EXAMINATION OF CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

SOME DEFINITIONS AND REVISION

1st degree AV block: prolongation of AV conduction time•
2nd degree AV block: some, but not all atrial impulses fail to reach the•
ventricles
3rd degree (complete) AV block: all atrial impulses fail to reach ventricles•
:anatomy in femoral triangle•
(femoral vein (medial○
(femoral artery (the landmark○
(femoral nerve (lateral○

POSITION: patient lying in bed with enough pillows to support him at 45 degrees

GENERAL APPEARANCE
?general state of health? apparently ill•
?rapid and laboured respiration•
cachectic (severe loss of weight and muscle wasting)? (commonly caused by•
([malignant disease or severe cardiac failure [cardiac cachexia
Marfan's syndrome (tall stature, thoracic kyphosis, high arched palate, pectus•
excavatum, long lims, arachnydactyly (spider fingers))? Marfan's syndrome is
associated with aortic regurgitation
Down's syndrome? associated with congenital heart disease, especially•
endocardial cushion defects
Turner's syndrome? associated with coarctation of the aorta•

HANDS AND FOREARM

nails •
clubbing - see Figure 3.3○
def: increase in soft tissue of distal part of fingers or toes
for patient with clubbing examine finger nails - and determine
if there is loss of angle between nail bed and finger
:causes of clubbing
common
cardiovascular
cyanotic congenital heart disease
infective endocarditis
respiratory
lung carcinoma (usually not small cell
(carcinoma

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 :chronic pulmonary suppuration
bronchiectasis
lung abscess
empyema
idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
uncommon
respiratory
cystic fibrosis
asbestosis
pleural mesothelioma (benign fibrous
type) or pleural fibroma
gastrointestinal
(cirrhosis (especially biliary cirrhosis
inflammatory bowel disease
coeliac disease
thyrotoxicosis
familial or idiopathic
rare
neurogenic diaphragmatic tumours
pregnancy
unilateral clubbing - bronchial arteriovenous
aneurysm or axillary artery aneurysm
splinter haemorrhages - see Figure 3.4○
def: linear haemorrhages lying parallel to long axis of nail
:causes
trauma
infective endocarditis
:rare
vasculitis as in rheymatoid arthritis
polyarteritis nodosa
sepsis
haematological malignancy
profound anaemia
fingers •
Osler nodes○
def: red, raised tender nodules on pulps of fingers (or toes) or
thenar or hypothenar eminences
are a rare manifestation of infective endocarditis
palms •

2
 Janway lesions○
def: non-tender erythematous maculopapular lesions containing
bacteria which can occur on pulms of pulps of fingers
are a rare manifestation of infective endocarditis
forearm •
xanthomata - see Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6○
def: (yellow or orange) deposits of lipid in tendons
can occur in hyperlipidaemia

ARTERIAL PULSE
:following observations should be made for radial pulse•
rate of pulse ○
rhythm ○
presence or absence of delay of femoral pulse comparied with radial ○
(pulse (radiofemoral delay
character and volume are better assessed from palpation of brachial or •
carotid arteries
rate of pulse •
bradycardia = pulse < 60 beats/min○
:causes of bradycardia
regular rhythm
physiological (athletes, sleep: due to increased
(vagal tone
(drugs (e.g. beta blockers, digoxin, amiodarone
hypothyroidism (decreased sympathetic activity
(secondary to lack of TH
hypothermia
jaundice (in severe cases only, due to deposition
(of bilirubin in conducting system
raised intracranial pressure (due to effect on
central sympathetic outflow) - a late sign
third degree AV block or second degree AV
(block (type 2
MI
paroxysmal (def: sudden onset, usually with
:recurrent manifestations) bradycardia
vasovagal syncope
acute hypoxia or hypercapnia
acute hypertension
regularly irregular rhythm

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 sinus arrhythmia (normal slowing of pulse with
(expiration
(second degree AV block (type I
irregularly irregular rhythm
atrial fibrillation, with AV nodal disease or
drugs
frequent extrasystoles
apparent
pulse deficit (there is a difference between the
heart rate counted over the praecodrium and that
observed at the periphery; in beats where
diastole is too short for adequate filling of the
heart, too small a volume of blood is ejected
during systole for a pulse to be appreciated at
(the wrist
atrial fibrillation
ventricular bigeminy (paired ventricular
(beats
tachycardia = pulse > 100 beats/min○
:causes of tachycardia
:regular rhythm
:hyperdynamic circulation due to
exercise or emotion
fever (allow 20 beats/min per degree
(Celsius above normal
pregnancy
thyrotoxicosis
anaemia
arteriovenous fistula
(beri beri (thiamine deficiency
congestive cardiac failure
constrictive pericarditis
drugs (e.g. salbutamol and other
(sympathomimetics, atropine
normal variant
denervated heart of diabetes has a resting rate of
106-120 beats/min
hypovolaemic shock
supraventricular tachycardia
atrial flutter with regular 2:1 AV block
ventricular tachycardia

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 irregular rhythm
:atrial fibrillation due to
myocardia ischaemia
mitral valve disease or any cause of left
atrial enlargement
thyrotoxicosis
hypertensive heart disease
sick sinus syndrome (chaotic or absent
atrial activity, often with bradycardia
alternating with tachycardia, recurring
ectopic beats, including escape beats,
and runs of supraventricular and
(ventricular arrhytmias
pulmonary embolism
myocarditis
fever, acute hypoxia, or hypercapnia
((paroxysmal
other: alcohol, post-thoractotomy,
idiopathic
multifocal atrial tachycardia
atrial flutter with variable block
:rhythm •
rhythm can be regular or irregular○
irregular rhythm can be completely irregular with no pattern○
usually due to atrial fibrillation
coordinated atrial contraction lost and chaotic electrical
activity occurs with bombardment of AV node with
impulses at a rate of over 600 per minute - only some
are conducted to ventricles since the rate is too high
hence ventricles beat irregularly, at a rate of about 150
minute
the pulse also varies in amplitude from beat to beat
because of differing diastolic filling
this type of pulse also can occur by frequent irregularly
(occuring ectopic beats (supraventricular or ventricular
:irregular rhythm can be regular○
:sinus arryhtmia
in sinus arrhythmia, pulse rate increases with each
inspiration and decreases with each expiration
is associated with changes in venous return to heart
Wenckebach phenomen

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AV nodal conduction time increases progressively until
non-conducted atrial systole occurs
following this, the AV conduction time shortens and
cycle begins again
:radiofemoral delay •
while palpating radial pulse, one places fingers of other hand over○
radial femoral pulse (below inguinal ligament, one third of way up
(from pubic tubercle
a noticeable delay in arrival of femoral pulse suggests diagnosis of○
coarctation of aorta (congenital narrowing in aortic isthmus occurs at
level where ductus arteriosus joins descending aorta) - note that this
lesion can also cause upper limb hypertension
it is also useful to palpate both radial pulses together to detect radial-○
radial inequality in timing or volume (e.g. due to large arterial
(occlusion
character and volume •
use carotid or brachial to determine character and volume○
:however, do use the radial pulse to test for○
the collapsing (bouding) pulse of aortic regurgitations.1
pulsus alternans of left ventricular failure.2

BLOOD PRESSURE
systolic blood pressure = peak pressure that occurs in artery following•
ventricular systole
diastolic blood pressure = level to which arterial pressure falls during•
ventricular diastole
normal blood pressure < 140/90•
brachial artery is found in antecubital fossa, one third of the way over from the•
medial epicondyle
first get an approximate estimation of systolic blood pressure•
cuff is inflated and then deflated slowly until radial pulse returns○
:then get more accurate estimation of blood pressure•
cuff is inflated and then deflated slowly whilst listening to brachial○
artery with stethescope's diaphragm
diferent sounds will be heard as the cuff is slowly released: 5○
((Korotkoff sounds
pressure at which sound is first heard over artery is systolic.1
blood pressure (a sharp thud) - only the systolic blood pressure
is high enough to overcome the cuff's pressure
as deflation continues, sound increases in intensity (a blowing.2
(or swishing sound
as deflation continues, sound decreases in intensity (a softer.3
(thud than phase 1

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 sound becomes muffled (softer blowing sound that disappears).4
((is the 1st diastolic
sound disappears (is 2nd diastolic) because flow is now.5
constant since even the diastolic pressure is enough to
overcome the cuff's pressure
the 2nd diastolic (5th soudn [K5]) is the best measure for diastolic○
blood pressure, althogh it is a slight underestimate
however, in severe aortic regurgitation, the 1st diastolic (K4) is a better○
indication of diastolic pressure
occasionally, there is an auscultatory gap (the sounds disappear just○
below the systolic pressure anbd reappear before diastolic pressure) in
healthy people
the systolic pressure may normally var by up to 10 mmHg; the pressure○
is higher in the legs
:pulsus paradoxus ○
during inspiration, systolic and diastolic pressure normally
increased becuase intrathoracic pressure is reduced, and blood
pools in the pulmonary vessels, hence left heart filling is
reduced; iif the reduction in blood pressure is exaggerated over
the normal, the term pulsus paradoxus is applied (pulsus
paradoxus is a fall in arterial pulse pressure on inspiration of
(more than 10 mg
:causes
constrictive pericarditis
pericardial effusion
severe asthma
postural blood pressure
postural blood pressure should routinely be taken with patient lying and standing
a fall of more than 15 in systolic or 10 in diastolic is abnormal and called postural
hypotension
causes include
(hypovolaemia (e.g. dehydration, bleeding
(drugs (e.g. vasodilators
(Addison's disease (low cortisol and aldosterone
hypopituirism
(autonomic neuropathy (e.g. diabetes mellitus, amyloidosis
idiopathic orthostatic hypotension (rare progressive
(degeneration of ANS, usually in old men

FACE
eyes•
inspect sclerae for jaundice○

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can occur with hepatic congestion in severe congestive cardiac
failure
can occur with prosthetic heart valves, which may induce
haemolysis due to excessive turbulence
xanthelasma - see Figure 3.8○
def: intracutaneous yellow cholesterol deposits around eyes
may be normal variant or indicate hyperlipidaemia
cheeks○
(mitral facies (rosy cheeks with a bluish tinge
due to dilatation of malar capillaries
associated with pulmonary hypertension and low
cardiac output such as occurs in severe mitral stenosis
mouth○
arched palate? occurs in Marfan's syndrome, which is
associated with congeintal heart disease, including aortic
regurgitation secondary to aortic root dilatation, and also mitral
regurgitation due to mitral valve prolapse
teeth - do they look diseased? they can be a source of
organisms responsible for infective endocarditis
?tongue and lips - central cyanosis
inspect mucosa for petechiae - may indicate infective
endocarditis

NECK
Carotid arteries
location: medial to sternomastoid muscle•
carotid pulse gives information about left ventricle and aorta•
!never palpate both carotid arteries at once•
anacrotic pulse •
small volume, slow uptake, notched wave on upstroke○
causes: aortic stenosis○
plateau pulse •
slow upstroke○
causes: aortic stenosis○
bisferiens pulse •
anacrotic and collapsing○
causes: aortic stenosis and regurgitation○
collapsing pulse •
:causes○
aortic regurgitation

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 hyperdynamic circulation
patent ductus arteriosus
peripheral arteriovenous fistula
(arteriosclerotic aorta (elderly patients in particular
small volume pulse •
causes○
aortic stenosis
pericardial effusion
pulsus alternans •
alternating strong and weak beats○
causes: left ventricular failure○
jerky •
causes: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy○
(JUGULAR VENOUS PRESSURE (JVP
internal jugular venous pressure gives information about right atrial and right•
ventricle
:position•
patient must be lying at 45 degrees○
internal jugular vein is medial to sternomastoid muscle; external○
jugular vein is lateral to sternomastoid muscle
the external jugular vein is more readily visible, but is compressed as it○
enters chest because of its tortuous course and therefore should not be
relied upon to assess the position or waveform of the JVP
therefore, use internal jugular vein○
pulsations which occur there reflect movements of teh top of a column○
of blood which extends into the right atrium
see Talley Figure 3.10○
sternal angle is taken as the zero point
maximum height of internal jugular vein above the sternal
angle can be measured
assess height and character
note that the jugular venous pulsation can be distinguished from the○
:arterial pulse because
it is visible but not palpable.1
it has a complex wave form, usually seen to flicker twice with.2
each cardiac cycle
moves on respiration, normally decreases on inspiration.3
it is at first obliterated and then filled from above when light.4
pressure is applied at the base of the neck
:height

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 elevated: when the JVP is raised more than 3cm above zero
:point, the right heart filling pressure is raised; causes include
right ventricular failure
tricuspid stenosis or regurgitation
pericardial effusion or constrive pericarditis
superior vena caval obstruction
fluid overload
hyperdynamic circulation
character of the jugular venous pressure: see Figure 3.11
there are 2 positive waves in normal jugular venous pressure
:a wave 
timing: this is the first wave, and coincides with
right atrial systole, and S1; it precedes the
carotid pulsation
due to: right atrial systole
:v wave 
timing: this is the second wave and occurs in the
period when the tricuspid valve remains closed
during ventricular systole
due to: atrial filling
x descent: between the a wave and the v wave there is a trough
caused by atrial relaxation
c point: the x descent is interrupted at a point which is due to
the carotid pulse
y descent: following the v wave, the tricuspid valve opens and
rapid ventricular filling occurs
any condition in which right ventricular filling is limited, can
cause elevation of the venous pressure, which is more marked
on inspiration when venous return to the heart increases; this is
the called Kussmaul's sign, and is the opposite of what
normally happens
note that pressure exerted over the liver for 15 seconds will also
increase the venous return the right atrium
causes of a dominant a wave: occur when right atrial
pressures are raised
(tricuspid stenosis (also causing a slow y descent
pulmonary stenosis
pulmonary hypertension
causes of a cannon a wave: occur when the right atrium
contracts against the closed tricuspid valve; i.e. a cannon a
wave is just a much more severe dominant a wave
complete heart block

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 paroxysmal nodal tachycardia with retrograde atrial
conduction
ventricular tachycardia with retrograde atrial conduction
or atrioventricular dissociation
cause of a dominant v wave
tricuspid regurgitation
x descent
absent - atrial fibrillation
exaggerated - acute cardiac tamponade; constrictive
pericarditis
y descent
sharp: severe tricuspid regurgitation, constrictive
pericarditis
slow: tricuspid stenosis, right atrial myxoma

PRAECORDIUM
Inspection
?scars? pace-maker box•
skeletal abnormalities? pectus excavatum (funnel chest)? kyphoscoliosis? note•
that skeletal abnormalities can cause distortion of position of heart and great
vessels
:visible pulsations•
apex beat may be seen (normal position is in 5th intercostal space, 1cm○
medial to midclavicular line) - see Talley Figure 3.12
pulmonary artery pulsations may be visible in severe pulmonary○
hypertension
Palpation
palpate apex beat•
:position of apex beat○
count down number of interspaces; first palpable interspace is
the 2nd, lying just below manubriosternal anglle
located at: 5th intercostal space, 1cm medial to midclavicular
line
normal apex beat is is felt over an area size of 20 cm piece
an enlarged heart gives a displaced apex beat laterally or
inferiorly, or both; note that a chest wall deformity or pleural or
pulmonary disease can also displace the apex beat
:character of apex beat: abnormal beats include○
pressure loaded (hyperdynamic or systolic overloaded) apex .1
:beat
def: is a forceful and sustained impulse
causes: aortic stenosis or hypertension

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 volume loaded (hyperkinetic or diastolic overloaded) apex .2
:beat
def: is an uncoordinated impulse felt over a larger than
normal area
(causes: left ventricular dysfunction (e.g. anterior MI
double impulse apex beat .3
def: 2 distinct impulses are felt with each systole
causes: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
tapping apex beat .4
def: first heart sound is actually palpable (normal heart
sounds
causes: mitral stenosis, or rarely tricuspid stenosis
non-palpable apex beat: note that this can be normal.5
causes: thick chest wall (normal), emphysema,
pericardial effusion, shock (or death), and rarely
dextrocardia (inversion of heart and great vessels; in
(this the apex beat will be palpable to right of sternum
:other praecordial impulses
may occur in various heart diseases
:right ventricular enlargement
parasternal impulse may be felt when heel of hand is rested just
to left of sternum, with fingers lifted slightly off chest
in right ventricular enlargement, or severe left atrial
enlargement (where the right ventricle is pushed anteriorly), the
heel of hand is lifted off the chest wall with each systole
:in pulmonary hypertension
palpation over pulmonary area (2nd intercostal space, just left
of sternum) may reveal palpable tap of pulmonary valve
closure
thrills
turbulent blood flow, which causes cardiac murmurs on
auscultation, may sometimes be palpable
feel for thrills with flat hand, over: apex, left sternal edge, base
of heart
apical thrills (mitral): may be felt more easily with patient
rolled over left side (left lateral position) which brings apex
closer to chest wall
thrills over base of heart (pulmonary and aortic): are best felt
with patient sitting up leaning forward in full expiration (base
(of heart is moved closer to chest wall
systolic thrill = a thrill that coincides with apex beat
diastolic thrill = a thrill that does not coincide with apex beat
Percussion: don't bother doing this; all it does it define the cardiac outline

12
 Auscultation
(Areas of auscultation - see Talley Figure 3.15 (page 51
mitral area - midclavicular line, 4th intercostal space.1
tricuspid area - 1 cm right of sternum, 5th intercostal space.2
pulmonary area - 1 cm right of sternum, 2nd intercostal space.3
aortic area - 1 cm left of sternum, 2nd intercostal space.4
Process of auscultation
auscultate mitral area with the bell and diaphragm.1
bell is efficient in amplifying low pitched sounds (it must be lightly○
applied to chest), for example
diastolic murmur of mitral stenosis
a third heart sound
diaphragm is good for reproducing higher pitched sounds, for example○
systolic murmur of mitral regurgitation
a fourth heart sound
auscultate tricuspid area.2
ausculate pulmonary area.3
auscultate aortic area.4
Normal heart sounds - heart normally produces 2 sounds each cycle, related to closure
of valves and rapid changes in blood flow
(first heart sound (S1•
has 2 components - mitral and tricuspid valve closure○
mitral closure occurs ever so slightly before tricuspid, but only one○
sound is audible
first heart sound indicates beginning of ventricular systole○
(second heart sound (2•
is made up of aortic and pulmonary valve closure○
because of lower pressure in pulmonary circulation compared with○
aorta, the pulomary valve usually closes slightly after closure of aortic
valve (if you listen carefully, you may notice splitting); also note that
pulmonary valve closure is further delayed with inspiration because of
increased venous return to right ventricle
marks the end of systole, and the beginning of diastole○
note that diastole is usually longer than systole•
sometimes it can be difficult to tell which heart sound is which; on these•
occasions, palpation of the carotid pulsation will indicate the timing of sytole
it is clearly crucial to define systole and diastole so that timing of murmurrs•
can be worked out
Abnormal heart sounds
alterations in intensity •

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 loud S1○
physiology: occurs when mitral or tricuspid valve cusps remain
widely open at the end of diastole and shut forcefull with the
onset of ventricular systole
:causes 
reduced filling volume in mitral or tricuspid steonsis
because the narrowed valve orifice limits ventricular
filling, so that there is no diminution in flow towards
the end of diastole; the nomal mitral cusps drift back
towards the closed position at the end of diastole as
ventricular filling slows down
reduced diastolic filling time (any cause of a short AV
(conduction time
soft S1○
:causes 
prolonged diastolic filling time (occurs in 1st degree
(heart block
delayed onset of left ventricular systole (left bundle
(brunch block
failsure of leaflets to coapt normally (mitral
(regurgitation
(loud aortic component of second heart sound (loud A2○
:causes
systemic hypertension because this results in forceful
aortic valve closure secondary to high pressure
congenital aortic stenosis because valve is mobile but
narrowed, and closely suddenly at end of systole
(loud pulmonary component of second heart sound (loud P2○
:causes 
pulomnary hypertension
soft A2○
:causes 
aortic valve calcification because leaflet movemnet is
reduced
aortic regurgitation because leaflets cannot coapt
splitting •
splitting of S1 is usually not clinically detectable, but may be noticed○
in complete right bundle branch block
increased normal splitting of S2 occurs when there is any delay in right○
:ventricular emptying, and is caused by
inspiration

14
 right bundle branch block (delayed right ventricular
(depolarisation
(pulmonary stenosis (delayed right ventricular ejection
ventricular septal defect (increased right ventricular volume
(load
mitral regurgitation (because of earlier aortic valve closure due
(to more rapid left ventricular emptying
(fixed splitting (no respiratory variation○
atrial septal defect equalises volume loads between two atria
--> atria acting as a common chamber
reverse spltting (P2 occurs first, and splitting occurs on expiration) is○
:caused by
left bundle branch block (delayed left ventricular
(depolarisation
delayed left ventricular emptying (severe aortic stenosis,
(coarctation of the aorta
increased left ventricular volume load (large patent ductus
(arteriosus
extra heart sounds •
(third heart sound (S3 ○
timing: is a low pitched mid-diastolic sound
pathophysiology: tautening of mitral or tricuspid papillary
muscles at end of rapid diastolic filling
:causes 
left ventricular S3 (will be louder on expiration, and
(heard most clearly over apex
physiological left ventricular S3 occurs in
people under 40 due to rapid diastolic filling
left ventricular failure
aortic regurgitation
mitral regurgitation
ventricular septal defect
patent ductus arteriosus
right ventricular S3 (will be louder on inspiration and
:(heart most clearly at left sternal edge
right ventricular failure
constrictive pericarditis
(fourth heart sound (S4 ○
timing: late diastolic sound
pathophysiology: high pressure atrial wave reflected back from
a poorly compliant ventricle

15
 :causes 
left ventricular S4 (often presents during episode of
(angina or MI
reduced left ventricular compliance
aortic stenosis
acute mitral regurgitation
systemic hypertension
ischaemic heart diseased
advaced age
right ventricular S4
reduced right ventricular compliance
pulmonary hypertension
pulmonary stenosis
summation gallop ○
if there heart rate is >120m S3 and S4 may be superimposed
rsulting in a summation gallop
this does not necessarily imply ventricular stress unless one/or
both the heart sounds persist when the heart rate slows; when
both S3 and S4 are present (quadruple rhythm), severe
ventricular dysfunction is implied
additional sounds •
opening snap○
timing: high pitched sound at a variable distance after S2
cause: mitral stenosis or tricuspid stenosis
pathophysiology: sudden opening of mitral valve is follwed by
diastolic murmur of mitral stenosis
systolic ejection click○
timing: early systolic high pitched sound over aortic or
pulmonary or left sternal edge area
cause: congenital aortic or pulmonary stenosis
non-ejection sysolic click○
timing: high pitched sound heard during systole, best over
mitral area; may be followed by systolic murmur
cause: prolapse of one or more redundant mitral valve leaflets
during systole; atrial septal defects
tumour plop○
cause: during atrial systole, pedunculated atrial myxoma may
be propelled into mitral or tricuspid valve orifice causing a
diastolic plopping sound
diastolic pericardial knock○

16
 cause: constrictive pericardial disease --> sudden cessation of
ventricular filling
prosthetic hearft valve sounds○
pacemaker sounds: a click due to contraction of chest wall muscle○
Murmurs of the heart
:must consider•
(associated features (peripheral signs○
timing○
area of greatest intensity○
volume and pitch○
effect of dynamic manoeuvres including respiration and Valsalva○
manoeuvre
timing•
systolic murmurs - occur during ventricular systole○
may be
pansystolic.1
ejection systolic.2
late systolic.3
pansystolic murmur 
timing: extends through systole, beginning with the first
heart sound, then going right up to the second heart
sound although loudness and pitch vary during systole
pathophysiology: occur when ventricle leaks to a lower
pressure change or vessel (therefore sound is
pansystolic because there is a pressure gradient from the
moment the ventricle begins to contract (S1) until
pressure equalisation at S2
:causes 
mitral regurgitation
tricuspid regurgitation
ventricular septal defect
aortopulmonary shunts
ejection (mid) systolic murmur
timing: does not begin right at 1st heart sound; its
intensity is greatest in midsystole, and wanes late in
(systole (i.e. crescendo-decrescendo murmur
pathophysiology: caused by turbulent blood flow
through aortic or pulmonary valve orifices or greatly
increased flow through a normal sized orifice or outflow
tract
:causes 

17
 aortic stenosis
pulmonary stenosis
hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
pulmonary flow murmur of an atrial septal
defect
increased cardiac sympathetic stimulation (e.g.
(as occurs in anaemia
:late systolic murmur
timing: appreicable gap between first heart sound and
murmur, which then continues right up to second heart
sound
pathophysiology: mitral regurgitation begins in mid-
systole
:causes 
mitral valve prolapse
papillary muscle dysfunction (due usually to
(ischaemia or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
diastolic murmurs - occur during ventricular diastole
early diastolic murmur
timing: begins immediately with the S2 and has a
decreascendo quality; generally high pitched
pathophysiology: due to regurgitation through leaking
or aortic or pulmonary valves; loudest at the beginning
because this is when aortic and pulmonary artery
pressure are highest
:causes 
aortic regurgitation
pulmonary regurgitation
:mid-diastolic murmur
timing: begin part way through diastole and may be
short or extend to S1; have lower pitch than early
diastolic murmurs
pathophysiology: impaired flow during ventricular
filling
:causes 
mitral stenosis
tricuspid stenosis
atrial myxoma (tumour mass can obstruct the
(valve orifice
Austin Flint murmur of aortic regurgitation (a
diastolic murmur similar to that of mitral
stenosis, heart best at the cardiac apex; it is
thought to be caused by turbulent regurgitation

18
 stream from the aorta mixing into the stream
simultaneously entering from the left atrium
through the mitral valve, causing posterior
movement of the anterior leaflet of the mitral
valve with transient acceleration of blood flow
(through the mitral valve
Carey-Coomb's murmur of acute rheumatic
fever (blubberying apical mid-diastolic murmur
occurring in the acute stage of rheumatic mitral
valvulitis and disappearing as the valvulitis
(subsides
:presystolic murmur
timing: just before S1
pathophysiology: atrial systole increases blood flow
across the valve jet just before S1; are an extension of
middiastolic murmurs of mitral stenosis or tricuspid
stenosis
continous murmurs - extend throughout systole and diastole
pathophysiology: communcation exists between two parts of the circulation with a permanent
pressure gradient so blood flow occurs continuous
can be difficult to distinguish between a combined systolic and diastolic murmur
:causes
patent ductus arteriosus
arteriovenous fistula (coronary artery, pulmonary,
(systemic
(aorto-pulmonary connectoin (e.g. congenital
venous hum
rupture of sinus of Valsalva into right ventricle or
atrium
mammary souffle (in late pregnancy or early
(postpartum period
pericardial friction rub - superficial scratching sound
not confined to systole or diastole and can vary with respiration and posture (often louder
(when patient is sitting up and breathing out
(caused by movement of inflamed pricardial surfaces (pericarditis
sound comes and goes
area of greatest intensity
not a reliable sign
loudness and pitch
:loudness is unhelpful is deciding severity of lesion, but are graded anyway
grade 1/6 - very soft and only audible to consultants and.1
students who have been told a murmur is present

19
 grade 2/6 - soft, but can be detected almost immediately by an.2
experienced auscultators
grade 3/6 - moderate; there is not thrill.3
grade 4/6 - loud; thrill just palpable.4
grade 5/6 - very loud; thrill easily palpable.5
grade 6/6 - very, very loud; can be heard without placing the.6
stethoscope on the chest
the loudness is useful because a change in intensity of a murmur may be of significance, for
example, after a MI
pitch is useful guide to murmurs, but requires a great deal of practice to identify its type
in general, low pitched murmurs indicate turbulent flow under low pressure, as in mitral
stenosis
in general, high pitched murmurs indicate high velocity of flow, as in mitral regurgitation
dynamic manoeuvres
all patients with a newly diagnosed murmur should undergo dynamic manoevre testing
respiration
inspiration --> decrease intrathoracic pressure --> increase
venous return --> blood flow in right heart
hence, murmurs that arise on right side tend to be louder
during inspiration and softer on expiration
valsalva manoeuvre (forceful expiration against a closed glottis; hold nose and close mouth
and breath out fully so as to pop eardrums, and hold this --> decreased preload) - the
following refers to phase 2 of the manoeuvre (phase 1 - beginning the manoeuvre,
(phase 2 - straining phase, phase 3 - ending the maneouvre
most murmurs softer because reduced cardiac output
aortic stenosis
mitral regurgitation
:left ventricular volume is reduced hence
systolic murmur of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is
louder
systolic click and murmur of mitral valve prolapse
(begins earlier (and goes longer
squatting
increases venous return and systomic arterial resistance causing
rise in stroke volume and arterial pressure - hence murmurs are
louder
aortic stenosis louder
mitral regurgitation louder
left veniricular size is increased which reduces obstruction to
:outflow therefore
intensity of systolic murmur of hypertrophic
cardiomyopathy is decreased

20
 mid-syolic click and murmur of mitral valve prolapse
(are delayed (and shorter

BACK - get patient to sit up

percuss and auscultate the lungs - signs of cardiac failure may be detected in•
lungs, in particulate late, or pan-inspiratory crackles or a pleural effusion may
be present
feel for pitting oedema in sacrum (occurs in severe right heart failure,•
(particularly patients who have been in bed

ABDOMEN - lie patient down flat

liver•
enlarged liver? may occur when hepatic veins are congested because of○
right heart failure
tender liver? distension of liver capsule can cause tenderness○
pulsatile liver? may occur in tricuspid regurgitation because right○
ventriuclar systolic pressure wave is transmitted to hepatic veins
ascites? may occur with severe right heart failure•
splenomegaly? can occur in infective endocarditis•
implanted cardioverter-defibrillator box may be palpable below left costal•
margin

LOWER LIMBS
palpaate femoral arteries•
(auscultate femoral arteries (a bruit may be heard if narrowed•
(palpate popliteal (behind knee•
(palpate posterior tibial (under medial malleolus•
(palpate dorsalis pedis (forefood•
palpate distal shaft of tibia for oedema by compressing area for 15 seconds - if•
oedema, is it pitting or non-pitting
causes of pitting lower limb oedema○
cardiac: congestive cardiac failure, constrictive pericarditis
drugs: calcium antagonists
hepatic: cirrhosis causing hypoalbuminaemia
renal: nephrotic syndrome causing hypoalbuminaemia
gastrointestinal tract: malabsorption, starvation, protein losing
enteropathy causing hypoalbuminaemia
wet beri beri (dietary deficiency of thiamin (vitamin B1)
resulting in heart failure leading to oedema; dry beri bery is
dietary deficiency of thiamin resulting in painful polyneuritis
(without the oedema of wet
cyclical oedema
causes of unilateral lower limb pitting oedema○

21
 deep venous thrombosis
compression of large vein by tumour of lymph node
causes of non-pitting lower limb oedema○
hypothyroidism
lymphoedema
infection
(malignant (tumour invasion of lymphatics
(congenital (lymphatic development arrest
allergy
Milroy's disease (unexplained lymphoedema which
(appears at puberty and is more common in females
note that in long standing oedema, secondary changes in lymphatics○
may occur that minimise the oedema
(Achilles tendon xanthomata (see Figure 3.22)? (is due to hyperlipidaemia•
cyanosis and clubbing of toes? (may occur without finger clubbing in patent•
(ductus arteriosus
:peripheral vascular disease •
note that reduced or absent pulses, femoral systolic bruit, marked leg○
pallor, absence of hair, cool skin and reduced capiilary return
(compress toe nails - return of normal red colour is slow) are signs of
peripheral vascular disease
in these cases, perform Buerger's test - elevate leg to 45 degrees (pallor○
is rapid if there is a poor arterial supply) and then place them
dependent at 90 degrees over edge of bed (cyanosis occurs if the
(arterial supply is impaired
:deep venous thrombosis •
difficult to diagnose○
presening symptom: may be calf pain○
(on examination: (positives to the following are suggestive of DVT○
?swelling of calf and leg
?dilated superficial veins
?increased warmth
squeeze calf gently to determine if area is tender
causes of thrombosis○
changes in vessel wall (trauma) - common.1
changes in blood flow (cardiac failure or prolonged.2
immobilisation) - common
changes in constitution of blood (occult neoplasm,.3
disseminated intravascular coagulation, contraceptive pill,
pregnancy) - uncommon
acute arterial occlusion

22
 :causes include
embolism - usually arise from thrombus in heart, often
:secondary to
myocardial ifnarction or dilated cardiomyopathy
atrial fibrillation
infective endocarditis
thrombosis
injury
symptoms: 4 Ps of acute artertial occlusion of major peripheral limb artery
painful limb
pale limb
pulseless limb
paralysed' limb'
varicose veins
:examination
position: if patient complains of varicose veins, ask him to
stand with legs fully exposed
:inspect 
inspect front of whole leg for tortuous, dilated branches
(of long saphenous vein (medial leg
inspect back of calf for varicosities of short saphenous
(vein lateral and posterior leg
inspect to see if leg is inflamed, swollen or pigmented
((signs of venous stasis
ulcers (chronic venous stasis is a cause of ulceration of
(lower leg
:palpate veins 
hard veins suggests thrombosis and tenderness suggests
thrombophlebitis
perform cough impulse test (put finger over long
saphenous vein opening in groin, medial to femoral
vein); ask patient to cough: a fluid thrill is felt if the
saphenofemoral valve is incompetent
trendelenburg test 
patient lying down, leg elevated
pressure on saphenous opening in growin
patient stands
if veins stay empty until groin pressure is released -
incompetence of saphenofemoral valve
if veins fill despite groin pressure, incopetent valves are
in thigh or calf, and Perthes' test is performed

23
 Perthes' test 
repeat Trendelenburg's test, but when patient
stands, allow some blood to be released and get
him to stand up and down on the toes a few
times
veins will become less tense if the perforating
calf veins are patent and have competent valves
((the muscle pump is functioning
note unusual pattern, example: if pubic varices, must try to
exclude secondary varicose veins, e.g. due to intrapelvic
neoplasm which has obstructed deep venous return
causes of leg ulcers
venous stasis ulcer.1
most common
site: around malleoli
associated pigmentation, stasis eczema
ischeamic ulcer.2
large artery disease (atherosclerosis, thromboangiitis
(obliterans): usually lateral side of leg (pulse absent
small vessel disease
malignant ulcer - examples.2
(basal cell carcinoma (pearly translucent edge
(squamous cell carcinoma (hard everted edge
melanoma
lymphoma
infection - examples.3
Staphylococcus aureus
syphilitic gumma
tuberculosis
atypical Mycobacterium
fungal
neuropathic.4
painless penetrating ulcer on sole of foot: peripheral
neurophathy, e.g. diabetes mellitus, leprosy
underlying systemic disease.2
diabetes mellitus: vascular disease, neuropathy
pyoderma gangrenosum
rheumatoid arthritis
lymphoma
(haemolytic anaemia (small ulcers over malleoli

24
25
 RESPIRATORY EXAMINATION
Background information
abnormal patterns of breathing•
sleep apnoea .1
cessation of airflow for more than 10 seconds more than 10 =
times a night during sleep
causes: obstructive (e.g. obesity with upper narrowing,
enlarged tonsils, pharyngeal soft tissue changes in acromegaly
(or hypothyroidism
Cheyne-Stokes .2
periods of apnoea alternating with periods of hyperpnoae =
pathophysiology: delay in medullary chemoreceptor response
to blood gas changes
causes 
left ventricular failure
(brain damage (e.g. trauma, cerebral, haemorrhage
high altitude
(Kussmaul's (air hunger .3
deep rapid respiration due to stimulation of respiratory centre =
causes: metabolic acidosis (e.g. diabetes mellitus, chronic renal
(failure
hyperventilation .4
complications: alkalosis and tetany
causes: anxiety
(ataxic (Biot .5
irregular in timing and deep =
causes: brainstem damage
apneustic .6
post-inspiratory pause in breathing =
causes: brain (pontine) damage
paradoxical .7
the abdomen sucks with respiration (normally, it pouches =
(uotward due to diaphragmatic descent
causes: diaphragmatic paralysis
cyanosis•
refers to blue discoloration of skin and mucous membranes○
is due to presence of deoxygenated haemoglobin in superficial blood○
vessels

26
 cyanosis does NOT occur in anaemic hypoxia because the total○
haemoglobin content is low
central cyanosis = abnromal amout of deoxygenated haemoglobin in○
arteries and that blue discoloration is present in parts of body with
good circulation such as tongue
peripheral cyanosis = occurs when blood supply to a certain part of○
body is reduced, and the tissue extracts more oxygen from normal from
the circulating blood, e.g. lips in cold weather are often blue, but lips
are spared
presence of central cyanosis should lead one to careful examination of○
cardiovascular and respiratory systems
causes of cyanosis○
central cyanosis
decreased arterial saturation
decreased concentration of inspired oxygen:
high altitude
lung disease: chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease with cor pulmoale, massive pulmonary
embolism
right to left cardiac shunt (cyanotic congenital
(heart disease
polycythaemia
haemoglobin abnromalities (rare):
methaemoglobinaemia, sulphaemoglobinaemia
peripheral cyanosis
all causes of central cyanosis cause peripheral cyanosis
exposure to cold
reduced cardiac output: left ventricular failure or shock
arterial or venous obstruction
Position: patient sitting over edge of bed
General appearance
look for the following•
dyspnoea ○
normal respiratory rate < 14 each minute
tachypnoea = rapid respiratory rate
are accessory muscles being used (sternomastoids, platysma,
strap muscles of neck) - characteristically, the accessory
muscles cause elevation of shoulders with inspiration and aid
respiration by increasing chest expansion
cyanosis ○

27
 central cyanosis is best detected by inspecting the tongue -
examination of tongue differentiates central from peripheral
cyanosis
note: severe lung disease may result in significant ventilation-
perfusion imbalances (e.g. pneumonia, chronic airflow
(limitation, pulmonary embolism
character of cough ○
ask patient to cough several times
lack of usual explosive beginning may indicate vocal cord
(paralysis (bovine cough
muffled, wheezy ineffective cough suggests airflow limitation
very loose productive cough suggests excessive bronchial
:secretions due to
chronic bronchitis
pneumonia
bronchiectasis
:dry irritating cough may occur with
chest infection
asthma
carcinoma of bronchus
left ventricular failure
interstitial lung disease
ACE inhibitors
sputum ○
volume
(type (purulent, mucoid, mucopurulent
?presence or absence of blood
stridor ○
croaking noise loudest on inspiration =
(causes: (obstruction of larynx, trachea or large broncus
(acute onset (minutes
inhaled foreign body
acute epiglottitis
anaphylaxis
toxic gas inhalation
(gradual onset (days, weeks
laryngeal and pharyngeal tumours
crico-arytenoid rheumatoid arthritis
bilateral vocal cord palsy

28
 tracheal carcinoma
paratracheal compression by lymph nodes
post-tracheostomy or intubation granulomata
is a sign that requires urgent attention
hoarseness ○
:causes include
laryngitis
laryngeal nerve palsy associated with carcinoma of lung
laryngeal carcinoma
The hands
clubbing •
commonly cause by respiratory disease (but NOT emphysema or○
(chronic bronchitis
occasionally, clubbing is associated with hypertrophic pulmonary○
(osteoarthropathy (HPO
arthropathy in association with lung disease =
characterised by periosteal inflammation at distal ends of long
bones, wrists, ankles, metacarpals and metatarsals
sweelling and tenderness over wrists and other involved areas
note that rarely HPO occurs without clubbing
causes include: primary lung carcinoma and pleural
mesothelioma
staining •
staining of fingers - sign of cigarette smoking (caused by tar, not○
(nicotine
wasting and weakness •
compression and infiltration of peripheral lung tumour of lower trunk○
of brachial plexus results in wasting of small muscles of hand and
weakness of finger abduction
pulse rate •
tachycardia, and pulsus paradoxus are important signs of sever asthma○
flapping tremor (asterixis) - unreliable sign •
ask patient to dorsiflex wrists and spread out fingers, with arms○
outstretched
flapping tremor may occur with severe carbon dioxide retention○
((severe chronic airflow limitation
The face
:eyes•

29
 Horner's syndrome? (constricted pupil, partial ptosis and loss of○
sweating which can be due to apical lung tumour compressing
(sympathetic nerves in neck
:nose•
(polpys? (associated with asthma○
(engorged turbinates? (various allergic conditions○
(deviated septum? (nasal obstruction○
:mouth and tongue•
look for central cyanosis○
evidence of upper respiratory tract infection (a reddened pharynx and○
(tonsillar enlargement with or without a coating of pus
broken tooth - may predispose to lung abscess or pneumonia○
sinusitis is indicated by tenderness over the sinuses on palpation•
facial plethora (an excess of any of the body fluids) or cyanosis may occur if•
(superior vena cava os obstructed (e.g. due to tumour
some patients with obstructive sleep apnoea will be obese with a receding•
chin, a small pharynx and a short thick neck
The trachea
:causes of tracheal displacement•
toward the side of the lung lesion○
upper lobe collapse
upper lobe fibrosis
pneumonectomy
(away from the side of teh lung lesion (uncommon○
massive pleural effusion
tension pneumothorax
upper mediastinal masses, such as retrosternal goitre○
tracheal tug (finger resting on trachea feels it move inferiorly with each•
inspiration) is a sign of gross overexpansion of the chest because of airflow
obstruction
The chest: inspection
shape and symmetry of chest •
barrel shaped○
anteroposterior (AP) diameter is increased compared with =
lateral diameter
causes: hyperinflation due to asthma, emphysema
(pigeon chest (pectus carinatum○
localised prominence (outward bowing of sternum and costal =
(cartilages
:causes 

30
 manifestation of chronic childhood illness (due to
repeated strong contractions of diaphragm while thorax
(is still pliable
rickets
(funnel chest (pectus excavatum○
developmental defect involving a localised depression of =
lower end of sternum (figure 4.3); in severe cases, lung
capacity may be restricted
Harrison's sulcus○
linear depression of lower ribs just above costal margins at =
site of attachment of diaphragm
:causes 
severe asthma in childhood
rickets
kyphosis = exaggerated forward curvature of spine○
scoliosis = lateral bowing○
:kyphoscoliosis: causes ○
(idiopathic (80%
secondary to poliomyelitis (inflammation involving grey matter
(of cord
associated with Marfan's syndrome
note: severe thoracic kyphoscoliosis may reduce lung capacity)
(and increase work of breathing
lesions of chest wall○
scars - previous thoracic operations or chest drains for a
previous pneumothorax or pleural effusion
thoracoplasty (was once performed to remove TB, but no
longer is because of effective antituberculosis chemotherapy)
invovled removal of large number of ribs on one side to
achieve permanent collapse of affected lung
erythema and thickening of skin may occur in radiotherapy;
there is a sharp demarcation between abnormal and normal skin
diffuse swelling of chest wall and neck○
pathophysiology: air tracking from the lungs
:causes 
pneumothorax
rupture of oesopahagus
:prominent veins○
cause: superior vena caval obstruction
:asymmetry of chest wall movements○

31
assess this by inspecting from behind patient, looking down the
clavicles during moderate respiration - diminished movement
indicates underlying lung disease
the affected side will showed delayed or decreased movement
causes of reduced chest wall movements on one side are 
:localised
localised pulmonary fibrosis
consolidation
collapse
pleural effusion
pneumothroax
:causes of bilateral reduced chest wall movements are diffuse ○
chronic airflow limitation
diffuse pulmonary fibrosis
The chest: palpation
chest expansion •
place hands firmly on chest wall with fingers extending around sides of○
(chest (fugyre 4.5
as patient takes a big breath in, the thumbs should move symmetrically○
apart about 5 cm
reduced expansion on one side indicates a lesion on that side○
note: lower lobe expansion is tested here; upper lobe is tested for on○
(inspection (as above
apex beat •
(discussed in cardiac section)○
:for respiratory diseases○
:displacement toward site of lesion - can be caused by
collapse of lower lobe
localised pulmonary fibrosis
:displacement away from site of lesion - can be caused by
pleural effusion
tension pneumothorax
apex beat is often impalpable in a chest which is
hyperexpanded secondary to chronic airflow limitation
vocal fremitus •
"palpate chest wall with palm of hand while patient repeats "99○
front and back of chest are each palpated in 2 comparable positions○
with palms; in this way differences in vibration on chest wall can be
detected

32
 causes of change in vocal fremitus are the same as those for vocal○
(resonance (see later
ribs •
gently compress chest wall anteroposteriorly and laterally○
localised pain suggests a rib fracture (may be secondary to trauma or○
(spontaneous as a result of tumour deposition or bone disease
The chest: percussion
with left hand on chest wall and fingers slightly separated and aligned with•
ribs, the middle finger is pressed firmly against the chest; pad of right middle
finger is used to strike firmly the middle phalanx of middle finger of left hand
:percussion of symmetrical areas of•
(anterior (chest○
posterior (back) (ask patient to move elbows forward across the front○
of chest - this rotates the scapulae anteriorly, i.e. moves it out of the
(way
(axillary region (side○
supraclavicular fossa○
percussion over a solid structure (e.g. liver, consolidated lung) produces a dull•
note
percusion over a fluid filled area (e.g. pleural effusion) produces an extremely•
dull (stony dull) note
percussion over the normal lung produces a resonant note•
percussion over a hollow structure (e.g. bowel, pneumothorax) produces a•
hyperresonsant note
:liver dullness •
upper level of liver dullness is determined by percussing down the○
anterior cehst in mid-clavicular line
normally, upper level of liver dullness is 6th rib in right mid-clavicular○
line
if chest is resonant below this level, it is a sign of hyperinflation○
usually due to emphysema, asthma
:cardiac dullness •
area of cardiac dullness is uaully present on left side of chest○
this may decrease in emphysema or asthma○
The chest: auscultation
breath sounds •
introduction ○
see figure 4.7 - one should use the diaphragm of stethoscope to
leisten to breath sound in each area, comparing each side
remember to listen high up into the axillae

33
 remember to use bell of stethoscope to listen to lung ap[ices
from above the clavicles
quality of breath sounds ○
normal breat sounds
are heard with stethoscope over all parts of chest,
produced in airways rather than alveoli although once
they had been thought to arise from alveoli (vesicles)
(and are therefore called vesicular sounds
normal (vesciular) breath sounds are louder and longer
on inspiration than on expiration; and there is no gap
between the inspiratory and expiratory sounds
bronchial breath sounds 
turbulence in large airways is heard without being
filtered by the alveoli, and therefore produce a different
quality; they are heard over the trachea normally, but
not over the lungs
are audible throughout expiration, and often there is a
gap between inspiration and expiration
are heard over areas of consolidation since solid lung
conducts the sound of turbulence in main airways to
peripheral areas without filtering
:causes include
lung consolidation (lobar pneumonia) - common
localised pulmonary fibrosis - uncommon
pleural effusion (above the fluid) - uncommon
collapsed lung (e.g. adjacent to a pleural
effusion) - uncommon
amphoric sound = when breath sounds over a large)
(cavity have an exaggerated bronchial quality
intensity of breath sounds ○
:causes of reduced breath sounds include
(chronic airflow limitation (espescially emphysema
pleural effusion
pneumothorax
pneumonia
large neoplasm
pulmonary collapse
added (adventitious) sounds ○
two types of added sounds: continuous (wheezes) and
(interrupted (crackles
wheezes 
wheeze must be timed in relation to respiratory cycle

34
 may be heard in expiration or inspiration or both
pathophysiology of wheezes - airway narrowing
wheezes tend to be louder on expiration because airway
is normally dilated during inspiration, and narrowed
during expiration
an inspiratory wheeze implies severe airway narrowing
pitch of wheeze varies, and is determined by velocity of
air jet, accordingly
high pitched wheezes are produced in smaller
bronchi
low pitched wheezes arise from large bronchi
:causes of wheezes include
asthma (often high pitched) - due to muscle
spasm, mucosal oedema, excessive secretions
chronic airflow diseases - due to mucosal
oedema and excessive secretions
carcinoma causing bronchial obstruction - tends
to cause a localised wheeze which is
monophonic and does not clear with coughing
crackles 
some terms not to use include rales (low pitched
(crackles) and creptitations (high pitched crackles
crackles are due to collapse of peripheral airways on
expiration and sudden opening on inspiration
early inspiratory crackles
suggests disease of small airways
characteristic of chronic airflow limitation
are only heard in early inspiration
late or paninspiratory crackles
suggests disease confined to alveoli
may be fine, medium or coarse
fine crackles - typically caused by pulmonary
fibrosis
medium crackles - typically caused by left
ventricular failure (due to presence of alveolar
(fluid
coarse crackes - tend to change with coughing;
occur with any disease that leads to retention of
secretions; commonly occur in bronchiectasis
pleural friction rub 
when thickened, roughened pleural surfaces rub
together, a continuous or intermittent grating sound may
be heard

35
 suggests pleurisy, which may be secondary to
pulmonary infarction or pnuemonia
rarely may be caused by: malignany involvement of
pleura, spontaneous pneumothorax, pleurodynia (1 -
pleuritic pain in chest; 2 - painful affection of tendinous
attachments of throacic muscles, usually of one side
(only
vocal resonanance •
gives information about lungs' ability to transmit sounds○
consolidated lung tends to transmit high frequencies so that speech○
heard through stethoscope takes a bleeting quality (aegophony); when
"a patient with aegophony says "bee" it sounds like "bay
listen over each part of chest as patient says "99"; over consolidated○
lung, the numbers will become clearly audible; over normal lung, the
sound is muffled
whispering pectoriloquy - vocal resonance is increased to such an○
extent that whispered speech is distinctly heard
The heart
lie patient at 45 degrees•
measure jugular venous plse for right heart failure•
examine preacordium; pay close attention to pulmonary component of P2•
(which is best heard at 2nd intercostal space on left) and should not be louder
than A2; if it is louder, suspect pulmonary hypertension
cor pulmonale (also called pulmonary hypertensive heart disease) may be due•
:to
(chronic airflow limitation (emphysema○
pulmonary fibrosis○
pulmonary thromboembolism○
marked obesity○
sleep apnoea○
severe kyphoscoliosis○
The abdomen
palpate liver for enlargement due to secondary deposits of tumour from lung,•
or right heart failure
Other
Permberton's sign•
ask patient to lift arms over head○
look for development of facial plethora, inspiratory stridor, non-○
pulsatile elevation of jugular venous pressure
occurs in vena caval obstruction○
feet•

36
 (inspect for oedema or cyanosis (clues of cor pulmonale○
look for evidence of deep vein thrombosisd○
respiratory rate on exercise and positioning•
patients complaining of dyspnoea should have their respiratory rate○
measured at rest, at maximal tolerated exertion and supine
if dyspnoea is not accompanied by tachypnoea when a patient climbs○
stairs, one should consider malingering
look for paradoxical inward motion of abdomen during inspiration○
(when patient is uspine (indicating diaphragmatic paralysis
temperature: fever may accompany any acute or chronic chest infection•
Bedside assessment of lung function
forced expiratory time •
measure the time taken by a patient to exhale forcefully and○
completely through an open mouth after taking a maximum inspiration
the normal FET is 3 seconds or less; an increased FET indicates○
airways obstruction
note any audible wheeze or cough○
peak flow meter •
using the device, ask patient to take a full breath in and to maximally○
puff suddenly
normal values for young men - 600 litres/minute○
normal values for young women - 400 litres/minute○
value depends on age, sex and height - consult a table○
airways obstruction results in reduced and variable PEFR○
spirometry •
spirometer graphically records forced expiration and forced vital○
capacity
FEV = volume of air expelled from lungs after maximum inspiration○
using maximum forced effort
FEV1 = volume of air expelled in first second of FEV○
FVC = total volume of air expelled from lungs after maximum○
inspiratory effort follwed by maximum expiration
FEV1/FVC is normally at about 80%, but may decline to as little as○
60% in old age
:in obstructive airways disease○
airways narrowing occurs
hence: FEV1 decreases lots, FVC decreases a bit, FEV/FVC
decreases lots
also elastic recoil is decreased, therefore expiration time is)
(increased

37
 obstructive diseases include: asthma, chronic bronchitis,
emphysema
in restrictive airways disease○
(elastic recoil is increased (i.e. airways collapse more easily
hence: FEV1 decreases a bit (only because VC has decreased),
FVC decreases, FEV/FVC increases
restrictive diseases include: pulmonary firosis, sarcoidosis,
pneumonia, neonatal respiratory distress syndrome
flow volume curve: this measures inspiratory and expiratory flow, and•
therefore FVC and FEV1 and other figures can be calculated
COMPARISON OF CHEST SIGNS IN COMMON RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
Mediastinal
Chest wall Percussio Breath Added Vocal
Disorder displacemen
movement n note sounds sounds resonance
t
reduced over
consolidation none dull bronchial crackles increased
affected area
decreased
ipsilateral absent or
collapse over affected dull absent absent
shift reduced
area
absent
heart absent,
over
displaced to but pleural
fluid but absent
pleural opposite side; reduced over rub may
stony dull may be over
effusion tracheal only affected area be found
bronchial effusion
displaced if above
at upper
massive effusion
border
tracheal
deviation to decreased
absent or
pneumothorax opposite side over affected resonant absent absent
reduced
if under area
tension
decreased normal
bronchial normal or normal or
none symmetricall or wheeze
asthma decreased reduced
y reduced
fine
inspirator
y crackles
slightly
interstitial over
decreased
pulmonary none normal normal affected normal
symmetricall
fibrosis lobes
y
unaffected
by cough
or posture

38
 GI EXAMINATION
Positioning patient: patient lying flat
General appearance
jaundice: yellow discoloration of sclerae and skin•
weight and wasting•
:some causes of weght loss and cachexia include○
failure of intestinal absorption
malignancy
alcoholic cirrhosis
folds of loose skin may suggest recent weight loss○
obesity can cause fatty infiltration of liver (non-alcoholic steatohepatitis) and lead to liver○
dysfunction
anabolic steroids can induce increase muscle bulk and various liver tumours (adenomas,○
(hepatocelllular carcinomas
skin•
note that gastrointestinal tract and skin have a common origin from embryoblast○
a number of diseases can present with both skin and gut involvement○
pigmentation ○
generalised skin pigmentation can result from chronic lever disease, esp in
(haemochromatosis (haemosiderin stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
malabsorption may result in pigemntation of nipples, plamar creases, pressure areas
and mouth
Peutz-Jeghers syndrome ○
discrete brown black lesions around mouth and buccal mucosa, fingers and toes =
associated with harmatomas of small bowel and colon (which can bleed or
(intussucept
is an autosomal dominant condition
see figure 5.2
acanthosis nigricans ○
brown/back velvety elevations of epidermis due to confluent papillomas, usually =
found in axillae and nape of neck
associated with stomach cancer, lymphoma, acromegaly, diabetes mellitus
(hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia (Rendu-Olser-Weber syndrome ○
multiple small telangiectasiae often present in lips and tongue =
when present in the gastrointestinal tract they can cause chronic blood loss or
torrential bleeding
associated with arteriovenous malformation in liver
autosomal dominant condition
see figure 5.3
porphyria cutanea tarda ○
39
 chronic disorder of porphyrin metabolism characterised by fragile vesicles that =
appear on exposed areas of skin and heal with scarring
urine is dark
is associated with alcoholism, liver disease and hepatitis C
see figure 5.4
systemic sclerosis ○
systemic disease characterised by formation of hyalinised and thickened =
collagenous fibrous tissue, with thickening of skin, dysphagia (due to loss of
peristalsis and submucosal fibrosis of oesophagus), dyspnoea (due to pulmonary
fibrosis), myocardial fibrosis, renal vascular changes resembling malignant
hypertension
associated with gastro-oesophageal reflux and gastrointestinal motility disorders
mental state•
:hepatic encephalopathy○
def: is an organic neurological disturbance that occurs with chronic or acute liver
failure
clinical: patients eventually become stuporous and comatose
pathophysiology: hepatocellular damage + portosystemic shunting (disturbed extra
and intra hepatic structure) --> failure to remove toxic metabolties (ammonia,
(mercaptans, short chain fatty acids, amines
The hands
nails•
leuconychia○
hypoalbuminaemia (e.g. chronic liver disease) and Wilson's disease may cause nail
beds to become white, often leaving only a rim of pink nail bed at the top of the nail
thumb and index nails bilaterally are most often involved
clubbing○
:clubbing may occur in
cirrhosis
inflammatory bowel disease
coeliac disease
long standing nutritional depletion
palms•
palmar erythema○
reddening of palms affecting thenar and hypothenar eminences; often soles of feet =
are affect
:may occur in
normal
(chronic liver disease (attributed to raised oestrogen levels
pregnancy
thyrotoxicosis
rheumatoid arthritis
polycythaemia
(chronic febril diseases (only rarely does palmar erythema occur for this
40
 (chronic leukaemia (only rarely does palmar erythema occur for this
anaemia○
inspect palmar creases for pallor suggesting anaemia
:some gastrointestinal related causes include
blood loss
(malabsorption (folate, vitamin B12
(haemolysis (e.g. hypersplenism
chronic disease
Dupuytren's contracture○
visible and palpable thickening and contraction of palmar fascia causing permanent =
flexion, most often of ring finger; often bilateral, and may affect feet
:associated with
(alcoholism (not liver disease
manual workers
familial
(hepatic flap (asterixis•
ask patient to stretch out arms in front, separate fingers and extend wrists for 15 seconds○
flapping of hepatic encephalopathy - usually bilateral, jerky, irregular flexion-extension○
movement at wrist and metacarpophalangeal joints, often accompanied by lateral movements
of fingers; occasionally the arms, neck, tongue, jaws and eyelids can also be involved; flap
tends to be absent at rest and is brought on by sustained posture
mechanism - interference with inflow of joint position sense information to reticular○
formation resulting in rhythmical lapses of postural muscle tone
:this is not diagnostic of liver failure; it can occur in○
liver failure
cardiac failure
respiratory failure
renal failure
hypoglycaemia
hypokalaemia
hypomagnesaemia
barbiturate intoxication
The arms
(bruising (discussed in more detail in haematological system•
large bruises - ecchymoses○
petechiae - pinhead sized bruises○
:some causes of ecchymoses○
clotting abnormalities
hepatocellular damage (interfere with protein synthesis, including all clotting
((factors (except factor VIII which is made elsewhere
obstructive jaundice (shortage of bile acids in intestine --> reduction in
absorption of vitamin K (fat soluble) --> lack of production of clotting factors
(II (prothrombin), VII, IX, X

41
 :some causes of petechiae○
clotting abnormalities
(excessive alcohol consumption (bone marrow depression --> thrombocytopenia
splenomegaly (secondary to portal hypertension) --> excessive platelet destruction
severe liver disease (esp. acute hepatic necrosis) --> diffuse intravascular coagulation
:muscle wasting•
:may be due to alcohol for 2 reasons○
malnutrition
alcohol can cause proximal myopathy
scratch marks•
may be obvious due scratching because of pruritus (retention of unknown substance normally○
:excreted in bile), secondary to
obstructive or cholestatic jaundice
spider naevi•
central arterioles from which radiate numerous small vessels which look like legs of =○
spiders; range in size from just visible to .5 cm dimater; usually located in area drained by
(superior vena cava (arms, neck, chest wall
pressure applied with a pointed object to the central arteriole causes bleeding of the whole○
lesion, with rapid refilling on release of pressure
a couple of spider naevi on the body isn't considered abnormal○
:causes include○
cirrhosis
(viral hepatitis (occur transiently
during pregnancy
mechanism - related to oestrogen levels probably○
:differential diagnosis of spider naevi includes○
Campbell de Morgan spots (flat or slightly elevated red circular lesions which occur
in the abdomen or front of chest; they do not blanch on pressure and are very
(common
venous stars (2-3 cm lesions which occur on dorsum of feeth, legs, back and lower
(chest due to elevated venous pressure; are not obliterated by pressure
hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia
see figure 5.5○
palpate axilla for lymphadenopathy•
The face
eyes•
jaundice - see figure 5.6○
anaemia○
Kayser-Fleisher rings○
brownish green rings occurring at peripheray of cornea, due to excess copper in =
Descemet's membrane
:causes include

42
 Wilson's disease (copper storage disease that leads to cirrhosis and
(neurological disturbances
iritis - may occur in inflammatory bowel disease○
xanthelasma○
yellowish plaques in subcutaneous tissues in periorbital region, caused by lipid =
deposition
may indicate protracted elevation of serum cholesterol
:may occur in
cholestasis
primary biliary cirrhosis
periorbital purpura following proctosigmoidoscopy (black eye syndrome) is characteristic of○
amyloidosis - rare; see figure 5.7
parotids•
palpate this by asking patient to clench teeth so masseter is palpable (parotid is just posterior○
(to masseter, and anterior to ear lobe
:bilateral causes of parotid enlargement include○
(mumps (can be unilateral
(parotitis following acute illness or surgery (usually tender
sarcoidosis or lymphoma
Mikulicz syndrome - bilateral painless enlargement of all 3 salivary glands, probably
an early stage of Sjoegren's syndrome
alcohol associated parotitis
malnutrition
severe dehydration - as occurs in renal failure, terminal carcinomatosis and severe
infections
:unilateral causes of parotid enalargement include○
(mixed parotid tumour (occasional bilateral
tumour infiltration usualyl causing painless unilateral enlargement and may cause
facial nerve palsy
duct blockage, e.g. salivary calculus
mouth•
teeth and breath○
false teeth can be removed for complete examination of mmouth
:gum hypertrophy may be caused by
phenytoin
pregnancy
scurvey (vitamin C deficiency - gums become spongy, red, bleed easily,
(swollen and irregular
gingivitis (e.g. from smoking, calculus, plaque, fusobacterial membranous
((tonsillitis (Vincent's angina
leukaemia
:pigmentation may be caused by
:heavy metals
(lead, bismuth (blue black line on gingivial margin
43
 iron (caused by haemochromatosis, shows blue-grey pigmentation on
(hard palate
drugs
oral contraceptives, antimalarials (brown or black areas of
(pigmentation
(Addison's disease (low gluco and mineralo corticoids) (brown patches
(Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (lips, buccal mucosa or palate
(malignant melanoma (raised, painless black lesions
:fetor may suggest
faulty oral hygiene
fetor hepaticus (a sweet smell) - indicates severe liver disease, probably due to
methlymercaptans (substances exhaled which would normally be
(demethylatted by a normal liver
ketosis (diabetic ketoacidosis results in ex cretion of ketones in exhaled air
(causing sickly sweet smell
(uraemia (fish breath
(alcohol (distinctive
paraldehyde
(putrid (due to anaerobic chest infecitons with large amounts of sputum
cigarettes
tongue○
coating
thickened epithelium with bacterial debrtis and food particles, occuring =
particularly in smokers
is NOT a sign of disease
lingua nigra
(black tongue (brown =
due to elongation of papillae over posterior part of tongue which appears dark
because of accumulation of keratin
is NOT a sign of disease normally
geographical tongue
slowly chaning red rings and lines occuring of tongue surface =
is not usually a sign of disease, but can indicate riboflavin (vitamin B2)
deficiency
leucoplakia
white thickening of mucosa of tongue and mouth =
:causes include
poor dental hygiene
smoking
spirits
sepsis
syphilis
idiopathic
glossitis
44
 smooth appearance of tongue which may also be erythematous =
:causes include
atrophy a papillae (may result in ulceration) due to nutritional
deficiencies of iron, folate, vitamin B (esp. B12) (tongue is sensitive
(because of rapid turnover of mucosal cells
alcoholism
carcinoid syndrome - rare; (combination of symptoms and lesions
usually produced by release of serotonin from carcinoid tumours of
GIT that have metastasised to liver; consists of irregular mottled
blushing, flat angiomas of skin, acquired tricuspid and pulmonary
stenosis often with regurgitation (sometimes left heart valves also
affected), diarrhoea, bronchial spasm, mental abberation and excretion
(of large quantities of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid
idiopathic - especially in elderly
macroglossia
enlargement of tongue =
:may occur in
(congenital diseases (e.g. Down's syndrome
(acromegaly (and other endocrine diseases
(tumour infiltration (e.g. haemangioma or lymphangioma
infiltration of tongue in amyloidosis
mouth ulcers○
:causes include
apthous ulcers - common (are small painfuil vesciles which breakdown to
(form shallow ulcer; heal without scarring; usually unknown cause
drugs (e.g. gold, steroids) - common
trauma - common
gastrointestinal diseases: Chron's, ulcerative colitis, coeliac
:rheuamatological diseases
Behcet's syndrome (syndrome characterised by simultaneously or
successively occurring recurrent attacks of genital and oral ulceration
(aphthae) and uveitis (inflammation of uveal tract - iris, ciliary body
and choroid) or iridocyclitis (inflammation of iris and ciliary body)
with hypopyon (presence of leukocytes in anterior chamber of eye),
(often with arthritis
Reiter's syndrome (association of urethritis, iridocyclitis,
(mucocutaneous lesions and arthritis, sometimes with diarrhoea
erythema multiforme
:infection
viral - herpes zoster, herpes simplex
bacterial - syphilis (primary chancre, secondary snail track ulcers,
mucous patches), TB
self-inflicted
AIDS is associated with mouth lesions
angular stomatitis - cracks in corners of mouth; causes include vitamin B6, B12,
folate and iron deficiency
45
 candidiasis○
(causative agent: Candida albicans (thrush
clinical features: white patches in mouth, difficult to remove, and leave a bleeding
surface
infection may spread to involve oesophagus causing dysphagia or odynophagia
infection is most likely in immunocompromised, broad-spectrum antibiotics, faulty
oral hygiene, iron deficienc, diabetes mellitus
The neck and chest
palpate the cervical lymph nodes•
left side notes may be involved with advanced gastric cancer, or lung cancer, or other○
presence of large left supraclavicular node in combination iwth carcinoma of stomack is○
called Troisier's sign
spider naevi•
(gynaecomastia (in males•
may be unilateral or bilateral○
breasts may be tender○
:may suggest○
chronic liver disease (changes in oestradiol:testosterone ratio, or spironaloactone
((treatment (for ascites
(alcoholism without liver disease (damage to Leydig cells of testis from alcohol
(use of some drugs (digoxin, cimetidine
Abdomen
inspection•
scars - see figure 5.8; older scars white, recent scars pink○
:generalised distension○
:caused by
fat
(fluid (ascites
foetus
flatus
faeces
(filthy big tumour (e.g. ovarian, hydatid
(?phantom pregnancy (what is this
:shape of umbilicus may help with cause
umbilicus buried in fat - patient eats too much
umbilicus is shallow (or everted) - ascites
unbilicus pushed upwards - foetus or large ovarian cyst
:local swelling○
:may indicate
enlargement of one of abdominal or pelvic organs
hernia (weakened opening may occur from surgery (incisional hernia),
congenital abdominal wall defect, chronically increased intra-abdominal
(pressure
46
 prominent veins○
if present, elicit direction of venous flow - finger is used to occlude vein and blood is
emptied from vein below occluding finger with second finger; second finger is
removed and if vein refills, flow is occurring towards occluded finger
caput Medusae
see figure 5.11
veins surrounding umbilicus, with blood flow away
occurs in severe portal hypertension when portal to systemic flow occurs
through the umbilical veins; if these veins become distended and engorged,
caput Medusae is present
sometimes only one or two veins are apparent
engorgement due to inferior vena caval obstruction
see figure 5.11
:may be caused by
tumour obstruction
thrombosis
tense ascites
mechanism - abdominal veins enlarge to provide collateral blood flow from
legs, avoiding the blocked inferior vena cava
direction of blood flow - away from legs
prominent veins may be congenital
puslations○
expanding central pulsation suggests abdominal aortic aneurysm, but may be normal
in thin people
visible peristalsis○
occurs in very thin people occasionally, however, usually suggests intestinal
obstruction
pyloric obstruction (petic ulcer, tumour) shows visible peristalsis as a slow wave
passing across upper abdomen from left to right
distal small bowel obstruction - similar ladder pattern in central abdomen
skin lesions○
herpes zoster - radicular pattern, localised to one side, one nerve root; may cause
severe pain of mysterious origin until rash appears
Sister Joseph nodule = metastatic tumour deposit in umbilicus (anatomical region
(where peritoneum is closest to skin
Cullen's sign (umbilical black eye): - rare
discoloration of umbilicus with fainly bluish hue =
:causes include
extensvie haemoperitoneum
acute pancreatitis
Grey-Turner's sign: skin discoloration in flanks in severe acute pancreatitis
striae
stretching of abdominal wall severly enough to cause rupture of elastic =
fibres in skin producing pink linear marks with wrinkled appearance

47
 :may be due to
ascites
pregnancy
recent weight loss
(Cushing's syndrome (wide, purple striae
with eyes at level of abdomen, ask patient to take slow deep breath through mouth and watch○
for evidence of asymmetrical movement, indicating presence of a mass (esp. large liver seen
(to move below right costal margin, or large spleen seen to move below left costal margin
palpation•
:general ○
(requires patient to relax abdominal muscles (i.e. reassure patient, use warm hands
examine any tender part last
descriptive regions of abdomen - see figure 5.12 (right hypochondrium, 9
epigastrium, left hypochondrium, right lumbar region, umbilical region, left lumbar
(region, right iliac fossa, hypogastrium, left iliac fossa
palpate lightl, noting presence of tenderness or lump
palpate deeply, noting any deep masses
descriptive features of intra-abdominal masses
site.1
tenderness.2
size and shape.3
(surface (regular or irregular.4
(edge (regular or irregular.5
(consistency (hard or soft.6
mobility and movement with inspiration.7
whether it is pulsatile.8
whether one can get above the mass.9
guarding = resistance to palpation due to contraction of abdominal muscles, may result from tenderness or anxie
may be voluntary or involuntary
involuntary guarding suggests periton
rigidity = constant involuntary contraction of abdominal muscles always associated with tenderness and indica
peritoneal irritation
rebound tenderness = tenderness when pressure (which has been slowly placed on abdomen) is quickly release
sudden stabbing pain
li
:causes of hepatomegaly inclu
:massive
metastases
alcoholic liver disease with fatty infiltrtaion
myeloproliferative disease
right heart failure
hepatocellular cancer
:moderate

48
 the above causes
haemochromatosis
(haematological disease (e.g. chronic leukaemia, lymphoma
(fatty liver (e.g. secondary to diabetes mellitus
(infiltration (e.g. amyloid
:mild
the above causes
hepatitis
biliary obstruction
hydatid disease
HIV infection
:method of palpat
with examining hand aligned parallel to right costal margin, and beginning in
right iliac fossa, ask patient to breathe in and out slowly through the mouth
with each expiration the hand is advanced 1 cm closer to the right costal
margin
during inspiration, the hand is kept still and the lateral margin of the forefinger
waits expedctantly for the liver edge to strike it
if liver edge is identified, feel surface of liver: note that feeling it jsut below the costal margin may be norm
:firm and irregular liver suggests
hepatocellular carcinoma
metastatic disease
cirrhosis
hydatid disease, granuloma (e.g. sarcoid), amyloid, cysts, lipoidoses
((presence of fat
:tender liver suggests
hepatitis
rapid liver enlargement (e.g. right heart failure, Budd-Chiari syndrome
(((hepatic vein thrombosis
hepatocellular carcinoma
biliary obstruction/cholangitis
:pulsatile liver suggest
tricuspid regurgitation
hepatocellular carcinoma
vascular abnormalities
if liver edge is palpable the total liver span should be measu
normal upper border - 6th rib in about midclavicular line; at this point,
percussion should become dull
to estimate liver span, percuss down along right midclavicular line until liver
dullness is encountered, and measure from here to palpable liver edge
normal span < 12.5 cm
causes of normal but palpable liver inclu
:ptsosis (drooping) of liver due to

49
 emphysema
asthma
subdiaphragmatic collection
Riedel's lobe (tnogue-like projection of liver from right lobe's inferior surface;
(it can be confused with an enlarged gallbladder or right kidney
note: a small liver is common in advanced cirrhosis and acute hepatic necrosis (due to liver cell death and colla
(of reticulin framework
gallbladd
gallbladder is occasionally palpable below right costal margin if it is enlarg
if palpable, if will feel bulbous, focal rounded mass which moves downwards on inspirat
:causes of enlarged gallbladd
with jaundice 
carcinoma of head of pancreas
carcinoma of ampulla of Vater
in situ gallstone formation in common bile duct
mucocele of gallbladder due to stone in Hartmann's pouch and stone in
(common bild duct (rare
without jaundice 
mucocele or empyema of gallbladder
(carcinoma of gallbladder (stone hard, irregular swelling
acute cholecystitis
Murphy's sign occurs in cholecystitis - on taking deep breath, patient catches hios breath when inflamed gallblad
presses on the examiner's hand which s lying at the costal margin
Courvoisier's law - if gallbladder is enlarged and patient is jaundiced, cause is unlikely to be gallstones, rat
carcinoma of pancreas or lower biliary tree resulting in obstructive jaundice
note: majority of dilated gallbladders are not palpa
sple
(spleen enlarged inferomedially (see figure 5
method of palpat
left hand is placed posterolaterally over left lower rib
right hand is placed on abdomen parallel to left costal margin
don't start palpation too near costal margin or a large spleen will be missed
as the right hand is advanced closer to left costal margin, the left hand
compresses firmly over the rib cage so as to produce a loose fold of skin; this
removes tension from the abdominal wall and enables a slightly enlarged soft
spleen to be felt as it moves down towards the right iliac fossa at end of
inspiration
if spleen is not palpable, patient must be rolled on to right side towards
examiner and palpation repeated
causes of splenomeg
massive 
chronic myeloid leukaemia
myelofibrosis
malaria - rare

50
kala azar (visceral infection with a species of Leishmania (protozoon))
- rare
primary lymphoma - rare
moderate 
the above caues
portal hypertension
lymphoma
(leukaemia (acute or chronic
thalassaemia
storage diseases (e.g. Gaucher's disease - lysosomal storage disease
resulting from glycocerebroside accumulation due to genetic
deficiency of glucocerebrosidase; causes hepatosplenomegaly,
regression of neurological maturation, characteristic histiocytes
((Gaucher cells) in viscera; autosomal recessive
small 
the above causes
other myeloproliferative disroders
polycythaemia rubra vera
essential thrombocythaemia
haemolytic anaemia
(megalblastic anaemia (rarely
infection
(viral (e.g. EBV, hepatitis
(bacterial (e.g. infective endocarditis
(protozoal (e.g. malaria
(connective tissue isease (e.g. RA, SLE, polyarteritis nodosa
(infiltrations (e.g. amyloid, sarcoid
note: secondary carcinomatosis is a rare cause of splenomegaly
causes of hepatosplenomeg
chronic liver disease with portal hypertension
haematological disease (e.g. myeloproliferative disease, lymphoma,
(leukaemia, pernicisous anaemia, sickle cell anaemia
(infection (e.g. acute viral hepatitis, EBV, CMV
(infiltration (e.g. amyloid, sarcoid
(connective tissue disease (e.g. SLE
acromegaly
thyrotoxicosis
kidn
:palpate with bimaniel meth
patient lies flat on hist back
place left handneath back resting heel of hand under right loin
left fingers must remainfree to flex at metacarpophalangeal joints in the area
of renal angle

51
 flexing left fingers, and palpate for kidney with right hand
a normal right kidney may ocasionally be felt, a normal left kidney should never be
(if felt it feels like a swelling with a rounded lower pole and medial dent (hil
:can confuse large left kidney with spleen, major distinguishing features
spleen has no palpable upper border (one cannot feel space between spleen
(and costal margin
spleen has a notch which may be palpable
spleen moves inferomedially on inspiration while kidney moves inferiorly
spleen not usually ballottable unless gross ascites is present, but kidney is,
because of its retroperitoneal position
percussion note is dullt of spleen, but usually resonant over kidney because it
lies posterior to loops of gas filled bowel
a friction rub may occasionally be heard over spleen, but never over kidney
:causes of unilateral palpable kidn
renal cell carcinoma
hydronephrosis or pyonephrosis
(polycystic kidneys (with asymmetrical enlargement
normal right kidney or solitary kidney
(acute renal vein thrombosis (unilateral
acute pyelonephritis
renal abscess
:causes of bilateral palpable kidn
polycystic kidneys
hydronephrisis or pyonephrosis bilaterally
renal cell carcinoma bilaterally
(diabetic nephropathy (early
(nephrotic syndrome (many causes of this
(infiltrative disease (e.g. amyloid, lymphoma
acromegaly
other abdominal mas
stomach and duodenum - gastric outlet obstruct
succcussion splash may occur in gastric outlet obstruction
warn patient
grasp one iliac credst with each hand
place stethoscope close to epigastrium
shake patient vigorously from side to side
listen for excessive splashing
this test is not useful if the patient has had a drink within the last hour)
(or so
pancreas - pseudocyst, tumo
large pancreatic pseudocyst following acute pancreatitis may be palpable
((usually tense, fixed and does not fall with inspiration
large tumour may be palpable in thin person
52
 aorta - aortic aneurysm or norm
pulsation may be present in thin people, and may represent a normal aorta, or
an aortic aneurysm
measure width of pulse gently with two fingers by aligning these parallel to
aorta, and placing them at outmost palpable margins; with an aortic aneurysm,
the pulsation is expansile (i.e. it enlarges appreciably with systole) (AAA
(grater than 5 cm merits surgical repair
bowel - constipation (faeces), tumo
in constipation, hard faeces in sigmoid colon may be palpable
large tumours may be palpable; mass will not move on respiration
bladder - urinary retent
in urinary retention, the bladder may be palpable above pubic symphysis
cannot feel lower border of bladder
feels rounded
it is unwise to make definite diagnosis concerning swelling coming out of
pelvis, until one is sure bladder is empty
inguinal lyph nodes - normal, infection, can
small, firm mobile nodes are commonly found in normal subjects
:other causes of localised lymph enlargement are
local infection
metastases from carcinoma
(lymphoma (may cause generalised lymphadenopathy as well
(testes - atrophy (liver disea
testicular atrophy occurs in chronic liver disease
anterior abdominal wall - many cau
:lump confusion 
try not to confuse lumps in anterior abdominal wall with intra-
abdominal lumps
to determine whether mass is in abdominal wall, ask patient to fold
arms across upper chest and sit halfway up
an intra-abdominal mass will disappear or decrease in size, whereas
ones within layers of abdominal wall will remain unchanged
:causes of lumps in anterior abdominal wall 
lipoma
sebaceous cyst
dermal fibroma
malignant deposits
epigastric hernia
umbilical or para-umbilical hernia
incisional hernia
rectus sheath haematoma
:pain confusion 
try not to confuse pain in abdominal wall with intra-abdominal wall
pain
53
to test for abdominal wall pain, feel for an area of localised tenderness
that reproduces the pain while the patient is in supine, and if this is
found, then ask the patient to fold arms across upper chest and sit
(halfway up, and then palpate again (Carnett's test
if tenderness disappears, this suggests that pain is arising from
(abdominal wall (e.g. muscle strain, nerve entrapment, myositis
however, Carnett test may give positive when visceral disease with
involvement of parietal peritoneum, producing inflammation of
(overlying muscle (e.g. appendicitis
percuss
:percussion used
define size and nature of organs and mas
detect fluid in peritoneal cav
elicit tenderness in patients with periton
li
percuss to determine liver sp
to define upper border - percuss in midclavicular line down until dullness is encounte
to define lower border - percuss in midclavicular line up to right costal margin until dullness is encounte
(loss of normal liver dullness may occur in massive hepatic necrosis or with free gas in peritoneal gav
sple
if percussion note over lower left ribs in midaxillary line is dull, splenomegaly is suggestive - this sign is rare a
(unreliable (if dull percussion occurs, then repalpate
kidn
:percussion over right or left subcostal mass can help distinguish renal from splenic mas
in renal masses, there will usually be a resonant area because of overlying
bowel
in splenic masses, there will not be a resonant area
bladd
an area of suprapubic dullness may indicate the upper border of an enlarged bladder or pelvic m
asci
percussion note over most of abdomen is resonant due to air in intesti
influence of gravity causes fluid to accumulate first in flanks in a supin patient, thus a dull percussion note is no
in the flank with ascites; as more fluid builds up, the area of dullness will become detectable closer to the
midline
.if dullness in flanks is detected, the sign of shifting dullness should be sought,
stand on right side of bed
percuss left flank until dullness is reached
mark this point
role patient towards examiners
wait 1 minute, allowing fluid to move
percussion is repeated
the dull area has become resonant if the dullness was due to ascites because
the fluid has moved under the influence of gravity
(for massive ascites, a fluid thrill (wave) is detectable (this is not done routin

54
 assistant places edge of palm firmly on centre of abdomen, with fingers
pointing towards groin
examiner flicks side of abdominal wall and pulsation is felt by the hand placed
on the other abdominal wall
(also feel fluid thrill in massive ovarian cyst or pregnancy with hydramnios)
:causes of asc
(high gradient (>11 gm/L serum albumin
cirrhosis
alcoholic hepatitis
fulminant hepatic failure (fulminant = sudden onset, great severity and
(intensity
(congestive heart failure, constrictive pericarditis (cardiac ascites
Budd-Chiari syndrome (hepatic vein thrombosis) or veno-occlusive
disease
myxoedema (hypothyroidism characterised by a relatively hard
oedema of subcutaneous tissue, with increased content of
proteoglycans in fluid, characterised by somnolence, slow mentation,
dryness and loss of hair, increased fluid in body cavities such as
(pericardial sac, low temperature, muscle weakness
massive liver metastases
(low gradient (<11 gm/L serum albumin
peritoneal carcinomatosis
tuberculosis
pancreatic ascites
nephrotic syndrome
abdominal masses may be difficult to feel by direct palpat
auscultat
bowel soun
:bowel sounds should not be described as increased or decreased, but only
present
not present
paralytic ileus - no ball sou
obstruction - bowel sounds high pitch
intestinal rush (e.g. diarrhoea) - bowel sounds often audible without stethoscope = borboryg
friction rubs - r
indicate inflammation of parietal and visceral peritoneum, and may be audible over liver or spl
are heard as rough creaking noise as patient breat
inflammation of liver capsule causes include tumour within liver, liver abscess, recent liver biospy, liver infarct
gonococcal or chlamydial perihepatitits
splenic causes include splenic infa
venous hums - r
usually occurs because of large volumes of blood flowing in umbilical or para-umbilical veins in falciform ligam
(these channel blood from left portal vein to epigastric or internal mammary veins i nabdominal wall) (may
(occur normally over large veins such as inferior mesenteric vein

55
 usually heard between xiphisternum and umbilicus in cases of portal hypertens
the presence of venous hum or capud Medusae suggest that the site of portal obstruction is intrahepatic rather th
(?in portal vein itself (why
br
:arerial systolic bruit may be heard over liver (rare
hepatocelar cancer
acute alcoholic hepatitis
auscultate for renal bruit (on either side of midline above umbilicus) if suspect renal artery steno
:bruit in epigastrium may be heard in patie
with chronic intestinal ischaemia from mesenteric arterial stenosis.1
who are normal.2
:bruit may be audible over spleen if ther
tumour of body of pancreas
splenic arteriovenous fistula
hern
asking patient to cough may make the hernia app
ingui
see figure 5
must decide if swelling in groin is above or below inguinal ligamnet (lies between anterior superior iliac spine a
(pubic tubercle
?differential diagnosis of solitary groin lu
above the inguinal line
inguinal hernia - most common
undescended testis
cyst of canal of Nuck (canal of Nuck = processus vaginalis of
peritoneum = peritoneal diverticulum in the embryonic lower anterior
abdominal wall that traverses the inguinal canal; in the male it forms
the tunica vaginalis testis and normally loses its connection with the
peritoneal cavity; a persisent processus vaginalis in the female is
(known as the canal of Nuck
encysted hydrocele or lipoma of the cord
iliac node
large femoral hernia - rare
below inguinal line
femoral hernia
lymph node
saphena varix (sensation of a jet of water on palpation, disappears
(when supine
femoral aneurysm - pulsatile
(psoas abscess (associated with fever, flank pain and flexion deformity
characteristic inguinal hernia is a soft lump which can be palpable if the patient cou
indirect hernia - passes through internal inguinal ring and descends through the inguinal canal; in males a sm
indirect hernia may be may be palpated by gently invaginating the scrotum and feeling an impulse when the
patient coughs

56
 direct hernia - protrudes forwards into the inguinal triangle (but doesn't pass through the internal inguinal rin
direct inguinal hernia appears immediately on standing and disappears on lying down
note that ultimately, the differentiation can only be made at operation between direct and indirect inguinal hern
remember to count the testes so that you don't mistake a maldescended testis for an inguinal her
femo
occur below pubic tubercle, 2cm medial to femoral pu
there may not cough impu
femoral hernia is usually small, and can be mistaken for a lymph no
if a hernia strangulates, the overlying skin may become red and tense, and the lump is usually ten
herniae are often bilate
Rectal Examination
•

57