A-1 Appendix A - Digital Logic

Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Computer Architecture and
Organization
Miles Murdocca and Vincent Heuring
Appendix A Digital
Logic
A-2 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Chapter Contents
A.1 Introduction
A.2 Combinational Logic
A.3 Truth Tables
A.4 Logic Gates
A.5 Properties of Boolean
Algebra
A.6 The Sum-of-Products Form
and Logic Diagrams
A.7 The Product-of-Sums Form
A.8 Positive vs. Negative Logic
A.9 The Data Sheet
A.10 Digital Components
A.11 Sequential Logic
A.12 Design of Finite State
Machines
A.13 Mealy vs. Moore Machines
A.14 Registers
A.15 Counters
A.16 Reduction of Combinational
Logic and Sequential Logic
A.17 Reduction of Two-Level
Expressions
A.18 State Reduction
A-3 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Some Denitions
Combinational logic: a digital logic circuit in which logical decisions
are made based only on combinations of the inputs. e.g. an adder.
Sequential logic: a circuit in which decisions are made based on
combinations of the current inputs as well as the past history of
inputs. e.g. a memory unit.
Finite state machine: a circuit which has an internal state, and
whose outputs are functions of both current inputs and its internal
state. e.g. a vending machine controller.
A-4 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
The Combinational Logic Unit
Translates a set of inputs into a set of outputs according to one or
more mapping functions.
Inputs and outputs for a CLU normally have two distinct (binary)
values: high and low, 1 and 0, 0 and 1, or 5 V. and 0 V. for example.
The outputs of a CLU are strictly functions of the inputs, and the
outputs are updated immediately after the inputs change. A set of
inputs i
0
i
n
are presented to the CLU, which produces a set of
outputs according to mapping functions f
0
f
m.
A-5 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Truth Tables
Developed in 1854 by George Boole
further developed by Claude Shannon (Bell Labs)
Outputs are computed for all possible input combinations (how
many input combinations are there?
Consider a room with two light switches. How must they work

Don't show this to your electrician, or wire your house this way. This circuit denitely
violates the electric code. The practical circuit never leaves the lines to the light "hot"
when the light is turned off. Can you gure how?
A-6 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Alternate Assignments of Outputs to
Switch Settings
Logically identical truth table to the original (see previous slide), if
the switches are congured up-side down.
A-7 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Truth Tables Showing All Possible
Functions of Two Binary Variables
The more frequently used functions have names: AND, XOR, OR,
NOR, XOR, and NAND. (Always use upper case spelling.)
A-8 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Logic Gates and Their Symbols
Note the use of the inversion bubble.
(Be careful about the nose of the gate when drawing AND vs. OR.)
Logic symbols
for AND, OR,
buffer, and NOT
Boolean
functions
A-9 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Logic symbols for NAND, NOR, XOR,
and XNOR Boolean functions
A-10 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Variations of Basic Logic Gate
Symbols
A-11 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
The Inverter at the Transistor Level
Transistor
Symbol
Power
Terminals
A Transistor Used
as an Inverter
Inverter Transfer
Function
A-12 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Allowable Voltages in Transistor-
Transistor-Logic (TTL)
Assignments of logical 0 and 1 to voltage ranges (left) at the output of a
logic gates, (right) at the input to a logic gate.
A-13 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Transistor-Level Circuits For
2-Input NAND and NOR Gates
A-14 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
CMOS Congurations
CMOS congurations for (a) NOT, (b) NOR, and (c) NAND gates.
Schematic symbols for (left) n-channel transistor and (right) p-channel
transistor.
A-15 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Tri-State Buffers
Outputs can be 0, 1, or electrically disconnected.
A-16 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
The Basic Properties of Boolean
Algebra
A, B, etc. are
literals; 0 and 1
are constants.
Principle of
duality: The dual
of a Boolean
function is made
by replacing AND
with OR and OR
with AND,
constant 1s by 0s,
and 0s by 1s
A-17 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
DeMorgan!s Theorem
Discuss: Applying DeMorgan!s theorem by pushing the bubbles,
and bubble tricks.
A-18 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
NAND Gates Can Implement AND and
OR Gates
Inverted inputs to a NAND gate are implemented with NAND gates.
A-19 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form
Transform the function into a two-level AND-OR equation
Implement the function with an arrangement of logic gates from the
set {AND, OR, NOT}
M is true when A=0, B=1, and C=1, or when A=1, B=0, and C=1,
and so on for the remaining cases.
Represent logic equations by using the sum-of-products (SOP)
form
Truth Table for The
Majority Function
A-20 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
The SOP Form of the Majority Gate
The SOP form for the 3-input majority gate is:
M = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC = m3 + m5 +m6 +m7 = ! (3, 5, 6, 7)
Each of the 2
n
terms are called minterms, running from 0 to 2
n
- 1
Note the relationship between minterm number and boolean value.
Discuss: common-sense interpretation of equation.
A-21 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
A 2-Level AND-OR Circuit Implements
the Majority Function
The encircled T intersections are electrically common (see next slide).
A-22 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Notation Used at Circuit Intersections
A-23 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
A 2-Level OR-AND Circuit Implements
the Majority Function
A-24 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Positive vs. Negative Logic
Positive logic: truth, or assertion is represented by logic 1, higher voltage;
falsity, de- or unassertion, logic 0, is represented by lower voltage.
Negative logic: truth, or assertion is represented by logic 0 , lower
voltage; falsity, de- or unassertion, logic 1, is represented by lower voltage
A-25 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Positive and Negative Logic (Cont!d.)
A-26 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Bubble Matching
Active low signals are signied by a prime or overbar or /.
Active high: enable
Active low: enable!, enable, enable/
Ex: microwave oven control:
Active high: Heat = DoorClosed Start
Active low: ? (hint: begin with AND gate as before.)
A-27 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Bubble Matching (Cont!d.)
A-28 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
The Data
Sheet
A-29 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Digital Components
High level digital circuit designs are normally made using collections
of logic gates referred to as components, rather than using
individual logic gates. The majority function can be viewed as a
component.
Levels of integration (numbers of gates) in an integrated circuit (IC):
Small scale integration (SSI): 10-100 gates.
Medium scale integration (MSI): 100 to 1000 gates.
Large scale integration (LSI): 1000-10,000 logic gates.
Very large scale integration (VLSI): 10,000-upward.
These levels are approximate, but the distinctions are useful in
comparing the relative complexity of circuits.
Let us consider several useful MSI components:
A-30 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
The Multiplexer
A-31 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Gate-Level Layout of Multiplexer
A-32 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Implementing the Majority Function
with an 8-1 Mux
Principle: Use the mux select to pick out the selected minterms of the
function.
A-33 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Efciency: Using a 4-1 Mux to
Implement the Majority Function
Principle: Use the A and B inputs to select a pair of minterms.
The value applied to the MUX input is selected from {0, 1, C, C}
to pick the desired behavior of the minterm pair.
A-34 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
The Demultiplexer (DEMUX)
A-35 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
The Demultiplexer is a Decoder with
an Enable Input
A-36 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
A 2-to-4 Decoder
A-37 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Using a 3-to-8 Decoder to Implement
the Majority Function
A-38 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
The Priority Encoder
An encoder translates a set of inputs into a binary encoding,
Can be thought of as the converse of a decoder.
A priority encoder imposes an order on the inputs.
A
i
has a higher priority than A
i+1
A-39 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Programmable Logic Arrays (PLAs)
A PLA is a
customizable AND
matrix followed by a
customizable OR
matrix:
A-40 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Using a PLA to Implement the Majority
Function
A-41 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Using PLAs to Implement an Adder
A-42 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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A Multi-Bit Ripple-
Carry Adder
PLA Realization of a
Full Adder
A-43 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Sequential Logic
The combinational logic circuits we have been studying so far have
no memory. The outputs always follow the inputs.
There is a need for circuits with memory, which behave differently
depending upon their previous state.
An example is a vending machine, which must remember how many
coins and what kinds of coins have been inserted. The machine
should behave according to not only the current coin inserted, but also
upon how many coins and what kinds of coins have been inserted
previously.
These are referred to as nite state machines, because they can
have at most a nite number of states.
A-44 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Classical Model of a Finite State
Machine
An FSM is
composed of a
combinational logic
unit and delay
elements (called ip-
ops) in a feedback
path, which
maintains state
information.
A-45 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
NOR Gate with Lumped Delay
The delay between input and output (which is lumped at the output
for the purpose of analysis) is at the basis of the functioning of an
important memory element, the ip-op.
A-46 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
S-R Flip-Flop
The S-R ip-op is an active high (positive logic) device.
A-47 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
NAND Implementation of S-R Flip-Flop
A NOR implementation of an S-R ip-op is converted into a NAND
implementation.
A-48 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
A Hazard
It is desirable to be able to turn off the ip-op so it does not respond
to such hazards.
A-49 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
A Clock Waveform: The Clock Paces
the System
In a positive logic system, the action happens when the clock is
high, or positive. The low part of the clock cycle allows propagation
between subcircuits, so that the signals settle at their correct values
when the clock next goes high.
A-50 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Scientic Prexes
For computer memory, 1K = 2
10
= 1024. For everything else, like clock
speeds, 1K = 1000, and likewise for 1M, 1G, etc.
A-51 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Clocked S-R Flip-Flop
The clock signal, CLK, enables the S and R inputs to the ip-op.
A-52 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Clocked D Flip-Flop
The clocked D ip-op, sometimes called a latch, has a potential
problem: If D changes while the clock is high, the output will also
change. The Master-Slave ip-op (next slide) addresses this problem.
A-53 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Master-Slave Flip-Flop
The rising edge of the clock loads new data into the master, while the
slave continues to hold previous data. The falling edge of the clock
loads the new master data into the slave.
A-54 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Clocked J-K Flip-Flop
The J-K ip-op eliminates the disallowed S=R=1 problem of the S-R
ip-op, because Q enables J while Q! disables K, and vice-versa.
However, there is still a problem. If J goes momentarily to 1 and then
back to 0 while the ip-op is active and in the reset state, the ip-op will
catch the 1. This is referred to as 1!s catching.
The J-K Master-Slave ip-op (next slide) addresses this problem.
A-55 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Master-Slave J-K Flip-Flop
A-56 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Clocked T Flip-Flop
The presence of a constant 1 at J and K means that the ip-op will
change its state from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0 each time it is clocked by the T
(Toggle) input.
A-57 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Negative Edge-Triggered D Flip-Flop
When the clock is high,
the two input latches
output 0, so the Main
latch remains in its
previous state, regardless
of changes in D.
When the clock goes
high-to-low, values in the
two input latches will
affect the state of the
Main latch.
While the clock is low,
D cannot affect the Main
latch.
A-58 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Example: Modulo-4 Counter
Counter has a clock input (CLK) and a RESET input.
Counter has two output lines, which take on values of 00, 01, 10, and 11
on subsequent clock cycles.
A-59 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
State
Transition
Diagram for
Mod-4
Counter
A-60 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
State Table for Mod-4 Counter
A-61 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
State Assignment for Mod-4 Counter
A-62 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Truth Table for Mod-4 Counter
A-63 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Logic Design for Mod-4 Counter
A-64 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Example: A Sequence Detector
Example: Design a machine that outputs a 1 when exactly two of the last
three inputs are 1.
e.g. input sequence of 011011100 produces an output sequence of
001111010.
Assume input is a 1-bit serial line.
Use D ip-ops and 8-to-1 multiplexers.
Start by constructing a state transition diagram (next slide).
A-65 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Sequence Detector State Transition
Diagram
Design a machine that
outputs a 1 when exactly
two of the last three inputs
are 1.
A-66 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Sequence Detector State Table
A-67 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Sequence Detector State Assignment
A-68 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Sequence Detector Logic Diagram
A-69 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Example: A Vending Machine
Controller
Example: Design a nite state machine for a vending machine controller
that accepts nickels (5 cents each), dimes (10 cents each), and quarters
(25 cents each). When the value of the money inserted equals or exceeds
twenty cents, the machine vends the item and returns change if any, and
waits for next transaction.
Implement with a PLA and D ip-ops.
A-70 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Vending Machine State Transition
Diagram
A-71 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Vending Machine State Table and
State Assignment
A-72 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
PLA Vending Machine Controller
A-73 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Moore Counter
Mealy Model: Outputs are functions of Inputs and Present State.
Previous FSM designs were Mealy Machines, in which next state was
computed from present state and inputs.
Moore Model: Outputs are functions of Present State only.
A-74 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Four-Bit Register
Makes use of tri-state buffers so that multiple registers can gang their
outputs to common output lines.
A-75 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Left-Right Shift Register with Parallel
Read and Write
A-76 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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Modulo-8 Counter
Note the use of the T ip-ops, implemented as J-K!s. They are used to
toggle the input of the next ip-op when its output is 1.
A-77 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Reduction (Simplication) of
Boolean Expressions
It is often possible to simplify the canonical SOP (or POS) forms.
A smaller Boolean equation generally translates to a lower gate count in
the target circuit.
We cover three methods: algebraic reduction, Karnaugh map reduction,
and tabular (Quine-McCluskey) reduction.
A-78 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Reduced Majority Function Circuit
Compared with the AND-OR circuit for the unreduced majority function,
the inverter for C has been eliminated, one AND gate has been
eliminated, and one AND gate has only two inputs instead of three
inputs. Can the function by reduced further? How do we go about it?
A-79 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
The Algebraic Method
Consider the majority function, F. We apply the algebraic method to
reduce F to its minimal two-level form:
A-80 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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The Algebraic Method
This majority circuit is functionally equivalent to the previous majority
circuit, but this one is in its minimal two-level form:
A-81 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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Karnaugh Maps: Venn Diagram
Representation of Majority Function
Each distinct region in the Universe represents a minterm.
This diagram can be transformed into a Karnaugh Map.
A-82 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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K-Map for Majority Function
Place a 1 in each cell that corresponds to that minterm.
Cells on the outer edge of the map wrap around
A-83 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Adjacency Groupings for Majority
Function
F = BC + AC + AB
A-84 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Minimized AND-OR Majority
Circuit
F = BC + AC + AB
The K-map approach yields the same minimal two-level form as the
algebraic approach.
A-85 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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K-Map Groupings
Minimal grouping is on the left, non-minimal (but logically equivalent) grouping
is on the right.
To obtain minimal grouping, create smallest groups rst.
A-86 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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K-Map Corners are Logically
Adjacent
A-87 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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K-Maps and Don!t Cares
There can be more than one minimal grouping, as a result of don!t
cares.
A-88 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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3-Level Majority Circuit
K-Kap Reduction results in a reduced two-level circuit (that is, AND
followed by OR. Inverters are not included in the two-level count).
Algebraic reduction can result in multi-level circuits with even fewer
logic gates and fewer inputs to the logic gates.
A-89 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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Truth Table with Don!t Cares
A truth table
representation of a
single function with
don!t cares.
A-90 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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Tabular (Quine-McCluskey)
Reduction
Tabular reduction begins
by grouping minterms for
which F is nonzero
according to the number
of 1!s in each minterm.
Don!t cares are
considered to be
nonzero.
The next step forms a
consensus (the logical
form of a cross product)
between each pair of
adjacent groups for all
terms that differ in only
one variable.
A-91 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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Table of Choice
The prime implicants form a set that completely covers the function,
although not necessarily minimally.
A table of choice is used to obtain a minimal cover set.
A-92 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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Reduced Table of Choice
In a reduced table of choice, the essential prime implicants and the
minterms they cover are removed, producing the eligible set.
F = ABC + ABC + BD + AD
A-93 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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Multiple Output Truth Table
The power of tabular reduction comes into play for multiple functions,
in which minterms can be shared among the functions.
A-94 Appendix A - Digital Logic
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Multiple Output Table of Choice
F
0
(A,B,C) = ABC + BC
F
1
(A,B,C) = AC + AC + BC
F
2
(A,B,C) = B
A-95 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Speed and Performance
The speed of a digital system is governed by:
the propagation delay through the logic gates, and
the propagation delay across interconnections.
We will look at characterizing the delay for a logic gate, and a method
of reducing circuit depth using function decomposition.
A-96 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Propagation Delay for a NOT Gate
(Adapted from: Hamacher et. al. 2001)
A-97 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
MUX Decomposition
A-98 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
OR-Gate Decomposition
Fanin affects circuit depth.
A-99 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
State Reduction
Description of state machine M
0
to be reduced.
A-100 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Distinguishing Tree
A next state tree for M
0
.
A-101 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Reduced State Table
A reduced state table for machine M
1
.
A-102 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Sequence Detector State
Transition Diagram
A-103 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Sequence Detector State Table
A-104 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Sequence Detector Reduced State
Table
A-105 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Sequence Detector State
Assignment
A-106 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Sequence Detector K-Maps
K-map reduction
of next state and
output functions
for sequence
detector.
A-107 Appendix A - Digital Logic
Computer Architecture and Organization by M. Murdocca and V. Heuring 2007 M. Murdocca and V. Heuring
Sequence
Detector
Circuit