature1 of a material increases, so does the vibration of its atoms>moleculesB
and this increased vibration results in what can be considered a stretching of the
molecular bonds & which causes the material to e!pand. 0f course, if the thermal energy
/and temperature1 of a material decreases, the material will shrink or contract. For a long
rod the main thermal deformation occurs along the length of the rod,
where /alpha1 is the linear coefficient of e!pansion for the material, and is the fractional
change in length per degree change in temperature. D!ome 0alues of t*e linear
coefficient of e)pansion are1 !teel 4 -@ ) -?
-$
5
o
+ 4 $%A ) -?
-$
5
o
FE 8rass 4 @? ) -?
-$
5
o
+ 4
-- ) -?
-$
5
o
FE (luminum 4 @> ) -?
-$
5
o
+ 4 -> ) -?
-$
5
o
F%F The term is the temperature
change the material e!periences, which represents /T
f
& T
o
1, the final temperature minus
the original temperature. If the change in temperature is positive we have thermal
e!pansion, and if negative, thermal contraction. The term %F% represents the initial length
of the rod.
9, - . a g e
E)ample-
-
" twelve foot steel rod is initially at a temperature of 3
o
F and e!periences a temperature
increase to a final temperature of :3
o
F. ?hat is the resultant change in length of the steelX
(olution=
Deformation 4 $%A ) -?
-$
5
o
F "G?
o
F- ?
o
F# "-HH inc*es# 4 %?&A inc*es
/The length of the rod was converted into inches in the e#uation since the deformations
are normally #uite small.1 ?e see the deformation is indeed #uite small, and in many
cases the thermal deformation has no significant effect on the structure. Dowever, if the
structure or members of the structure are constrained such that the thermal e!pansion can
not occur, then a significant thermal stress may arise which can effect the structure
substantially & and which we will address shortly.
In addition to the length, both the area and volume of a material will change with a
corresponding change in temperature. The resulting changes in area and volume are given
by=
These formulas, as written, are not e!act. In the derivations Ousing /F M F1
4
for area, and
/F M F1
6
for JolumeP there are cross terms involving the linear coefficient of e!pansion
s#uared in the area formula, and the coefficient of e!pansion s#uared and cubed in the
volume formula. These terms are very small and can be ignored, resulting in the two
e#uations above.
?hile unconstrained thermal e!pansion is relatively straight forward effect, it still
re#uires a bit of thought, such as in the following #uestion.
( flat round copper plate *as a *ole in t*e center% T*e plate is *eated and e)pands%
I*at *appens to t*e *ole in t*e center of t*e plate - e)pands= stays t*e same= or
s*rinJsK
?hen I ask this #uestion in my classroom it is not unusual for the majority of the
answers to be incorrect. 0ur first thought often is that since the plate is e!panding, the
hole is the center must be getting smaller. Dowever, this is not the case. The
atoms>molecules all move away from each other with the result that the hole e!pands just
as if it were made of the same material as the plate. This is also true of volume e!pansion.
The inside volume of a glass bottle e!pands as if it were made of glass.
" somewhat more interesting aspect of thermal e!pansion is when it <can%t< & that is, what
happens when we constrain a structure or member so it can not e!pand. /or contract1X
94 - . a g e
?hen this happens a force and resulting stress develop in the structure. " simple way to
determine the amount of stress is to let the material e!pand freely due to thermal
e!pansion, and then compress it back to its original length /a mechanical deformation1 .
(ee diagram below.
If we e#uate these two effects /deformations1 we have= 4 FF>*" Bnote that we can cancel
the length F from each side of the e#uation, and then cross multiply by *, arriving at= 4
F>" , however, F>" is stress and we can finally write=
B The thermal stress which develops if a structure or member is completely constrained
/not allowed to move at all1 is the product of the coefficient of linear e!pansion and the
temperature change and Woung%s modulus for the material.
;oung Modulus
Instead of dra2ing a force - e)tension grap*= if you plot stress against strain for an
ob.ect s*o2ing "linear# elastic be*a0iour= you get a straig*t line%
This is because stress is proportional to strain. The gradient of the straight&line graph is
the Woung%s modulus, *
* is constant and does not change for a given material. It in fact represents %stiffness%
property of the material. Jalues of the young modulus of different materials are often
listed in the form of a table in reference books so scientists and engineers can look them
up.
Units of t*e ;oung modulus E1 'm
-@
or Pa%
96 - . a g e
* is constant and does not change for a given material, no matter what the si5e of the
sample we test. It can be considered as a property of the material. The value of * reflects
the stiffness of the material. !tiffer materials *a0e *ig*er 0alues of E% Woung%s
modulus values of different materials are often listed in the form of a table in reference
books so scientists and engineers can look them up.
Units of t*e ;oung modulus E1 $m
&4
or .a.
Note: The value of * in .a can turn out to be a very large number. It is for this reason
that, some times the value of * may be given M'm
-@
.
Note: )ecause %stress% and %strain% are /uni#uely1 related to force and e!tension, it is not
surprising that the two graphs, stress v>s strain and force v e!tension, have similar shapes
and characteristics.
E)perimental Determination of stress-strain grap* and E
?e can e!perimentally determine the value of * by choosing a specimen of the material
in a convenient shape and form. For e!ample, it is easier to deal with a specimen in the
form of a long, thin wire for determining the value of Woung%s modulus of a metal. In
principle we can apply different forces to a wire by hanging different weights on it and
measure the e!tension of the wire for the magnitudes of the force applied to draw a stress
strain graph. ?e have already noted that strain is a small number so it needs to be
measured more accurately
9@ - . a g e
?e actually use two wires of e#ual lengths attached to a rigid support. "lthough the
support is rigid it to can %give% slightly under the forces applied. This can affect results. )y
using two wires, spurious strain can be eliminated from the measurements. 0ne wire acts
as a control wire. ?e can accurately measure e!tension of the other /test1 wire. )oth
control and test wires are attached to the other ends by a hori5ontal bar supporting a spirit
level. The bar is hinged to the control wire so that when the test wire is e!tended due to
the addition of weights on the side of the test wire, the spirit level is tilted by a small
amount. ?e can remove any tilt of the spirit level and restore it to the hori5ontal position
by turning the screw of a micrometer, which is positioned on the test wire side and
making the bar mounted spirit level travel in the desired direction.
Caution: It is possible that a wire under tension can snap suddenly and damage eyes.
?ear safety glasses. It is also possible that weights attached to the wires could fall down
and land on your feet or other part of the body.
E)perimental determination consists of t*e follo2ing steps1
Step 1: "ttach e#ual weights both wires to make them e#ually taut.
Step 2: Measure the initial length of the wire several times to obtain the average value of
lo
98 - . a g e
Step 3: Measure the diameter of the wire at several points along the wire and the average
value of the diameter /d1 and then calculate the circular cross&sectional area
From t*e formula1
" 2 /Yd
4
1
Step 4:"djust the spirit level so that it is in the hori5ontal position by turning the
micrometer. Aecord the micrometer reading to use it as the reference reading.
Step :Foad the test wire with a further weight. ?ait while the wire is being stretched to
the e#uilibrium position and the spirit level is ma!imally tilted.
Step !: "djust the micrometer screw to restore the spirit level into the hori5ontal position.
Step ": (ubtract the first micrometer reading from the second micrometer reading to
obtain the e!tension /e1 of the test wire.
Step #: Calculate stress and strain from the formulae and
Step $: Aepeat steps @,8,9 to obtain more values of stresses and strains
Step 1%: .lot the above values on stress strain graphB it should be a straight line.
'etermine the value of the gradient *.
&or'e( example
( 2ire of lengt* @m and diameter ?%Hmm is *ung from t*e ceiling% Find t*e
e)tension caused in t*e 2ire 2*en a 2eig*t of -??' is *ung on it% ;oung Modulus
"E# for t*e 2ire is @%? ) -?
--
Pa%
Answer: e L G mm%
!tress - strain grap* beyond elastic be*a0iour
In this %Fearn&it% so far, we have drawn stress&strain graphs for the elastic behaviour of a
material. In the elastic region the stress&strain graph is a straight line. ?e can, however
draw a stress strain graph beyond the elastic region. The graph, then becomes non&linear
because Dooke%s law is not obeyed and stress is not proportional to strain.
99 - . a g e
3ere are sc*ematic stress-strain grap*s of copper and glass%
Note: that both graphs end at points marked Z. These points are called breaJing points.
" material physically breaks at its breaking point. The stress at the breaking point is
called the breaJing stress of the material. )reaking stress of a material, in principle, is
related to the energy re#uired to break internal bonds between the atoms or the molecules
of the material. It is very important for designers and engineers to know the value of the
breaking stress for the materials they use.
T*is diagram sc*ematically s*o2s t*e stress strain cur0e of rubber% It is different
from t*e ot*er t2o stress-strain grap*s= abo0e= in t*e follo2ing respects1
?ithin the range of the stress and strain of the graph, rubber undergoes high strains
/e!tension1 without breaking. For e!ample, one kind of rubber /polyisoprene1 can be
stretched [833\ without breaking
9; - . a g e
"lthough, rubber on loading returns to its original length /5ero e!tension1, the stress&
strain graph has two branches /generated by loading up stress and unloading stress1. The
loop formed by the two branches is called *ysteresis loop% It actually represents the fact
that rubber is not a very good material for storing energy. In one loading and unloading
cycle the strain energy, represented by the area bound by the hysteresis loop is lost and
eventually dissipated as heat.
Stress an$ Strain
Energy in stress-strain grap*s
E0aluation of strain energy from stress - strain grap*
?e know that when a material behaves elastically, the work done on straining it is stored
as energy in it. ?e call this "elastic# strain energy% ?e can derive the strain energy
density "Me# in a material by calculating the area under its stress & strain graph. The
definition of the density of energy is analogous to the definition of the density of mass. It
is the energy stored per unit 0olume /how many joules are stored in ,m
6
of the
material1.
&here:
F is the applied force,
e is e!tension obtained at force #,
A is the area of the cross section of the object and
l is the length of the object
?ith the knowledge of I
]
we can calculate the total energy stored in an object /i.e. that
given by the area under the force & e!tension graph1 if we know the volume of the object.
?e can demonstrate this by calculating the work done per unit volume from the total
work /01 done on the object derived from the force & e!tension graph.
?ork done per unit volume 2 total work done> total volume
J 2
)ut 1 + Al
9: - . a g e
IorJ done per unit 0olume 2
IorJed E)ample
" mass of 433$ is hung from the lower end of a steel wire hanging from the ceiling of
the laboratory. The length of the wire 8m, its diameter is ,mm, ;oung<s modulus is1 4 !
,3
,,
$m
&4
. Calculate the strain energy density of the wire and the total energy stored in it.
"pply the formulae for strain density and total work done
F 2 433$
d 2 ,mm 2 , ! ,3
&6
m
" 2 ^ /Yd
4
1 2 3.;:8 ! ,3
&9
m
4
l 2 8m
!train energy density 4-%$@ )-?
A
Nm
->
Total strain energy stored 4 ?%$>& N
9E - . a g e
MODULE I9
,inematics
8asics
Time..The absolute measure of the orderly succession of events. Cnit of time is the
second
.article..a body is assumed with negligible dimensions
Aigid body.." body with all internal points fi!ed relative to each other
'omenclature
;3 - . a g e
s 2 distance travelled in time &/m1
v 2 average velocity & /m>s1
a 2 acceleration & /m>s
4
1
t 2 time & /s1
u 2 initial velocity & /m>s1
v 2 final velocity & /m>s1
N 2 Aotation angle & /radians1
_
,
2 Initial angular velocity &rads>s
_
4
2 final angular velocity & rads >s
n 2 angular speed revs>min
` 2 "ngular "cceleration rads>s
4

Particle
This discipline of mechanics deals with the displacement of particles over time without
reference to the forces that cause the motion, velocity and acceleration of the particle.
Linear Motion%%
Considering a particle moving along a path is space from position " to
position ) over a time interval. The position vector r locates the particle
relative to the reference frame /say cartesian !y51 . The distance the particle
moves along the path is designated s. The change in position of the particle
over the time is its linear displacement and is identified by the vector
/ r
)
& r
"
1
The speed of the particle over a time period 2 /s
4
& s
,
1 >/t
4
& t
,
1 2 the speed
ofthe particle
"s the time interval reduces to 5ero the change in position
a r >a t 2 / r
)
& r
"
1 > /t
4
& t
,
1 2b dr>dt 2 v 2 the instantaneous velocity. The
instantaneous velocity is tangential to the particle path
The derivative /with respect to time1 of the instantaneous velocity is d
4
r >dt
4
2 the instantaneous acceleration.
Te!tbook formulae..Finear motion subject to uniform acceleration.
v 2 u M at
s 2 ut M a.t
4
>4
s 2 /u M v1 >4
;, - . a g e
v
4
2 u
4
M 4.a.s
Csing vector algebra....
"s an e!ample of straight line motion consider a particle moving with a constant
acceleration in the ! direction.
C
,
is a constant determined from the velocity at t 2 3=
$ormally assuming initial velocity 2 u then C
,
2 u
C
4
is a constant determined from the displacement at t 2 3=
$ormally assuming initial displacement 2 3 then C
4
2 3
(ngular Motion%%
" point rotates from " to ) around a center C through a small angle N in a
time t . "s the time interval approaches 5ero the instantaneous angular
velocity d N >dt 2 _ . This angular velocity is a vector cross product and is
shown in the direction as indicated below..
The velocity of the point is obtained as a vector product of the angular
velocity and the radius
0 2 O ) r
"ngular velocity vectors are free vectors but they are not commutative..
;4 - . a g e
Te!tbook formulae.. "ngular motion subject to uniform acceleration
_ 2 4.Y .n >93
_
4
2 _
,
M ` . t
N 2 / _
4
M _
,
1 . t >4
_
4
4
2 _
,
4
M 4 . ` . s
N2 _
,
4
M ` . t
4
>4
Motion in a circle%%
" particle moving in a circle of radius /r1 at a constant velocity /v1 and
constant angular velocity of _ 2 v >r is accelerating towards the centre of the
circle at a constant rate of v
4
>r 2 _
4
. r. The acceleration is primarily due
to the rate of change of angular position of the particle...
(n e)ample of linear motion is t*at of a particle mo0ing at a fi)ed
0elocity in a circular motion%%
'ifferentiate with respect to time
'ifferentiate again with respect to time using / d/uv1 2 u.dv M v du 1
Aelating the Tangential velocity to the ! an y velocity.
Introducing velocity into e#uation
;6 - . a g e
Finally establishing formula for accelaration
Linear and angular 0elocity
Jelocity /also called linear velocity1 and angular velocity are measured with
respect to a frame of reference.
The linear velocity of a rigid body is a vector #uantity, e#ual to the time rate of
change of its linear position. Thus, it is the velocity of a reference point fi!ed to the body.
'uring purely translational motion /motion with no rotation1, all points on a rigid body
move with the same velocity. Dowever, when motion involves rotation, the instantaneous
velocity of any two points on the body will generally not be the same. Two points of a
rotating body will have the same instantaneous velocity only if and when they happen to
lay on an a!is parallel to the instantaneous a!is of rotation.
"ngular velocity is a vector #uantity that describes the angular speed at which the
orientation of the rigid body is changing and the instantaneous a!is about which it is
rotating. "ll points on a rigid body e!perience the same angular velocity at all times.
'uring purely rotational motion, all points on the body change position e!cept for those
lying on the instantaneous a!is of rotation. The relationship between orientation and
angular velocity is not directly analogous to the relationship between position and
velocity. "ngular velocity is not the time rate of change of orientation, because there is
no such concept as an orientation vector that can be differentiated to obtain the angular
"ngular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity over time. In (I
units, it is measured in radians per second s#uared /rad>s
4
1, and is usually denoted by the
reek letter alpha /1.
Mathematical definition
The angular acceleration can be defined as either=
where _ is the angular velocity, is the linear tangential acceleration, and r is the radius of
curvature.
;@ - . a g e
+onstant acceleration
For all constant values of the tor#ue, c, of an object, the angular acceleration will
also be constant. For this special case of constant angular acceleration, the above
e#uation will produce a definitive, constant value for the angular acceleration=
'on-constant acceleration
For any non&constant tor#ue, the angular acceleration of an object will change
with time. The e#uation becomes a differential e#uation instead of a constant value. This
differential e#uation is known as the e#uation of motion of the system and can
completely describe the motion of the object.
(bsolute and relati0e motion%%
;8 - . a g e
" reference frame can be fi!ed or relative.In $ewtonian mechanics the fi!ed
reference frame is the primary inertial system in which there is 5ero absolute
motion in space. This is entirely impractical because it would have to take
into account the movements of the earth relative to the sun and the sun in the
universe etc. " reference frame based on the sun is called a Deliocentric
reference frame and this again is impractical for normal mechanical
engineering. " practical reference frame is one based on the earth. This is
called a geocentric reference frame and is sufficient as an inertial frame for
normal engineering. Therefore when we identify the velocity of a vehicle or
the acceleration of an object they are generally relative to the earths motion.
?hen an object is moving relative to a fi!ed reference frame it is called
absolute motion.?hen it is moving relative to a reference frame that is
moving it is called relative motion."n e!ample of relative motion is
someone moving in a travelling train or car.
Rotating unit 0ector
Consider a rotating unit vector e..
9ector of Point in a rotating reference frame
" point . with a vector position r is moving in the !y plane. The position of
this vector is identified in respect to unit vectors e
,
and e
4
fi!ed to a
reference frame rotating at and angular velocity _ .. r
,
and r
4
are
components of the motion in the e
,
and e
4
directions.
The position is e!pressed as follows..
The derivative of this e#uation with respect to time results in.
It is shown above that de>dt 2 O ) e therefore
Aewriting the e#uation
9elocity of a point in a mo0ing reference frame
;9 - . a g e
" point . moving in the !y frame as shown below has a position vector of
r
p
2 r
o%
M r
r
o%
locates 0% relative to the fi!ed !y a!es and r locates the point . relative to
a a!es /!
,
,!
4
1
If the moving frame is not rotating _ 2 3
(cceleration of a Particle
'ifferentiating /with respect to time1 the e#uation for velocity /v1 results the
e#uation for accelaration /a1
Following the principles established above...
$ote = The term ..... ..... is called the coriolis acceleration .
This represents the difference between the acceleration of . relative to 0% as
measured from the rotating and the non&rotating a!es.
Rigid 8ody ,inematics in one plane%
Aigid body.." body with all internal points fi!ed relative to each other.Three
co&ordinates are re#uired to determine the position and orientation of a body
in plane motion. " rigid body has three degrees of free in plane motion.
'efinitions..
Aectilinear Translation..."ll point on a rigid body move in a straight line
Curvilinear Translation... The orientation of all points in a rigid body remain fi!ed
while the body moves along a curved path
Aotation about a fi!ed line.. "ll points in a rigid body move in a circular motion
about a fi!ed line
.lane motion...*ach point in rigid body moves in a path parallel to a fi!ed plane
.lane motion for a rigid body can be easily developed from the e#uations for
motion of a particle.They are the same e#uations for the motion of a point
;; - . a g e
but as all points are fi!ed relative to each other the term involving velocities
and accelerations of points relative to each other are 5ero.
The e#uations for velocity and acceleration when the reference a!es !%,y% are
fi!ed to the rigid body ,are as follows...
Important $ote=
It can be easily proved that whichever position on the rigid body is selected
for the reference position 0% the angular velocity and angular acceleration
vectors are not changed.
Instantaneous +entre of Rotation
For any body moving in space the motion can be defined from the position,
velocity, acceleration of any point on the body with the angular velocity and
acceleration.There is a point for this body for which the instantaneous
translational velocity is 5ero i.e only rotation of the body about the point is
occuring.This point is called the instantaneous center of rotation and its
location relative to the body is dependent on the relative values of the linear
and angular velocities For near 5ero angular velocities /near translation
motion1 the location is at near infinity.
The location of the instantaneous centre of rotation is easy to locate if the
velocity and angular velocity of a point are known
If the location of a point and its velocity and angular velocity are known.
Considering point " the point C is on a line passing through " normal to the
direction of the velocity. r
"
2 J
"
> _
If the location of two points and their velocities
The point C is at the intersection of the lines drawn normal to the velocities
of each of the points.
If the lines are co&incident then radius is established by geometry.. "C 2 ").
/J
"
1 >/J
"
&J
)
1
;: - . a g e
Rigid 8ody Jinematics in > Dimensions
Introduction
" particle re#uires three points to specify its position relative to the selected
coordinate system and is therefore identified as having 6 degrees of
freedom .For a rigid body the location of three separate points of the body
relative to the selected co&ordinate system are re#uired)ecause the points are
fi!ed relative to each other only si! independent co&ordinates are re#uired to
locate the body is space and a unrestrained rigid body is therefore said to
have si! degrees of freedom e.g. " rigid body may be positioned by locating
the position of one point of the body / 6 co&ordinates1, then positioning a line
on the body /4 co&ordinates1 and finally identifying a rotation about the line
/, co&odinates1.This sums up to 9 co&ordinates
The motion of a rigid body in three dimension can have a number of modes..
Aectilinear Translation..."ll points on the rigid body move in a straight line
Curvilinear Translation... The orientation of all points in a rigid body remain fi!ed
while the body moves along a curved path
Aotation about a fi!ed a!is.. "ll points in a rigid body move in a circular motion
about a fi!ed a!is
Aotation about a fi!ed point.. "ll points in a rigid body move in a circular motion
about a fi!ed point
eneral motion...The rigid body motion includes translation and rotation about
Rotation 'otes%
If a rigid body is rotated from a position <"< through an angle of Y>4 about the ! a!is and
then rotated Y>4 about the y a!is it has been moved to a certain position <)<.If the same
rigid body is rotated from a position <"< through and an angle of Y>4 about the y a!is and
then is rotated Y>4 about the ! a!is it has been moved to a position <C< which is not the
same as <)<.Finite rotation does not obey the laws of vector addition

Euler B +*aslesE<s T*eorems
*uler%s Theorem
If a point on a rigid body does not change its position then any series of
successive rotations can be compounded to a rotation about a single a!is
;E - . a g e
Chasles%s Theorem
"ny displacement of a rigid body may be compounded from a single rotation
about any selected point plus a translation of that point.
" third theorem / .oinsot%s Central a!is theorem1 is also provide..
"ny finite displacement of a rigid body may be reduced to a single rotation
about an a!is plus a translation parallel to the same a!is. This theorem only
relates the displacement and not to the paths taken by points.
These theoerems can be applied to angular velocities
"ny motion of a rigid body can be described by a single angular velocity
plus a translational velocity parallel to the angular velocity vector.
"ny motion of a body about a point may be represented by a single angular
velocity about an a!is through that point.
"ny motion of a rigid body my be represented by the velocity of a point plus
the angular velocity about an a!is passing through the points...
Rectilinear Translation%B +ur0ilinear Translation
"ll points on the body will move in parallel straight or curve lines. There is
no relative velocity or acceleration between any points on the body.
.osition... r
.
2 r
G
M r
.G
Jelocity...0
.
2 0
G
M 0
.G
"cceleration...a
.
2 a
G
M a
.G
:3 - . a g e
Rotation about a fi)ed a)is%
Aotation of a rigid body about fi!ed a!is is shown in the diagram. The
vector of the rotary motion has sense and direction in accordance with the
right hand rule which is fi!ed along the direction of the a!is. There is 5ero
velocity due to rotation at the a!is.
Rotation about a fi)ed Point%
Aotation of a rigid body about a fi!ed point can always be reduced to rotation of a body
about an instantaneous a!is of rotation.
Considering for e!ample a rigid body /cone1 which is rotating about a hori5ontal a!is
/shaft1,angular velocity 2 _
,
,and the shaft is itself rotating about a vertical a!is, angular
velocity 2 _
4

If _
4
2 3 then the a!is rotation is the centre line of the shaft and the velocity of any point
on the shaft is proportional to the radius /ma! 2 r1from the shaft.If the rotation about the
vertical a!is is increased to a certain value the the velocity of the shaft a!is is
proportional to _
4
! the shaft length /ma! 2 l1 from the a!is /radius1. If the two angular
velocities are the same and the radius of the cone r 2 l then at any instant the velocity of
top surface of the cone is 5ero. i.e the top surface is the instantaneous a!is of rotation.
This grossly simplified representation illustrates the principle .. if _
4
is increased the
body cone representing the path of the instantaneous a!is of rotation will obviously be
larger than the actual surface of the cone.
For the model illustrated there is also a space cone which is the path the instantaneous
a!is or rotation follows in space& /an inverted cone centered the vertical a!is 1..
For the e!ample above the instantaneous angular velocity of the cone 2
O 2 O
,
M O
4
2 _
,
i M _
4
j
In the real world the motions and shapes are not as shown but the interaction between the
body rotation on its a!is and its angular motion is space still results in an instantaneous
a!is of rotation between a instantaneous body cone and an instantaneous space cone. The
body cone may rotate outside or inside the space cone
0ne determining the instantaneous angular velocity the angular acceleration ` is
tangential to the contact point of the two cones as shown. The velocity and acceleration at
any point is simply determined as shown below
:, - . a g e
Ceneral Motion%
The general case of 6' motion of rigid bodies reduces to translation M rotation about a
fi!ed a!is.This is basically a generalisation of the theorems provided above.
For a body possessing linear plus angular motion it is often not possible to have an
instantaneous a!is of rotation because all points may have non&5ero velocities. The most
convenient method of kinematic analysis of rigid bodies in space 6 dimensions is by
using the principles of relative motion. The primary /absolute1reference system ZWT are
supplemented with a reference system/!y51 attached to some point on the rigid body.
The attached reference system may be a translating one or a rotating one.
Translating reference system
This motion simply develops the motions already studied in the previous section for
particle motions and rigid body motions. The basic motion e#uations are =
r
.
2 r
G
M r
.G
0
.
2 0
G
M 0
.G
a
.
2 a
G
M a
.G
The above e#uations are sufficient if the angular velocity _ is 5ero however if this is not
the case the following e#uations for velocity and acceleration are more definitiveB
Aotating reference system
" more general form of the relative reference a!is method uses rotating reference
a!es.The reference a!es !y5 are rotating with an angular velocity of d. The rigid body
has a rotation velocity _ as before.
The basic motion e#uations are as aboveThe e!pression for velocity and
acceleration of point . are provided below.The derivation is a simple
e!tension of that provided above for 4 'imensional motion with a rotating
relative a!is with the third dimension /51 added.
0
r
and a
r
2 are the velocity and acceleration of . relative to the rotating !y5
a!is.
:4 - . a g e
$ote=The e#uations above are based on the general case of the angular velocity of the
rigid body /_1is different to the angular velocity of the a!is / d1.
Relative Motion
The laws of physics which apply when you are at rest on the earth also apply when you
are in any reference frame which is moving at a constant velocity with respect to the
earth. For e!ample, you can toss and catch a ball in a moving bus if the motion is in a
straight line at constant speed.
The motion may have a different appearance as viewed from a different reference frame,
but this can be e!plained by including the relative velocity of the reference frame in the
description of the motion.
Relative Velocit
0ne must take into account relative velocities to describe the motion of an airplane in the
wind or a boat in a current. "ssessing velocities involves vector addition and a useful
approach to such relative velocity problems is to think of one reference frame as an
<intermediate< reference frame in the form=
.ut into words, the velocity of " with respect to C is e#ual to the velocity of " with
respect to ) plus the velocity of ) with respect to C. Aeference frame ) is the
intermediate reference frame. This approach can be used with the airplane and boat
e!amples.
(uppose that, on a windy day, an airplane moves with constant velocity with respect to
the air, and that the air moves with constant velocity with respect to the ground. ?hat is
:6 - . a g e
the vector velocity of the plane with respect to the groundX In principle, the answer to this
#uestion is very simple=
In other words, the velocity of the plane with respect to the ground is the vector sum of
the plane%s velocity relative to the air and the air%s velocity relative to the ground. . Fet us
now consider how we might implement in practice.
"s always, our first task is to set up a suitable Cartesian coordinate system. " convenient
system for dealing with 4&dimensional motion parallel to the *arth%s surface
The &a!is points northward, whereas the &a!is points eastward. In this coordinate system,
it is conventional to specify a vector in term of its magnitude, , and its compass "earin, .
"s illustrated in figure below a compass bearing is the angle subtended between the
direction of a vector and the direction to the $orth pole= i2e2, the &direction.
:@ - . a g e
)y convention, compass bearings run from to . Furthermore, the compass bearings of
$orth, *ast, (outh, and ?est are and , respectively.
MODULE 9
Force
" force is that which can cause an object with mass to accelerate. Force has both
magnitude and direction, making it a vector #uantity. "ccording to $ewton%s second law,
an object with constant mass will accelerate in proportion to the net force acting upon it
and in inverse proportion to its mass. "n e#uivalent formulation is that the net force on
an object is e#ual to the rate of change of momentum it e!periences. Forces acting on
three&dimensional objects may also cause them to rotate or deform, or result in a change
in pressure. The tendency of a force to cause angular acceleration about an a!is is termed
tor#ue. 'eformation and pressure are the result of stress forces within an object.
(ince anti#uity, scientists have used the concept of force in the study of stationary
and moving objects. These studies culminated with the descriptions made by the third
century )C philosopher "rchimedes of how simple machines functioned. The rules
"rchimedes determined for how forces interact in simple machines are still a part of
physics. *arlier descriptions of forces by "ristotle incorporated fundamental
misunderstandings which would not be corrected until the seventeenth century by Isaac
$ewton. $ewtonian descriptions of forces remained unchanged for nearly three hundred
years.
$ewton%s laws of motion
$ewton%s laws of motion are three physical laws that form the basis for classical
mechanics, directly relating the forces acting on a body to the motion of the body. They
:8 - . a g e
were first compiled by (ir Isaac $ewton in his work .hilosophiae $aturalis .rincipia
Mathematica, first published on 7uly 8, ,9:;.$ewton used them to e!plain and
investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems. For e!ample, in the third
volume of the te!t, $ewton showed that these laws of motion, combined with his law of
universal gravitation, e!plained +epler%s laws of planetary motion.
First law
There e!ists a set of inertial reference frames relative to which all particles with
no net force acting on them will move without change in their velocity. This law
is often simplified as <" body persists its state of rest or of uniform motion unless
acted upon by an e!ternal unbalanced force.< $ewton%s first law is often referred
to as the law of inertia.
(econd law
0bserved from an inertial reference frame, the net force on a particle of constant
mass is proportional to the time rate of change of its linear momentum=
F 2 d/mv1>dt. This law is often stated as, <Force e#uals mass times acceleration
/F 2 ma1<= the net force on an object is e#ual to the mass of the object multiplied
by its acceleration.
Third law
?henever a particle A e!erts a force on another particle B, B simultaneously
e!erts a force on A with the same magnitude in the opposite direction. The strong
form of the law further postulates that these two forces act along the same line.
This law is often simplified into the sentence, <To every action there is an e#ual
and opposite reaction.<
In the given interpretation mass, acceleration, momentum, and /most importantly1 force
are assumed to be e!ternally defined #uantities. This is the most common, but not the
only interpretation= one can consider the laws to be a definition of these #uantities. $otice
that the second law only holds when the observation is made from an inertial reference
frame, and since an inertial reference frame is defined by the first law, asking a proof of
the first law from the second law is a logical fallacy. "t speeds approaching the speed of
light the effects of special relativity must be taken into account.
Impulse
The term impulse is closely related to the second law, and historically speaking is closer
to the original meaning of the law. The meaning of an impulse is as follows=
"n impulse occurs when a force F acts over an interval of time at and is given
by .
The words moti3e force were used by $ewton to describe <impulse< and motion to
describe momentumB conse#uently, a historically closer reading of the second law
describes the relation between impulse and change of momentum. That is, a mathematical
:9 - . a g e
rendering of the original wording resembles a finite difference version of the second law,
such as
where I is the impulse, ap is the change in momentum, m is the mass, and av is the
change in velocity.
The analysis of collisions and impacts uses the impulse concept.
forces were first #uantitatively investigated in conditions of static e#uilibrium where
several forces canceled each other out. (uch e!periments demonstrate the crucial
properties that forces are additive vector #uantities= they have magnitude and direction.
?hen two forces act on an object, the resulting force, the resultant, can be determined by
following the parallelogram rule of vector addition= the addition of two vectors
represented by sides of a parallelogram, gives an e#uivalent resultant vector which is
e#ual in magnitude and direction to the transversal of the parallelogram.. The magnitude
of the resultant varies from the difference of the magnitudes of the two forces to their
sum, depending on the angle between their lines of action.
Consider a block of mass which is suspended from a fi!ed beam by means of a string, as
shown in Figure below.. The string is assumed to be light /i2e2, its mass is negligible
compared to that of the block1 and ine!tensible /i2e2, its length increases by a negligible
amount because of the weight of the block1. The string is clearly being stretched, since it
is being pulled at both ends by the block and the beam. Furthermore, the string must be
being pulled by oppositely directed forces of the same magnitude, otherwise it would
accelerate greatly /given that it has negligible inertia1. )y $ewton%s third law, the string
e!erts oppositely directed forces of e#ual magnitude, on both the block and the beam.
These forces act so as to oppose the stretching of the string= i2e2, the beam e!periences a
downward force of magnitude , whereas the block e!periences an upward force of
magnitude . Dere, is termed the tension of the string. (ince is a force, it is measured in
newtons. $ote that, unlike a coiled spring, a string can never possess a negative tension,
since this would imply that the string is trying to push its supports apart, rather than pull
them together.
:; - . a g e
Fet us apply $ewton%s second law to the block. The mass of the block is , and its
acceleration is 5ero, since the block is assumed to be in e#uilibrium. The block is subject
to two forces, a downward force due to gravity, and an upward force due to the tension of
the string. It follows that
In other words, in e#uilibrium, the tension of the string e#uals the weight of the block.
Figure shows a slightly more complicated e!ample in which a block of mass is suspended
by three strings. The #uestion is what are the tensions, and , in these strings, assuming
that the block is in e#uilibriumX Csing analogous arguments to the previous case, we can
easily demonstrate that the tension in the lowermost string is . The tensions in the two
uppermost strings are obtained by applying $ewton%s second law of motion to the knot
where all three strings meet. (ee Fig.
There are three forces acting on the knot= the downward force due to the tension in the
lower string, and the forces and due to the tensions in the upper strings. The latter two
forces act along their respective strings, as indicate in the diagram. (ince the knot is in
e#uilibrium, the vector sum of all the forces acting on it must be 5ero.
Consider the hori5ontal components of the forces acting on the knot. Fet components
acting to the right be positive, and 3ice 3ersa. The hori5ontal component of tension is
5ero, since this tension acts straight down. The hori5ontal component of tension is , since
this force subtends an angle of with respect to the hori5ontal Fikewise, the hori5ontal
component of tension is . (ince the knot does not accelerate in the hori5ontal direction,
we can e#uate the sum of these components to 5ero=
:: - . a g e
/E:1
Consider the vertical components of the forces acting on the knot. Fet components acting
upward be positive, and 3ice 3ersa. The vertical component of tension is , since this
tension acts straight down. The vertical component of tension is , since this force
subtends an angle of with respect to the hori5ontal Fikewise, the vertical component of
tension is . (ince the knot does not accelerate in the vertical direction, we can e#uate the
sum of these components to 5ero=
:E - . a g e
Consider a block of mass sliding down a smooth frictionless incline which subtends an
angle to the hori5ontal, as shown in Figure below
E3 - . a g e
The weight of the block is directed vertically downwards. Dowever, this force can be
resolved into components , acting perpendicular /or normal1 to the incline, and , acting
parallel to the incline. $ote that the reaction of the incline to the weight of the block acts
normal to the incline, and only matches the normal component of the weight= i2e2, it is of
magnitude . This is a general result= the reaction of any unyielding surface is always
locally normal to that surface, directed outwards /away from the surface1, and matches
the normal component of any inward force applied to the surface. The block is clearly in
e#uilibrium in the direction normal to the incline, since the normal component of the
block%s weight is balanced by the reaction of the incline. Dowever, the block is subject to
the unbalanced force in the direction parallel to the incline, and, therefore, accelerates
down the slope. "pplying $ewton%s second law to this problem /with the coordinates
shown in the figure1, we obtain
E, - . a g e
which can be solved to give In other words, the block accelerates down the slope with
acceleration . $ote that this acceleration is less than the full acceleration due to gravity, .
In fact, if the incline is fairly gentle /i2e2, if is small1 then the acceleration of the block can
be made much less than . This was the techni#ue used by alileo in his pioneering studies
of motion under gravity&&by diluting the acceleration due to gravity, using inclined
planes, he was able to obtain motion sufficiently slow for him to make accurate
measurements using the crude time&keeping devices available in the ,;th Century.
Consider two masses, and , connected by a light ine!tensible string. (uppose that the first
mass slides over a smooth, frictionless, hori5ontal table, whilst the second is suspended
over the edge of the table by means of a light frictionless pulley. (ee Fig.
E4 - . a g e
(ince the pulley is light, we can neglect its rotational inertia in our analysis. Moreover,
no force is re#uired to turn a frictionless pulley, so we can assume that the tension of the
string is the same on either side of the pulley. Fet us apply $ewton%s second law of
motion to each mass in turn. The first mass is subject to a downward force , due to
gravity. Dowever, this force is completely canceled out by the upward reaction force due
to the table. The mass is also subject to a hori5ontal force , due to the tension in the
string, which causes it to move riht4ards with acceleration
The second mass is subject to a downward force , due to gravity, plus an upward force
due to the tension in the string. These forces cause the mass to move do4n4ards with
acceleration
$ow, the rightward acceleration of the first mass must match the downward acceleration
of the second, since the string which connects them is ine!tensible. Thus, e#uating the
previous two e!pressions, we obtain
E6 - . a g e
$ote that the acceleration of the two coupled masses is less than the full acceleration due
to gravity, , since the first mass contributes to the inertia of the system, but does not
contribute to the downward gravitational force which sets the system in motion.
Consider two masses, and , connected by a light ine!tensible string which is suspended
from a light frictionless pulley, as shown in Fig.
E@ - . a g e
Fet us again apply $ewton%s second law to each mass in turn. ?ithout being given the
values of and , we cannot determine beforehand which mass is going to move upwards.
Fet us assume that mass is going to move upwards= if we are wrong in this assumption
then we will simply obtain a negative acceleration for this mass. The first mass is subject
to an upward force , due to the tension in the string, and a downward force , due to
gravity. These forces cause the mass to move up4ards with acceleration
The second mass is subject to a downward force , due to gravity, and an upward force ,
due to the tension in the string. These forces cause the mass to move do4n4ard with
acceleration
$ow, the upward acceleration of the first mass must match the downward acceleration of
the second, since they are connected by an ine!tensible string. Dence, e#uating the
previous two e!pressions, we obtain
"s e!pected, the first mass accelerates upward /i2e2, 1 if , and 3ice 3ersa. $ote that the
acceleration of the system is less than the full acceleration due to gravity, , since both
masses contribute to the inertia of the system, but their weights partially cancel one
another out. In particular, if the two masses are almost e#ual then the acceleration of the
system becomes very much less than .
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C104 - Engineering Mechanics

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