The Fourth Amendment and Search & Seizure

SAN DIEGO DISTRICT ATTORNEY
The Fourth Amendment and Search & Seizure Thirteenth Edition An Update
January, 2013 Robert C. Phillips Deputy District Attorney (Ret.) San Diego District Attorney s !""ice #$#%3&$%0302 (C) RCPhill#0#'aol.co(
Chapter 1
The Fourth Amendment, United States Constitution ) The Fourth Amendment: *+he right o" the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, an, effects- against unreasonable searches and seizures- shall not be .iolate,- an, no warrants shall issue- but upon probable cause- supporte, by oath or a""ir(ationan, particularly describing the place to be searched an, the persons or things to be seized./ (Emphasis added) See also California Constitution, Art I- 13- 0ith al(ost i,entical language. Scope: Due Process) 1nitially inten,e, to control the actions o" the "e,eral go.ern(ent only (See arron e! re"# Tiernan $# %a&or o' a"timore (1#33) 2 Pet. 233.)- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court e.entually hel, that a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment by state (0hich inclu,es all county an, (unicipal) authorities ,oes in "act constitute a Fourteenth Amendment- *due process/ .iolation- thus i(posing co(pliance 0ith this protection upon the states as 0ell. (%app $# Ohio (1&51) 352 4.S 533 65 7.8,.2n, 10#19: a(er $# %cCo""an (1&2&) 333 4.S. 132- 132 651 7.8,.2n, 333- 330%3319: )eop"e $# racamonte (1&2$) 1$ Cal.3r, 3&3- 300.) +he Fourteenth Amendment pro.i,es that no *state/ shall ,epri.e its citi;ens o" *life, liberty, or property, without due process of la0./ 1
< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,
Also- the Fourth Amendment protects against trespassory searches only 0ith regar, to those ite(s (=persons, houses, papers, and effects=) that it enu(erates. (United States $# *ones (Jan. 23- 2012) $5$ 4.S. >>- >>>- "n. # 6132 S.Ct. &3$: 1#1 7.8,.2n, &119.) The E!c"usionar& Ru"e+ O$er$ie,: +he Fourth Amendment ser.es as the pri(ary basis "or the *Exclusionary Rule:/ e?clu,ing e.i,ence "ro( the courtroo( 0hich 0oul, be other0ise a,(issible- 0hen sei;e, by la0 en"orce(ent in .iolation o" its ter(s. (-ee(s $# United States (1&13) 232 4.S. 3#3 6$# 7.8,. 5$29.) History) *+he exclusionary rule 0as originally a,opte, in -ee(s $# United States (1&13) 232 4.S. 3#3 6$# 7.8,. 5$2- . . . 9- 0hich barre, e.i,ence obtaine, by "e,eral o""icers in .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment. +he Supre(e Court subse@uently hel, that the rule 0as not constitutionally i(pose, upon the states. (-o"' $# Co"orado (1&3&) 33# 4.S. 2$ 6&3 7.8,. 12#2- . . . 9: see reithaupt $# A.ram (1&$2) 3$2 4.S. 332- 333 61 7.8,.2n, 33#- 3$0- . . . 9.) 1t 0as not until 1&51- 0hen -o"' 0as o.errule,- that the e?clusionary rule 0as (a,e (an,atory in state prosecutions. (%app $# Ohio (1&51) 352 4.S. 533 65 7.8,.2n, 10#1- . . . 9: see Schmer.er $# Ca"i'ornia (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 2$2- 255 615 7.8,.2n, &0#&12- . . . 9.)/ ()eop"e $# racamonte (1&2$) 1$ Cal.3r, 3&3- 300- "n. 2.) The primary purpose o" the Exclusionary Rule *is to ,eter "uture unla0"ul police con,uct an, thereby e""ectuate the guarantee o" the Fourth Amendment against unreasonable searches an, sei;ures./ (United States $# Ca"andra (1&23) 313 4.S. 33# 63# 7.8,.2n, $519: I""inois $# /ru"" (1&#2) 3#0 4.S. 330 6&3 7.8,.2n, 3539: )eop"e $# Ro."es (2000) 23 Cal.3th 2#&- 2&&.) *A6+9he *prime purpose/ o" the 6e?clusionary9 rule- i" not the sole one- *is to ,eter "uture unla0"ul police con,uct./ 6Citations9 (Citations)/ (1talics a,,e,: )eop"e $# Sanders (2003) 31 Cal.3th 31#- 323.) 1t is also the purpose o" the Fourth Amendment to *sa"eguar, the pri.acy an, security o" in,i.i,uals against arbitrary in.asions by go.ern(ent o""icials./ (Camera $# %unicipa" Court (1&52) 3#2 4.S. $23- $2# 61# 7.8,.2n, &30- &3$9.) 4se o" the e?clusionary rule is a pre"erable sanction o.er outright ,is(issal o" a case (United States $# Struc(man (&th Cir. 2010) 511 B.3r, $50- $23%$2#: noting that ,is(issal un,er a court s *inherent super.isory po0ers/ (ight be appropriate i" necessary to (1) i(ple(ent a re(e,y "or the .iolation o" a recogni;e, statutory or constitutional right: (2) preser.e Cu,icial integrity by ensuring 2
that a con.iction rests on appropriate consi,erations .ali,ly be"ore a Cury: an, (3) ,eter "uture illegal con,uct- but e.en then- only a"ter the ,e"en,ant ,e(onstrates su""icient preCu,ice. ) *(+)he e?clusionary rule is not an in,i.i,ual right an, applies only 0here it Aresult6s9 in appreciable ,eterrence.D (Citation)/ (0errin1 $# United States (200&) 1$$ 4.S. 13$- 131 6122 7.8,.2n, 3&59) See Remedy for Violations: The *Exclusionary Rule-/ un,er * earches and eizures-/ belo0. The Rule of Reasonableness) An other0ise la0"ul sei;ure can .iolate the Fourth Amendment if
it is executed in an unreasonable manner. (United States v. Alverez-Tejeda (9th Cir. 2007) 3&1 B.3r, 1013- citing United States v. Jacobsen (1984) 466 U. . 109! 124 "80 #.$d.2d 8%&.)
Ehile a parolee is subCect to search or sei;ure 0ithout probable cause or e.en a reasonable suspicion- searching hi( (ay still be illegal i" ,one in an unreasonable (annersuch as by a strip search in a public place. ( ee )eop"e $# Smith (200&) 122 Cal.App.3th 13$3: checFing ,e"en,ant s crotch area "or ,rugs- 0hile shiel,e, "ro( the public- hel, not to be a strip search an, not unreasonable.) Pri!ate Persons and the Exclusionary Rule) 8.i,ence illegally obtaine, by pri.ate persons- acting in a pri.ate capacity- is not subCect to the 8?clusionary Rule. (See /rauss $# Superior Court (1&21) $ Cal.3r, 31#- 321: )eop"e $# North (1&#1) 2& Cal.3r, $0&- $13: *ones $# /mart Corp# (1&&#) 12 Cal.App.3th 32&- 332.) 8.en a peace o""icer- 0hen o""%,uty an, acting in a pri.ate capacity- (ay be "oun, to ha.e acte, as a pri.ate citi;en. (See )eop"e $# -achter (1&25) $# Cal.App.3r, &11- &20&22.) A ci.il rights action pursuant to 42 !S!C! 1"#3 0as hel, to be proper against non%la0 en"orce(ent e(ployees o" a pri.ate corporation that operate, a "e,eral prison un,er contract. ()o""ard $# GEO Group, Inc# (&th Cir. 2010) 502 B.3r, $#3.)
3
"imited #se of the Exclusionary Rule) +he 8?clusionary Rule is not inten,e, to pre.ent all police (iscon,uct or as a re(e,y "or all police errors. *The use of the exclusionary rule is an exceptional remedy typically reser!ed for !iolations of constitutional rights./ (United States $# Smith (&th Cir. 1&&&) 1&5 B.3r, 1033- 1030.) *+o trigger the e?clusionary rule- police con,uct (ust be su""iciently ,eliberate that e?clusion can (eaning"ully ,eter itan, su""iciently culpable that such ,eterrence is 0orth the price pai, by the Custice syste(./ (0errin1 $# United States (200&) $$$ 4.S. 13$- 133 6122 7.8,.2n, 3&59: see also )eop"e $# 2ea" (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th 1021- 1053%105$.) +he e?clusionary rule shoul, only be use, 0hen necessary to ,eter *,eliberate- recFless- or grossly negligent con,uct- or in so(e circu(stances- recurring or syste(atic negligence./ (0errin1 $# United States- supraat p. 133 6122 7.8,.2n, at p. $02.9 Gut- o""icers 0ho tooF 25H hours to obtain a search 0arrant "or a resi,ence 0hile the resi,ence 0as *,etaine,/ (i.e.- the occupant 0as Fept "ro( reentering)- "ailing to recogni;e that they 0ere re@uire, to act 0ith ,ue ,iligence an, to e?pe,ite the process- 0ere not e?cuse, by the rule o" 0errin1. +he resulting e.i,ence- there"ore- 0as subCect to e?clusion. (United States $# Cho (&th Cir. 2010) $&2 B.3r, &&$- 1003%1005.) See United States $# %on1hur (&th Cir. 200&) $25 B.3r, 100#0here a case in.ol.ing the illegal 0arrantless search o" a container 0as re(an,e, "or a ,eter(ination o" 0hether the e?clusionary rule re@uire, the suppression o" the gun "oun, in that container. 1llegally collecting bloo, sa(ples "ro( ,e"en,ant- (istaFenly belie.ing that he @uali"ie, un,er the ne0ly enacte, $%A and Forensic Identification $ata &ase and $ata &an' Act of 1""# ((!C! 2") et se*!)- e.en i" it 0as a Fourth Amendment .iolation to ,o so- ,i, not re@uire the suppression o" the results in that the (istaFe 0as not intentional- recFless- the results o" gross negligence- nor o" recurring or syste(atic negligence. ()eop"e $# Ro.inson (2010) 32 Cal.3th 1103- 1123%112&.) Searches con,ucte, in obCecti.ely reasonable reliance (i.e.- *goo, "aith/) on bin,ing appellate prece,ent in e""ect at the ti(e o" the search- ,espite a later ,ecision changing the rules- are not subCect 3
to the 8?clusionary Rule. +Da$is $# United States (June 15- 2011) >> 4.S. >> 6131 S.Ct. 231&- 2323%2323: 1#0 7.8,.2n, 2#$9.) Gut by the sa(e toFen- not all courts are in agree(ent that the e?clusionary rule is reser.e, e?clusi.ely "or constitutional .iolations. (See ,iscussion in United States $# 2om.era3 Camor"in1a (&th Cir. 2000) 205 B.3r, ##2- ##5%##2- an, in the ,issenting opinion- p. #&3.) A ci.il rights *action under (42 U.S.C.) section 1983
'encom(asses )iolations of federal statutor* la+ as +ell as constitutional la+., (Maine v. Thiboutot (1980) 448 U. . 1! 4! . . . 6% #.$d.2nd %%%.) -hus! section 1983 ma* be used to enforce ri.hts created b* both the United States Constitution and federal statutes. (Gonzaga University v. Doe (2002) %/6 U. . 27/! 279! . . . . 1%/ #.$d.2nd /09.) 0ut conduct b* an official that )iolates onl* state la+ +ill not su((ort a claim under section 1983. (Malek v. aun (10th Cir. 1994) 26 1./rd 101/! 10162 . . .)3 (!itschel v. "ity o# $ountain %alley (200%) 1/7 Cal.4((.4th 107! 116.)
Ehile a state (ay i(pose stricter stan,ar,s on la0 en"orce(ent in interpreting its o0n state constitution (i.e.- *independent state grounds/)- a prosecution in "e,eral court is gui,e, by the "e,eral interpretation o" the Fourth Amendment an, is not re@uire, to use the state s stricter stan,ar,s. (United States $# ro.st (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, &#2- &#&%&&1- &&2.) 8.i,ence obtaine, in .iolation o" so(eone else s (i.e.- so(eone other than the present ,e"en,ant s) Fourth Amendment (search an, sei;ure) rights may be used as part o" the probable cause in a search 0arrant a""i,a.itunless the ,e"en,ant can sho0 that he has *standing/ (i.e.- it 0as his reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy that 0as .iolate,) to challenge the use o" the e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# %adrid (1&&2) 2 Cal.App.3th 1###- 1#&5.) ee * earches and eizures-/ *Remedy for Violations: The AExclusionary Rule- / belo0. Rule of Exclusion) *8.i,ence 0hich is obtaine, as a ,irect result o" an illegal search an, sei;ure (ay not be use, to establish probable cause "or a subse@uent search./ (United States $# -an"ess (&th Cir. 1&#&) ##2 B.2n, 13$&- 135$: see * earches and eizures-/ *Remedies for Violations-/ belo0.)
$
1n the i((ortal 0or,s o" the Ionorable Justice $en%amin &ardozo) *The criminal is to go free because the constable has blundered./ ()eop"e $# De'ore (1&25) 232 J.K. 13- 21 61$0 J.8. $#$- $#29.) +his inclu,es *!erbal e!idence-/ (i.e.- a suspect s a,(issions or con"ession)- 0hen obtaine, as a ,irect pro,uct o" an illegal ,etention- arrest or search. (See United States $# Cre,s (&th Cir. 2002) $02 B.3r, 1130- 113$.) 'llegal Detention) As a *seizure/ o" one s person- the pro,ucts o" an illegal ,etention are subCect to being suppresse, un,er the e?clusionary rule. (See )eop"e $# /rohn (2002) 13& Cal.App.3th 12&3: ,etaining ,e"en,ant "or ,rinFing in public- 0hen he 0as not in a public place- is an illegal ,etention an, re@uires the suppression o" the controlle, substances "oun, on his person in a subse@uent consensual search.) De"en,ant s argu(ent that his consent to search 0as the pro,uct o" an illegal ,etention 0as reCecte,- although the Court note, that ha, he been illegally ,etaine,- the pro,ucts o" that ,etention (inclu,ing his consent to search) 0oul, ha.e been subCect to suppression. ()eop"e $# 4amudio (200#) 33 Cal.3th 322- 330%335.) (ruit of the Poisonous Tree) 1n ,eter(ining 0here the line is bet0een the ,irect pro,ucts o" an illegal search (0hich 0ill liFely be suppresse,) an, that 0hich is not the *fruit of the poisonous tree/ (0hich 0ill not be suppresse,)- the Court rule, that the "ollo0ing "actors are rele.ant) (1) +he te(poral pro?i(ity o" the Bourth A(en,(ent search an, sei;ure .iolation to the ulti(ate procure(ent o" the challenge, e.i,ence: (2) the presence o" inter.ening circu(stances: an, (3) the "lagrancy o" the o""icial (iscon,uct. ()eop"e $# Rodri1ue5 (2005) 133 Cal.App.3th 1132.) 4sing the abo.e "actors- the "act that the ,e"en,ant ha, an outstan,ing arrest 0arrant (ay- ,epen,ing upon the circu(stances- be su""icient o" an inter.ening circu(stance to allo0 "or the a,(issibility o" the e.i,ence sei;e, inci,ent to arrest ,espite the "act that the original ,etention 0as illegal. ()eop"e $# rend"in (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 252: an illegal tra""ic stop.) Gut- per the Jinth Circuit- e.en though the *"ruit o" the poisonous tree/ ,octrine ,oes not apply to the la0"ul search o" a resi,ence a"ter the house 0as *,etaine,/ "or an unreasonable ti(e 0hile a search 0arrant 0as obtaine,- the 5
resulting e.i,ence reco.ere, "ro( the resi,ence 0hen the ho(e 0as searche, 0ith the 0arrant 0ill be suppresse, any0ay in that the o""icers 0ere not acting reasonably in taFing 25H hours to get the 0arrant- an, so(e punish(ent (ust "ollo0 such an unreasonable ,elay. (United States $# Cha (&th Cir. 2010) $&2 B.3r, &&$- 1003%1003.) See *(ruit of The Poisonous Tree-/ un,er * earch and eizure-/ belo0. Federa" Ru"es o' E$idence, Ru"e 678) *All rele.ant e.i,ence is a,(issible- e?cept as other0ise pro.i,e, by) Exceptions) &alifornia)s Exclusionary Rule) Cal! Const!, Art I, 2#+d,- the *Truth in E!idence/ pro.isions o" (ro-osition # (passe, in June- 1&#2)- abrogate, Cali"ornia s *independent state grounds/ theory o" e?clusion- lea.ing the nited States Constitution an, its a(en,(ents as the sole basis "or i(posing an *Exclusionary Rule/ on the a,(issibility o" e.i,ence. (In re 2ance -# (1&#$) 32 Cal.3r, #23: )eop"e $# Gutierre5 (1&#3) 153 Cal.App.3r, 332- 333.) Defendant and His 'dentity) 1t is a rule o" la0 that neither a defendant)s body nor his or her identity is subCect to suppression- *e.en i" it is conce,e, that an unla0"ul arrestsearch- or interrogation occurre,./ (Immi1ration and Natura"i5ation Ser$ice $# 2ope53%endo5a (1&#3) 35# 4.S. 1032- 103&%1030 6#2 7.8,.2n, 22#9.) Bor purposes o" this rule- it (aFes no ,i""erence that the illegal arrestsearch or interrogation 0as *egregious/ in nature. (8.g.- the result o" *racial profiling./) (United States $# Gudino (&th Cir. 2003) 325 B.3r, &&2.) 2
+he Constitution o" the 4nite, States: Act o" Congress: +hese rules: or !ther rules prescribe, by the Supre(e Court pursuant to statutory authority./
1t is illegal to resist any arrest or ,etention by a peace o""icer- e.en i" it is ,eter(ine, to be an illegal arrest or ,etention. (E$ans $# Cit& o' a(ers'ie"d (1&&3) 22 Cal.App.3th 321.) +he person illegally arreste, or ,etaine, has a ci.il re(e,y against the o""en,ing o""icer(s). (See 42 !S!C! 1"#3) earches by (oreign Entities) +he Fourth Amendment.s e?clusionary rule ,oes not apply to "oreign searches an, sei;ures unless the con,uct o" the "oreign police shocFs the Cu,icial conscience or the A(erican la0 en"orce(ent o""icers participate, in the "oreign search or the "oreign o""icers acte, as agents "or the A(erican o""icers. (United States $# 9a"di$ia (1st Cir. 2012) 5#0 B.3r, 33- $1%$2.) 'mpeachment E!idence) *lso- e.i,ence illegally sei;e, (ay be intro,uce, "or the purpose of impeaching the ,e"en,ant s testi(ony gi.en in both ,irect e?a(ination (-a"der $# United States (1&$3) 332 4.S 52 6&# 7.8,. $039.) an, cross%e?a(ination- so long as the cross% e?a(ination @uestions are other0ise proper. (United States $# 0a$ens (1&#0) 335 4.S. 520 653 7.8,.2n, $$&9.) Cali"ornia authority prior to passage o" (ro-osition # (+he *Truth in E!idence 'nitiati!e/)- to the e""ect that e.i,ence suppresse, pursuant to a (otion brought un,er authority o" (!C! 1)3#!) is suppresse, "or all purposes (i.e.- )eop"e $# e""eci (1&2&) 23 Cal.3r, #2&- ##2%###.)- 0as abrogate, by (ro-osition #. Jo0- it is clear that suppresse, e.i,ence (ay be use, "or purposes o" i(peach(ent shoul, the ,e"en,ant testi"y an, lie. ()eop"e $# %oore (1&##) 201 Cal.App.3r, #22- ##3%##5.) Also- suppresse, e.i,ence pursuant to (!C! 1)3#!)+d, is a,(issible at the ,e"en,ant s probation re.ocation hearing unless the o""icer s actions 0ere egregious. *(+)he e?clusionary rule ,oes not apply in probation re.ocation hearings- unless the police con,uct at issue shocFs the conscience./ (Citations o(itte,: )eop"e $# 2a5"o (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 1053- 105#%1022.)
#
Io0e.er- inculpatory state(ents (a,e by the ,e"en,ant but suppresse, as a pro,uct o" the ,e"en,ant s illegal arrest may not be use, to i(peach other ,e"ense 0itnesses. (*ames $# I""inois (1&&0) 3&3 4.S. 302- 313%315 6102 7.8,.2n, 5259.) +ew &rimes &ommitted in Response to an 'llegal Detention or *rrest) Ehether or not a ,etention or an arrest is la0"ul- a suspect is not i((uni;e, "ro( prosecution "or any ne0 cri(es he (ight co((it against the o""icer in response. A ,e"en,ant s .iolent response to an unla0"ul ,etention- such as assaulting a police o""icer(ay still be the source o" cri(inal charges. A suspect has a ,uty to cooperate 0ith la0 en"orce(ent 0hether or not an atte(pt to ,etain or arrest hi( is later hel, to be in .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment. (In re Richard G# (200&) 123 Cal.App.3th 12$2- 1250%1253.) earches $ased #pon Existing Precedent) Searches con,ucte, in obCecti.ely reasonable reliance on bin,ing appellate prece,ent in e""ect at the ti(e o" the search,espite a later ,ecision changing the rules- are not subCect to the 8?clusionary Rule. +Da$is $# United States (June 152011) >> 4.S. >> 6131 S.Ct. 231&- 2323%2323: 1#0 7.8,.2n, 2#$9.) The *,inimal 'ntrusion Doctrine)/ Cali"ornia s Birst District Court o" Appeal (Di.. $) has "oun, this theory to be a 0hole separate e?ception to the search 0arrant re@uire(ent- calling it the *,inimal 'ntrusion Exception./ ()eop"e $# Ro.inson (2012) 20# Cal.App.3th 232- 235%2$$: the insertion an, turning o" a Fey in a ,oor locF: citing I""inois $# %cArthur (2001) $31 4.S. 325- 330 613# 7.8,.2n, #3#9.) *+he (ini(al intrusion e?ception to the 0arrant re@uire(ent rests on the conclusion that in a .ery narro0 class o" Asearches the pri.acy interests i(plicate, are Aso s(all that the o""icers ,o not nee, probable cause: "or the search to be reasonable./ ()eop"e $# Ro.inson- supra- at p. 232.) See *,inimal 'ntrusion Exception-/ belo0. &
Expectation of Pri!acy) Ehether a search or sei;ure is *unreasonable/ un,er the Fourth Amendment- an, there"ore re@uires the e?clusion o" e.i,ence obtaine, thereby- turns on *0hether a person has a constitutionally protecte, reasonable expectation of pri!acy- that is0hether he or she has (ani"este, a sub%ecti!e expectation of pri!acy in the obCect o" the challenge, search (or sei;ure) that society is 0illing to recogni;e as reasonable./ (Emphasis added: )eop"e $# Ro."es (2000) 23 Cal.3th 2#&- 2&3.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has hel,) *!ur Fourth Amendment analysis e(braces t0o @uestions. Birst- 0e asF 0hether the in,i.i,ual- by his con,uct- has e?hibite, an actual expectation of pri!acy: that is- 0hether he has sho0n that Ahe 6sought9 to preser.e 6so(ething9 as pri.ate. 6Citation.9 . . . Secon,- 0e in@uire 0hether the in,i.i,ual s e?pectation o" pri.acy is Aone that society is prepare, to recogni;e as reasonable. 6Citation- "n. o(itte,.9/ ( ond $# United States (2000) $2& 4.S. 333- 33# 6120 S. Ct. 1352- 135$- 135 7. 8,. 2, 35$- 3209: see also )eop"e $# %aur& (2003) 30 Cal.3th 332- 3#3.) Example) A hotline "or citi;ens to call in tips on cri(inal acti.itya,.ertise, as guaranteeing the caller s anony(ity- ,oes not create a constitutionally protecte, reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in either the caller s i,entity or the in"or(ation pro.i,e,. 1t 0as e?pecte, that the in"or(ation 0oul, be passe, onto la0 en"orce(ent. +he caller in this case beca(e the suspect in the allege, cri(es- thus negating any reasonable e?pectation to belie.e that the police 0oul, not ,eter(ine an, use his i,entity in the in.estigation. ()eop"e $# %aur&- supraat pp. 3#1%303.) A ,e"en,ant has the bur,en o" pro.ing that he ha, stan,ing to contest a 0arrantless search. 1n other 0or,s- he (ust "irst pro.e that he ha, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the areas searche,. A person seeFing to in.oFe the protection o" the Bourth A(en,(ent (ust ,e(onstrate both that he harbore, a subCecti.e (i.e.- in his o0n (in,) e?pectation o" pri.acy an, that the e?pectation 0as obCecti.ely reasonable. An obCecti.ely reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy is one that society is 0illing to recogni;e as reasonable. A(ong the "actors consi,ere, in (aFing this ,eter(ination are 0hether a ,e"en,ant has a possessory interest in the thing sei;e, or place searche,: 0hether he has the right to e?clu,e others "ro( that place: 0hether he has e?hibite, a subCecti.e e?pectation that it 0oul, re(ain "ree "ro( go.ern(ental in.asion: 0hether he tooF nor(al precautions to (aintain his pri.acy: an, 0hether he 0as legiti(ately on the pre(ises. ()eop"e $# Nishi (-./-0 -.1 &al2*pp23th 453, 45464789 defendant 10
held to not ha!e an expectation of pri!acy in his tent on public land without a permit, nor the area around his tent20 See * tanding-/ un,er * earches and eizures-/ belo0. :u!enile &ases) +his sa(e exclusionary rule applies to Cu.enile procee,ings that are "ile, pursuant to the /elfare and Institutions Code. (In re -i""iam G# (1&#$) 30 Cal.3r, $$0- $52- "n. 12: In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#- 2$%25.) ;n *ppeal) Denial o" a (otion to suppress e.i,ence is re.ie0e, by an appellate court *de no!o./ (United States $# autista (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $#3- $##%$#&.) Case Authorit&: The &ourts) ;rder of Priority) Be,eral an, Cali"ornia la0 is cite, in this outline. 1n re.ie0ing the cases liste,- it (ust be re(e(bere, that tactical ,ecisions an, actions o" state an, local la0 en"orce(ent o""icers- as 0ell as state an, local prosecutors- are boun,- an, (ust be gui,e,- in order of priority- by the ,ecisions o") +he #nited tates upreme &ourt +he &alifornia upreme &ourt +he .arious state District &ourts of *ppeal (Districts 1 through 5) +he .arious state *ppellate Departments of the uperior &ourt !pinions o" the &alifornia *ttorney <eneral +he +inth &ircuit &ourt of *ppeal All other (ederal &ircuit &ourts of *ppeal +he (ederal District &ourts Decisions "ro( other states.
Decisions from the #nited tates upreme &ourt) Cali"ornia s courtsinterpreting the !S! Constitution- "e,eral statutes- etc.- (ust abi,e by ,ecisions in prior cases 0hen base, upon si(ilar "acts as announce, by the 4.S. Supre(e Court. (Auto E:uit& Sa"es $# Superior Court (1&52) $2 Cal.2n, 3$0- 3$3- 3$5.) +he nited States Constitution is the * upreme "aw of the "andan, there"ore taFes prece,ence o.er any contrary rules "ro( the states. ( !S! Const! Art 0I, clause 2) *+his Constitution- an, the la0s o" the 4nite, States 0hich shall be (a,e in pursuance thereo": an, all treaties (a,e- or 0hich shall be (a,e- un,er the authority o" the 4nite, States- shall be the supre(e la0 o" the lan,: an, the 11
Ju,ges in e.ery State shall be boun, thereby- anything in the Constitution or la0s o" any State to the contrary not0ithstan,ing./) See also Cal! Const!, Art! III, 1) *+he State o" Cali"ornia is an inseparable part o" the 4nite, States o" A(erica- an, the 4nite, States Constitution is the supre(e la0 o" the lan,./ *1 "ully recogni;e that un,er the ,octrine o" stare ,ecisis- 1 (ust "ollo0 the rulings o" the Supre(e Court- an, i" that court 0ishes to Cu(p o"" a "igurati.e Pali- 1- le((ing%liFe- (ust leap right a"ter it. Io0e.er- 1 reser.e (y First Amendment right to FicF an, screa( on (y 0ay ,o0n to the rocFs belo0./ ()eop"e $# %usante (1&#0) 102 Cal.App.3, 1$5- 1$&: conc. opn. o" Lar,ner- P.J.) Decisions from lower (ederal &ourts) Decisions o" the (ederal District (i.e.- trial) &ourts- an, federal &ircuit &ourts of *ppeal (inclu,ing the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal)- 0hile entitle, to *great weight-/ are consi,ere, to be *persuasi!e/ onlyan, are not controlling in Cali"ornia state courts. (Ra$en $# Deu(me;ian (1&&0) $2 Cal.3r, 335- 3$2: )eop"e $# rad"e& (1&5&) 1 Cal.3r, #0- #5: In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#- 2&: C"ar( $# %urph& (&th Cir. 2003) 312 B.3r, 103#- 1033: Tully !2 =orld a!ings > "oan *ssn2 (1&&2) $5 Cal.App.3th 5$3- 553.) tate &ourt 'nterpretation ta?ing Precedence) Bor state an, local la0 en"orce(ent o""icers- a state court interpretation o" the .arious Fourth Amendment rules 0ill taFe prece,ence o.er (ederal District (i.e.- trial) an, &ircuit &ourt of *ppeal ,ecisions. (See )eop"e $# %idd"eton (200$) 131 Cal.App.3th 232- 23#- "n. 3.) Io0e.er- "e,eral ,ecisions cannot be ignore,. 8.en purely state cases (ay e.entually en, out in a "e,eral court- 0here "e,eral rules 0ill be applie,- through a =rit of Habeas &orpus or in a ci.il rights la0suit pursuant to 42 !S!C! 1"#3. *A "e,eral court (ay grant habeas relie" to a state prisoner i" a state court s a,Cu,ication o" his constitutional clai( 0as Acontrary to- or in.ol.e, an unreasonable application o"- clearly establishe, Be,eral la0- as ,eter(ine, by the Supre(e Court o" the 4nite, States. / (%idd"eton $# %cNei" (2003) $31 4.S. 333- 335 61$# 7.8,.2n, 2019: citing 2# !S!C! 22)4+d,+1,.) Title 42 nited States Code 1"#3: Pro.i,es "or federal ci!il liability "or *8.ery person 0ho- un,er color o" any 12
statute- or,inance- regulation- custo(- or usage- o" any State . . ./ subCects- or causes to be subCecte, any person 0ithin the 4nite, States to the ,epri.ation o" any rightspri.ileges- or i((unities secure, by the 4nite, States Constitution an, la0s. Decisions (rom ;ther tates) Cali"ornia courts are not boun, by case ,ecisions "ro( other states (*#C# )enne& Casua"t& Ins# Co# $# %#/# (1&&1) $2 Cal.3r, 100&- 1022.), although 0e (ay consi,er the( absent any ,irect Cali"ornia case la0 on the issue. ()eop"e $# 9a"encia (2011) 201 Cal.App.3th &22- &32.) Ehere *no Cali"ornia cases ha.e ,eci,e, the issue presente,- 0e (ay looF to other Curis,ictions "or gui,ance./ (Rappaport $# Ge"'and (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 12131222.) ;pinions of the &alifornia *ttorney <eneral) A publishe, opinion o" the Cali"ornia Attorney Leneral is apparently on about e@ual "ooting 0ith "e,eral appellate court ,ecisions- it ha.ing been hel, that these opinions are *entitled to great weight in the absence of controlling state statutes and court decisions/ to the contrary. ()h&"e $# Du''& (1&3#) 333 4.S. 331- 331 6&2 7.8,. 13&3- 1$009.) =rit of Habeas &orpus) Ehen a ,e"en,ant clai(s to be in actual or constructi.e custo,y in .iolation o" the nited States Constitution (e.g.- as the result o" a Fourth Amendment .iolation)- a =rit of Habeas &orpus "ile, in state ((!C! 1413 et se*!) or "e,eral (2# !S!C! 22)4) court (see -ri1ht $# -est (1&&2) $0$ 4.S. 222 6120 7.8,.2n, 22$9.) is the .ehicle by 0hich he or she (ay test the issue. Ehen a habeas corpus re(e,y is sought in "e,eral courtthe 4nite, States Supre(e Court has note, that) *(E)here the State has pro.i,e, an opportunity "or "ull an, "air litigation o" a Fourth Amendment clai(- a state prisoner may not be grante, "e,eral habeas corpus relie" on the groun, that e.i,ence obtaine, in an unconstitutional search or sei;ure 0as intro,uce, at his trial./ ("ns. o(itte,: Stone $# )o,e"" (1&25) 32# 4.S. 35$- 3&3 63& 7.8,.2n, 105210##9: see also A""en $# %cCurr& (1&#0) 33& 4.S. &0 655 7.8,.2n, 30#9.) Also- pursuant to 2# !S!C! 22)4+d,- a "e,eral court *(ay not grant habeas relie" "ro( a state court con.iction unless the state court procee,ings 0ere Acontrary to- or 13
in.ol.e, an unreasonable application o"- clearly establishe, Be,eral la0- as ,eter(ine, by the Supre(e Court o" the 4nite, States6-9 or i" the state court s conclusions 0ere Abase, on an unreasonable ,eter(ination o" the "acts in light o" the e.i,ence presente, in the State court procee,ings. / (*ac(son $# Giur.ino (&th Cir. 2003) 353 B.3r, 1002- @uoting /i""ian $# )oo"e (&th Cir. 2002) 2#2 B.3r, 1203- 1202.) The Out"ine: +he "ollo0ing- throughout this !utline- are the rules ,e.elope, by the courts "or the purpose o" protecting society s reasonable pri.acy e?pectations an, e""ectuating the purposes o" the Fourth Amendment. )o"ice3Citi5en Contacts) Contacts bet0een la0 en"orce(ent o""icers an, pri.ate in,i.i,uals can be broFen ,o0n into three ,istinct situations) (See F"orida $# Ro&er (1&#3) 350 4.S. 3&1 62$ 7.8,.2n, 22&9: In re *ames D# (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, &03- &11%&12: In re %anua" G# (1&&2) 15 Cal.3th #0$#21: )eop"e $# 0u1hes (2002) 22 Cal.3th 2#2- 322%32#.)) &onsensual Encounters2 Detentions2 *rrests2
Other Topics: +reate, separately are issues in.ol.ing) earches and eizures2 earches with a earch =arrant2 earches of Persons2 earches of Vehicles2 earches of Residences and ;ther $uildings2 +ew "aw Enforcement Technology2 ;pen (ields2 earches of &ontainers2 $order earches2 (ourth =ai!er earches2 &onsent earches2
13
Chapter 8
Consensua" Encounters) Genera" Ru"e) Contrary to a not unco((only hel, belie" that la0 en"orce(ent contacts 0ith pri.ate citi;ens re@uire so(e articulable reason to be la0"ul- it is a general rule that any peace o""icer (ay approach an, contact any person in publicor any0here else the o""icer has a legal right to bean, engage that person in con.ersation. (-i"son $# Superior Court (1&#3) 33 Cal.3r, 222.) Jo *probable cause/ or e.en a *reasonable suspicion/ is nee,e,. (See belo0) +he la0 ,oes not prohibit an o""icer "ro( approaching any person in a public place an, engaging that person in uncoerce, con.ersation. ()eop"e $# Di$ito (1&#3) 1$2 Cal.App.3r, 11- 13: F"orida $# Ro&er (1&#3) 350 4.S. 3&1 62$ 7.8,.2n, 22&9.) *(7)a0 en"orce(ent o""icers ,o not .iolate the Fourth Amendment by (erely approaching an in,i.i,ual on the street or in another public place- by asFing hi( i" he is 0illing to ans0er so(e @uestions- (or) by putting @uestions to hi( i" the person is 0illing to listen./ (F"orida $# Ro&er- supra- at p. 3&2 62$ 7.8,.2n, at p. 2359.) 1t ,oes not beco(e a ,etention (see belo0) (erely because an o""icer approaches an in,i.i,ual on the street an, asFs a "e0 @uestions. (In re %anua" G# (1&&2) 15 Cal.3th #0$- #21.) $ut) +he person contacte, is "ree to lea.e an, nee, not respon, to an o""icer s in@uiries. (See belo0) Test) Eoul, a reasonable person un,er the sa(e or si(ilar circu(stances "eel that he or she is "ree to lea.eM (-i"son $# Superior Court, supraat p. 2&0@uoting "ro( United States $# %endenha"" (1&#0) 335 4.S. $33- $$3 653 7.8,.2n, 3&2- $0&9: Des&""as $# ernstine (&th Cir. 2003) 3$1 B.3r, &33- &30: %artine53 %edina $# 0o"der (&th Cir 2010) 515 B.3r, 1011- 101$.) 1t is not 0hat the ,e"en,ant hi(sel" belie.es or shoul, belie.e. (In re %anua" G#, supraat p. #21.) 1" a reasonable person 0oul, not "eel liFe he has a choice un,er the circu(stances- then the person contacte, is being detained- an, absent su""icient legal cause to ,etain the person- it is an illegal ,etention. ()eop"e $# ai"e& (1&#$) 125 Cal.App.3r, 302.) 1$
*(+)he o""icer s unco((unicate, state o" (in, an, the in,i.i,ual citi;en s subCecti.e belie" are irrele.ant in assessing 0hether a sei;ure triggering Fourth Amendment scrutiny has occurre,. (In re Christopher # (1&&0) 21& Cal.App.3r, 3$$- 350.)/ (In re %anua" G#, supraat p. #21 see also -hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9.) *+he test is necessarily i(precise because it is ,esigne, to assess the coerci.e e""ect o" police con,uct- taFen as a 0hole- rather than "ocus on particular ,etails o" that con,uct in isolation./ ()eop"e $# 9erin (1&&0) 220 Cal.App.3r, $$1 $$5.) +he *reasonable person/ test presupposes an *innocent person./ (F"orida $# ostic( (1&&1) $01 4.S. 32&- 33# 611$ 7.8,.2n, 3#&- 3009: United States $# Dra&ton (2002) $35 4.S. 1&3- 202 61$3 7.8,.2n, 232- 2$29.) +ote) Courts ten, to ignore the inherent coerci.eness o" a police uni"or( an,Nor ba,ge- an, the "act that (ost people are reluctant to ignore a police o""icer s @uestions. 2imitations) !b.iously- there being no *probable cause/ or *reasonable suspicion/ to belie.e any cri(inal acti.ity is occurring ,uring a consensual encounter- no search- "risF- or in.oluntary ,etention is allo0e, absent a,,itional in"or(ation a(ounting to at least a *reasonable suspicion/ to belie.e that the person contacte, is in.ol.e, in cri(inal acti.ity. (See belo0) &onsensual Encounters) 8le.ating a *consensual encounter/ into a *detention/ 0ithout legal cause (ay result in one or (ore o" the "ollo0ing legal conse@uences) Suppression o" any resulting e.i,ence un,er the *Exclusionary Rule./ (See *The Exclusionary Rule-/ abo.e.) Cri(inal prosecution o" the o""en,ing la0 en"orce(ent o""icer(s) "or "alse i(prison(ent- pursuant to (enal Code 232 an, 231. Ci.il liability an,Nor cri(inal prosecution "or .iolation o" the subCect s ci.il rights. (8.g.: (!C! 422!2- C!C! )2!1- 42 !S!C! 1"#3- 1# !S!C! 241- 242.) See *Consensua" Encounters $s# Detentions-/ belo0. No Detention) Consensual encounters (ay in.ol.e in!estigati!e functions 0ithout necessarily con.erting the contact into a ,etention or arrest. Examples) ;btaining personal identification information "ro( a person an, running a warrant chec?- so long as nothing is ,one 0hich 0oul, ha.e cause, a 15
reasonable person to "eel that he 0as not "ree to lea.e- ,oes notby itsel"con.ert the contact into a ,etention. ()eop"e $# ouser (1&&3) 25 Cal.App.3th 12#0: )eop"e $# Gon5a"e5 (1&#$) 153 Cal.App.3r, 11&3- 11&5% 11&2: F"orida $# Rodri1ue5 (1&#3) 35& 4.S. 1- $%5 6#3 7.8,.2n, 15$- 120% 1219: United States $# %endenha"" (1&#0) 335 4.S. $33 653 7.8,.2n, 3&29.) Howe!er- a person 0ho has been *consensually encountered/ onlynee, not i,enti"y hi(sel"- nor e.en talF to a police o""icer i" he so chooses. (/o"ender $# 2a,son (1&#3) 351 4.S. 3$2 62$ 7.8,.2n, &039: ro,n $# Te!as (1&2&) 333 4.S. 32- $2 651 7.8,.2n, 3$29.) *s?ing for identification- by itsel"- is not a ,etention. ()eop"e $# Ross (1&&0) 212 Cal.App.3r, #2&: )eop"e $# 2ope5 (1&#&) 212 Cal.App.3r, 2#&.) $ut: retaining the i,enti"ication longer than necessary is a ,etention- an, illegal unless supporte, by a reasonable suspicion the ,etainee is engage, in cri(inal con,uct. (United States $# Chan3*imene5 (&th Cir. 1&&2) 12$ B.3r, 1323) +he consent to search obtaine, ,uring this illegal ,etention- there"ore- 0as also illegal.) Tip) AsF "or i,enti"ication- trans"er the necessary in"or(ation to a notebooF 0ithout lea.ing the person s i((e,iate presence- an, pro(ptly return the i,enti"ication to the person. *(,)ere police @uestioning ,oes not constitute a sei;ure./ (Des&""as $# ernstine (&th Cir. 2003) 3$1 B.3r, &33- &30: @uoting F"orida $# ostic( (1&&1) $01 4.S. 32&- 333 611$ 7.8,.2n, 3#&- 3&#: %artine53%edina $# 0o"der (&th Cir 2010) 515 B.3r, 1011- 101$.) Contacting an, @uestioning a person 0ithout acting "orce"ully or aggressi.ely 0ill- in the absence o" any other "actors 0hich 0oul, ha.e in,icate, to a reasonable person that he 0as not "ree to lea.ebe a consensual encounter only. (United States $# Summers (&th Cir. 2001) 25# B.3r, 5#3- 5#5.) Lenerally- a con.ersation that is nonaccusatory- routine- an, brie"0ill not be hel, to be anything other than a consensual encounter. ()eop"e $# 0u1hes (2002) 22 Cal.3th 2#2- 32#.) =al?ing along with ()eop"e $# Capps (1&#&) 21$ Cal.App.3r, 1112.)- or dri!ing next to (%ichi1an $# Chesternut (1&##) 3#5 4.S. $52 6100 7.8,.2n, $5$9.)- a subCect 0hile asFing @uestions- but 0ithout inter"ering 0ith the person s progress- is not a ,etention. 12
*s?ing a !ehicle passenger to step out of the !ehicle is not a ,etention. ()enns&"$ania $# %imms (1&22) 333 4.S. 105 6$3 7.8,.2n, 3319: )eop"e $# )adi""a (1&#2) 132 Cal.App.3r, $$$- $$2%$$#.) Gut see rend"in $# Ca"i'ornia (2002) $$1 4.S. 23& 615# 7.8,.2n, 1329- belo0. *s?ing a person to remo!e his hands from his poc?ets (,one "or o""icers sa"ety)- 0ithout e?hibiting a *sho0 o" authority such that (a person) reasonably (ight belie.e he ha, to co(ply-/ is not- necessarily- a ,etention. ()eop"e $# Fran("in (1&#2) 1&2 Cal.App.3r, &3$- &31: In re Fran( 9# (1&&1) 233 Cal.App.3r, 1232.) During a la0"ul search- although co((an,ing a person to sho0 his han,s is a *meaningful interference/ 0ith a person s "ree,o(an, thus technically a *seizure/ "or purposes o" the Fourth Amendment- it is such a *de minimus/ sei;ure that- 0hen balance, 0ith the nee, "or a police o""icer to protect hi(sel"- it is allo0e, un,er the Constitution. (United States $# Ens"in (&th Cir. 2003) 31$ B.3r, 120$- 121&%1222.) *(lashlighting/ or *spotlighting/ a person- by itsel"- is not a ,etention. ()eop"e $# Fran("in (1&#2) 1&2 Cal.App.3r, &3$: )eop"e $# Rico (1&2&) &2 Cal.App.3r, 123- 130.) Io0e.er- see )eop"e $# Garr& (2002) 1$5 Cal.App.3th 1100- 0here it 0as hel, to be a ,etention 0hen the o""icer spotlighte, the ,e"en,ant an, then 0alFe, *brisFly/ to0ar,s hi(- asFing hi( @uestions as he ,i, so. (See also *Detentions-/ belo0.) 'n@uiring into the contents of a sub%ect)s poc?ets ()eop"e $# Epperson (1&#5) 1#2 Cal.App.3r, 11#- 120.)- or as?ing if the person would submit to a search ()eop"e $# )ro'it (1&#5) 1#3 Cal.App.3r, #3&- #$2- #2&%##0: F"orida $# ostic( (1&&1) $01 4.S. 32& 611$ 7.8,.2n, 3#&9.)- ,oes not necessarily constitute a ,etention- so long as ,one in a (anner that a reasonable person 0oul, ha.e un,erstoo, that he is un,er no obligation to co(ply. * consensual transportation to the police station is not necessarily a ,etention. (In re Gi".ert R# (1&&3) 2$ Cal.App.3th 1121.) 'n@uiring into possible illegal acti!ity) A consensual encounter ,oes not beco(e a ,etention Cust because a police o""icer in@uires into possible illegal acti.ity ,uring an other0ise uninti(i,ating con.ersation. (United States $# A&on3%e5a (&th Cir. 1&&&) 122 B.3r, 1130.) 1#
Displaying a badge- or e.en being armed- absent acti.e bran,ishing o" the 0eapon- 0ill notby itsel"- con.ert a consensual encounter into a ,etention. (United States $# Dra&ton (2002) $35 4.S. 1&3 61$3 7.8,.2n, 2329.) &ontacts on buses- as long as con,ucte, in a non%coerci.e (anner- ,o not auto(atically beco(e a ,etention ,espite the relati.e con"ine(ent o" the bus. (United States $# Dra&ton- supra: F"orida $# ostic(- supra.: see belo0.) During a *?noc? and tal?)/ Contacting a person at the "ront ,oor o" their resi,ence- ,one in a non%coerci.e (anner- is not a ,etention. (United States $# Crapser (&th Cir. 2002) 322 B.3r, 1131- 113$%1132.) Drawing a person out of his residence by si(ply FnocFing at the ,oor an, then stepping to the si,e "or purposes o" insuring the o""icer s sa"ety) Jo ,etention 0hen the o""icers then contacte, hi( outsi,e. ()eop"e $# Co"t (2003) 11#- Cal.App.3th 1303- 1311: *+he o""icers ,i, not ,ra0 their 0eapons. (De"en,ant) 0as not surroun,e,. Jo one stoo, bet0een (,e"en,ant) an, the roo( ,oor. Jo one sai, that (,e"en,ant) 0as not "ree to lea.e./) Consensua" Encounters $s# Detentions) A consensual encounter may be ina,.ertently con.erte, into a ,etention by *any (or a co(bination o") the "ollo0ing) . . . . . . the presence o" se.eral o""icers. . . an o""icer s ,isplay o" a 0eapon. . . so(e physical touching o" the person- or . . . the use o" language or o" a tone o" .oice in,icating that co(pliance 0ith the o""icer s re@uest (ight be co(pelle,. 6Citations9/ (In re %anua" G# (1&&2) 15 Cal.3th #0$- #21.) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeals has a,,e, se.eral other "actors to consi,er (United States $# -ashin1ton (&th Cir. 2002) 3&0 B.3r, 25$- 221% 222- citing Orhorha1he $# INS (&th Cir. 1&&3) 3# B.3r, 3##- 3&3%3&5.)) Ehether the encounter occurre, in a public or nonpublic setting. Ehether the o""icers in"or(e, the person o" his right to ter(inate the encounter. 1&
A consensual encounter (ight also beco(e an unla0"ul arrest- i" ,one 0ithout probable cause. (See United States $# Red"i1htnin1 (&th Cir. 2010) 523 B.3r, 10&0- 1103%1105- a,,ing a consi,eration o" the act o" con"ronting the ,e"en,ant 0ith e.i,ence o" his guilt.) 1n United States $# -ashin1ton (&th Cir. 2002) 3&0 B.3r, 25$- the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal "oun, a ,etention 0hen t0o 0hite police o""icers ha, contact 0ith the GlacF ,e"en,ant late at night- an, then asFe, hi( "or consent to search. +he consensual encounter- ho0e.erre.erte, to an illegal ,etention ,ue to the *authoritati.e/ (anner o" con,ucting the search- by 0alFing ,e"en,ant bacF to the patrol car- ha.ing hi( put his han,s on the patrol .ehicle 0hile "acing a0ay "ro( the o""icer- ,uring a pat,o0n- 0ith the secon, o""icer stan,ing bet0een hi( an, his car. 1t 0as also note, that the local *Police Gureau/ (in Portlan,- !regon) ha, publishe, a pa(phlet telling A"rican%A(ericans to sub(it to a search 0hen *or,ere,/ to ,o so by the police "ollo0ing se.eral instances o" 0hite police o""icers shooting GlacF citi;ens ,uring tra""ic stops. Speci'ic Issues) &ontacts on $uses) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has repeate,ly rule, that la0 en"orce(ent o""icers checFing buses "or i((igration or ,rug inter,iction purposes are not ,etaining the passengers 0hen the o""icers ,o no (ore than *asF @uestions o" an in,i.i,ual- asF to e?a(ine the in,i.i,ual s i,enti"ication- an, re@uest consent to search his or her luggage so long as the o""icers ,o not con.ey a (essage that co(pliance 0ith their re@uests is re@uire,./ +he "act that the contact tooF place in the cra(pe, con"ines o" a bus is but one "actor to consi,er in ,eter(ining 0hether the encounter 0as in "act a ,etention. (F"orida $# ostic( (1&&1) $01 4.S. 32& 611$ 7.8,.2n, 3#&9: United States $# Dra&ton (2002) $35 4.S. 1&3 61$3 7.8,.2n, 2329.) Io0e.er- the +inth &ircuit &ourt of *ppeal hel, to the contrary in a si(ilar circu(stance- 0ithout atte(pting to ,i""erentiate the "acts "ro( ostic( (the case being ,eci,e, be"ore Dra&ton)- "in,ing that the o""icers shoul, ha.e in"or(e, passengers that they 0ere not obligate, to speaF 0ith the o""icers. (United States $# Stephens (&th Cir. 2000) 205 B.3r, &13.) +he Supre(e Court in Dra&ton- supra- ho0e.er- has speci"ically hel, that it is not re@uire, that o""icers in"or( citi;ens o" their right to re"use 0hen the o""icer is seeFing per(ission to con,uct a 0arrantless consent search. (United States $# Dra&ton- supra.) 20
+ote) 1t is @uestionable 0hether Stephens is goo, la0 in light o" ostic an, Dra&ton. (light) Rule) +he long%stan,ing rule has al0ays been that *flight alone-/ 0ithout other suspicions circu(stances- is not su""icient to Custi"y a ,etention. ()eop"e $# Sou5a (1&&3) & Cal.3th 223.) A .ehicle ,ri.er s apparent atte(pt to elu,e a police o""icer 0hen there is no legal Custi"ication "or (aFing a tra""ic stop- is not illegal in itsel" in that the ,ri.er is un,er no ,uty to stop. (2i.era" $# Estrada (&th Cir. 2011) 532 B.3r, 1053102#.) +ote) 1" a person (ay 0alF a0ay "ro( a consensual encounter- he or she (ay also lea.e at a "ull run. +he courts- state an, "e,eral- ha.e consistently hel, that this actby itsel"- is not suspicious enough to 0arrant a ,etention. Exceptions) Io0e.er- the 4.S. Supre(e Court has lo0ere, the bar a little by hol,ing that "light "ro( a *high narcotics area/ is su""icient in itsel" to Custi"y a te(porary ,etention (an, pat,o0n "or 0eapons). (I""inois $# -ard"o, (2000) $2# 4.S. 11& 613$ 7.8,.2n, $209.) Blight o" t0o people is (ore suspicious than one. A,,e, to this the "act that there appeare, to be ,rug paraphernalia on a table 0here the t0o persons ha, been sitting an, that ,e"en,ant 0as carrying so(ething in his han, as he "le,the o""icer ha, su""icient reasonable suspicion to ,etain hi(. ()eop"e $# ritton (2001) &1 Cal.App.3th 1112- 111#% 111&.) Stopping- ,etaining- an, patting ,o0n a Fno0n gang (e(ber- obser.e, running through tra""ic in a gang area0hile looFing bacF ner.ously as i" "leeing "ro( a cri(e (as either a .icti( or a perpetrator)- 0as hel, to be la0"ul. (In re 0#%# (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th 135.) !bser.ing ,e"en,ant an three others running ,o0n the street- carrying ru,i(entary 0eapons (i.e.- a bricF- rocF an, part o" a la(p)- in a gang area 0ith ,e"en,ant being 21
recogni;e, as a (e(ber o" that gang- 0ith one o" the subCects yelling *He)s o!er there-/ an, another pointing up the street- 0as su""icient probable cause to arrest the subCects "or possession o" a ,ea,ly 0eapons "or the purpose o" co((itting an assault- per (!C! 12324 (no0 (!C! 11)33). (In re *#G# (2010) 1## Cal.App.3th 1$01.) +ossing an unFno0n obCect o.er a "ence ,uring a "oot pursuit- particularly 0hen this occurs i((e,iately a"ter ,e"en,ant ha, been seen in a .ehicle that ha, re"use, to stop- an, 0hich ,e"en,ant aban,one, ,uring a high spee, pursuit- is su""icient to Custi"y a ,etention. ()eop"e $# Rodri1ue5 (2012) 202 Cal.App.3th 1$30- 1$33.) +rying to catch a person 0ho runs "ro( a consensual encounter is not a constitutional issue until he is caught. A person is not actually ,etaine, (thus no Fourth Amendment .iolation) until he is either physically restraine, or sub(its to an o""icer s authority to ,etain hi(. (Ca"i'ornia $# 0odari D# (1&&1) 3&& 4.S. 521 6113 7.8,.2n, 5&09: *threatening an unlawful detention-/ by chasing a person 0ith 0ho( a consensual encounter ha, been atte(pte,- is not a constitutional .iolation in itsel". See also United States $# Smith (&th Cir. 2011) 533 B.3r, ##&.) Actions taFen by the subCect being chase,- such as ,ropping contraban, prior to being caught- 0ill- i" obser.e, by the pursuing o""icer- Custi"y the ,etention once the subCect is in "act caught. ()eop"e $# Rodri1ue5 (2012) 202 Cal.App.3th 1$30- 1$33%1$33.) De"en,ant 0ho re"use, to sub(it to an illegalsuspicionless ,etention- physically threatening the o""icer be"ore "leeing- coul, la0"ully be arreste, upon the (aFing o" the threat. +here"ore- arresting hi( a"ter a "oot pursuit 0as la0"ul. (United States $# Caseres (&th Cir. 200#) $33 B.3r, 1053- 105&.) Photographing ub%ects) A person 0ho e?poses his "acial "eatures- an,Nor bo,y in generalto the public- in a public place- has no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in his appearance. ()eop"e $# enedict (1&5&) 2 Cal.App.3r, 300.) 1t is notthere"ore- a constitutional .iolation to photograph hi(- so long as he is not ,etaine, "or that purpose.
22
See also )eop"e $# %aur& (2003) 30 Cal.3th 332- 3#3%3#$) *(+)he police sur.eillance an, photographing o" ,e"en,ant entering an, e?iting the ,rop%o"" point is not a subCect o" Fourth Amendment protection since ,e"en,ant Fno0ingly e?pose, his 0hereabouts in public./ $ut- see )eop"e $# Rodri1ue5 (1&&3) 21 Cal.App.3th 232- 23&: stopping and detaining gang (e(bers for the purpose of photographing the( is illegal 0ithout reasonable suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity. Oerely being a (e(ber o" a gang- by itsel"- is not cause to ,etain. A pri.ate citi;en has a First Amendment right to .i,eotape public o""icials (i.e.- police o""icers) in a public place- an, the arrest o" the citi;en "or a Oassachusetts state 0iretapping .iolation .iolate, the citi;en s First an, Fourth Amendment rights. (G"i( $# Cunni''e (1st Cir. 2011) 5$$ B.3r, 2#- #2%#3.) See *Detentions-/ belo0. See also *Videotaping or Photographing-/ un,er *"aw Enforcement Technology-/ belo0. Anoc? and Tal?s) Ehere the o""icer does not ha.e probable cause prior to the contact (thus- he is not able to obtain a search 0arrant)- there is no constitutional i(pe,i(ent to con,ucting 0hat is Fno0n as a *?noc? and tal?:/ i.e.- (aFing contact 0ith the occupants o" a resi,ence "or the purpose o" asFing "or a consent to enter an,Nor to @uestion the occupants. (United States $# Cormier (&th Cir. 2000) 220 B.3r, 1103.) State authority si(ilarly uphol,s the practice. ()eop"e $# Co"t (2003) 11#- Cal.App.3th 1303- 1310%1311.) Contacting a person at the "ront ,oor o" their resi,ence- ,one in a non%coerci.e (anner- is not a ,etention. (United States $# Crapser (&th Cir. 2002) 322 B.3r, 1131- 113$%1132.) See also )eop"e $# %ichae" (1&$$) 3$ Cal.2n, 2$1- at page 2$30here the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court note, that) *1t is not unreasonable "or o""icers to seeF inter.ie0s 0ith suspects or 0itnesses or to call upon the( at their ho(es "or such purposes. Such in@uiries- although courteously (a,e an, not acco(panie, 0ith any assertion o" a right to enter or search or secure ans0ers0oul, per(it the cri(inal to ,e"eat his prosecution by .oluntarily re.ealing all o" the e.i,ence against hi( an, then conten,ing that 23
he acte, only in response to an i(plie, assertion o" unla0"ul authority./ +he Fey to con,ucting a la0"ul *?noc? and tal?-/ 0hen there is no articulable suspicion that can be use, to Custi"y an *in!estigati!e detention-/ is 0hether *a reasonable person 0oul, "eel "ree Ato ,isregar, the police an, go about his business. / 6Citation9 1" sono articulable suspicion is re@uire, to (erely FnocF on the ,e"en,ant s ,oor an, in@uire o" hi( 0ho he is an,Nor to asF "or consent to search. ()eop"e $# *en(ins (2003) 11& Cal.App.3th 35#.) Gut see United States $# *ere5 (2th Cir. 1&&2) 10# B.3r, 5#3- 0here a si(ilar situation 0as hel, to constitute an *in!estigati!e detention-/ thus re@uiring an *articulable reasonable suspicion/ to be la0"ul- because the o""icers FnocFe, on the (otel roo( ,oor in the (i,,le o" the night continually "or a "ull three (inutes- 0hile co((an,ing the occupants to open the ,oor. An other0ise la0"ul *?noc? and tal?-/ 0here o""icers continue, to press the ,e"en,ant "or per(ission to enter his apart(ent a"ter his ,enial o" any illegal acti.ity- con.erte, the contact into an unla0"ully *e?ten,e,/ ,etentioncausing the Court to conclu,e that a later consent%to%search 0as the pro,uct o" the illegal ,etention- an, thus in.ali,. (United States $# -ashin1ton (&th Cir. 2003) 3#2 B.3r, 1050.) +he in"or(ation (oti.ating an o""icer to con,uct a FnocF an, talF (ay be "ro( an anony(ous tipster. +here is no re@uire(ent that o""icers corroborate anony(ous in"or(ation be"ore con,ucting a FnocF an, talF. ()eop"e $# Ri$era (2002) 31 Cal.3th 303.) See *Anoc? and Tal?-/ belo0- un,er * earches of Residences and ;ther $uildings-/ belo0.
23
Chapter <
Detentions) Genera" Ru"e) A police o""icer has the right to stop an, te(porarily ,etain so(eone "or in.estigation 0hene.er the o""icer has a *reasonable suspicion/ so(e cri(inal acti.ity is a"oot an, that the person was- . . . is- . . . or is about to be in.ol.e, in that cri(inal acti.ity. (Terr& $# Ohio (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1- 22 620 7.8,.2n, ##&- &0&9.) *6A9n in.estigati.e stop or ,etention pre,icate, on (ere curiosity- ru(oror hunch is unla0"ul- e.en though the o""icer (ay be acting in co(plete goo, "aith./ (In re Ton& C# (1&2#) 21 Cal.3r, ###- #&3.) A *stop and fris?/ is constitutionally per(issible i" t0o con,itions are (et) +he in.estigatory stop (ust be la0"ul: i.e.- 0hen a police o""icer reasonably suspects that the person apprehen,e, is co((itting or has co((itte, a cri(inal o""ense. +he police o""icer (ust reasonably suspect that the person stoppe, is ar(e, an, ,angerous. (Ari5ona $# *ohnson (200&) $$$ 4.S. 323 6122 7.8,.2n, 5&39.) Detentions are so(eti(es re"erre, to in the case la0 as si(ply an *in!estigati!e stop-/ particularly by the "e,eral courts. (See United States $# /im (&th Cir. 1&&3) 2$ B.3r, 1325: United States $# Summers (&th Cir. 2001) 25# B.3r, 5#3.) Purpose) A ,etention is allo0e, so a peace o""icer (ay ha.e a reasonable a(ount o" ti(e to in.estigate a person s possible in.ol.e(ent in an actual or percei.e, cri(inal act- allo0ing the o""icer to (aFe an in"or(e, ,ecision 0hether to arrest- or to release- the subCect. *An in.estigati.e ,etention (ust be te(porary an, last no longer than is necessary to e""ectuate the purpose o" the stop. Si(ilarly- the in.estigati.e (etho,s e(ploye, shoul, be the least intrusi.e (eans reasonably a.ailable to .eri"y or ,ispel the o""icer s suspicion in a short perio, o" ti(e./ (In re Antonio # (200#) 155 Cal.App.3th 33$- 330.) The plight and dangers o" a police o""icer on the street are not lost on the courts) 2$
*(8).en 0hen a police o""icer is care"ul- he is still subCect to attacF. +he Cu,iciary shoul, not Alightly secon, guess an o""icer s ,ecision to con,uct a Astop an, "risF . . . . (P)olice o""icers (are) entitle, to protect the(sel.es ,uring a ,etention) A+his is a rule o" necessity to 0hich a right e.en as basic as that o" pri.acy (ust bo0. +o rule other0ise 0oul, be inhu(anely to a,, another ha;ar, to an alrea,y .ery ,angerous occupation. !ur ;eal to "en, o"" encroach(ents upon the right o" pri.acy (ust be te(pere, by re(e(brance that ours is a go.ern(ent o" la0s- to preser.e 0hich 0e re@uire la0 en"orce(entPli.e ones. Eithout beco(ing a police state- 0e (ay still protect the police(an s status. 6Citation o(itte,9/ (In re Richard G# (200&) 123 Cal.App.3th 12$2- 12$$.) Test) Lenerally- a person is ,etaine, i" a reasonable person- un,er the circu(stances- 0oul, ha.e Fno0n that he or she is not "ree to lea.e. ()eop"e $# Rios (2011) 1&3 Cal.App.3th $#3- $&2.) Howe!er- courts also consi,er the reasonableness o" the o""icer s actionsun,er the circu(stances- an, (ay "in, a ,etention only ,espite the suspect s reasonable belie" that he is un,er arrest. (See )eop"e $# )i"ster (2005) 13# Cal.App.3th 13&$- 1305- belo0.) +he "act that *an encounter is not a sei;ure 0hen a reasonable person 0oul, "eel "ree to lea.e ,o(es) not (ean that an encounter is a sei;ure Cust because a reasonable person 0oul, not "eel "ree to lea.e./ +here (ust be *an intentional ac@uisition o" physical control./ A ,etention occurs *only 0hen there is a go.ern(ental ter(ination o" "ree,o( o" (o.e(ent through means intentionally applied./ (United States $# Nasser (&th Cir. 200&) $$$ B.3r, 222: ,e"en,ant stoppe, his .ehicle on his o0n e.ent though Gor,er Patrol agents ha, not inten,e, to stop hi(. Resulting obser.ations- (a,e be"ore ,e"en,ant 0as ,etaine,- 0ere la0"ul.) A ,etention is a *seizure/ "or purposes o" the Fourth Amendment- an, occurs 0hene.er a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- by (eans o" physical "orce or sho0 o" authority- in so(e 0ay restrains the liberty o" a citi;en. (F"orida $# ostic( (1&&1) $01 4.S. 32&- 333 611$ 7.8,.2n, 3#&- 3&#9: )eop"e $# Rios- supra.) *+he Fourth Amendment prohibits Aunreasonable searches an, sei;ures by the Lo.ern(ent- an, its protections e?ten, to brie" in.estigatory stops o" persons or .ehicles that "all short o" tra,itional arrest./ (United States $# Ar$i5u (2002) $33 4.S. 255223 61$1 7.8,.2n, 230- 23&9.) *A sei;ure o" the person 0ithin the (eaning o" the Fourth an, Fourteenth Amendments occurs 0hen AtaFing into account all the 25
circu(stances surroun,ing the encounter- the police con,uct 0oul, *ha.e co((unicate, to a reasonable person that he 0as not at liberty to ignore the police presence an, go about his business./ 6Citations9/ (/aupp $# Te!as (2003) $3# 4.S. 525- 52& 61$$ 7.8,.2n, #13- #1&%#209.) A person is not actually ,etaine, (thus no Fourth Amendment issue) until he is either physically restraine, or sub(its to an o""icer s authority to ,etain hi(. (Ca"i'ornia $# 0odari D# (1&&1) 3&& 4.S. 521 6113 7.8,.2n, 5&09: *threatening an unlawful detention-/ by chasing a person upon 0ho( a consensual encounter is atte(pte,- is not a constitutional .iolation in itsel".) *A person is sei;e, by the police an, thus entitle, to challenge the go.ern(ent s action un,er the Fourth Amendment 0hen the o""icer Aby (eans o" physical "orce or sho0 o" authority Ater(inates or restrains his "ree,o( o" (o.e(ent. (Citations)/ ( rend"in $# Ca"i'ornia (2002) $$1 4.S. 23& 615# 7.8,.2n, 1329: )eop"e $# 4amudio (200#) 33 Cal.3th 322331%332.) Bactors to consi,er 0hen ,eter(ining 0hether a person has been ,etaine, inclu,e) +he nu(ber o" o""icers in.ol.e,. Ehether 0eapons 0ere ,isplaye,. Ehether the encounter occurre, in a public or nonpublic setting. Ehether the o""icers o""icious or authoritati.e (anner 0oul, i(ply that co(pliance 0oul, be co(pelle,. Ehether the o""ices a,.ise, the ,etainee o" his right to ter(inate the encounter. (Orhorha1he $# INS (&th Cir. 1&&3) 3# B.3r, 3##- 3&3%3&5: United States $# -ashin1ton (&th Cir. 2003) 3#2 B.3r, 1050- 105#: (United States $# ro,n (&th Cir. 200&) $53 B.3r, 310- 31$.) +ote ) ro,n is also instructi.e in ho0 re(o.ing so(e o" the abo.e liste, "actors can con.ert 0hat appeare, to be an arrest bacF into (erely a ,etention or e.en a consensual encounter: e.g.- putting the "irear(s a0ay- re(o.ing the han,cu""s- telling the subCect that she 0as not un,er arrestan, then letting her return to her apart(ent unacco(panie,. Detentions $s# Arrests: 1" not han,le, properly- a *detention/ coul, beco(e an *arrest/ 0hich- i" not supporte, by *probable cause/ to arrest- 0oul, be illegal. (Oro5co $# Te!as (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 323 622 7.8,.2n, 3119: In re Antonio # (200#) 22
155 Cal.App.3th 33$: United States $# Red"i1htnin1 (&th Cir. 2010) 523 B.3r, 10&01103%1105.) <eneral Rule) +he use o" firearms- handcuffs- putting a person into a loc?ed patrol car- transporting him without his consent- or si(ply a *show of force-/ (ay- un,er the circu(stances- cause the court to later "in, that an atte(pte, ,etention 0as in "act an arrestan,- i" (a,e 0ithout *probable cause-/ illegal. (United States $# Ramos34ara1osa (&th Cir. 1&2$) $15 B.2n, 131- 133: Ne, Yor( $# =uar"es (1&#3) 352 4.S. 53& 6#1 7.8,.2n, $$09- han,cu""s: Oro5co $# Te!assupra- "orce.) 'ndicators of an *rrest) !ther courts ha.e illustrate, the rele.ant "actors to an arrest) The #se of (irearms. ()eop"e $# Ta&"or (1&#5) 12# Cal.App.3r, 212- 22&: United States $# Ramos34ara1osa- supra.) The #se of Handcuffs. (Ne, Yor( $# =uar"essupra: United States $# )urr& (D.C. Cir. 1&25) $3$ B.2n, 212- 220.) Ehile putting a Cu.enile in a security o""ice at the bor,eran, "risFing her- 0ere not enough to constitute an arresthan,cu""ing her shortly therea"ter 0hen contraban, 0as "oun, in her car was an arrest. (United States $# *u$eni"e +RRA3A, (&th Cir. 2000) 22& B.3r, 232- 233.) Ehether or not a ,etention beco(es an arrest ,epen,s upon *0hether the use o" han,cu""s ,uring a ,etention 0as reasonably necessary un,er all o" the circu(stances o" the ,etention./ (In re Antonio # (200#) 155 Cal.App.3th 33$331: ,e"en,ant "oun, to ha.e been arreste,- ,ue to his han,cu""ing- 0ithout probable cause.) Ian,cu""ing a person suspecte, o" possible in.ol.e(ent in a narcotics transaction- but 0here the o""icer testi"ie, only that he 0as *unco("ortable/ 0ith the "act that ,e"en,ant 0as tall (5 %5/) an, that narcotics suspects so(eti(es carry 0eapons (although the o""icer ,i, not con,uct a pat,o0n "or 0eapons)- con.erte, a ,etention into a *,e "acto/ arrest(aFing the subse@uent consent to search in.oluntary. ()eop"e $# Stier (200#) 15# Cal.App.3th 21.) * "oc?ed Patrol &ar. ()eop"e $# Nata"e (1&2#) 22 Cal.App.3r, $5#- $22: United States $# )arr (&th Cir. 1&##) #33 B.2n, 122#: United States $# Ricardo D# (&th Cir. 1&&0) &12 B.2n, 332- 330: *Detention in a patrol car e?cee,s per(issible Terr& +$# Ohio 2#
(1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1 620 7.8,.2n, ##&9.) li(its absent so(e reasonable Custi"ication./ During an ;!erwhelming how of (orce2 (Oro5co $# Te!assupra: United States $# A"i (2n, Cir. 1&&5) #5 B.3r, 22$- ,e"en,ant 0as asFe, to step a0ay "ro( the boar,ing area at an airport- his tra.el ,ocu(ents 0ere taFen- an, he 0as surroun,e, by se.en o""icers 0ith .isible han,guns: an, /aupp $# Te!as (2003) $3# 4.S. 525- 52#%530 61$$ 7.8,.2n, #13- #1&%#209- three o""icers- 0ith three (ore in the ne?t roo(- co((an,e, the 12%year%ol, ,e"en,ant to get out o" be, at 3)00 a.(.- an, tooF hi( to the police station "or @uestioning.) +he Physical Touching o" the person o" the suspect. (/aupp $# Te!assupra- at p. 530 61$$ 7.8,.2n, at p. #209.) Transporting a Detainee. (Duna,a& $# Ne, Yor( (1&2&) 332 4.S. 200- 205%215 650 7.8,.2n, #23- #32%#3#9: Ta&"or $# A"a.ama (1&#2) 3$2 4.S. 5#2 623 7.8,.2n, 3139.) As a general rule) Detention Q nonconsensual transportation R arrest.
See also )eop"e $# 0arris (1&2$) 1$ Cal.3r, 3#3- 3&0%3&2: transporting a subCect "ro( the site o" a tra""ic stop bacF to the scene o" the cri(e "or a .icti( i,enti"ication- absent one o" the recogni;e, e?ceptions- 0as an arrest. *(E)e ha.e ne.er Asustaine, against Fourth Amendment challenge the in.oluntary re(o.al o" a suspect "ro( his ho(e to a police station an, his ,etention there "or in.estigati.e purposes . . . absent probable cause or Cu,icial authori;ation. 6Citation9/ (/aupp $# Te!as (2003) $3# 4.S. 525- 530 61$$ 7.8,.2n, #13- #209.) $ut ee *Exceptions-/ belo0. Exceptions) +he use o" "irear(s- han,cu""ing- a non%consensual transportation- an,Nor putting a subCect into a patrol car- i" necessary un,er the circu(stances- particularly i" precautions are taFen to (aFe sure that the person Fno0s he is only being ,etaine, as oppose, to being arreste,or 0hen the use o" "orce is necessitate, by the potential ,anger to the o""icers- (ay be "oun, to be appropriate an, ,oes not necessarily ele.ate the contact into an arrest. (See )eop"e $# Ce"is (2003) 33 Cal.3th 552- 523% 525.) 2&
'n general- the in.estigati.e (etho,s use, shoul, be the least intrusi!e means reasonably a!ailable. Although the use o" so(e "orce ,oes not auto(atically trans"or( an in.estigatory ,etention into an arrest- any o.ert sho0 o" "orce or authority shoul, be Custi"ie, un,er the circu(stances. ( ee, e2g2, United States $# 0o"5man (&th Cir. 1&#&) #21 B.2, 13&5- 1$02- restraints Custi"ie, by belie" suspect 0as atte(pting to "lee: United States $# u''in1ton (&th Cir. 1&#2) #1$ B.2, 12&2- 1300- gi.en o""icer s Fno0le,ge o" suspect s history o" .iolence- sho0 o" "orce Custi"ie, by "ear "or personal sa"ety. (In re Ricardo D# (&th Cir. 1&&0) &12 B.2n, 332- 330.) (or example) (irearms) United States $# Rousseau (&th Cir. 2001) 2$2 B.3r, &2$: )eop"e $# G"aser (1&&$) 11 Cal.3th 3$3- 355. Handcuffing) )eop"e $# ro,n (1&#$) 15& Cal.App.3r, 1$&- 155%152: United States $# )urr&- supra: United States $# Rousseau, supra: United States $# *u$eni"e +RRA3A, (&th Cir. 2000) 22& B.3r, 232- 233: ()eop"e $# -i""iams (2002) 1$5 Cal.App.3th &3&- &50. *(A) police o""icer (ay han,cu"" a ,etainee 0ithout con.erting the ,etention into an arrest i" the han,cu""ing is brie" an, reasonably necessary un,er the circu(stances./ ()eop"e $# Os.orne (200&) 12$ Cal.App.3th 10$2- 1052.) Putting into a patrol car) )eop"e $# Nata"e (1&2#) 22 Cal.App.3r, $5#: United States $# )arr (&th Cir. 1&##) #33 B.2n, 122#. &ase "aw) United States $# %e5a3Corra"es (&th Cir. 1&&&) 1#3 B.3r, 1115: *(E)e allo0 intrusi.e an, aggressi.e police con,uct (han,cu""ing- in this case) 0ithout ,ee(ing it an arrest in those circu(stances 0hen it is a reasonable response to legiti(ate sa"ety concerns on the part o" the in.estigating o""icers./ United States $# Rousseau (&th Cir. 2001) 2$2 B.3r, &2$0here it 0as hel, that using "irear(s an, han,cu""s ,i, not 30
con.ert a ,etention into an arrest 0hen the use o" "orce 0as necessitate, by the potential ,anger to the o""icers. 0a&nie $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 2003) 33& B.3r, 1021) Ian,cu""ing an, putting an uncooperati.e suspect in the bacFseat o" a patrol car 0hile the o""icer checFe, the .ehicle "or 0eapons hel, not to be an arrest. *A brie"although co(plete- restriction o" liberty- such as han,cu""ing (an,- in this case- putting into a patrol car),uring a Terr& stop is not a ,e "acto arrest- i" not e?cessi.e un,er the circu(stances./ (Id.- at p. 1022.) Re"erring to Terr& $# Ohio (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1 620 7.8,.2n, ##&9. Stopping t0o suspects suspecte, o" co((itting "elony ,rug o""enses- 0ith the o""icers ,isplaying their "irear(shan,cu""ing the suspects- an, (aFing the( sit on the groun, 0hile a t0o%(inute checF o" their house "or a,,itional suspects- ,i, not con.ert 0hat 0as inten,e, to be a ,etention into an arrest. ()eop"e $# Ce"is (2003) 33 Cal.3th 552- 523%525.) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court in Ce"is note, the belo0 liste, i(portant "actors to consi,er) Ehether the police ,iligently pursue, a (eans o" in.estigation reasonably ,esigne, to ,ispel or con"ir( their suspicions @uicFlyusing the least intrusi.e (eans reasonably a.ailable un,er the circu(stances. +he bre.ity o" the in.asion o" the in,i.i,ual s Fourth Amendment interests.
1n"or(ation that ,e"en,ant ha, threatene, a .icti( 0ith a "irear( an, 0as presently sitting in a ,escribe, .ehicle Custi"ie, a *felony stop-/ pulling the ,e"en,ant an, other occupants out o" the car at gun point an, (aFing hi( lay on the groun, until the car coul, be checFe, "or 0eapons. Li.en the o""icers sa"ety issues- such a proce,ure a(ounte, to no (ore than a ,etention. ()eop"e $# Do""& (2002) 30 Cal.3th 3$#.)
31
*Lenerally- han,cu""ing a suspect ,uring a ,etention (0ithout con.erting the contact into a ,e "acto arrest) has only been sanctione, in cases 0here the police o""icer has a reasonable basis "or belie.ing the suspect poses a present physical threat or (ight "lee./ ()eop"e $# Stier (200#) 15# Cal.App.3th 21- 22.) Circu(stances liste, by the Stier court (at pp. 22% 2#) 0here han,cu""ing has been "oun, to be reasonably necessary "or a ,etention inclu,e 0hen) +he suspect is uncooperati.e. +he o""icer has in"or(ation the suspect is currently ar(e,. +he o""icer has in"or(ation the suspect is about to co((it a .iolent cri(e. +he ,etention closely "ollo0s a .iolent cri(e by a person (atching the suspect s ,escription an,Nor .ehicle. +he suspect acts in a (anner raising a reasonable possibility o" ,anger or "light. +he suspects outnu(ber the o""icers.
+ote) *&ustody/ "or purposes o" %iranda $# Ari5ona (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 335- 33$ 615 7.8,.2n, 5&3- 20#9.)- un,er the Fifth Amendment- in.ol.es a ,i""erent analysis than *custody/ "or purposes o" a ,etention or arrest un,er the Fourth Amendment. *1n contrast (to Fourth Amendment search an, sei;ure issues- 0here the reasonableness o" the o""icer s actions un,er the circu(stances is the issue)- Fifth Amendment %iranda custo,y clai(s ,o not e?a(ine the reasonableness o" the o""icer s con,uct- but instea, e?a(ine 0hether a reasonable person (in the ,e"en,ant s position) 0oul, conclu,e the restraints use, by police 0ere tanta(ount to a "or(al arrest./ ()eop"e $# )i"ster (2005) 13# Cal.App.3th 13&$1305.) Ian,cu""ing a ,etaine, suspect base, upon ,e"en,ant s si;e (5 "oot- 2$0 poun,s)- the "act that he 0as *real ner.ous-/ an, because he began to tense up as i" he 0ere about to resist- han,cu""ing hi( 0as hel, to be reasonable. ()eop"e $# Os.orne (200&) 12$ Cal.App.3th 10$2- 1052.)
32
+ote) +elling a person that he is not un,er arrest may not be enough by itsel" to negate 0hat is other0ise an arrest (See United States $# 2ee (&th Cir. 1&#2) 5&& B.2n, 355352.). Gut e.en i" it is not- it is at least a "actor to consi,er 0hen consi,ering the *totality of the circumstances./ (United States $# ra$o (&th Cir. 2002) 2&$ B.3r, 10021011.) +on6&onsensual Transportation Exceptions) +he Courts ha.e "oun, e?ceptions to the *detention B transportation C arrest/ rule 0hen the "ollo0ing (ight apply) *(+)he police (ay (o.e a suspect 0ithout e?cee,ing the boun,s o" an in.estigati.e ,etention 0hen it is a reasonable (eans o" achie.ing the legiti(ate goals o" the ,etention Agi.en the speci"ic circu(stances o" the case./ (United States $# Char"e& (&th Cir. 200$) 3&5 B.3r, 1023- 10#0.) 1n Char"e&- the ,e"en,ant ha, Cust (ur,ere, her three chil,ren an,a"ter calling police "ro( another location- encourage, la0 en"orce(ent to go 0ith her to checF on their 0el"are 0ithout speci"ically telling the o""icer 0hat she ha, ,one. She 0as also tol, that she 0as not un,er arrestan, 0as transporte, 0ithout han,cu""s. (United States $# Char"e&- supraat pp. 1022%10#2.) *(+)he police (ay (o.e a suspect "ro( the location o" the initial stop 0ithout con.erting the stop into an arrest 0hen it is necessary "or sa"ety or security reasons./ (United States $# Ricardo D# (&th Cir. 1&&0) &12 B.2n, 332- 330: citing F"orida $# Ro&er (1&#3) 350 4.S. 3&1- $03%$0$ 62$ 7.8,.2n, 22&- 231%2329.) Jon%consensual transportation necessary to continue the ,etention out o" the presence o" a gathering- hostile cro0,- hel, to be la0"ul un,er the circu(stances. ()eop"e $# Courtne& (1&20) 11 Cal.App.3r, 11#$- 11&1%11&2.) See also %ichi1an $# Summers (1&#1) 3$2 4.S. 5&2- 202- "n. 15 65& 7.8,.2n, 330- 33&9- 0here it 0as hel, that (o.ing the ,etaine, suspect "ro( the 0alF0ay in "ront o" his ho(e into the house0here he 0as hel, 0hile the house 0as searche, pursuant to a search 0arrant- 0as not consi,ere, constitutionally signi"icant. +e(porarily han,cu""ing a s(uggling suspect stoppe, at the 1nternational Gor,er 0here escape routes 0ere close byparticularly 0hen the subCect is tol, that he is not un,er arrest an, that the han,cu""s 0ere (erely "or e.eryone s sa"ety an, 0oul, be re(o.e, (o(entarily- an, then 0alFing hi( to a security o""ice about 30 to 30 yar,s (United States $# ra$o (&th Cir. 2002) 2&$ 33
B.3r, 1002.) or 3$ "eet (United States $# 4ara1o5a (&th Cir. 2002) 2&$ B.3r, 102$.) a0ay- is reasonable an, ,oes not con.ert a ,etention into an arrest. (See also United States $# 0ernande5 (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 330.) An in,i.i,ual is not arreste, but (erely ,etaine, 0hen- at the bor,er- he is asFe, to e?it his .ehicle- brie"ly han,cu""e, 0hile escorte, to the security o""ice- uncu""e,- patte, ,o0n- an, re@uire, to 0ait in a locFe, o""ice 0hile his .ehicle is searche,. (United States $# Na$a (&th Cir. 2003) 353 B.3r, &32.) )eop"e $# Soun (1&&$) 33 Cal.App.3th 13&&: ,e"en,ants- re(o.e, "ro( their .ehicle at gunpoint- 0ere "orce, to lie on the groun,han,cu""e,- put into police .ehicles an, transporte, three blocFs to a sa"er location) Detention only- base, upon the circu(stances. Ga""e1os $# Cit& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 2002) 30# B.3r, &#2: 0here a 2%to%1 (aCority "oun, that stopping a subCect at gunpointhan,cu""ing hi(- an, then transporting hi( bacF to the scene o" a cri(e to see i" the .icti( coul, i,enti"y hi(- a proce,ure 0hich tooF 3$ (inutes to an hour- was not an arrest- but 0as no (ore than an *in!estigati!e stop (that) wor?ed as it should./ *Reasona."e Suspicion)/ 7ess than *probable cause-/ but (ore than no e.i,ence (i.e.- a *hunch./) at all. Defined) *Reasonable suspicion/ is in"or(ation 0hich is su""icient to cause a reasonable la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- taFing into account his or her training an, e?perience- to reasonably belie!e that the person to be ,etaine, is- 0as- or is about to bein.ol.e, in cri(inal acti.ity. +he o""icer (ust be able to articulate (ore than an *inchoate and unparticularized suspicion or Ahunch of criminal acti!ity./ (Terr& $# Ohio (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1- 22 620 7.8,.2n, ##&- &0&9.) +ote) *Hunch)/ +he inability to articulate reasons behin, the belie". *Gecause the Abalance bet0een the public interest an, the in,i.i,ual s right to personal security- 6Citation9 tilts in "a.or o" a stan,ar, less than probable cause in such cases- the Fourth Amendment is satis"ie, i" the o""icer s action is supporte, by reasonable suspicion to belie.e that cri(inal acti.ity A*(ay be a"oot-/ (United States $# So(o"o, (1&#&) 3&0 4.S. 1- 2 6103 7.8,.2n, 1- 109: @uoting Terr& $# Ohio- supraat p. 30 620 7.8,.2n, at p. &119: see also )eop"e $# Os.orne (200&) 12$ Cal.App.3th 10$2- 10$#.) 33
+he *reasonable suspicion/ stan,ar, is *not a particularly ,e(an,ing one- but is- instea,- Aconsi,erably less than proo" o" 0rong,oing by a prepon,erance o" the e.i,ence- / ()eop"e $# 2etner and To.in (2010) $0 Cal.3th &&- 135: @uoting ./ (United States $# So(o"o, (1&#&) 3&0 4.S. 1- 2 6103 7. 8,. 2n, 19.) *1n re.ie0ing the propriety o" an o""icer s con,uct- courts ,o not ha.e a.ailable e(pirical stu,ies ,ealing 0ith in"erences ,ra0n "ro( suspicious beha.ior- an, 0e cannot reasonably ,e(an, scienti"ic certainty "ro( Cu,ges or la0 en"orce(ent o""icers 0here none e?ists. +hus- the ,eter(ination o" reasonable suspicion (ust be base, on co((onsense Cu,g(ents an, in"erences about hu(an beha.ior./ (I.id.- @uoting I""inois $# -ard"o, (2000) $2# 4.S. 11&- 123S12$ 613$ 7. 8,. 2n, $209.) 1n )eop"e $# 2etner and To.in- supra- a (aCority o" the Supre(e Court "oun, that the une?plaine, ,ri.ing at 30 (ph in a $$ (ph ;one- in,icating a possible D41 ,ri.erparticularly 0hen co(bine, 0ith the o""icer s suspicions that the car (ight be stolen 0hen there 0ere 0ater bea,s on it "ro( a stor( so(e hours earlier- in,icating that it ha, not been ,ri.en "ar- an, 0hen "oun, in an area Fno0n "or its (any the"ts "ro( the nearby car lots- Custi"ie, an in.estigati.e tra""ic stop. Detention of a Victim or =itness) Ehile a .icti( or 0itness- as a general rule- (ay not be ,etaine, or "orce, to cooperate in a police in.estigation- it is argue, by so(e that 0hen the go.ern(ental nee, is strong an, the intrusion upon the .icti( or 0itness is (ini(al- a te(porary stop or ,etention o" the .icti( or 0itness may be Custi"iable. (See I""inois $# 2idster (2003) $30 4.S. 31& 61$2 7.8,.2n, #339: .ehicle checF point use, to locate 0itnesses to a pre.ious "atal hit an, run.) See also %et5(er $# State (AF 1&&0) 2&2 P.2n, 121&: *1t appears the police are Custi"ie, in stopping 0itnesses only 0here e?igent circu(stances are present- such as 0here a cri(e has recently been reporte,./ +ote) Jo case la0 yet uphol,s (ore than Cust a (ini(al ,etentionnor the transportation- o" a .icti( or 0itness 0ithout that person s consent. 3$
1n ,eci,ing 0hether this 0as reasonable- a court (ust looFs to *the gra.ity o" the public concerns ser.e, by the sei;ure- the ,egree to 0hich the sei;ure a,.ances the public interest- an, the se.erity o" the inter"erence 0ith in,i.i,ual liberty./ ( ro,n $# Te!as (1&2&) 333 4.S. 32- $1 651 7.8,.2n, 3$2.) A tra""ic stop o" a 0itness absent e.i,ence that he hi(sel" is in.ol.e, in cri(inal acti.ity- is illegal. Gecause ,e"en,antDs stop 0as "or *generali;e, cri(inal in@uiry-/ it 0as illegal. (United States $# -ard (&th Cir. 1&23) 3## B.2n, 152- 15#%120.) As a general rule- a 0itness to cri(e (ay not be stoppe, an, ,etaine, in any 0ay- or "risFe,- an, he re"use to cooperate i" he so chooses. A brie" ,etention- ho0e.er- (ay be reasonable ,epen,ing up the i(portance o" the Lo.ern(ent s interest. *At a (ini(u(- o""icers ha, a right to i,enti"y 0itnesses to the shootingto obtain the na(es an, a,,resses o" such 0itnesses- an, to ascertain 0hether they 0ere 0illing to speaF .oluntarily 0ith the o""icers./ (-a"(er $# Cit& o' Orem (10th Cir. 2005) 3$1 B.3r, 113&113#%113&: &0 (inute ,etention hel, to be e?cessi.e.) 1t is a =settle, principle that 0hile the police ha.e the right to re@uest citi;ens to ans0er .oluntarily @uestions concerning unsol.e, cri(es they ha.e no right to co(pel the( to ans0er.= (Da$is $# %ississippi (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 221- 222- "n. 5 622 7.8,.2n, 5259.).. Detaining potential 0itnesses to a (ur,er "or so(e "i.e hours pen,ing being inter.ie0e,- particularly 0hen using "orce- hel, to be an illegal arrest ,one 0ithout probable cause. (%a!,e"" $# Count& o' San Die1o (&th Cir. 2012) 5&2 B.3r, &31- &3#%&$1.) Securing a ho(e "ro( the outsi,e- ,etaining the occupant on his o0n porch pen,ing the obtaining o" a 0arrant- 0as uphel, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court. (I""inois $# %cArthur (2001) $31 4.S. 325 613# 7.8,.2n, #3#9.) During the e?ecution o" a search 0arrant- until the rest o" the house is checFe, "or the suspects- other occupants (ay be ,etaine,. (2os An1e"es Count& $# Rette"e (2002) $$0 4.S. 50& 6152 7.8,.2n, &239.) See *Detention of Residents (or +on6Resident) During the Execution of a earch =arrant-/ belo0.
35
An occupant o" a house being subCecte, to a search pursuant to a search warrant (ay be ,etaine, ,uring the search (1) in or,er to pre.ent "light- (2) to (ini(i;e the risF o" har( to the o""icersan, (3) to "acilitate an or,erly search through cooperation o" the resi,ents. (%ichi1an $# Summers (1&#1) 3$2 4.S. 5&2- 202%203 65& 7.8,.2n, 330- 33&%3$09.) See *During Execution of a earch or *rrest =arrant, or during a Fourth =ai!er earch-/ belo0. Prosecutors (ay enCoy absolute i((unity "ro( ci.il liability so long as the "orce, ,etention o" a .icti(- ,one "or the purpose o" inter.ie0ing her- is consi,ere, to be *a,.ocacy con,uct that is inti(ately associate, 0ith the Cu,icial phase o" the cri(inal process./ (Gira"do $# /ess"er (2n, Cir. 2012) 5#3 B.3r, 151.) *rticulable ;b%ecti!e uspicion) A ,etention- e.en i" brie"- is a su""iciently signi"icant restraint on personal liberty to re@uire *ob%ecti!e %ustification./ (F"orida $# Ro&er (1&#3) 350 4.S. 3&1- 3&# 62$ 7.8,.2n, 22&- 235%2329.) +ote) Reasons 0hich an o""icer "eels gi.e hi( or her reasonable suspicion to ,etain must be articulated- in ,etail- in an arrest report an, later recounte, in courtroo( testi(ony. An o""icer s inability to articulate those suspicious "actors that gi.e rise to the nee, to stop an, ,etain a suspect is one o" the (ore co((on causes o" ,etentions being "oun, to be illegal. A prosecutor s "ailure to elicit a thorough ,escription o" all the suspicious "actors by asFing the right @uestions is another co((on cause. * Hunch) An o""icer s ,ecision to ,etain cannot be pre,icate, upon a (ere *hunch-/ but (ust be base, upon articulable "acts ,escribing suspicious beha.ior 0hich 0oul, ,istinguish the ,e"en,ant "ro( an or,inary- la0%abi,ing citi;en. (Terr& $# Ohio (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1- 22 620 7.8,.2n, ##&- &0&9.) *A hunch (ay pro.i,e the basis "or soli, police 0orF: it (ay trigger an in.estigation that unco.ers "acts that establish reasonable suspicion- probable cause- or e.en groun,s "or a con.iction. A hunch- ho0e.er- is not a substitute "or the necessary speci"ic- articulable "acts re@uire, to Custi"y a Fourth Amendment intrusion./ (1talics a,,e,: )eop"e $# )itts (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th 32
##1- ##&: @uoting United States $# Thomas (&th Cir. 2000) 211 B.3r, 11#5- 11&2.) A stop an, ,etention base, upon stale in"or(ation concerning a threat- 0hich itsel" 0as o" @uestionable .eracity- an, 0ith little i" anything in the 0ay o" suspicious circu(stances to connect the persons stoppe, to that threat- is illegal. ()eop"e $# Dura5o (2003) 123 Cal.App.3th 22#) +hreat 0as purporte,ly "ro( Oe?ican gang (e(bers- an, ,e"en,ant 0as a Oe?ican (ale 0ho (0ith his passenger) glance, at the .icti( s apart(ent as he ,ro.e by "our ,ays later 0here the o""icer a,(itte,ly 0as acting on his *gut feeling/ that ,e"en,ant 0as in.ol.e,.) See(ingly innocuous beha.ior ,oes not Custi"y a ,etention o" suspecte, illegal aliens unless acco(panie, by so(e particulari;e, con,uct that corroborates the o""icer s suspicions. (United States $# %an5o3*urado (&th Cir. 2005) 3$2 B.3r, &2#: stan,ing aroun, in their o0n group- con.ersing in Spanish- 0atching a high school "ootball ga(e.) !bser.ing ,e"en,ant sitting in a parFe, (otor .ehicle late at night near the e?it to a 2%8le.en store parFing lot- 0ith the engine running- ,espite prior Fno0le,ge o" a string o" recent robberies at 2%8le.ens- hel, to be not su""icient to Custi"y a ,etention an, pat,o0n. ()eop"e $# )errus:uia (2002) 1$0 Cal.App.3th 22#.) Io0e.er- *the possibility o" innocent e?planations "or the "actors relie, upon by a police o""icer ,oes not necessarily preclu,e the possibility o" a reasonable suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity. ()eop"e $# 2etner and To.in (2010) $0 Cal. 3th &&- 135: @uoting (United States $# Ar$i5u (2002) $33 4.S. 255- 223 61$1 7. 8,. 2n, 2309.) Detaining ,e"en,ant- 0ho 0as $ 10/ tall- 0ell%groo(e,- (e,iu( to ,arF%co(plecte,- 0ith a (ustache an, slight goatee- base, upon his allege, si(ilarity to a suspect 0ho 0as ,escribe, as 5 1/ tallunFe(pt- light%co(plecte,- an, 0ith no "acial hair- hel, to be insu""icient to Custi"y a reasonable suspicion. +he "act that the suspecte, cri(e occurre, at the sa(e location a 0eeF earlier- an, that the area 0as Fno0n as a high cri(e area- a,,e, nothing. ()eop"e $# -a"(er (2012) 210 Cal.App.3th 15$- 125%1#3: as a(en,e, at 2012 Cal.App. 78T1S 11#2.) The Totality of the &ircumstances) +he legality o" a ,etention 0ill be ,eter(ine, by consi,ering the *totality of the circumstances./ (United States $# Ar$i5u (2002) $33 4.S. 255- 223 61$1 7.8,.2n, 230- 23&9: see also )eop"e $# Do""& (2002) 30 Cal.3th 3$#.) 3#
*All rele.ant "actors (ust be consi,ere, in the reasonable suspicion calculusPe.en those "actors that- in a ,i""erent conte?t(ight be entirely innocuous./ (United States $# Fernande53 Casti""o (&th Cir. 2003) 323 B.3r, 1113- 1123- citing United States $# Ar$i5u- supraat pp. 222%22# 61$1 7.8,.2n, at p. 2$29.) The ;fficer)s ub%ecti!e &onclusions) Ehether or not an o""icer has su""icient cause to ,etain so(eone 0ill be e.aluate, by the courts on an *ob%ecti!e/ basis: or ho0 a reasonable person 0oul, e.aluate the circu(stances. +he o""icer s o0n *sub%ecti!e/ conclusions are irrele.ant. (-hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9.) * eizure) Although a ,etention is a *seizure/ un,er the Fourth Amendment (Terr& $# Ohio, supraat p. 1&- "n. 15 620 7.8,.2n, at pp. &03%&0$9.)- it is allo0e, on less than probable cause because the intrusion is relati.ely (ini(al an, is ,one "or a .ali, an, necessary in.estigati.e purpose. Probable &ause !s2 Reasonable uspicion) +he occasional inarticulate Cu,icial re"erences to the nee, to pro.e *probable cause/ (e.g.- see United States $# -i""is (&th Cir. 200$) 331 B.3r, 20&- 21$- re"erring to the 4.S. Supre(e Court s ruling in -hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9.) 0as not inten,e, to raise the stan,ar, o" proo" "ro( one o" nee,ing only a *reasonable suspicion./ (United States $# 2ope5 (&th Cir. 2000) 20$ B.3r, 1101%1103.) See Y.arra $# I""inois (1&2&) 333 4.S. #$ 652 7.8,.2n, 23#9con,e(ning the ,etention an, pat,o0n o" e.eryone at the scene absent in,i.i,uali;e, e.i,ence connecting each person so ,etaine, 0ith the illegal acti.ity being in.estigate,. 9arious Factors 0hich- 0hen taFen in,i.i,ually or in co(bination- help contribute to Custi"ying a ,etention. 'n <eneral) Such "actors inclu,e- but are not li(ite, to- the "ollo0ing (see abo.e an, belo0)) Ehether the suspect rese(bles a 0ante, person. +he suspect is contacte, in a 0ante, .ehicle. +he suspect appears into?icate, or inCure,. +he suspect s suspicious actions. +he suspect s erratic or e.asi.e ,ri.ing- or other suspicious actions. +he o""icer s prior Fno0le,ge o" cri(inal acti.ity by the suspect. 3&
+he suspect s ,e(eanor an,Nor reaction to seeing the o""icer. +he suspect s ner.ousness- belligerence- etc. +he suspect s e.asi.e replies to @uestions. +he ti(e o" ,ay. Cri(inal history o" the area. (8.g.- a *high narcotics area./) +he pro?i(ity to a recent- or a series o" cri(es. +he o""icer s e?pertise- training an,Nor e?perience "or the type o" cri(e suspecte,. +he suspect s actions consistent 0ith co((on patterns "or the type o" cri(e suspecte,. 1n"or(ant in"or(ation.
* *High &rime/ or *High +arcotics/ Area) Although being in a so%calle, *high crime/ or *high narcotics acti!ity/ area is a "actor to be consi,ere,: *(a)n Ao""icer s assertion that the location lay in a *high crime/ area ,oes not (by itsel") ele.ate . . . "acts into a reasonable suspicion o" cri(inality. +he *high crime area/ "actor is not an *acti!ity/ o" an in,i.i,ual. Oany citi;ens o" this state are "orce, to li.e in areas that ha.e *high crime/ rates or they co(e to these areas to shop- 0orF- playtransact business- or .isit relati.es or "rien,s. +he spectru( o" legiti(ate hu(an beha.ior occurs e.ery ,ay in so%calle, high cri(e areas. . . . / (1talics a,,e,: )eop"e $# )itts (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th ##1- ##2: @uoting )eop"e $# 2oe,en (1&#3) 3$ Cal.3r, 112- 123: an, )eop"e $# o,er (1&2&) 23 Cal.3r, 53#- $35.) *(+)he ti(e an, location o" an encounter are insu""icient by the(sel.es to cast reasonable suspicion on an in,i.i,ual./ ()eop"e $# %edina (2003) 110 Cal.App.3th 121- 122: noting that neither the *nighttime factor/ nor the *high crime area factor/ are *acti!ities/ by a person sought to be ,etaine,.) Howe!er- note that the 4nite, States Supre(e Court has hel, that a subCect s "light on "oot "ro( the police 0hen it occurs in a so% calle, *high narcotics area/ is su""icient in itsel" to Custi"y a te(porary ,etention (as 0ell as a pat,o0n "or 0eapons). (I""inois $# -ard"o, (2000) $2# 4.S. 11& 613$ 7.8,.2n, $209: see *(light/ un,er *&onsensual Encounters-/ abo.e.)
30
T&pes o' Detentions: Traffic tops) Detention !s2 *rrest) Although issuing a tra""ic citation is technically an arrest and release on the person s 0ritten pro(ise to appear (see United States $# 2ea"3Fe"i5 (&th Cir. 2011) 55$ B.3r, 1032.)- it is treate, as a ,etention because o" the (ini(al intrusion in.ol.e,. ( er(emer $# %cCart& (1&#3) 35# 4.S. 320- 33& 6#2 7.8,.2n, 312- 3339: Ari5ona $# *ohnson (200&) $$$ 4.S. 323 6122 7.8,.2n, 5&39: see also )eop"e $# 0ernande5 (2005) 135 Cal.App.3th 223: *+ra""ic stops are treate, as in.estigatory ,etentions "or 0hich the o""icer (ust be able to point to speci"ic an, articulable "acts Custi"ying the suspicion that a cri(e is being co((itte,./) 1n that the traffic stop itsel" (i.e.- prior to the issuing o" a citation)- is consi,ere, to be no (ore than a ,etention- it only re@uires a *reasonable suspicion/ that a tra""ic o""ense ha, been co((itte, in or,er to be a la0"ul stop. (United States $# 2ope53Soto (&th Cir. 2000) 20$ B.3r, 1101- 1103% 110$: )eop"e $# %iranda (1&&3) 12 Cal.App.3th &12- &25 rierton $# Department o' %otor 9ehic"es (200$) 130 Cal.App.3th 3&&- $0&%$10: United States $# %iranda3 Guerena (&th Cir. 2005) 33$ B.3r, 1233.) 1n establishing the necessary *reasonable suspicion-/ the o""icer is not re@uire, to personally *obser.e all ele(ents o" cri(inal con,uct./ Ie nee, only *be able to Apoint to speci"ic articulable "acts that- consi,ere, in light o" the totality o" the circu(stances- pro.i,e so(e obCecti.e (ani"estation that the person ,etaine, (ay be in.ol.e, in cri(inal acti.ity. 6Citation9/ rierton $# Department o' %otor 9ehic"essupra.- at p. $0&.) +hen the citation (i.e.- the arrest an, release) is 0ritten base, on the *probable cause/ to belie.e a tra""ic in"raction ha, been co((itte, by the person being cite,. (I.id.) A ran,o( license checF on the ,e"en,ant s .ehicleresulting in in"or(ation that the o0ner ha, an outstan,ing tra""ic 0arrant- Custi"ie, the stop o" that .ehicle. ()eop"e $# -i""iams (1&&$) 33 Cal.App.3th 352.) 31
+o "aw Enforcement 'n!ol!ement) A suspect 0ho stops on his o0n- e.en i" (istaFenly belie.ing he 0as re@uire, to stop- but 0here la0 en"orce(ent ,oes nothing a""ir(ati.ely to cause hi( to stop- has not been ,etaine, "or purposes o" the Fourth Amendment. A ,etention re@uires a *go.ern(ental ter(ination o" "ree,o( o" (o.e(ent Athrough means intentionally applied. / (United States $# Nasser (&th Cir. 200&) $$$ B.3r, 222.) ,o!ing Violations) A citi;en s report o" a .ehicle ,ri.ing erratically- 0ith a speci"ic ,escription o" the .ehicle (inclu,ing a personali;e, license plate- although one ,igit 0as 0rong)- 0here the o""icer obser.e, the .ehicle shortly therea"ter 0ea.e outsi,e its lane- 0as cause to e""ect a tra""ic stop. ()eop"e $# Carter (200$) 35 Cal.3th 1113- 113&%1132.) A pe,estrian crossing ,iagonally across an intersection 0ithout inter"ering 0ith any tra""ic is not a .iolation o" 0!C! 21")4+a, (Pe,estrian s inter"erence 0ith tra""ic)an, there"ore ,oes not Custi"y a ,etention. ()eop"e $# Ramire5 (2005) 130 Cal.App.3th #3&.) Bailure to stop a .ehicle be"ore the "ront bu(per crosses a cross0alF s li(it line at an intersection is a .iolation o" 0!C! 224)3- Custi"ying a tra""ic stop. )eop"e $# in(o,s(i (2002) 1$2 Cal.App.3th Supp. 1.) De"en,ant stopping on his o0n- e.en though (aybe un,er the (istaFen belie" that an o""icer 0ante, hi( to stop- is not a ,etention. A ,etention re@uires a *go.ern(ental ter(ination o" "ree,o( o" (o.e(ent *through means intentionally applied./ (United States $# Nasser (&th Cir. 200&) $$$ B.3r, 222.) 0ehicle Code 22131 (Bailure to signal 0hile turning)) +urning 0ithout signaling is not a .iolation o" this section unless there is another .ehicle close enough to be a""ecte, by the ,e"en,ant s "ailure to signal. ()eop"e $# Carmona (2011) 1&$ Cal.App.3th 13#$: the o""icer s .ehicle- being the only other car in the .icinity- 0as hea,e, to0ar,s 32
,e"en,ant an, so(e $$ "eet a0ay 0hen ,e"en,ant turne, o"" onto a si,e roa, 0ithout signaling: not a .iolation.) See also In re *aime )# (2005) 30 Cal.3th 12#- 131: )eop"e $# Cart,ri1ht (1&&&) 22 Cal.App.3th 13521355: an, United States $# %arisca" (&th Cir. 2002) 2#$ B.3r, 1122- interpreting a si(ilar Ari;ona statute.) 0ehicle Code 2213#- re@uiring that a person signal "or at least 100 "eet be"ore turning- is not a separate o""ense that (ay be charge,. 1t taFes e""ect only i"- un,er section 22131- the ,ri.er 0as re@uire, to signal. ()eop"e $# Carmona- supra.- at pp. 13&1%13&3.) +urning at an intersection 0ithout signaling 0as hel, not to be a .iolation o" 0!C! 2213# 0here there 0as no e.i,ence o" another .ehicle that 0as there that *may be affected by the mo!ement./ (United States $# Caseres (&th Cir. 200#) $33 B.3, 1053- 105#%105&.) Io0e.er- 0hen an o""icer is 0ithin 100 "eettra.eling in the sa(e ,irection an, at the sa(e spee,- the ,e"en,ant s "ailure to signal a turn was a (o.e(ent that coul, ha.e a""ecte, the o""icer s .ehicle. Bailing to signal 0hile changing lanes 0here *any other .ehicle (ay be a""ecte, by the (o.e(ent-/ per 0!C! 22131- applies e.en though the only a""ecte, .ehicle is a police car. ()eop"e $# 2o1sdon (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th 231.) De"en,ant s erratic ,ri.ing an, "ailing to signal ,uring a right%han, turn. ()eop"e $# E$ans (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 23$- 233.) AsFing an apparently into?icate, ,e"en,ant- 0ho 0as obser.e, stan,ing the (i,,le o" the roa, picFing up tools an, 0hose .ehicle 0as partially blocFing the roa,- to step to the si,e o" the roa,- 0as reasonable un,er the circu(stances- an, not an illegal ,etention. Burther- the o""icer s obser.ations o" ,e"en,ant s apparent into?icatione.en be"ore recei.ing in"or(ation "ro( the ,ispatcher that ,e"en,ant ha, "our prior con.ictions "or ,ri.ing un,er the 33
in"luence- constitute, probable cause su""icient to Custi"y the arrest. ()eop"e $# Con"e& (2012) 211 Cal.App.3th &$3.) *!oiding a D#' &hec?point)
+he +enth Circuit Court o" Appeal hel, that a ,ri.er s ,ecision to use a rural high0ay e?it a"ter passing ,rug checFpoint signs (ay be consi,ere, as one "actor in an o""icer s reasonable suspicion ,eter(ination- but it is not a su""icient basis- by itsel"- to Custi"y a tra""ic stop. +he court note, that an o""icer (ust i,enti"y a,,itional suspicious circu(stances or in,epen,ently e.asi.e beha.ior to Custi"y stopping a .ehicle that uses an e?it a"ter ,ri.ing past ruse ,rug%checFpoint signs. (United States $# Ne'' (10th Cir. 2012) 5#1 B.3r, 1133.)
Vehicle &ode Registration Violations) A police o""icer (ay (aFe an in.estigatory tra""ic stop anyti(e the o""icer has a *reasonable suspicion/ to belie.e that the .ehicle is in .iolation o" the registration la0s. ()eop"e $# Dotson (200&) 12& Cal.App.3th 103$103&.) A license plate- although only partially obscure, by a trailer hitch- .iolates 0!C! )231 an, Custi"ies a tra""ic stop an, citation. ()eop"e $# -hite (2001) &3 Cal.App.3th 1022.) +ote) 0!C! )231 e?cuses the obstruction o" a rear license plate by a 0heelchair li"t or carrier i" by a ,isable, person 0ith the applicable ,isable, person plates or placar,- an, a ,ecal 0ith the license plate nu(ber is clearly .isible in the rear 0in,o0. Oounting a license plate (the "ront plate- in this case) upsi,e ,o0n is also a .iolation o" 0!C! )231- in that it is not *clearly legible/ as re@uire, by the statute. ()eop"e $# Duncan (200#) 150 Cal.App.3th 1013.) Plates (ust be positione, *so that the characters are upright an, ,isplay "ro( le"t to right- . . ./ (0!C! )231+a,) A (issing "ront license plate- a .iolation o" 0!C! )233- is legal Custi"ication upon 0hich to base a tra""ic stop. ()eop"e $# Saunders (2005) 3# Cal.3th 112&- 1135: )eop"e $# 9i.anco (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th 1- #.) 33
1t is not a search to ran,o(ly checF license plates that are other0ise .isible to an o""icer- an, to checF la0 en"orce(ent ,atabases "or in"or(ation about that .ehicle. Disco.ering in the process that a .ehicle s registere, o0ner has a suspen,e, license- an, noting that the obser.e, ,ri.er rese(bles the physical ,escription o" the registere, o0nerstopping the car to checF the ,ri.er s license status is la0"ul. (United States $# Dia53Castaneda (&th Cir. 2002) 3&3 B.3r, 1135- 11$0%11$2.) A tra""ic stop "or the purpose o" checFing the .ali,ity o" a re, DOU te(porary operating per(it ,isplaye, in a .ehicle s 0in,o0 (i.e.- the re, sticFer: see 0!C! 41)2)0hen the nu(ber on the per(it 0as .isible to the o""icer be"ore the stop an, appeare, to be current- is a stop base, upon no (ore than a *hunch-/ an, is illegal. ()eop"e $# Na.on1 (2003) 11$ Cal.App.3th Supp. 1- .ehicle 0ith e?pire, registration tab on plate: )eop"e $# 0ernande5 (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 2&$- .ehicle 0ith no license plates.) 1t is irrele.ant that the o""icer belie.es- in his e?perience- that such te(porary operating per(its are o"ten "orge, or other0ise in.ali,. ()eop"e $# 0ernande5- supra.- at p. 2&&.) 1n a case ,eci,e, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court out o" Cali"ornia- it 0as assu(e, "or the saFe o" argu(ent- 0ithout ,iscussing the issue- that stopping a car "or the purpose o" checFing the .ali,ity o" the te(porary operating per(it 0ithout reason to belie.e that it 0as not .ali,- is illegal. (See rend"in $# Ca"i'ornia (2002) $$1 4.S. 23& 615# 7.8,.2n, 1329.) !n re(an,- the People conce,e, that a tra""ic stop (a,e "or the purpose o" checFing the .ali,ity o" the te(porary re, sticFer .isible in the 0in,o0- absent cause to belie.e it 0as in.ali,- 0as an illegal tra""ic stop. ()eop"e $# rend"in (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 25225#: e?pire, registration tab on plate.) $ut- a tra""ic stop is legal 0hen the .ehicle ha, only one license plate (the "ront plate being (issing) an, the registration tab on the rear plate 0as e?pire,. ()eop"e $# Saunders (2005) 3# Cal.3th 112&) +he 3$
(issing license plate- a .iolation o" 0!C! )233- at the .ery least constitutes a reasonable suspicion to belie.e that the re, te(porary operator s per(it,espite a current .isible (onth on the per(it- (ight not be "or that .ehicle.) A (issing rear license plate an, no .isible te(porary registration ,isplaye, in the rear 0in,o0- e.en though the te(porary registration is later "oun, to be in the "ront 0in,shiel,- but not .isible to the o""icer co(ing up behin, the .ehicleis su""icient reasonable suspicion to Custi"y a tra""ic stop. (In re Ra&mond C# (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 303.) As note, in "n. 2) *A te(porary per(it is to be place, in the lo0er rear 0in,o0. Io0e.er- i" it 0oul, be obscure, there- it (ay be place, in the lo0er right corner o" either the 0in,shiel, or a si,e 0in,o0./ (D%9 0and.oo( o' Re1istration )rocedures (!ct. 2002) ch. 2- V 2.020- p. 2.) An o""icer s obser.ation that a .ehicle 0as (issing both license plates- absent so(e other in,ication that the .ehicle 0as properly or te(porarily registere,- 0as enough by itsel" to establish a reasonable suspicion "or the o""icer to belie.e that ,e"en,ant 0as in .iolation o" 0!C! )233. ()eop"e $# Dotson (200&) 12& Cal.App.3th 103$- 10$1%10$2: reCecting the ,e"en,ant s argu(ent- an, the Attorney Leneral s concession- that the o""icer ha, a ,uty to looF "or a te(porary registration in the .ehicle s 0in,o0s be"ore (aFing the tra""ic stop.) 1n"or(ation "ro( DOU that a .ehicle s registration has e?pire,- at least in the absence o" any other in"or(ation to the e""ect that the .ehicle is in the process o" being re%registere,- Custi"ies a tra""ic stop ,espite the .isible presence o" an apparently .ali, te(porary registration sticFer in the 0in,o0. ()eop"e $# Green,ood (2010) 1#& Cal.App.3th 232.) Vehicle &ode E@uipment Violations) A cracFe, 0in,shiel, (0!C! 22113) Custi"ies a tra""ic stop. ()eop"e $# 9i.anco (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th 1.) 35
An inoperable thir, (rear 0in,o0) braFe light is a 0ehicle Code .iolation (0!C! 242)2+a,)- an, Custi"ies a tra""ic stop an, citation. (In re *ustin /# (2002) &# Cal.App.3th 5&$.) Seat belt .iolations) An o""icer s ,eter(ination that ,e"en,ant 0as not 0earing a seat belt- e.en 0here it is reasonably uncertain 0hether the ,e"en,ant s .ehicle 0as e.en e@uippe, 0ith a shoul,er harness- Custi"ie, a stop to ,eter(ine 0hether Cali"ornia s (an,atory seat belt la0 0as being .iolate,. (/odani $# Sn&der (1&&&) 2$ Cal.App.3th 321.) Police o""icer ha, probable cause to arrest a ,ri.er "or a .iolation o" Cali"ornia s sa"ety belt statute upon obser.ing the ,ri.er 0earing his seat belt un,er his le"t ar( an, not across his upper torsobarring the ,ri.er s 42 !S!C! 1"#3 unla0"ul arrest clai(. +he ,ri.er 0as not *properly restraine, by a sa"ety belt-/ as re@uire, by 0!C! 2131)+d,+1,. (0upp $# Cit& o' -a"nut Cree( (J.D. Cal. 200$) 3#& B.Supp.2n, 122&- 1232.) See also Co""ier $# %ont1omer& ($th &ir2 -..40 574 (28rd -/3, -/D9 addressing a similar safety belt statute2 +he re@uire(ent in 0!C! 2131)+d,+1, that the ,ri.er an, all passengers 15 years o" age an, ol,er be *properly restraine,/ 0hile the .ehicle is in operation re@uires that both the shoul,er harness an, the lap belt portions o" the sa"ety belt asse(bly be use,. ()eop"e $# O$er"and (-.//0 /48 &al2*pp23th upp2 420 Ein,shiel, !bstructions) An Anchorage- AlasFa- Ounicipal Co,e or,inance "orbi,,ing any ite( a""i?e, to the 0in,shiel, (si(ilar to Cali"ornia s 0!C! 2213#+a,+1,: see )eop"e $# -hite (2003) 102 Cal.App.3th 535belo0.) was not .iolate, by an air "reshener ,angling "ro( the rear .ie0 (irror. A tra""ic stop 32
0as "oun, to be illegal. (United States $# /in1 (&th Cir. 2001) 233 B.3r, 235- 230.) A tra""ic stop 0as illegal 0hen base, upon a percei.e, .iolation o" 0!C! 2213#+a,+2,- "or obstructing or re,ucing the ,ri.er s clear .ie0 through the 0in,shiel,- "or ha.ing an air "reshener ,angling "ro( the rear .ie0 (irror. ()eop"e $# -hite- supra.) Io0e.eran air "reshener hanging "ro( a car s rear.ie0 (irror 0as hel, to be a .iolation o" 0!C! 2213#+a,+2, in another case 0here a (ore thorough "oun,ation 0as establishe, through testi(ony o" the o""icer- citing his personal e?perience an, noting that the obCect 0as big enough to blocF out the .ie0 o" a pe,estrian or a .ehicle- an, 0here there 0as no ,e"ense%o""ere, e?pert testi(ony rele.ant to the o.erall si;e o" the air "reshener relati.e to the si;e o" the 0in,o0. ()eop"e $# Co".ert (2002) 1$2 Cal.App.3th 105#.) A tra""ic stop "or an e@uip(ent .iolation in a *high crime/ (i.e.- gang) area at night is not reasonable suspicion su""icient to Custi"y a ,etention or pat,o0n "or 0eapons. ()eop"e $# %edina (2003) 110 Cal.App.3th 121.) !bser.ing a .ehicle 0ith the "ront 0in,o0s illegally tinte, in .iolation o" 0!C! 2213#+a, (aFes it la0"ul to stop the .ehicle to cite it s ,ri.er. +he arrest o" ,e"en,ant 0ho 0as a passenger in the .ehicle an, 0ho rese(ble, the suspect in a robbery Cust (inutes earlier- 0as la0"ul. +)eop"e $# Carter (2010) 1#2 Cal.App.3th $22- $2&%$30: also hol,ing that e.en i" the stop ha, been illegal- ,isco.ery o" an arrest 0arrant "or ,e"en,ant 0oul, ha.e attenuate, the taint o" an illegal tra""ic stop.) Gut see United States $# Caseres (&th Cir. 200#) $33 B.3r, 1053- 105&) An o""icer noting that a person s .ehicle 0in,o0s are tinte,- belie.ing that the 0in,o0s (ight ha.e been tinte, in .iolation o" 0!C! 2213#+a,+1, (i.e.- a"ter%"actory)- is not reasonable suspicion o" a .iolation absent other e.i,ence ten,ing to support this belie". *Eithout a,,itional articulable "acts suggesting that the tinte, glass is illegal- the ,etention rests upon the type o" 3#
speculation 0hich (ay not properly support an in.estigati.e stop./ =ea!ing =ithin the "ane) tate Rule) !bser.ation o" the ,e"en,ant 0ea.ing 0ithin his tra""ic lane "or one hal" o" a (ile is su""icient cause to stop hi( to ,eter(ine 0hether he is dri!ing while under the influence (*D#'/) or the .ehicle has so(e unsa"e (echanical ,e"ect. ()eop"e $# rac(en (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th Supp. 1: 0ea.ing 0ithin his lane "or hal" a (ile.) Eea.ing 0ithin a lane "or three @uarters o" a (ile Custi"ie, a tra""ic stop "or ,ri.ing 0hile un,er the in"luence. ()eop"e $# )ere5 (1&#$) 12$ Cal.App.3r, Supp. #.) Eea.ing 0ithin a lane- al(ost hitting the curb- is su""icient reasonable suspicion "or ,ri.ing 0hile un,er the in"luence to Custi"y a tra""ic stop. (Ar.urn $# Department o' %otor 9ehic"es (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th 13#0.) +he "act that the 0ea.ing 0as not "or a *substantial/ or *consi,erable/ ,istance ,i, not (ean that the o""icer ,i,n t ha.e reasonable suspicion to Custi"y the stop. (Id.at p. 13#$.) (ederal Rule) See United States $# Co"in (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 33&- 0here the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal hel, that 0ea.ing "ro( lane line to lane line "or 3$ to 3$ secon,s is neither a .iolation o" the lane stra,,ling statute (0!C! 212)#+a,) nor reasonable suspicion that the ,ri.er (ay be un,er the in"luence: a @uestionable ,ecision- an, one that (ay probably be ignore, by state la0 en"orce(ent o""icers in light o" rac(en an, )ere5. =ea!ing Plus) A single pronounce, 0ea.e 0ithin the laneplus an e?perience, Iigh0ay Patrol o""icer s obser.ation o" the ,e"en,ant sitting up close to the steering 0heel0hich the o""icer recogni;e, as so(ething an i(paire, ,ri.er ,oes- 0as su""icient to corroborate secon,%han, 3&
in"or(ation concerning ,e"en,ant s *erratic dri!ing/ "ro( Oontana Depart(ent o" +ransportation e(ployeesCusti"ying the stop o" the ,e"en,ant s car. (United States $# Fernande53Casti""o (&th Cir. 2003) 323 B.3r, 1113.) 0eh! Code 2#13!2) Vehicle tops 'n!ol!ing *gricultural 'rrigation upplies) Su4d! +a,+1,) A peace o""icer (ay stop any .ehicle transporting agricultural irrigation supplies that are in plain .ie0 "or the purpose o" inspecting the bills o" la,ingshipping- or ,eli.ery papers- or other e.i,ence- to ,eter(ine 0hether the ,ri.er is in legal possession o" the loa,- 0hene.er the .ehicle is on an unpa.e, roa, 0ithin the Curis,iction o" the Depart(ent o" ParFs an, Recreationthe Depart(ent o" Bish W La(e- the Depart(ent o" Borestry an, Bire Protection- the State 7an,s Co((issiona regional parF ,istrict- the 4.S. Borest Ser.ice- or the Gureau o" 7an, Oanage(ent- or is in a ti(berlan, pro,uction ;one. Su4d! +a,+2,) 1" there is a *reasonable belief/ that the ,ri.er o" a .ehicle is not in legal possession o" the loa,- the peace o""icer *shall/ taFe custo,y o" the loa, an, turn it o.er to the sheri"" "or in.estigation. Su4d! +4,) the Sheri"" is therea"ter responsible "or the *care an, sa"eFeeping/ o" the apprehen,e, (aterials- an, "or its *legal ,isposition/ an, any resulting in.estigation. Su4d! +c,) Any e?pense incurre, by the sheri"" is a *legal charge against the county./ Su4ds! +d, W +e,) 1" the ,ri.er is in .iolation o" 0!C! 12)33 (,ri.ing 0ithout a .ali, license)- the peace o""icer 0ho (aFes the stop shall (aFe a reasonable atte(pt to i,enti"y the registere, o0ner o" the .ehicle an, release the .ehicle to hi( or her. 1(poun,(ent o" the .ehicle is prohibite, i" the ,ri.er s only o""ense is 0!C! 12)33. Su4d! +f,) **gricultural irrigation supplies/ inclu,e agricultural irrigation 0ater bla,,er an, one%hal" inch ,ia(eter or greater irrigation line.
$0
Su4d! +5,: A county boar, o" super.isors (ust a,opt a resolution be"ore this section (ay be i(ple(ente, in a particular county. +ote) +he state, purpose o" the abo.e statute is to assist la0 en"orce(ent in the co(bating o" illegal (ariCuana culti.ation sites in state parFs an, other resource lan,s ,ue to the negati.e en.iron(ental e""ects o" such gro0s (but not necessarily Cust because illegal gro0s are a ba, thing). (Stats 2312, ch 3"3.) &ommunity &areta?ing (unction) Although the *community careta?ing function/ (ay Custi"y a tra""ic stop- it 0ill ,o so only 0hen an o""icer is acting reasonably in ,eter(ining that an occupant s sa"ety or 0el"are is at risF. ()eop"e $# %adrid (200#) 15# Cal.App.3th 10$0: see also Cad& $# Dom.ro,s(i (1&23) 313 4.S. 333 632 7.8,.2n, 2059.) Per the %adrid Court (at pg. 10$&- citing -ri1ht $# State (+e?.Cri(.App. 1&&&) 2 S.E.3r, 13#- 1$1% 1$2: an, Cor.in $# State (+e?.Cri(.App. 2002) #$ S.E.3r, 222.)- "our "actors are to be consi,ere, in ,eter(ining 0hether the o""icer s actions are reasonable- 0ith the (ost 0eight going to the "irst) +he nature an, le.el o" the ,istress e?hibite, by the in,i.i,ual: +he location o" the in,i.i,ual: Ehether or not the in,i.i,ual 0as alone an,Nor ha, access to assistance in,epen,ent o" that o""ere, by the o""icer: an, +o 0hat e?tent the in,i.i,ualPi" not assiste,Ppresente, a ,anger to hi(sel" or others.
Par?ing Tic?ets) Eriting a parFing ticFet Custi"ies a te(porary ,etention o" the .ehicle s occupant. +he "act that parFing ticFets are subCect to ci.il penalties only an, go.erne, by ci.il a,(inistrati.e proce,ures is irrele.ant. ()eop"e $# ennett (July 21- 2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th &02: citing -hren $# $1
United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9: an, United States $# Choudhr& (&th Cir. 2005) 351 B.3r, 10&2.) <ang6Related 'n!estigations) Seeing three .ehicles 0ith "our GlacF (ale occupants eachone o" the occupants 0ho is Fno0n to be a gang (e(ber,ri.ing as i" in (ilitary "or(ation at 12)30 at night- hours a"ter a prior gang shooting- the .ehicles being in one o" the 0arring GlacF gang s territory- hel, to be insufficient to Custi"y a stop an, ,etention. ()eop"e $# 0ester (2003) 11& Cal.App.3th 325- 3#$%3&2.) +arcotics6Related Traffic tops #sing a *&ontrolled Tire Deflation De!ice/ (*&TDD/)) +he use o" a *controlled tire deflation de!ice/ to stop a .ehicle suspecte, o" being use, to s(uggle controlle, substances o.er the 4SNOe?ico bor,er hel, to be a ,etention only (thus re@uiring only a reasonable suspicion) an, not e?cessi.e "orce un,er the circu(stances. (United States $# Gu5man3)adi""a (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, #5$.) +ote) +he *controlle, tire ,e"lation ,e.ice-/ or *C+DD-/ is an accor,ion%liFe tray containing s(allhollo0 steel tubes that puncture the tires o" a passing .ehicle an, cause a gra,ual release o" airbringing the .ehicle to a halt 0ithin a @uarter to hal" a (ile. &hec?ing the Vehicle for a =anted uspect) +o ser.e a 0arrant- the o""icer nee, only Fno0 that the registere, o0ner has one outstan,ing an, (ay stop the .ehicle e.en 0ithout seeing the ,ri.er or the .ehicle s occupants. ()eop"e $# Domin:ue5 (1&#2) 1&3 Cal.App.3, 131$- 1312%131#: )eop"e $# -i""iams (1&&$) 33 Cal.App.3th 352- 325.) ,ista?e of "aw !s2 ,ista?e of (act) An o""icer (aFing a tra""ic stop base, upon a (isapprehension o" the law- (i.e.- a *mista?e of law/)- e.en i" reasonable- is an illegal stop. (United States $# 2ope53 Soto (&th Cir. 2000) 20$ B.3r, 1101: United States $# %ora"es (&th Cir. 2001) 2$2 B.3r, 1020- 1023- "n. 3.) $2
As a general rule- a (istaFe o" la0- 0hether reasonable or not- cannot be the basis "or "in,ing probable cause or a reasonable suspicion. ()eop"e $# Teresins(i (1&#2) 30 Cal.3r, #22: in.ol.ing an o""icer s (istaFen belie" that a cur"e0 .iolation applie,. *Courts on strong policy groun,s ha.e generally re"use, to e?cuse a police o""icer s (istaFe o" la0./ (Id.- at p. #31.) See )eop"e $# -hite (2003) 102 Cal.App.3th 535533%533: police o""icer una0are that Ari;ona ,i, not re@uire a "ront license plate: stop illegal. +here is so(e authority to the contrary. ()eop"e $# G"ic( (1&##) 203 Cal.App.3r, 2&5.) Gut this is base, upon an unusual "act situation: i.e.- Cali"ornia police o""icer ,i, not Fno0 that Je0 Jersey ,oesn t re@uire registration sticFers on their license plates. +his is a (inority opinion that (ost courts 0ill not "ollo0. An o""icer s (istaFe o" la0: i.e.- his belie" that GaCa Cali"ornia- Oe?ico- re@uire, (otorists to a""i? a registration sticFer on the car so that it 0oul, be .isible "ro( the rear o" the .ehicle (the registration sticFer is actually suppose, to be a""i?e, to the .ehicle s 0in,shiel,) resulte, in a tra""ic stop (a,e 0ithout the necessary reasonable suspicion. +he resulting e.i,ence- there"ore- shoul, ha.e been suppresse,. (United States $# 2ope53Soto (&th Cir. 2000) 20$ B.3r, 1101.) See United States $# T,i""e& (&th Cir. 2000) 222 B.3r, 10&2: Cali"ornia police o""icer (istaFenly belie.e, that Oichigan re@uire, t0o plates. An o""icer s (isapprehension that a person crossing the street other than in a cross 0alF 0as in .iolation o" 0!C! 21")4+a,- ,i, not Custi"y a ,etention to cite "or that o""ense 0hen it is later hel, that the section ,i, not apply. ()eop"e $# Ramire5 (2005) 130 Cal.App.3th #3&.)
$3
An o""icer s (istaFen belie" that ,e"en,ant s .ehicle- 0ith no "ront license plate- .iolate, Cali"ornia la0 (i.e.- 0!C! )232)- because it ,i,n t ha.e a "ront license plate but ha, a .ali, rear Blori,a license plate- 0hen unFno0n to the o""icer Blori,a ,oes not issue t0o license plates to auto(obiles- 0as an ine?cusable (istaFe o" la0. ()eop"e $# Re&es (2011) 1&5 Cal.App.3th #$5.) $ut- an o""icer (aFing a tra""ic stop base, upon a *mista?e of fact-/ *held reasonably and in good faith-/ 0ill not in.ali,ate the stop. Sheri"" s ,eputies stopping ,e"en,ants car base, upon a co(puter checF in,icating that the .ehicle s registration ha, e?pire,- 0hen in "act the registration ha, alrea,y been rene0e,. Absent so(e reason to belie.e that the co(puter in"or(ation 0as not accurate- the stop 0as hel, to be la0"ul. (United States $# %i1ue" (&th Cir. 2003) 35# B.3r, 11$0.) A (issing rear license plate an, no .isible te(porary registration ,isplaye, in the rear 0in,o0- e.en though the te(porary registration is later "oun, to be in the "ront 0in,shiel,- but not .isible to the o""icer co(ing up behin, the .ehicleis su""icient reasonable suspicion to Custi"y a tra""ic stop. (In re Ra&mond C# (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 303.) As note, in "n. 2) *A te(porary per(it is to be place, in the lo0er rear 0in,o0. Io0e.er- i" it 0oul, be obscure, there- it (ay be place, in the lo0er right corner o" either the 0in,shiel, or a si,e 0in,o0./ (D%9 0and.oo( o' Re1istration )rocedures (!ct. 2002) ch. 2- V 2.020- p. 2.) An o""icer stopping a .ehicle "or ha.ing illegally tinte, 0in,o0s- 0hen the Plainti"" alleges that the 0in,o0s 0ere rolle, ,o0n an, not .isible to the o""icer- is- at best- an unreasonable (istaFe o" "actan, ,oes not pro.i,e the o""icer 0ith @uali"ie, i((unity "ro( ci.il liability. (2i.era" $# Estrada (&th Cir. 2011) 532 B.3r, 1053- 1022%102#.) $3
Pretext tops) A *pretext stop/ is one 0here la0 en"orce(ent o""icers stop a .ehicle usually "or so(e (inor tra""ic in"raction but 0here the o""icers true (oti.ation is actually to in.estigate so(e (ore serious o""ense "or 0hich there is no reasonable suspicion. A prior three%0ay split o" opinion on the legality o" such a practice 0as "inally resol.e, by the 4.S. Supre(e Court in -hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9- uphol,ing the legality o" such a practice. (See also )eop"e $# Gome5 (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $31- $32: an, )eop"e $# Ga""ardo (200$) 130 Cal.App.3th 233.) Per -hren- so long as there is so(e la0"ul Custi"ication "or (aFing the stop- the o""icers sub%ecti!e moti!ations are irrele.ant. (I.id: see also United States $# %iranda3 Guerena (&th Cir. 2005) 33$ B.3r, 1233.) -hren is base, upon the 4nite, States Constitution s Fourth Amendment- preclu,ing a state s atte(pt to i(pose a stricter stan,ar, upon la0 en"orce(ent- unless the state chooses to e(ploy its o0n Constitution (un,er the theory o" *independent state grounds/) (Ar(ansas $# Su""i$an (2001) $32 4.S. 25& 613& 7.8,.2n, &&39.): an alternati.e 0hich is not a.ailable in Cali"ornia since passage o" (ro-osition #- in June-1&#2- the so%calle, *Truth in E!idence/ initiati.e. +he *pretext stop/ theory o" -hren $# United States applies to ci.il parFing .iolations as 0ell as any cri(inal .iolation. (United States $# Choudhr& (&th Cir. 2005) 351 B.3r, 10&2.) Exceptions) +he theory o" -hren is not 0ithout its li(itations. Bor e?a(ple) Ehen the prete?t use, "or (aFing a stop is to con,uct an *administrati!e search-/ such as inspecting the licensing o" a ta?icab- per local or,inance- or an in.entory .ehicle search- (aFing a tra""ic stop is unla0"ul- an, any ,irect pro,ucts o" that stop are subCect to suppression. ()eop"e $# 9a"en5ue"a (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 1202: -hren $# United States, supra, at pp. #11%#12- 613$ 7.8,.2n, at p. &29.)
$$
An o""icer s intent to use the i(poun,(ent o" a .ehicle ,ri.en by an unlicense, ,e"en,ant an, an in.entory search as a prete?t to looF "or narcotics% relate, e.i,ence 0as "oun, not to co(e 0ithin the legally recogni;e, groun,s "or i(poun,ing .ehicles pursuant to la0 en"orce(ent s co((unity caretaFing "unction. 1n.entory searches being an e?ception to the rule o" -hren- the o""icer s subCecti.e intent in i(poun,ing ,e"en,ant s car 0as hel, to be rele.ant. ()eop"e $# Torres (2010) 1## Cal.App.3th 22$- 2#$%2&3.) Ehen a stop or search is not a *run6of6the6mine/ case- such as *cases 0here Asearches or sei;ures 60ere9 con,ucte, in an e?traor,inary (annerusually har("ul to an in,i.i,ual s pri.acy or e.en physical interestsPsuch as- "or e?a(plesei;ure by (eans o" ,ea,ly "orce- unannounce, entry into a ho(e- entry into a ho(e 0ithout a 0arrant- or physical penetration o" the bo,y. (Citing -hren $# United States- supraat p. #1#.)/ (United States $# I.arra (&th Cir. 2003) 33$ B.3r, 211- 21$.) +he theory o" -hren is li(ite, to those circu(stances 0here a police o""icer is a0are o" "acts that 0oul, support an arrest. *(A)lthough -hren stan,s "or the proposition that a prete?tual sei;ure base, on the illegiti(ate subCecti.e intentions o" an o""icer (ay be per(issible- it ,oes not alter the "act that the prete?t itsel" (ust be a constitutionally su""icient basis "or the sei;ure an, the "acts supporting it (ust be Fno0n at the ti(e it is con,ucte,./ (%oreno $# aca (&th Cir. 200$) 331 B.3r, 533- 530: "in,ing that a belate,ly ,isco.ere, arrest 0arrant an, parole search con,itions ,i, not Custi"y a ,etention an, search.) Contrary to the general rule- an o""icer s (oti.ations "or con,ucting a search do (atter in t0o li(ite, situations: i.e.- in *special needs/ an, *administrati!e search/ cases. (United States $# %cCart& (&th Cir. Sep. &- 2011) 2011 4.S. App. 78T1S 1##23 6.acate, an, re(an,e,9: chil, pornography obser.e, ,uring a la0"ul +SA a,(inistrati.e search (ay la0"ully be use, to establish probable cause to arrest.) $5
!n re(an,- ,e"en,ant s (otion to suppress 0as ,enie, at United States $# %cCart& (2011) #3$ B.Supp.2n, &3#. An, @uery) Does -hren .ali,ate a tra""ic stop 0hen the o""icer s real (oti.ation is base, upon prohibite, *racial profilingM/ +he ans0er has to be: +oX Galancing the constitutional principles in.ol.e, (e.g.- 14th Amendment an, Calif! Const! Art I, 1, 1)- e@ual protection an, due process)- an, the state an, "e,eral statutes the o""icer 0oul, be .iolating (1# !S!C! 241, 242: 42 !S!C! 1"#3: (!C! 422!2+a,- 13)1"!4: an, C!C! )2!1)- a court 0ill not liFely uphol, such a stop. (See also a"u&ut $# Superior Court (1&&5) 12 Cal.3th #25: e@ual protection: an, Shapiro $# Thompson (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 51# 622 7.8,.2n, 5009: ,iscri(ination (ay be so arbitrary an, inCurious as to be ,ee(e, a due process .iolation. +he Supre(e Court itsel"- in -hrenspeci"ically note, that: *Ee o" course agree 0ith petitioners that the Constitution prohibits selecti.e en"orce(ent o" the la0 base, on consi,erations such as race./ (-hren $# United States, supraat p. #13 613$ 7.8,.2n, at p. &#9.) Discri(ination by la0 en"orce(ent o""icers base, upon a person s race in the pro.i,ing o" both protecti.e an, non%protecti.e ser.ices is a constitutional e@ual protection .iolation. (Ae *a E""iot3)ar( $# %an1"ona (&th Cir. 2010) $&2 B.3r, 1003.) Such *racial profiling/ 0oul, be a Fourteenth Amendment *due process/ .iolation. (I.id.: see also United States $# I.arra (&th Cir. 2003) 33$ B.3r, 211- 213.)
$2
,otor Vehicle Passengers) To *rrest a Passenger) +he stop o" the ,e"en,ant s car upon obser.ing a passenger in the car "or 0hich there 0as a Fno0n outstan,ing arrest 0arrant 0as uphel,. Ehen the stop re.eale, the ,e"en,antN,ri.er 0as in possession o" a billy club- the o""icer la0"ully arreste, hi( as 0ell. (In re -i""iam *# (1&#$) 121 Cal.App.3r, 22.) *A (o(entary stop o" an auto(obile by police to in.estigate a passenger reasonably belie.e, to be in.ol.e, in a past cri(e is proper. 1t creates a (ini(al incon.enience to the ,ri.er o" that auto(obile- 0hen balance, against the go.ern(entDs interest in apprehen,ing cri(inals./ (Id.- at p. 22.) To Detain a Passenger) 1s a passenger in a .ehicle 0hen the ,ri.er is stoppe, an, ,etaine, also subCect to being ,etaine,- thus i(plicating the passenger s pri.acy rightsM +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has recently re.erse, the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court on this issue an, hel, that at least in a pri.ate (otor .ehicle (as oppose, to a ta?i- bus- or other co((on carrier)- the passenger- by .irtue o" being in a .ehicle stoppe, "or a possible tra""ic in"raction- is in "act ,etaine,gi.ing hi( the right to challenge the legality o" the tra""ic stop. ( rend"in $# Ca"i'ornia (2002) $$1 4.S. 23& 6122 S.Ct. 2300: 15# 7.8,.2n, 1329.) +he test is 0hether- *in .ie0 o" all o" the circu(stances surroun,ing the inci,ent- a reasonable person 0oul, ha.e belie.e, that he 0as not "ree to lea.e./ !r- in the case 0here the person has no ,esire to lea.e*0hether Aa reasonable person 0oul, "eel "ree to ,ecline the o""icers re@uests or other0ise ter(inate the encounter. /
(127 .Ct.! at ((. 240%52406.)
1" the ,ri.er is stoppe, "or a tra""ic%relate, o""ense- a *passenger 0ill e?pect to be subCect to so(e scrutiny- an, his atte(pt to $#
lea.e the scene 0oul, be so ob.iously liFely to pro(pt an obCection "ro( the o""icer that no passenger 0oul, "eel "ree to lea.e in the "irst place./ 1" the ,ri.er is stoppe, "or so(ething unrelate, to his ,ri.ing- a *passenger 0ill reasonably "eel subCect to suspicion o0ning to close association/ 0ith the ,ri.er. (127 .Ct.! at (. 2407.) +his ,ecision is in accor, 0ith the (aCority o" prior cases that ha.e consi,ere, this issue. (See )eop"e $# e"" (1&&5) 33 Cal.App.3th 2$3: see also )eop"e $# Grant (1&&0) 212 Cal.App.3r, 13$1- 1350: )eop"e $# 0unt (1&&0) 22$ Cal.App.3r, 3&#- $0$: )eop"e $# 2ion.er1er (1&#5) 1#$ Cal.App.3r, Supp. 1- $: an, )eop"e $# 2amont (2003) 12$ Cal.App.3th 303: United States $# T,i""e& (&th Cir. 2000) 222 B.3r, 10&2- 10&$: United States $# E&"icio3 %onto&a (10th Cir. 1&&$) 20 B.3r, 11$#1153: United States $# /im.a"" (1st Cir. 1&&3) 2$ B.3r, 1- $%5: United States $# Ro.erson ($th Cir. 1&&3) 5 B.3r, 10##- 10&1: United States $# Rusher (3th Cir. 1&&2) &55 B.2n, #5#- #23- "n. 3.) Jote also that e.en i" the passenger is illegally ,etaine,- any e.i,ence reco.ere, "ro( the .ehicle- i" not the pro,uct o" the illegal ,etention- 0ill be a,(issible. (United States $# )u""iam (&th Cir. 200$) 30$ B.3r, 2#2- 2#2: a .ehicle search 0as ,one in,epen,ent o" the ,e"en,ant s ,etention.) Although rend"in- on its "ace- appears to ,eal only 0ith the right (i.e.- *standing/) o" the passenger to challenge the legality o" the tra""ic stop ( rend"in $# Ca"i'orniasupra.- at pp. 2$5%2$&.)- an, 0as not inten,e, as authority "or the continue, ,etention o" a passenger 0ho (ight choose to 0alF a0ay- the 4.S. Supre(e Court subse@uently rule, @uite clearly that *(t)he police nee, not ha.e- in a,,itioncause to belie.e any occupant o" the (la0"ully stoppe,) .ehicle is in.ol.e, in cri(inal acti.ity/ to Custi"y a continue, ,etention "or the ,uration o" the $&
tra""ic stop. (Ari5ona $# *ohnson (200&) $$$ 4.S. 323 6122 7.8,.2n, 5&39.) *lso: *+he te(porary sei;ure o" ,ri.er an, passengers or,inarily continues- an, re(ains reasonable- "or the ,uration o" the stop./ (Id.- at p. 32$.) An, then) *(A) tra""ic stop o" a car co((unicates to a reasonable passenger that he or she is not "ree to ter(inate the encounter 0ith the police an, (o.e about at 0ill./ (I.id.) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court is in apparent agree(ent 0ith this interpretation- hol,ing that upon or,ering the passenger out o" the .ehicle: *there is a social e?pectation o" un@uestione, police co((an,- 0hich is at o,,s 0ith any notion that a passenger 0oul, "eel "ree to lea.e 0ithout a,.ance per(ission./ ()eop"e $# 0o&os (2002) 31 Cal.3th #22- #&2%#&3: brie"- one%(inute ,etentionnecessitate, "or purposes o" o""icer sa"ety- hel, to be la0"ul.) Shoul, a,,itional Custi"ication be re@uire, to continue the ,etention o" a passenger- prior case la0 notes that the ,etention can be Custi"ie, by a sho0ing that the passenger is in *close association/ 0ith persons (e.g.- the ,ri.er) reasonably suspecte, o" illegal acti.ity. ()eop"e $# Samp"es (1&&5) 3# Cal.App.3th 11&2.) !ther0ise- there (ust at least be so(e reason "or the o""icer to belie.e that his sa"ety 0ill be place, in Ceopar,y in or,er to Custi"y a re"usal to allo0 a passenger to 0alF a0ay "ro( a tra""ic stop. (See )eop"e $# 9i.anco (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th 1: an, *;rdering 'n-/ belo0.) ;rdering ;ut) +he la0 is clear that upon (aFing a la0"ul tra""ic stop- the dri!er (ay be or,ere, out o" the .ehicle 0ithout the nee, "or the o""icer to Custi"y 0hy. ()enns&"$ania $# %imms (1&22) 333 4.S. 105- 111 6$3 7.8,.2n, 331- 3329: )eop"e $# E$ans (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 23$- 233.) 50
Although pre.iously subCect to a split o" opinionthe 4.S. Supre(e Court has rule, that the sa(e rules apply to passengers other than the ,ri.er. 1" anything- the nee, to protect the sa"ety o" the o""icers is e.en greater 0hen he (ust ,eal 0ith (ore than Cust a lone ,ri.er. (%ar&"and $# -i"son (1&&2) $1& 4.S. 30# 6132 7.8,.2n, 319: see also Ru$a"cata $# Cit& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 1&&$) 53 B.3r, 1323.) Prior state la0 0as leaning in that ,irection any0ayallo0ing ,ri.ers an, passengers to be or,ere, out o" a .ehicle 0ith .ery little cause) +o corroborate the ,ri.er s i,entity- an, "or o""icer s sa"ety. ()eop"e $# %a!,e"" (1&##) 205 Cal.App.3r, 1003- 100&.) Ehere there is a legiti(ate nee, to search the .ehicle. ()eop"e $# -e.ster (1&&1) $3 Cal.3r, 311.) 7ess Custi"ication than is nee,e, "or a pat,o0n 0ill 0arrant the or,ering o" a passenger out o" a .ehicle. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Simon7 (1&22) 2 Cal.3r, 1#5- 205- "n. 13.) Citing %imms an, -i"son- the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court has cite, 0ith appro.al *an o""icer s authority to or,er a passenger to e?it a .ehicle ,uring a tra""ic stop as a (atter o" course./ ()eop"e $# Saunders (2005) 3# Cal.3th 112&- 1133.) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court has "urther hel, that it is also la0"ul to continue to ,etain the passenger "or *at least as long as reasonably necessary "or the o""icer to co(plete the acti.ity the (la0"ul or,ering out o" the car) conte(plates./ ()eop"e $# 0o&os (2002) 31 Cal.3th #22- #&2%#&3.) ;rdering 'n) A police o""icer (ay re@uire the dri!er to re(ain in his or her .ehicle. ()enns&"$ania $# %imms, supra2) 51
4n,er the sa(e rationale- so(e "e,eral courts ha.e rule, that an o""icer (ay or,er a passenger to re(ain in the .ehicle- at least 0here the passenger has not e?presse, an intent to si(ply lea.e the scene- or 0hen the passenger is inter"ering 0ith the o""icer s contact 0ith the ,ri.er. (Ro1a"a $# District o' Co"um.ia (D.C. Cir. 1&&#) 151 B.3r, 33: United States $# %oore'ie"d (3r, Cir. 1&&2) 111 B.3r, 10- 13.) +he Jinth Circuit is in accor,- "in,ing that the o""icer s sa"ety out0eighs the (ini(al intrusion in.ol.e, in (aintaining the status @uo by returning the passenger to 0here he 0as in the car. (United States $# -i""iams (&th Cir. 200$) 31& B.3r, 102&.) See also Id.- at p. 1032- "n. 2- "or a list o" state cases (other than Cali"ornia) that are in accor,. See also )eop"e $# Caste""on (1&&&) 25 Cal.App.3th 135&- uphol,ing the o""icer s or,er to a passenger to re(ain in the .ehicle) *(E)e 0ill not secon,% guess (the o""icer s) reasonable in%the%"iel, call: it 0as "or the o""icer to ,eci,e 0hether his personal sa"ety 0as better preser.e, by or,ering Castellon to stay insi,e the car or by or,ering hi( out o" the .ehicle./ Gut see )eop"e $# Gon5a"e5 (1&&2) 2 Cal.App.3th 3#1- 0here or,ering a passenger bacF into a .ehicle 0as hel, to be an unla0"ul ,etention. 1n light o" Caste""on an, -i""iams- supra- it can be argue, that Gon5a"e5 is a minority opinionan, probably not a correct state(ent o" the la0. Gon5a"e5 0as also critici;e, as no longer goo, la0 in )eop"e $# 9i.anco (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th 1- at p. 11- 0here the court speci"ically hel, that) *+he possibility o" a .iolent encounter is liFely to be e.en greater still 0hen one or (ore o" the passengers in a stoppe, car atte(pts to lea.e 0hile others stay in the car-/ an, that *-i"son can there"ore reasonably be interprete, to allo0 o""icers as a (atter o" course 52
to or,er a passenger or passengers either to get out o" the car or to re(ain in the car ,uring a la0"ul tra""ic stop i" the o""icers ,ee( it necessary "or o""icer sa"ety./ An, see *To Detain a Passenger-/ abo.e. Demanding 'dentification) +he abo.e case la0- ho0e.er ,oes not ans0er the @uestion 0hether an o""icer (ay *demand/ that the passenger i,enti"y hi(sel". An o""icer (ay certainly *as?/ "or i,enti"ication- so long as he un,erstan,s that the passenger (ay re"use. (See /o"ender $# 2a,son (1&#3) 351 4.S. 3$2 62$ 7.8,.2n, &039: ro,n $# Te!as (1&2&) 333 4.S. 32- $2 651 7.8,.2n, 3$29: United States $# Dia53Castaneda (&th Cir. 2002) 3&3 B.3r, 113511$2%11$3.) Gut in light o" the case la0- abo.e- to the e""ect that the passenger is in "act ,etaine, along 0ith the ,ri.er (see rend"in $# Ca"i'ornia (2002) $$1 4.S. 23& 6122 S.Ct. 2300: 15# 7.8,.2n, 1329.)- there s an argu(ent that the o""icer (ay also re@uire the passenger to i,enti"y hi(sel". (See 0ii.e" $# Si!th *udicia" District Court o' Ne$ada (2003) $32 4.S. 122 61$& 7.8,.2n, 2&29.) +here s Cust no case ,irectly on point yet. Euery) 1s it not also arguable that a person ,etaine, base, upon a reasonable suspicion that he is in.ol.e, in cri(inal acti.ity- per Terr& $# Ohio- supra.- is ,i""erent than a person ,etaine, (erely by .irtue o" being a passenger in a stoppe, (otor .ehicle- per rend"in $# Ca"i'ornia- supraM Ehile the "or(er (ay be re@uire, to i,enti"y hi(sel"the sa(e rule (ight not apply to the later. (See Stu''"e.eam $# 0arris (&th Cir. 200#) $21 B.3r, ##3: "in,ing the arrest o" a passenger 0ho re"use, to i,enti"y hi(sel" to be illegal: ,eci,e, a"ter rend"in- but "ailing to (ention the case.) See *Demanding identification-/ belo0. 53
(light) Ehile the *flight/ o" the dri!er o" a .ehicle pro.i,es probable cause to arrest "or .arious 0ehicle Code .iolations (8.g.- 0!C! 2#33 et se*!)- an, a dri!er 0ho is subCect to citation (ay not a.oi, the citation by "leeing on "oot (see (!C! 14#+a,)- 0hat i" the passenger- "or 0ho( there is no connection 0ith any illegal acti.ity- chooses to e?it the .ehicle an, runM +he long%stan,ing rule has al0ays been that *flight alone-/ 0ithout other suspicious circu(stances- is not su""icient Custi"ication "or a ,etention. ()eop"e $# Sou5a (1&&3) & Cal.3th 223.) Io0e.er- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court recently lo0ere, the bar a little by hol,ing that "light "ro( a so%calle, *high narcotics area/ is su""icient in itsel" to Custi"y a te(porary ,etention. (I""inois $# -ard"o, (2000) $2# 4.S. 11& 613$ 7.8,.2n, $209.) Blight o" t0o people is (ore suspicious than one. A,, to this the "act that there appeare, to be ,rug paraphernalia on a table 0here the t0o persons ha, been sitting- an, that the ,e"en,ant 0as carrying so(ething in his han, as he "le,: the o""icer ha, su""icient reasonable suspicion to ,etain hi(. ()eop"e $# ritton (2001) &1 Cal.App.3th 1112111#%111&.) An, see *;rdering 'n-/ abo.e. earch 'ncident to &itation) Although a tra""ic citation is technically an arrest and release on one s pro(ise to appear- it is treate, by the courts as a temporary detention only. +e(porary ,etentions ,o not inclu,e the po0er to con,uct a search. +here"ore- it is not constitutionally per(issible to con,uct a non% consensual search o" a .ehicle inci,ent to a citation- e.en i" authori;e, by statute. (/no,"es $# Io,a (1&&#) $2$ 4.S. 113 6132 7.8,.2n, 3&29.) +ote) Cali"ornia has no such statute si(ilar to 1o0a s. A *search incident to arrest/ (see belo0) re@uires the transportation o" the arrestee as a prere@uisite to a searchabsent probable cause to belie.e there is so(ething illegal to sei;e. (United States $# Ro.inson (1&23) 313 4.S. 21# 63# 7.8,.2n, 3229: )eop"e $# risendine (1&2$) 13 Cal.3r, 53
$2#: United States $# %oto (&th Cir. 1&&3) &#2 B.2n, 13#3.) Eriting a person a tra""ic citation- o" course- ,oes not nor(ally in.ol.e the transportation o" the person 0ho is cite,. Ie is there"ore not subCect to search base, upon the 0riting o" a tra""ic ticFet alone. A tra""ic stop "or an e@uip(ent .iolation in a *high crime/ (i.e.- gang) area at night is not reasonable suspicion su""icient to Custi"y a ,etention or pat,o0n "or 0eapons. ()eop"e $# %edina (2003) 110 Cal.App.3th 121.) Gut see )eop"e $# %c/a& (2002) 22 Cal.3th 501- 502%51&- a .iolation o" 0!C! 212)3!1 (ri,ing a bicycle on the 0rong si,e o" the street): an, )eop"e $# Gome5 (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $31- $3#%$3&- seat belt .iolation) 4.S. Supre(e Court ,ecisions ha.e hel, that a (ere .iolation o" state statutory restrictions on (aFing a custo,ial arrest "or a (inor cri(inal o""ense (e.g.- (ere tra""ic in"raction) ,oes not (ean that the Fourth Amendment 0as also .iolate,. (See At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista (2001) $32 4.S. 31# 613& 7.8,.2n, $3&9: )eop"e $# Ga""ardo (200$) 130 Cal.App.3th 233- 23&- "n. 1: )eop"e $# ennett (July 212011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th &02- &1#.) Absent a constitutional Fourth Amendment .iolation- e.i,ence that is the pro,uct o" a state statutory .iolation is not subCect to suppression. To 'dentify a uspect in a &riminal ;ffense) Stopping an, ,etaining a suspect in a cri(inal o""ense- 0hen balancing la0 en"orce(ent s interest in i,enti"ying cri(inal suspects 0ith the suspect s interest in personal security "ro( go.ern(ent intrusion- is la0"ul. (United States $# 0ens"e& (1&#$) 35& 4.S. 221 6#3 7.8.2n, 5039: a robbery.) +he sa(e is not true in the case o" a (is,e(eanor- noise .iolationnot occurring in the o""icer s presence- at least 0here there are possible alternati.e- less intrusi.e (etho,s- o" i,enti"ying the suspect. Stopping the suspect s .ehicle to i,enti"y hi( hel, to be illegal. (United States $# Gri11 (&th Cir. 2002) 3&# B.3r, 1020.) Detention of a Person to Determine &itizenship) 4nliFe (aFing illegal entry- the (ere unauthori;e, presence in the 4nite, States is not a cri(e. Stopping an, ,etaining in,i.i,uals base, solely on their apparent ethnicity to ,eter(ine 0hether they are in the country illegally is an illegal ,etention. (de *esus 5$
Orte1a %e"endres $# Arpaio (&th Cir. 2012) 5&$ B.3r, &&0- &&&% 1002: citing %artine53%edina $# 0o"der (&th Cir. 2011) 523 B.3r, 102&- 1035.) Detention of Residents (or +on6Resident) During the Execution of a earch =arrant) +he occupants o" a resi,ence (ay be ,etaine, ,uring the e?ecution o" a search 0arrant e.en though they ,i, not (atch the ,escription o" the suspects (e.g.- Caucasian instea, o" A"rican%A(erican) belie.e, to be li.ing there at the ti(e. (2os An1e"es Count& $# Rette"e (2002) $$0 4.S. 50& 6152 7.8,.2n, &239: the court noting that until the rest o" the house is checFe, "or the suspects- other occupants (ay be ,etaine,.) 1t 0as "urther hel, that 0ith Fno0le,ge that one o" the sought%"or suspects ha, a "irear( registere, to hi(- the ,etainees coul, be hel, at gunpoint until the rest o" the house coul, be checFe,- e.en though the ,etainees 0ere unclothe, at the ti(e. 1t 0as not necessary to allo0 the ,etainees to co.er us until o""icers sa"ety coul, be assure,. (I.id.) See also %ueh"er $# %ena (200$) $33 4.S. &3 6151 7.8,.2n, 2&&9: ,etention o" a resi,ent la0"ul 0hile e.i,ence in a gang shooting case is looFe, "or- at least i" not *prolonged./ A non%resi,ent (ay also be ,etaine, 0hen he co(es upon the scene ,uring the e?ecution o" a search 0arrant an, there is e.i,ence connecting hi( to the illegal acti.ity at the location o" the search. (United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 200#) $30 B.3r, 105&10#0%10#1.) A probation o""icer (ay la0"ully ,etain a .isitor in a house 0ho is present in the house o" a Cu.enile probationer ,uring a Fourth 0a.ier search long enough to ,eter(ine 0hether he is an resi,ent o" the house or is other0ise connecte, to illegal acti.ity. ()eop"e $# Rios (2011) 1&3 Cal.App.3th $#3- $&3%$&$.) +he Court "urther ,eter(ine, that a probation o""icer has the legal authority to ,etain an, pat,o0n a non%probationer pursuant to (!C! #33!)+a,+4, (i.e.: en"orcing *.iolations o" any penal pro.isions o" la0 0hich are ,isco.ere, 0hile per"or(ing the usual or authori;e, ,uties o" his or her e(ploy(ent./) (Id- at p. 500.) 55
Prolonged Detentions) A tra""ic stop (or any other ,etention) 0hich is reasonable in its inception (ay beco(e unreasonable i" prolonge, beyon, that point reasonably necessary "or the o""icer to co(plete the original purposes o" the ,etention. ()eop"e $# %cGau1hran (1&2&) 2$ Cal.3r, $22.) +his 0ill necessarily inclu,e the ti(e re@uire, to 0rite out the citation an, obtain the o""en,er s pro(ise to appear. 1t 0ill also inclu,e the ti(e it taFes to obtain an, e?a(ine the o""en,er s ,ri.er s license an, registration. *(L)oo, police practice/ (ight also inclu,e the ti(e it taFes to ,iscuss the .iolation 0ith the (otorist an, listen to any e?planation he (ay 0ish to o""er. An, i" the .ehicles are e?pose, to ,anger- the o""icer (ay re@uire the ,ri.er to procee, to a sa"er location be"ore the tra""ic stop is co(plete,. ()eop"e $# Tu""& (2012) $3 Cal.3th &$2- &#0%&#1.) A person (ay be ,etaine, only as long as is reasonably necessary to acco(plish the purpose o" the original stop- possibly e?ten,e, by the ti(e nee,e, to in.estigate any ne0 in"or(ation Custi"ying a "urther ,etention 0hich co(es to light ,uring the original ,etention. ()eop"e $# Russe"" (2000) #1 Cal.App.3th &5- 101.) 8.g.) A *reasonable suspicion/ o" cri(inal acti.ity ,e.elope, ,uring a ,etention that 0as initiate, "or other purposes 0ill Custi"y hol,ing the ,etainee beyon, the ti(e it tooF to acco(plish the original purposes o" the stop. (United States $# Thompson (&th Cir. 2002) 2#2 B.3r, 523: a Coast Luar, boat sa"ety checF ,e.elope, cause to belie.e the subCects 0ere s(uggling ,rugs- Custi"ying a "urther ,etention to in.estigate that possibility.) Detaining the ,e"en,ant "or ten (inutes- until a ra,io checF ca(e bacF that the car 0as stolen- 0as not e?cessi.eparticularly 0hen sy(pto(s o" into?ication 0ere note, ,uring the ten (inutes. ()eop"e $# Carter (200$) 35 Cal.3th 1113- 113&%1132.) Ran,o( 0arrant checFs ,uring routine tra""ic stops are la0"ul- but the subCect (ust be release, 0hen the citation process is co(plete, ()eop"e $# %cGau1hran- supra: see also United States $# 2uc(ett (&th Cir. 1&23) 3#3 B.2n, #&.)- or 0ithin a reasonable ti(e therea"ter. ()eop"e $# ro,n (1&&#) 52 Cal.App.3th 3&3: one (inute ,elay 0hile a0aiting the results o" a 0arrant checF 0as not unreasonable- e.en though the o""icer ne.er 0rote the ticFet.) 52
AsFing ,e"en,ant "or a consent to search- e.en 0ithout any reason to belie.e there 0as anything there to search "or- is la0"ul so long as ,one 0ithin the ti(e it 0oul, ha.e taFen to 0rite the citation 0hich 0as the original cause o" the stop. ()eop"e $# Ga""ardo (200$) 130 Cal.App.3th 233.) +ote) Recent authority has calle, into @uestion the continuing .ali,ity o" %cGau1hran- noting that 4.S. Supre(e Court ,ecisions ha.e hel, that a (ere .iolation o" state statutory restrictions on (aFing a custo,ial arrest "or a (inor cri(inal o""ense (e.g.- (ere tra""ic in"raction) ,oes not (ean that the Fourth Amendment 0as also .iolate,. (See At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista (2001) $32 4.S. 31# 613& 7.8,.2n, $3&9.) Absent a constitutional Fourth Amendment .iolatione.i,ence that is the pro,uct o" a state statutory .iolation is not subCect to suppression. ()eop"e $# %c/a& (2002) 22 Cal.3th 501- 502%51&- a .iolation o" 0!C! 212)3!1 (ri,ing a bicycle in the 0rong ,irection): )eop"e $# Gome5 (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $31- $3#%$30- seat belt .iolation: )eop"e $# ennett (July 21- 2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th &02- &1#.) Gut i" the ,etention is other0ise unla0"ul- such as in a tra""ic stop (a,e 0ithout legal Custi"ication- then continuing to ,etain a person to in.estigate the person s re"usal to stop is also illegal. (2i.era" $# Estrada (&th Cir. 2011) 532 B.3r, 1053- 102&%10#1: hol,ing onto the Plainti"" "or the apparent purpose o" an *attitu,e a,Cust(ent./) State(ents taFen "ro( a ,etaine, cri(inal suspect hel, "or o.er 15 hours 0ithout probable cause to arrest- are subCect to suppression as the pro,uct o" an unla0"ully prolonge, ,etention. ()eop"e $ *en(ins (2003) 122 Cal.App.3th 1150- 1123%112#.) An other0ise la0"ul *?noc? and tal?-/ 0here o""icers continue, to press the ,e"en,ant "or per(ission to enter his apart(ent a"ter his ,enial o" any illegal acti.ity- con.erte, the contact into an unla0"ully *extended/ ,etentioncausing the Court to conclu,e that a later consent%to%search 0as the pro,uct o" the illegal ,etention- an, thus in.ali,. (United States $# -ashin1ton (&th Cir. 2003) 3#2 B.3r, 1050.) Iol,ing onto a suspect (in han,cu""s) "or o.er 3H hours (an, (aybe as long as 5H hours) 0hile narcotics o""icers ,ro.e up to a (ariCuana gro0 an, searche, the area to see i" there 0as any e.i,ence connecting hi( to the gro0- 0as *diligent and reasonable/ un,er 5#
the circu(stances- an, not an illegally prolonge, ,etention. ()eop"e $# -i""iams (2002) 1$5 Cal.App.3th &3&: also "in,ing that the o""icers ha, enough to arrest hi( "ro( the outset ha, they chosen to ,o so.) *"awfully Prolonged Detentions)/ +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has hel, that a (ini(ally prolonge, ,etention (e.g.- a couple o" (inutes)- at least 0hen (oti.ate, by other ne0ly ,isco.ere, in"or(ation e.en though that ne0 in"or(ation by itsel" (ight not constitute a reasonable suspicion- ,oes not (aFe the prolonging o" the ,etention unreasonable. 4n,er such circu(stances- a (ini(ally prolonge, ,etention is not unla0"ul. (United States $# Tur$in et a"# (&th Cir. 200#) $12 B.3r, 10&2.) See also )eop"e $# ro,n (1&&#) 52 Cal.App.3th 3&3- 0here a one (inute ,elay 0hile a0aiting the results o" a 0arrant checF 0as hel, to be reasonable- e.en though the o""icer ne.er 0rote the ticFet. ;!er6Detention in :ail) Another "or( o" illegal ,etention is 0hen a Cail "ails to release a prisoner 0hen he is ,ue to be release,. Such an act potentially constitutes groun,s "or a "e,eral ci.il suit- per 42 !S!C! 1"#3. Io0e.erin or,er to pro.e such a constitutional .iolation- the plainti""Nprisoner (ust be able to pro.e that the ,e"en,ant o""icers personally participate, in his o.er%,etention or that the o.er%,etention 0as the result o" a pattern or custo( on their part o" the ,e"en,ant la0 en"orce(ent agency. (A$a"os $# aca (&th Cir. 2010) $&5 B.3, $#3- $#2.) Enlarging the cope of the ;riginal Detention) 1" the person .oluntarily consents to ha.ing his .ehicle searche, a"ter he is "ree to lea.e- there is no prolonge, ,etention- at least 0here a reasonable person shoul, ha.e un,erstoo, that the purposes o" the tra""ic stop 0ere ,one. +he o""icer is un,er no obligation to a,.ise hi( that he is no longer being ,etaine, or that he has a right to re"use to allo0 the o""icer to search. (Ro.inette $# Ohio (1&&5) $1& 4.S. 33 6135 7.8,.2n, 3329.) The (ederal +inth &ircuit &ourt of *ppeal) 4p until recently- the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has ha, ,i""iculty accepting the i,ea that a police o""icer- ,uring an other0ise la0"ul ,etention- an, so long as that ,etention is not unla0"ully prolonge, (see abo.e)- (ay @uestion the ,etaine, person about other possible cri(inal acti.ity absent so(e *particularized suspicion/ rele.ant to that other cri(inal acti.ity) 5&
See United States $# Cha$e539a"en5ue"a (&th Cir. 2001) 25# B.3r, 21&- a(en,e, at 22& B.3r, 1052- 0here the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal "oun, a consent search- obtaine, a"ter the purposes o" the tra""ic stop ha, been satis"ie,- 0as in.ali, as a pro,uct o" an illegally prolonge, ,etention- the e?ten,e, ,etention being the result o" the o""icer s unnecessary in@uiries (a,e ,uring the tra""ic stop. Ro.inette 0as not ,iscusse, by the Court. +he ,e"en,ant s ner.ousness 0as hel, to be irrele.ant to the ,etention issueper the Court. (See also )eop"e $# 2usardi (1&&1) 22# Cal.App.3r, Supp. 1- (aFing a si(ilar argu(ent.) Jote United States $# Tur$in et a"# (&th Cir. 200#) $12 B.3r, 10&2- ,iscussing the in.ali,ity o" the pri(ary hol,ings o" the Cha$e539a"en5ue"a ,ecision- as it relate, to the issue o" prolonge, ,etentions. See also United States $# %uri""o (&th Cir. 2001) 2$$ B.3r, 115&- 1123- 0here the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal hel, that an o""icer (ust be able to *articulate suspicious "actors that are particulari;e, an, obCecti.e/ in or,er to *broa,en the scope o" @uestioning/ beyon, the purposes o" the initial tra""ic stop./ (United States $# %uri""o (&th Cir. 2001) 2$$ B.3r, 115&- 1123: a @uestionable rule in light o" Ro.inette.) An, see United States $# %ende5 (&th Cir. 2005) 352 B.3r, 1152 (Superse,e, by United States $# %ende5 (&th Cir. 2002) 325 B.3r, 1022.)- 0here it 0as hel, that @uestioning a ,etainee about possible cri(inal acti.ity not relate, to the cause o" the ,etention- an, 0ithout a *particularized suspicion/ to support a belie" that the ,etainee is in.ol.e, in that acti.ity- is a Fourth Amendment .iolation. +he Jinth Circuit has since o.errule, its ,ecisions in Cha$e53 9a"en5ue"a an, %uri""o- "inally recogni;ing the Supre(e Court s rulings to the contrary. (United States $# %ende5 (&th Cir. 2002) 325 B.3r, 1022.) Yuestioning ,e"en,antNtrucF ,ri.er an, asFing "or consent to search the .ehicle- 0hen the trucF 0as initially stoppe, "or no (ore than an a,(inistrati.e checF o" its paper0orFis not unconstitutional. (United States $# De"1ado (&th Cir. 200#) $3$ B.3r, 11&$- 120$.) 20
1n other cases- the Supre(e Court has hel,) *8.en 0hen la0 en"orce(ent o""icers ha.e no basis "or suspecting a particular in,i.i,ual- they (ay pose @uestions- asF "or i,enti"ication- an, re@uest consent to search luggagePpro.i,e, they ,o not in,uce cooperation by coerci.e (eans./ (United States $# Dra&ton (2002) $35 4.S. 1&3 61$3 7.8,.2n, 2329.): citing F"orida $# ostic (1&&1) $01 4.S. 32&- 333%33$ 611$ 7.8,.2n, 3#&- 3&#%3&&9.) Oost recently- in I""inois $# Ca.a""es (200$) $33 4.S. 30$ 6150 7.8,.2nd 842&! the U. . u(reme Court re6ected the ar.ument that
allo+in. a narcotics5sniffin. do. to sniff around the outside of a )ehicle that +as la+full* sto((ed for a traffic offense 7un6ustifiabl* enlar.e(s) the sco(e of a routine traffic sto( into a dru. in)esti.ation.3 8er the u(reme Court9 :o ex(ectation of (ri)ac* is )iolated b* this (rocedure! and therefore does not im(licate the Fourth Amendment.
Also- the 4.S. Supre(e Court recently reCecte, the Jinth Circuit s unsupporte, conclusion that- absent *a particularized reasonable suspicion that an in,i.i,ual is not a citi;en-/ it is a Fourth Amendment .iolation to asF hi( or her about the subCect s citi;enship. (See %ena $# Cit& o' Simi 9a""e& (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, 12$$- 1253%125$: re.erse, by the 4.S. Supre(e Court in %ueh"er $# %ena (200$) $33 4.S. &3 6151 7.8,.2n, 2&&9.) 1t is not unla0"ul to asF about a "irear( ,uring a ,etention e.en i" there is other0ise no e.i,ence o" the illegal use o" a gun- so long as it ,oes not prolong the ,etention. (United States $# asher (&th Cir. 2011) 52& B.3r, 1151- 1155- "n. 3.) Cali"ornia courts see( to be in line 0ith these latest Supre(e Court pronounce(ents on the issue) *Yuestioning ,uring the routine tra""ic stop on a subCect unrelate, to the purpose o" the stop is not itsel" a Fourth Amendment .iolation. Oere @uestioning is neither a search nor a sei;ure. 6Citation.9 Ehile the tra""ic ,etainee is un,er no obligation to ans0er unrelate, @uestions- the Constitution ,oes not prohibit la0 en"orce(ent o""icers "ro( asFing. 6Citation.9/ ()eop"e $# ro,n (1&&#) 52 Cal.App.3th 3&33&&%$00: )eop"e $# e"" (1&&5) 33 Cal.App.3th 2$3- 252: )eop"e $# Ga""ardo (200$) 130 Cal.App.3th 233- 23#: )eop"e $# Tu""& (2012) $3 Cal.3th &$2- &#1%&#2: see also )eop"e $# Ga""ardo (200$) 130 Cal.App.3th 233- 23&: asFing "or consent to search ,uring the ti(e it 0oul, ha.e taFen to 0rite the citation that 0as the original cause o" the stop is legal- ,espite the lacF o" any e.i,ence to belie.e there 0as so(ething there to search "or.)
21
Ta?ing (ingerprints) 1t is la0"ul to ,etain an, "ingerprint a particular suspect on less than probable cause- at least i" ,one at the scene an, 0ithout transportation to a police station. (Da$is $# %ississippi (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 221 622 7.8,.2n, 5259: 0a&es $# F"orida (1&#$) 320 4.S. #11 6#3 7.8,.2n, 20$9: 9ir1"e $# Superior Court (2002) 100 Cal.App.3th $22.) Dri!ing #nder the 'nfluence (*D#'/) (alcohol an,Nor ,rugs) &ases) =ea!ing) !bser.ation o" the ,e"en,ant 0ea.ing 0ithin his tra""ic lane is su""icient cause to stop hi( to ,eter(ine 0hether he is D41 or the .ehicle has so(e unsa"e (echanical ,e"ect. ()eop"e $# rac(en (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th Supp. 1- 0ea.ing 0ithin his lane "or hal" a (ile: see also )eop"e $# )ere5 (1&#$) 12$ Cal.App.3r, Supp. #: 0ea.ing 0ithin his lane "or three @uarters o" a (ile.) $ut see United States $# Co"in (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 33&0here the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal hel, that 0ea.ing "ro( lane line to lane line "or 3$ to 3$ secon,s is neither a .iolation o" the lane stra,,ling statute (0!C! 212)#+a,)nor reasonable suspicion that the ,ri.er (ay be un,er the in"luence: a @uestionable ,ecision- an, one than (ay probably be ignore, by state la0 en"orce(ent o""icers in light o" rac(en an, )ere5. A single pronounce, 0ea.e 0ithin the laneplus an e?perience, Iigh0ay Patrol o""icer s obser.ation o" the ,e"en,ant sitting up close to the steering 0heel- 0hich the o""icer recogni;e, as so(ething an i(paire, ,ri.er ,oes0as su""icient to corroborate secon,%han, in"or(ation concerning ,e"en,ant s *erratic ,ri.ing/ "ro( Oontana Depart(ent o" +ransportation e(ployees- Custi"ying the stop o" the ,e"en,ant s car. (United States $# Fernande53 Casti""o (&th Cir. 2003) 323 B.3r, 1113.) D#' (an, !ther Regulatory * pecial +eeds/) &hec?points) Are they legalM Fes- i" con,ucte, accor,ing to speci"ie, criteria- an, in.ol.e a *special needs-/ *regulatory/ area o" the la0. (In1erso"" $# )a"mer (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, 1321: %ichi1an State )o"ice Dept# $# Sit5 (1&&0) 3&5 4.S. 333 6110 7.8,.2n, 3129.) Ehether or not a *D#'/ (or other regulatory) roa,blocF or checFpoint is la0"ul ,epen,s upon 0hether it (eets the "e,eral stan,ar, "or reasonableness. 22
*The federal test "or ,eter(ining 0hether a ,etention or sei;ure is Custi"ie, balances the public interest ser.e, by the sei;ure- the ,egree to 0hich the sei;ure a,.ances the public interest an, the se.erity o" the inter"erence 0ith in,i.i,ual liberty. ( ro,n $# Te!as (1&2&) 333 4.S. 32- $0%$1 651 7.8,.2n, 3$2- 351%352- . . .9.)/ (Emphasis added: )eop"e $# an(s (1&&3) 5 Cal.3th &25: hol,ing that "ailure to publici;e a D41 roa,blocF 0as not necessarily "atal to its la0"ulness- un,er ro,n $# Te!as.) Ehile stan,ar,less an, unconstraine, ,iscretion on the part o" go.ern(ent o""icers is prohibite,: *stops an, inspections "or regulatory purposes- although 0ithout Gindi!idualized suspicion- (ay be per(itte, i" un,ertaFen pursuant to pre,eter(ine, speci"ie, neutral criteria./ (1talics a,,e,: In1erso"" $# )a"mer- supra- at p. 133$.) +he "actors i,enti"ie, in In1erso"" (at pp. 1331%1332) are 0hether) +he ,ecision to establish a sobriety checFpoint- the selection o" the site- an, the proce,ures "or the operation o" the checFpoint- are (a,e an, establishe, by super.isory la0 en"orce(ent personnel. Ootorists are stoppe, accor,ing to a neutral "or(ula- such as e.ery thir,- "i"th or tenth ,ri.er. A,e@uate sa"ety precautions are taFen- such as proper lighting- 0arning signs- an, signals- an, 0hether clearly i,enti"iable o""icial .ehicles an, personnel are use,. +he location o" the checFpoint 0as ,eter(ine, by a policy%(aFing o""icial- an, 0as reasonable: i.e.- on a roa, ha.ing a high inci,ence o" alcohol%relate, acci,ents or arrests. +he ti(e the checFpoint 0as con,ucte, an, its ,uration re"lect *good %udgment/ on the part o" la0 en"orce(ent o""icials.
23
+he checFpoint e?hibits in,icia o" its o""icial nature (to reassure the public o" the authori;e, nature o" the stop). +he a.erage length an, nature o" the ,etention is (ini(i;e,. +he checFpoint is prece,e, by publicity.
A D41 checFpoint 0as uphel, 0here the e?istence o" super.isory control 0as in,icate, by ,ocu(entary e.i,ence that a sobriety checFpoint 0as planne, "or that ,ate an, by the "act that the checFpoint 0as sta""e, by se.en police o""icers. +esti(ony that an o""icer 0as una0are o" a neutral "or(ula "or stopping .ehicles 0as not a""ir(ati.e e.i,ence o.erco(ing the presu(ption o" la0"ulness. All $1& .ehicles passing through the checFpoint 0ere stoppe,thus a neutral (athe(atical "or(ula o" 100 percent applie,. +he "act that the checFpoint 0as operate, at a ,i""erent location than gi.en in a (e,ia a,.isory 0as insu""icient to o.erco(e the presu(ption as to ,ecision (aFing at the super.isory le.el or reasonable location. (Arthur $# Department o' %otor 9ehic"es (2010) 1#3 Cal. App. 3th 11&&.) A D41 checFpoint 0as strucF ,o0n 0here the People "aile, to sustain their bur,en o" proo" as to (i) the role o" super.isory personnel in prescribing the proce,ures to be use, at the checFpoint- (ii) the rationale "or selecting the particular location use, "or the checFpoint- (iii) the length o" ,etentions- an, (i.) a,.ance publicity. ()eop"e $# A"$arado (2011) 1&3 Cal.App.3th Supp. 13.) 1ssue) 1s the obser.e, a.oi,ance o" a D41 checFpoint su""icient cause to con,uct a tra""ic stopM
+he "e,eral +enth Circuit Court o" Appeal is o" the opinion that it is not. +he Court hel, that a ,ri.er s ,ecision to use a rural high0ay e?it a"ter passing ,rug checFpoint signs (ay be consi,ere, as one "actor in an o""icer s reasonable suspicion ,eter(ination- but it is not a su""icient basis- by itsel"- to Custi"y a tra""ic stop. +he court note, that an o""icer (ust i,enti"y a,,itional suspicious circu(stances or in,epen,ently e.asi.e beha.ior to Custi"y stopping a .ehicle that uses
23
an e?it a"ter ,ri.ing past ruse ,rug%checFpoint signs. (United States $# Ne'' (10th Cir. 2012) 5#1 B.3r, 1133.)
;ther Regulatory &hec?points) !ther than "or D41 ,eterrenceroa,blocFs- checFpoints- an, si(ilar *administrati!e- special needs/ searches ha.e been appro.e, in the "ollo0ing cases) "icense and registration inspection chec?points. (De"a,are $# )rouse (1&2&) 330 4.S. 53# 6$& 7.8,.2n, 5509: )eop"e $# -ash.urn (1&5#) 25$ Cal.App.2n, 55$: )eop"e $# A"$are5 (1&&5) 13 Cal.3th 1$$: %errett $# %oore (11th Cir. 1&&5) $# B.3r, 1$32: United States $# %cFa&den (D.C. Cir. 1&#&) #5$ B.2n, 1305: United States $# Dia53 A".ertini (10th Cir. 1&#$) 222 B.2n, 5$3: United States $# 2ope5 (10th Cir. 1&#$) 222 B.2n, $33: United States $# O.re1on (10th Cir. 1&#3) 23# B.2n, 1321: United States $# )richard (10th Cir. 1&#1) 53$ B.2n, #$3.) $order Patrol chec?point inspections. (United States $# %artine53Fuerte (1&25) 32# 4.S. $33 63& 7.8,.2n, 1115.) *irport security searches. ()eop"e $# 0&de (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, 1$#.) To regulate hunting licenses. ()eop"e $# )ere5 (1&&5) $1 Cal.App.3th 115#.) *gricultural inspection chec?points. ()eop"e $# Dic(inson (1&#0) 103 Cal.App.3r, $0$.) Vehicle mechanical inspection chec?points. ()eop"e $# De 2a Torre (1&52) 2$2 Cal.App.2n, 152.) ecurity chec?point at military bases. (United States $# 0a,(ins (&th Cir. 2001) 23& B.3r, #25- Air Borce: United States $# 0ernande5 (&th Cir. 1&#3) 23& B.2n, 3#3Oarines.) obriety chec?points on a federal military base. (United States $# Di""on (D.Zan. 1&&2) &#3 B.Supp. 1032: United States $# 4ie1"er (J.D. Cal. 1&&3) #31 B.Supp. 221.) * forest ser!ice chec?point "or i,enti"ication an, registration- targeting 0hat in the past has been a *uni@uely 2$
,isrupti.e e.ent-/ is not per se illegal. ()ar( $# Forest Ser$ice (#th Cir. 2000) 20$ B.3r, 1033- 1030.) Traffic safety chec?points. (United States $# Tre$ino (2th Cir. 1&&5) 50 B.3r, 333.) &hec?points at the entrance to a prison par?ing lot. (Romo $# Champion (10th Cir. 35 B.3r, 1013.) ChecFpoint to *th0art an imminent terrorist attac? or to catch a dangerous criminal 0ho is liFely to "lee by 0ay o" a particular route./ (see belo0: Cit& o' Indianapo"is $# Edmond- infra2) ChecFpoints set up "or the purpose o" collecting in"or(ation "ro( the public concerning a prior cri(inal act (i.e.- a "atal *hit an, run/ in this case)- 0hen set up at the location o" the prior cri(inal actan, e?actly one 0eeF a"ter it occurre,. Such a roa,blocF 0as ,i""erentiate, "ro( the atte(pt to ,isco.ery *ordinary criminal wrongdoing-/ as con,e(ne, in Indianapo"is $# Edmond- infra2 (I""inois $# 2idster (2003) $30 4.S. 31& 61$2 7.8,.2n, #339.) An *information station/ set up to pro.i,e parF .isitors 0ith in"or(ation concerning the rules o" the parF an, be gi.en a litter bag- 0here e.ery .ehicle 0as stoppe,. (United States $# Fau"(ner (&th Cir. 2005) 3$0 B.3r, 355.) A checFpoint set up "or the purpose o" pre.enting illegal hunting in a national parF- Custi"ie, by a legiti(ate concern "or preser.ation o" parF 0il,li"e- 0hen con"ine, to the parF gate 0here .isitors 0oul, e?pect to brie"ly stop any0ay. (United States $# Fraire (&th Cir. 200&) $2$ B.3r, &2&.) Earrantless searching o" luggage an, other pacFages at selecte, entrances to Je0 KorF s sub0ay syste(- in response to the possibility o" terrorists entering the syste( 0ith e?plosi.es. (%ac-ade $# /e""& (2n, Cir. 2005) 350 B.3r, 250.)
0!C! 2#14!1+a,) A County Goar, o" Super.isors is authori;e, by statute to establish a .ehicle%inspection checFpoint to checF "or .iolations o" 0!C! 211)3 an, 211)3!) (e?haust an, e?cessi.e s(oFe .iolations). 25
0!C! 2#14!1+d,) Ootorcycle%only checFpoints are prohibite,. ChecFpoints (ay ha.e a dual6purpose- such as the interdiction of drugs (but see belo0) an, enforcement of dri!er)s license and registration laws. (%errett $# %oore (11th Cir. 1&&$) $# B.3r, 1$32.) ChecFpoints (ay be atten,e, by more than one law enforcement agency- ,espite the ,i""erent interests in.ol.e,. (United States $# ara;as3Cha$e5 (10th Cir. 1&&&) 152 B.3r, 12#$- Je0 Oe?ico D#' chec?point 0ith Gor,er Patrol present in case the police ,isco.ere, illegal aliens: United States $# Ga"indo3Gon5a"es (10th Cir. 1&&#) 132 B.3r, 1212- aliens "oun, at state dri!er)s license and !ehicle registration roadbloc?.) Drug 'nterdiction (or *;rdinary &riminal =rongdoing/) &hec?points) 8arlier cases "ro( lo0er appellate courts uphel, the .ali,ity o" ,rug inter,iction checFpoints upon the sa(e reasoning as abo.e. (See %errett $# %oore (11th Cir. 1&&$) $# B.3r, 1$32: an, %issouri $# Damas( (1&&5) &35 S.E.2n, $5$.) Io0e.er- the 4.S. Supre(e Court has since ,eter(ine, that *drug interdiction/ checFpoints are not la0"ul. +he ,i""erence is that drug interdiction chec?points- rather than being *regulatory-/ or in.ol.ing so(e *special need-/ are set up "or the purpose o" ,etecting *ordinary criminal wrongdoing2/ As such- drug interdiction chec?points re@uire the stan,ar, Fourth Amendment *indi!idualized/ or *particularized/ suspicion to be la0"ul. (Cit& o' Indianapo"is $# Edmond (2000) $31 4.S. 32 6135 7.8,.2n, 3339.) +he Supre(e Court in Edmond inti(ate, strongly that roa,blocFs in unusual circu(stances o" cri(inal 0rong,oing (ight be constitutionally acceptable. *(+)here are circu(stances that (ay Custi"y a la0 en"orce(ent checFpoint 0here the pri(ary purpose 0oul, other0isebut "or so(e e(ergency- relate to or,inary cri(e control. Bor e?a(ple- as the Court o" Appeals note, (see Edmond $# Go"dsmith (2th Cir. 1&&&) 1#3 B.3r, 5$&- 552%553: re.erse,)- the Fourth Amendment 0oul, al(ost certainly per(it an appropriately tailore, roa,blocF set up to th0art 22
an imminent terrorist attac? or to catch a dangerous criminal 0ho is liFely to "lee by 0ay o" a particular route./ (1talics a,,e,: Cit& o' Indianapo"is $# Edmond- supraat p. 33 (135 7.8,.2n, at p. 33$9.) See I""inois $# 2idster (2003) $30 4.S. 31& 61$2 7.8,.2n, #339) A checFpoint set up "or the purpose o" collecting in"or(ation "ro( the public concerning a prior cri(inal act (i.e.- a "atal *hit an, run/ in this case)- 0hen set up at the location o" the prior cri(inal actan, e?actly one 0eeF a"ter it occurre,. Such a roa,blocF 0as ,i""erentiate, "ro( the atte(pt to ,isco.er *ordinary criminal wrongdoing-/ as con,e(ne, in Indianapo"is $# Edmond- supra. &hec?points ;n 'ndian "and by 'ndian *uthorities) A roa,blocF set up on a public right%o"%0ay 0ithin tribal territory- la0"ul un,er 1n,ian la0 an, establishe, on tribal authority- is per(issible only to the e?tent that the suspicionless stop o" non%1n,ians is li(ite, to the a(ount o" ti(e- an, the nature o" the in@uiry- that can establish 0hether or not the person stoppe, is an 1n,ian. ( ressi $# Ford (&th Cir. 200&) $2$ B.3r, #&1- #&5%#&2.) 1n,ian la0 en"orce(ent o""icers- 0hen also certi"ie, to en"orce state la0s- (ay set up D41 or other regulatory roa,blocFs (as oppose, to (erely checFing other 1n,ians pursuant to +ribal la0) on 1n,ian lan,. Gut such roa,blocFs (ust (eet the constitutional re@uire(ents set by the Supre(e Court (see abo.e). (Id.- at p. #&2.) * (ield 'nter!iew (*(2'2/) o" a person suspecte, o" cri(inal acti.ity) +ote) A "iel, inter.ie0s is a stan,ar, la0 en"orce(ent tactic use, to i,enti"y in,i.i,uals an, ,ocu(ent their presence at a particular location at a particular ti(e- ,iscourage planne, cri(inal acti.ityan, note co(panions 0ith 0ho( the person is associating: in"or(ation 0hich so(eti(es beco(es i(portant an, rele.ant in later in.estigations or prosecutions. Biel, inter.ie0s (ay be han,le, as a consensual encounter or- i" a reasonable suspicion e?ists- a detention. <eneral Rule) +e(porarily ,etaining a person "or the purpose o" .eri"ying (or negating) the person s possible connection 0ith so(e cri(inal acti.ity- base, upon an articulable *reasonable suspicion/ 2#
that the person (ay be in.ol.e, in cri(inal acti.ity- is la0"ul. (Terr& $# Ohio (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1 620 7.8,.2n, ##&9: 1n re Ton& C# (1&2#) 21 Cal.3r, ###.) Absent the necessary *reasonable suspicion-/ a ,etention is unla0"ul unless the contact is han,le, as a *consensual encounter./ (See abo.e) Bor instance- (e(bership in a street gang is not in an, o" itsel" a cri(e. (See (!C! 1#2!22) +he practice o" stopping- ,etaining- @uestioning- an, perhaps photographing a suspecte, gang (e(ber- base, solely upon the person s suspecte, gang (e(bership- is illegal. ()eop"e $# Green (1&&1) 222 Cal.App.3r, 5&2- 5&&%200: )eop"e $# Rodri1ue5 (1&&3) 21 Cal.App.3th 232- 23&.) +he Rodri1ue5 court note, that: *Ehile this policy (o" stopping an, @uestioning all suspecte, gang (e(bers) (ay ser.e the lau,able purpose o" pre.enting cri(e- it is prohibite, by the Fourth Amendment./ (Id#- at p. 23&: citing ro,n $# Te!as (1&2&) 333 4.S. 32- $2 651 7.8,.2n, 3$2- 3539.) Geing in the area o" a house "or 0hich there is only a speculati.e belie" that it (ight be in.ol.e, in ,rug acti.ity- e.en 0hen it is Fno0n that the person to be ,etaine, has a prior ,rug%relate, recor, an, that there e?ists prior unteste,- unreliable in"or(ation that the person might be in.ol.e, in the sale o" ,rugs- is insufficient cause to ,etain. ()eop"e $# )itts (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th ##1.) Spotlighting the ,e"en,ant in a high narcotics area an, then 0alFing up to hi( *brisFly/ 0hile asFing @uestions hel, to be a ,etention un,er the circu(stances. ()eop"e $# Garr& (2002) 1$5 Cal.App.3th 1100.) Ian,cu""ing a suspect a"ter he ga.e an i(plausible e?planation as to 0hy he 0as in the area o" a (ariCuana gro0 at $)30 a.(.- an, "in,ing clothing in his bacFpacF that s(elle, liFe gro0ing (ariCuana- 0as a la0"ul ,etention e.en though the ,etention laste, at least 3H hours 0hile o""icers atte(pte, to "in, physical e.i,ence at the scene connecting hi( to the (ariCuana gro0. ()eop"e $# -i""iams (2002) 1$5 Cal.App.3th &3&.)
2&
During Execution of a earch or *rrest =arrant, or during a Fourth =ai!er earch) An occupant o" a house being subCecte, to a search pursuant to a search warrant (ay be ,etaine, ,uring the search (1) in or,er to pre.ent "light- (2) to (ini(i;e the risF o" har( to the o""icersan, (3) to "acilitate an or,erly search through cooperation o" the resi,ents. (%ichi1an $# Summers (1&#1) 3$2 4.S. 5&2- 202%203 65& 7.8,.2n, 330- 33&%3$09.) Jote- ho0e.er- Y.arra $# I""inois (1&2&) 333 4.S. #$ 652 7.8,.2n, 23#9- con,e(ning the ,etention an, pat,o0n o" e.eryone at the scene absent in,i.i,uali;e, e.i,ence connecting each person so ,etaine, 0ith the illegal acti.ity being in.estigate,. An,- using an other0ise la0"ul ,etention as a tool 0ith 0hich to coerce the e(ployees o" a business to sub(it to inter.ie0scon,itioning their release on ans0ering @uestions- is unla0"ul an, a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment. (Gan,ich $# /napp (&th Cir. 2003) 31& B.3r, 111$.) !fficers acted reasonabl* b* detainin. a female occu(ant of a
residence in handcuffs for t+o to three hours +hile search +as in (ro.ress! e)en thou.h she +as not the sus(ect the officers +ere loo;in. for! .i)en the fact that the search +arrant sou.ht +ea(ons and e)idence of .an. membershi(. (Muehler v. Mena (200%) %44 U. . 9/ "161 #.$d.2nd 299&.)
+he Custi"ications "or ,etaining the occupants inclu,e) Pre.enting "light in the e.ent that incri(inating e.i,ence is "oun,: Oini(i;ing the risF o" har( to the o""icers: and
1acilitatin. the orderl* com(letion of the search +hile a)oidin. the use of force. (&d.! at (. 98.)
Recogni;ing the inherent ,angerousness in ser.ing narcotics% relate, search 0arrants an, the co((on use o" 0eaponsparticularly "irear(s- in such cases- i" "or no other reason than the o""icers sa"ety- anyone present at the scene o" the e?ecution o" such a 0arrant 0ho appears to ha.e a *close physical and functional association/ 0ith the subCects o" the search- (ay be te(porarily ,etaine, 0hile the person is i,enti"ie, an, that possible association is in.estigate,. ()eop"e $# Samp"es (1&&5) 3# #0
Cal.App.3th 11&2: ,e"en,ant ,ri.ing the car liste, in the search 0arrant- in the co(pany o" t0o people liste, in the 0arrantla0"ully ,etaine,.) +he sa(e rules apply to ,etaining occupants o" a resi,ence 0hile ser.ing an arrest warrant. ()eop"e $# 0annah (1&&2) $1 Cal.App.3th 133$.) Also- police (ay la0"ully ,etain .isitors to a probationer s ho(e 0hile e?ecuting a *Fourth =ai!er/ search "or purposes o" i,enti"ying the .isitors (as possible "elons) an, "or the o""icers sa"ety. ()eop"e $# %ate"s(i (2000) #2 Cal.App.3th #32.) A person (erely approaching a house being searche,- at least in the absence o" any in,ication that the person has so(e connection 0ith the illegal acti.ity occurring in the house- (ay not be ,etaine,. ()eop"e $# Ga""ant (1&&0) 22$ Cal.App.3r, 200- 203% 203.) $ut- a person 0ho approaches a house being searche, pursuant to a search 0arrant un,er circu(stances either in,icating so(e connection 0ith the resi,ence- or 0hen his possible connection cannot be ,eter(ine, 0ithout a brie" ,etention- (ay be ,etaine, long enough to in.estigate his connection 0ith the illegal acti.ity at the house an, to ensure police sa"ety ,uring the search. ()eop"e $# G"aser (1&&$) 11 Cal.3th 3$3- 353%323.) Pending the ;btaining of a earch =arrant) Securing a ho(e "ro( the outsi,e- ,etaining the occupant on his o0n porch pen,ing the obtaining o" a 0arrant- 0as uphel, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court. (I""inois $# %cArthur (2001) $31 4.S. 325 613# 7.8,.2n, #3#9.) 1t is proper "or the police to te(porarily *detain a residence/ "ro( the outsi,e- pre.enting people "ro( entering- 0hen there is a reasonable suspicion that contraban, or e.i,ence o" a cri(e is insi,e- at least until the o""icers can ,eter(ine through their in.estigation 0hether to seeF a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# ennett (1&&#) 12 Cal.3th 323.) 1t is also la0"ul to detain pac?ages an, other containers. (United States $# 0ernande5 (&th Cir. Dec. 23- 2002) 313 B.3r, 1205.) +he rules generally parallel the re@uire(ents "or ,etaining a person un,er Terr& $# Ohio (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1 (See United States $# )"ace (1&#3) 352 4.S. 5&5 622 7.8,.2n, 1109.). #1
Ehen the container is a pacFage that has been (aile,- an, the personal intrusion upon the inten,e, recipient is lessthe length o" ti(e the pacFage (ay be ,etaine, is consi,erably longer than i" taFen "ro( the ,e"en,ant s person. 1n )"ace- "or instance- the container 0as the ,e"en,ant s luggage taFen "ro( hi( at an airport. +he Supre(e Court hel, that &0 (inutes 0as too long. 1n contrast- the 0ernande5 case- 0here a 22%hour ,elay 0as uphel,- cites prior authority 0here hol,ing onto a (aile, pacFage "or up to si? ,ays 0as appro.e,. Detentions *way from the Place being earched) +he reasons "or ,etaining the occupants o" a resi,ence (See %ichi1an $# Summers- supra) ,o not apply once the occupant has le"t the resi,ence. Io0e.er- the (aCority o" the "e,eral courts that ha.e consi,ere, the issue ha.e allo0e, the ,etention o" an occupant 0ho has alrea,y le"t the resi,ence so long as the ,etention is ,one as soon as practical. !""icer sa"ety an, to a.oi, alerting other occupants o" the resi,ence ha.e been cite, as the t0o pri(ary reasons "or this rule. 1n so(e cases- a.oi,ing the ,estruction o" e.i,ence (ight also be a "actor. (United States $# Cochran (5th Cir. 1&&1) &3& B.2n, 332: United States $# Ca$a5os ($th Cir. 2002) 2## B.3r, 205: United States $# u""oc( (2th Cir. 2011) 532 B.3r, 1003.) See also United States $# ai"e& (2n, Cir. 2011) 5$2 B.3r, 1&2- 0here the ,e"en,ant 0asn t ,etaine, until a"ter ,ri.ing at least a (ile "ro( his ho(e. +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has grante, certiorari in United States $# ai"e&- (aFing this case no longer a.ailable "or citation pen,ing a ,ecision by this Court. (June 3- 2012: 132 S. Ct. 2210- 1#3 7. 8,. 2, 52.) +0o "e,eral circuits ,isagree- "in,ing such ,etentions to be unla0"ul) United States $# Sherri"" (#th Cir. 1&&3) 22 B.3r, 333: United States $# Ed,ards (10th Cir. 1&&5) 103 B.3r, &0.) +ote) Jeither the Jinth Circuit nor Cali"ornia ha.e rule, on this issue. #2
Anon&mous In'ormation) Rule) An anonymous tip- absent corroborating circu(stances- 0ill not Custi"y a ,etention. (A"a.ama $# -hite (1&&0) 3&5 4.S. 32$- 331 6110 7.8,.2n, 301- 30&9: In re Cod& S# (2003) 121 Cal.App.3th #5.) Patdown for =eapons) An anonymous tip concerning a person carrying a "irear( ,oes not Custi"y a patdown "or 0eapons (nor a detention "or that purpose). +here is no such thing as a *firearms exception/ to this rule. (F"orida $# *#2# (2000) $2& 4.S. 255 6135 7.8,.2n, 2$39: see also )eop"e $# *ordan (2003) 121 Cal.App.3th $33- $52%$53.) $ut note) +he 4.S. Supre(e Court- in ,icta- hints that ha, the anony(ous tipster 0arne, o" so(ething (ore ,angerous- such as a bo(b- a pat,o0n base, upon this tip alone (ight be uphel,. +he Court also in,icate, that certain areas 0here there is a lessene, e?pectation o" pri.acysuch as in an airport or on school groun,s- (ay also be an e?ception to this rule. (F"orida $# *#2#- supraat p. 223%223 6135 7.8,.2n, at p. 2529.) Joting this- Cali"ornia s Bi"th District Court o" Appeal rule, that o""icers la0"ully stoppe, ,e"en,ant on in"or(ation "ro( an anony(ous tipster 0ho reporte, that ,e"en,ant 0as ,ri.ing to his 0i"e s house "or the purpose o" shooting her. +he la0"ulness o" the stop 0as base, upon the ,angerousness o" the situation 0hen co(bine, 0ith so(e 0eaF corroboration 0hich- by itsel"- (ight not ha.e been enough to Custi"y stopping ,e"en,ant s .ehicle. ()eop"e $# Castro (2005) 13# Cal.App.3th 3#5.) See also )eop"e $# -e""s (2005) 3# Cal.3th 102#- at page 10#2- 0here the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court ,i""erentiate, *#2# "ro( a D41 case noting that a(ong other "actors) *(A) report o" a possibly into?icate, high0ay ,ri.er- A0ea.ing all o.er the roa,0ay- poses a "ar (ore gra.e an, i((e,iate risF to the public than a report o" (ere passi.e gun possession./ +he Court also ,iscusse, brie"ly *predicti!e information/ 0hich (ay supply the necessary corroboration- such as being able to correctly ,escribe "uture actions o" the #3
suspect. Also- unconnecte, anony(ous in"or(ants- or anything that 0oul, a,, the ele(ent o" cre,ibility to the in"or(ation- (ight su""iciently corroborate the anony(ous in"or(ant. (F"orida $# *#2#- supraat p. 221 (concurring opinion)- 22$%225 6135 7.8,.2n, 250- 253%2539.) *n uncorroborated tip concerning contraband in a !ehicle 0ithout any in,ication o" *inside personal ?nowledge/ is insu""icient to Custi"y a tra""ic stop o" that .ehicle (United States $# %ora"es (&th Cir. 2001) 2$2 B.3r, 1020.) or a ,etention o" its ,ri.er. ()eop"e $# Sa"dana (2002) 101 Cal.App.3th 120: tip that the ,ri.er ha, a gun an, cocaine in the .ehicle.) +he "act that the physical description of a suspect 0ho is reporte, by an anony(ous tipster to ha.e a gun in his pocFet is .ery speci"ic ,oes not corroborate the tipster s in"or(ation. Absent at least so(e suspicious circu(stances obser.e, by the respon,ing police o""icers- "in,ing the person ,escribe, by the tipster ,oes not create a reasonable suspicion Custi"ying a ,etention or a pat,o0n "or 0eapons. ()eop"e $# *ordan (2003) 121 Cal.App.3th $33- $$3% 5$2: the @uicF con"ir(ation o" the physical ,escription o" the ,e"en,ant an, his location- by itsel"- is legally insu""icient.) (urther Examples) A tip "or0ar,e, by BG1 agents to a local la0 en"orce(ent o""icer *that he A(ight 0ant to pay particular attention to a certain house in +ucson because there 0as Asuspicion that there 0as a possibility that there (ight be so(e narcotics there/ ,i, not constitute su""icient reasonable suspicion to Custi"y a stop o" a .ehicle co(ing "ro( that house e.en though the tip ha, been corroborate, by hearing *thu(ps/ "ro( the garage 0hich the o""icer belie.e, 0as so(eone loa,ing so(ething into the .ehicle. Jeither the source nor the speci"ics o" the BG1 s tip 0ere e.er i,enti"ie, or e?plaine,. (United States $# Thomas (&th Cir. 2000) 211 B.3r, 11#5.) An anony(ous tip- e.en 0hen corroborate, by a generally (atching (albeit uni@ue) suspect ,escription (i.e.- 5 1/200%poun, blacF (ale 0ith the sa(e "irst na(e)- 0as "oun, to be not enough "or a "in,ing in ci.il court that- *as a matter of law-/ there 0as a *reasonable belief/ a 0ante, suspect 0as both a co%resi,ent an, 0as presently at a particular resi,ence. (-atts et a"# $# Count& o' Sacramento et a"# (&th Cir. 2001) 2$5 B.3r, ##5.) #3
An anony(ous &11%hangup call- traceable to a particular (otel- but 0ithout su""icient in"or(ation to ,eter(ine 0hich roo( the call (ay ha.e co(e "ro(- ,i, not allo0 "or the non%consensual entry into the ,e"en,ant s roo( (erely because o" the suspicious atte(pts by the person 0ho ans0ere, the ,oor to Feep the o""icers "ro( looFing insi,ean, her apparent lies concerning no one else being there. (United States $# Deemer (&th Cir. 2003) 3$3 B.3r, 1130.) "oo?ing for Exceptions) So(e courts are clearly trouble, by the blanFet rule o" F"orida $# *#2#- an, ha.e been 0orFing har, to "in, e?ceptions. (or example) +he .icti( o" an assault by a person 0ith a ,ea,ly 0eapon calle, &11- ga.e his na(e (that coul, not be .eri"ie,)- but clai(e, to not Fno0 the phone nu(ber "ro( 0hich he 0as calling an, hesitate, to gi.e his location. 4n,er these circu(stances- it 0as hel, to be su""icient reasonable suspicion to ,etain an, pat ,e"en,ant ,o0n "or 0eapons. +he Court hel, that this 0as not *truly anonymous/ in that he ga.e a na(e- calle, &11 concerning a cri(e that ha, Cust occurre,- liFening it to a *spontaneous declaration-/ an, reporte, a cri(e about 0hich he ha, ob.ious "irsthan, Fno0le,ge- all gi.ing the in"or(ation the *indicia of reliability./ (United States $# Terr&3Crespo (&th Cir. 2003) 3$5 B.3r, 1120.) An anony(ous call concerning a D41 ,ri.er 0ea.ing all o.er the roa,- the tipster correctly pro.i,ing a ,etaile, ,escription o" the .ehicle- its location an, ,irection o" tra.el- gi.en the ,angerousness o" lea.ing a ,runF ,ri.er on the street- hel, to be su""icient *reasonable suspicion/ to stop the .ehicle an, checF its ,ri.er. ()eop"e $# -e""s (2005) 3# Cal.3th 102#- citing United States $# -heat (#th Cir. 2001) 22# B.3r, 222- an, noting- a(ong other "actors (see belo0)- the e?igency in.ol.e, in a D41 case.) 1n -e""s- the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court liste, "our "actors to consi,er- Custi"ying the stop o" a D41 suspect base, upon anony(ous in"or(ation) +he e?igency o" a D41 ,ri.er loose on the roa,- 0ith all the ,a(age they ,o- Custi"ies an i((e,iate la0 en"orce(ent response. *(A) report o" a possibly into?icate, #$
high0ay ,ri.er- A0ea.ing all o.er the roa,0ay- poses a "ar (ore gra.e an, i((e,iate risF to the public than a report o" (ere passi.e gun possession (as occurre, in F"orida $# *#2#)./ A report "ro( a citi;en ,escribing a conte(poraneous e.ent o" recFless ,ri.ingpresu(ably .ie0e, by the caller- a,,s to the reliability o" the in"or(ation an, re,uces the liFelihoo, that the caller is (erely harassing an ene(y. +he le.el o" intrusion upon one s personal pri.acy (in a place 0ith a re,uce, e?pectation o" pri.acy) an, the incon.enience in.ol.e, in a brie" .ehicle stop is consi,erably less than an *e(barrassing police search/ on a public street (as occurre, in F"orida $# *#2#). Reliability is a,,e, by the relati.ely precise an, accurate ,escription gi.en by the tipster regar,ing the .ehicle type- color- location an, ,irection o" tra.el.
An anony(ous tipster ,escribing ,e"en,ant s recFless ,ri.ing- gi.ing a speci"ic location an, a ,etaile, ,escription o" the car- the ,ri.er an, the ,ri.er s actions- 0as hel, to be su""icient to pro.i,e the necessary in,icia o" reliability to Custi"y a tra""ic stop. (2o,r& $# Gutierre5 (200$) 12& Cal.App.3th &25.) +ote) +he Court- ho0e.er- also note, that the ,e"en,ant s liability here 0as no (ore than a ,ri.er s license suspension- as oppose, to a cri(inal prosecution- allo0ing "or a lesser stan,ar, o" *reasonable suspicion./ 1t is unFno0n 0hether the Court 0oul, ha.e applie, the sa(e stan,ar,s ha, the conse@uences been a potential cri(inal prosecution an, con.iction instea,. A stop an, ,etention o" a suspect base, upon an anony(ous call 0as hel, to be Custi"ie, 0here the tipster allege, a ,angerous or potentially .iolent situation- the #5
allege, cri(e ha, Cust occurre,- the suspect 0oul, ha.e le"t i" not ,etaine,- an, there is no reason to ,oubt the tipster s .eracity. ()eop"e $# Rod1ers (200$) 131 Cal.App.3th 1$50.) !""icers la0"ully stoppe, ,e"en,ant on in"or(ation "ro( an anony(ous tipster 0ho reporte, that ,e"en,ant 0as ,ri.ing to his 0i"e s house "or the purpose o" shooting her. +he la0"ulness o" the stop 0as base, upon the ,angerousness o" the situation 0hen co(bine, 0ith so(e 0eaF corroboration 0hich- by itsel"- (ight not ha.e been enough to Custi"y stopping ,e"en,ant s .ehicle. ()eop"e $# Castro (2005) 13# Cal.App.3th 3#5.) An anony(ous tipster calling in- in an e?cite, state- to report that ,e"en,ant ha, Cust pointe, a gun at hi(- gi.ing ,etaile, in"or(ation concerning the ,e"en,ant s ,escription an, his location- 0as hel, to be su""icient 0here the call 0as recor,e,- he calle, bacF a secon, ti(e to correct the color o" the car in 0hich ,e"en,ant 0as sitting- ga.e a "irst na(e- an, stucF aroun, long enough to insure that ,e"en,ant 0as still there. +he o""icers respon,e, 0ithin 2 to 3 (inutes an, "oun, the scene as the tipster ,escribe, it. De"en,ant s ,etention an, the 0arrantless search o" the .ehicle "or the gun 0as uphel,. ()eop"e $# Do""& (2002) $0 Cal.3th 3$#: i.e.- *6A9 "irsthan,- conte(poraneous ,escription o" the cri(e as 0ell as an accurate an, co(plete ,escription o" the perpetrator an, his location- the ,etails o" 0hich 0ere con"ir(e, 0ithin (inutes by the police 0hen they arri.e,./) Anony(ous in"or(ation reporting a ,angerous circu(stance in.ol.ing a gun- then occurring- 0ith an accurate ,escription o" the suspect an, his location 0hich is @uicFly .eri"ie,- constitutes su""icient reasonable suspicion to stop- ,etain- an, pat,o0n the suspect. ()eop"e $# 2indse& (2002) 13# Cal.App.3th 13&0.) A late night ra,io call concerning t0o speci"ically ,escribe, (ales causing a ,isturbance- 0ith one possibly ar(e,- in a Fno0n gang area at an a,,ress 0here a call concerning a ,ayti(e shooting ,ays earlier resulte, in the reco.ery o" t0o "irear(s- an, 0here the ,escribe, (ales are "oun, 0ithin (inutes o" the call- is su""icient to Custi"y a ,etention. (In re Richard G# (200&) 123 Cal.App.3th 12$212$2%12$#.) #2
+he in"or(ation (oti.ating an o""icer to con,uct a resi,ential FnocF an, talF (ay be "ro( an anony(ous tipster. +here is no re@uire(ent that o""icers corroborate anony(ous in"or(ation be"ore con,ucting a FnocF an, talF. ()eop"e $# Ri$era (2002) 31 Cal.3th 303.) &orroboration) Rule: &orroboration o" an anony(ous tip su""icient to Custi"y a ,etention an,Nor pat,o0n "or 0eapons can taFe .arious "or(ssuch as) An accurate pre,iction o" a suspect s "uture acti.ity (i.e.*predicti!e information:/ see abo.e) by the tipster. See(ingly innocent acti.ity 0hen the anony(ous tip casts the acti.ity in a suspicious light. Presence o" the person about 0ho( the tip relates in a *high crime area./ Ueri"ication o" ,etails pro.i,e, by the tipster through police obser.ation or other sources. ()eop"e $# Ramire5 (1&&5) 31 Cal.App.3th 150#.) Potential *accountability)/ Potential *accountability (ay help to corroborate an in"or(ant s in"or(ation as 0ell- such *accountability/ being in the "or( o") +he ability o" authorities to i,enti"y the in"or(ant: +he conse@uences the in"or(ant is liFely to e?perience as a result o" pro.i,ing "alse in"or(ation: and +he in"or(ant s perception o" these "actors. ()eop"e $# *ordan (2003) 121 Cal.App.3th $33- $51%$52.) An in%person in"or(ant- e.en though uni,enti"ie,supplies the necessary in,icia o" reliability "or t0o reasons) An in%person in"or(ant risFs losing anony(ity an, being hel, accountable "or a "alse tip. ##
Ehen a tip is (a,e in%person- an o""icer can obser.e the in"or(ant s ,e(eanor an, ,eter(ine 0hether the in"or(ant see(s cre,ible enough to Custi"y i((e,iate police action 0ithout "urther @uestioning. (United States $# )a"os3%ar:ue5 (&th Cir. 2010) $&1 B.3r, 1222: 0ith in"or(ation corroborate, by a Gor,er Patrol Agent s o0n personal obser.ations an, Fno0le,ge o" the area.)
To Establish Probable &ause) Anony(ous in"or(ation ,e(onstrating a Fno0le,ge o" insi,e in"or(ation- ,escribing ongoing cri(inal acti.ityan, su""iciently corroborate,- 0ill Custi"y the issuance o" a search 0arrant. (United States $# *ennen (&th Cir. 2010) $&5 B.3r, $&3- $&#%500: 0here an anony(ous tip corroborate, by a controlle, buy 0as su""icient to establish probable cause "or a search 0arrant.) +o corroborate the anony(ous tip- there (ust be "oun, to be a,,itional e.i,ence that sho0s the tip is reliable. Bor instance) +he tip (ust pro.i,e a *range o" ,etails-/ and +he "uture (o.e(ents o" the suspect (ust be corroborate, by in,epen,ent police obser.ation. (Id.- at p. $&#.)
1n I""inois $# Gates (1&#3) 352 4.S. 213 625 7.8,.2n, $229anony(ous in"or(ation re"lecting insi,e- pre,icti.e beha.ior- corroborate, in nu(erous respects through a police "ollo0%up in.estigation- 0as ,eter(ine, to constitute probable cause (re"erre, to as a *fair probability/) 0hen consi,ering the *totality of the circumstances-/ Custi"ying the issuance o" a search 0arrant. Examples) Su""icient corroboration 0as "oun,- Custi"ying a pat,o0n "or 0eapons- 0hen the anony(ous in"or(ation ca(e "ro( t0o separate in"or(ants- 0here the tips 0ere close in ti(e#&
the in"or(ants contacte, the o""icer personally (thus putting their anony(ity at risF)- an, the setting 0as a cro0,e, throng o" celebrants at a Je0 Kear s 8.e street party- thus increasing the ,angerousness o" the situation. ()eop"e $# Cou"om.e (2001) #5 Cal.App.3th $2.) Geing "a(iliar 0ith the tipster s .oice- an, Fno0ing that he has pro.i,e, reliable in"or(ation in the past(ight be enough. ()eop"e $# *ordan (2003) 121 Cal.App.3th $33- $50%551.) A single pronounce, 0ea.e 0ithin the laneplus an e?perience, Iigh0ay Patrol o""icer s obser.ation o" the ,e"en,ant sitting up close to the steering 0heel- 0hich the o""icer recogni;e, as so(ething an i(paire, ,ri.er ,oes0as su""icient to corroborate secon,%han, in"or(ation concerning ,e"en,ant s *erratic ,ri.ing/ "ro( Oontana Depart(ent o" +ransportation e(ployees- Custi"ying the stop o" the ,e"en,ant s car. (United States $# Fernande53 Casti""o (&th Cir. 2003) 323 B.3r, 1113.) An anony(ous tip o" ,rug ,ealing occurring "ro( a particularly ,escribe, .ehicle at a particular location 0as corroborate, by a traine, la0 en"orce(ent o""icer s obser.ation o" 0hat appeare, to be a han,%to%han, ,rug transaction- Custi"ying a ,etention o" the .ehicle s occupant. ()eop"e $# ut"er (2003) 111 Cal.App.3th 1$0- 1$&%152.) +ote) 1n I""inois $# Gates (1&#3) 352 4.S. 213 625 7.8,.2n, $229- anony(ous in"or(ation re"lecting insi,e- pre,icti.e beha.ior- corroborate, in nu(erous respects through a police "ollo0%up in.estigation- 0as ,eter(ine, to constitute probable cause (re"erre, to as a *fair probability/) 0hen consi,ering the *totality of the circumstances-/ Custi"ying the issuance o" a search 0arrant. See also United States $# *ennen (&th Cir. 2010) $&5 B.3r, $&3- $&#%500- 0here an anony(ous tip corroborate, by a controlle, buy 0as su""icient to establish probable cause "or a search 0arrant. 'n Prison or :ail) An anony(ous tip that a particular prisoner is in possession o" contraban, 0as hel, to be su""icient cause to ,o a .isualclothe, or unclothe,- bo,y ca.ity search. ()eop"e $# Co""ins (2003) 11$ Cal.App.3th 132.) &0
California Code of 8e5ulations, Title 1), 32#1+4,- allo0s "or a .isual search o" an in(ate- clothe, or unclothe,- 0hene.er there is a *substantial reason to belie.e the in(ate (ay ha.e unauthori;e, or ,angerous ite(s conceale, on his or her person./ (1talics a,,e,) Ju,icial authori;ation (i.e.- a search 0arrant)- an, the use o" *(e,ical personnel in a (e,ical setting-/ is only re@uire, in the case o" a *physical (as oppose, to a non%contact !isual) body ca!ity search./ 1n Co""ins- a .isual inspection o" the ,e"en,ant s rectal area 0as inten,e,- "or 0hich it is generally accepte, that the rigorous re@uire(ents o" the (ore intrusi.e *physical body ca!ity search/ is not re@uire,. %inors on Campus) chool officials ha.e the po0er to stop a (inorNstu,ent on ca(pus in or,er to asF @uestions or con,uct an in.estigation e.en in the absence o" a reasonable suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity or a .iolation o" school rules- so long as this authority is not e?ercise, in an arbitrary- capricious- or harassing (anner. (In re Rand& G# (2001) 25 Cal.3th $$5.) Cali"ornia "ollo0s the "e,eral rule on this issue- as ,escribe, in Ne, *erse& $# T#2#O# (1&#$) 35& 4.S. 32$ 6#3 7.8,.2n, 2209- 0hen applying the protections o" the Cali"ornia Constitution. (In re -i""iam G# (1&#$) 30 Cal.3r, $$0- $53.) Ne, *erse& $# T#2#O#- supra- allo0s "or 0arrantless searches by school o""icials so long as the search is *reasonable./ (e.g.- a *reasonable suspicionM/) In re -i""iam G#- supraat p. $53- speci"ically ,e"ines this stan,ar, as a *reasonable suspicion-/ hol,ing that searches by school o""icials are la0"ul so long as the o""icial has *a reasonable suspicion that the stu,ent or stu,ents to be searche, ha.e engage,- or are engaging- in a proscribe, acti.ity (that is- a .iolation o" a school rule or regulation- or a cri(inal statute)./ +he search o" a stu,ent by a school a,(inistrator re@uires only that there be a reasonable suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity or a .iolation o" school rules. +he e?tent o" la0 en"orce(ent s in.ol.e(ent- e.aluating the totality o" the circu(stances- (ust be consi,ere, 0hen ,eter(ining 0hether la0 en"orce(ent s probable cause stan,ar,s apply. Bin,ing that: *the police role in the search o" appellant 0as at all ti(es clearly subor,inate to the role o" the .ice% principal- 0ho (a,e the ,ecision to search an, con,ucte, &1
the search-/ a .ice principal s search o" a stu,ent s locFer 0as uphel, un,er the T#2#O# stan,ar, ,espite the "act that the in"or(ation ca(e "ro( la0 en"orce(ent an, o""icers stoo, by "or sa"ety reasons as the .ice principal con,ucte, the search. (In re /#S# (2010) 1#3 Cal.App.3th 22.) Ran,o( (etal ,etector searches o" stu,ents- 0ithout any in,i.i,uali;e, suspicion- are Custi"ie, by the *special needs/ o" Feeping 0eapons o"" ca(puses. +he Fourth Amendment is not .iolate, by such searches 0here the go.ern(ent nee, is great- the intrusion on the in,i.i,ual is li(ite,- an, a (ore rigorous stan,ar, o" suspicion is un0orFable. (In re 2atasha -# (1&&#) 50 Cal.App.3th 1$23.) Detaining a person on school groun,s "or purposes o" in.estigating the la0"ulness o" his presence there- as an *administrati!e search-/ is la0"ul. (In re *oseph F# (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th $01.) See In re Cod& S# (2003) 121 Cal.App.3th #5- hol,ing that upon re@uiring the (inor- pursuant to school rules- to .acate his gy( locFer 0hen pulle, out o" gy( class at the re@uest o" the *school sa"ety o""icer-/ the (inor lost any e?pectation o" pri.acy in the gy( locFer- an, that this proce,ure did not constitute a search o" that locFer. Also- a,(itting that he ha, a Fni"e in his bacFpacF supplie, the necessary *reasonable suspicion/ "or a 0arrantless search o" his bacFpacF. +he suspicionless search o" a stu,ent 0as uphel, 0here it 0as con,ucte, pursuant to an establishe, policy applying to all stu,ents an, 0as consistent 0ith the type o" action on the part o" a school a,(inistrator that "ell 0ell 0ithin the ,e"inition o" *special needs/ o" a go.ern(ental agency. +he search 0as o" a li(ite, nature- being tol, only to e(pty out his pocFets- as he 0as not subCecte, to physical touching o" his person nor 0as he e?pose, to the inti(ate process re@uire, "or a urine sa(ple necessary "or ,rug testing. +he purpose o" the search 0as to pre.ent the intro,uction o" har("ul ite(s (0eapons an, ,rugs) into the school en.iron(ent. Li.en the general application o" the policy to all stu,ents engage, in a "or( o" rule .iolation that coul, easily len, itsel" to the intro,uction o" ,rugs or 0eapons into the school en.iron(ent (i.e.lea.ing ,uring the school ,ay 0ithout per(ission an, returning later)- "urther in,i.i,uali;e, suspicion 0as not re@uire,. (In re Sean A# (2010) 1&1 Cal.App.3th 1#2- 1#5%1&0.) Gut see the ,issent (pgs. 1&1%1&#) critici;ing the ,ecision as a non%particulari;e,- suspicionless search o" a stu,ent in &2
.iolation o" the principles o" Ne, *erse& $# T#2#O# (1&#$) 35& 4.S. 32$ 6#3 7.8,.2n, 2209- 0here the Supre(e Court hel, that a reasonable suspicion is re@uire,. (See abo.e) A *school resource officer-/ although e(ploye, by a (unicipal police ,epart(ent- nee, only co(ply 0ith the rela?e, search an, sei;ure stan,ar,s applicable to school o""icials- 0hen 0orFing on ca(pus helping to en"orce school rules as 0ell as Penal Co,e .iolations. (In re -i""iam 9# (2003) 111 Cal.App.3th 1353: see also In re A"e!ander # (1&&0) 220 Cal.App.3r, 1$22- 1$22%1$2#.) A 7os Angeles Police Depart(ent o""icer- assigne, to a high school- ,etaining an, patting ,o0n (inors on the school ca(pus 0ho 0ere unable to satis"actorily i,enti"y the(sel.es is la0"ul ,espite the lacF o" e.en a reasonable suspicion that the (inors (ay be ar(e,. (In re *ose Y# (2005) 131 Cal.App.3th 23#.) %inors $io"atin1 cur'e,: Oinors .iolating cur"e0 (ay be stoppe,- ,etaine,- an, transporte, to a cur"e0 center- the police station- or other "acility 0here the (inor can a0ait the arri.al o" a parent or other responsible a,ult. A search o" the (inor prior to placing hi( in a cur"e0 center 0ith other chil,ren is also reasonable. (In re Ian C# (2001) #2 Cal.App.3th #$5.) Gut see ,iscussion- belo0 (**rrests-/ *,inors and &urfew./) re"erring to the taFing a (inor into custo,y "or a cur"e0 .iolation as an *arrest./ (In re *ustin # (1&&&) 5& Cal.App.3th #2&: In re Char"es C# (1&&&) 25 Cal.App.3th 320.) %iranda) People 0ho ha.e been te(porarily ,etaine, "or in.estigation are generally not *in custody/ "or purposes o" %iranda (%iranda $# Ari5ona (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 335 615 7.8,.2n, 5&39.)- at least as a general rule- an, ,o not ha.e to be 0arne, o" their constitutional rights prior to @uestioning. ()eop"e $# %anis (1&5&) 25# Cal.App.2n, 5$3- 55&: )eop"e $# reau"t (1&&0) 223 Cal.App.3r, 12$13$: )eop"e $# C"air (1&&2) 2 Cal.3th 52&- 52$.) Gut see )eop"e $# )i"ster (2005) 13# Cal.App.3th 13&$- at page 13050here it 0as note, that *custody/ "or purposes o" %iranda- un,er the Fifth Amendment- in.ol.es a ,i""erent analysis than *custody/ "or purposes o" a ,etention or arrest un,er the Fourth Amendment. *1n contrast (to Fourth Amendment- search an, sei;ure issues)- Fifth Amendment %iranda custo,y clai(s ,o not e?a(ine the reasonableness o" the o""icer s con,uct- but instea, e?a(ine 0hether a reasonable person (in the ,e"en,ant s position) 0oul, conclu,e the restraints use, by police 0ere tanta(ount to a "or(al arrest./
&3
Re"usal to ans0er @uestions ,uring a ,etention ,oes notby itsel"establish probable cause to arrest- but (ay be one "actor to consi,erso long as the re"usal to ans0er @uestions is not interprete, as a Fifth Amendment- sel"%incri(ination in.ocation. (See )eop"e $# C"air, supraat p. 552.) Use o' Force) A peace o""icer (ay use that a(ount o" "orce that is reasonably necessary un,er the circu(stances in or,er to en"orce a la0"ul ,etention. (In re Ton& C# (1&2#) 21 Cal.3r, ###- #&$: In re Gre1or& S# (1&#0) 112 Cal.App.3r, 25322#.) (actors) 1n ,eter(ining the reasonableness o" using "orce ,uring a ,etention- the court (ust taFe into consi,eration the "ollo0ing "actors) +he se.erity o" the suspecte, cri(e: Ehether the suspect poses an i((e,iate threat to the sa"ety o" the o""icers or others: Ehether the suspect is acti.ely resisting arrest or atte(pting to e.a,e the o""icers by "light: Ehether the ,etention ,uring a search 0as unnecessarily pain"ul,egra,ing or prolonge, (Graham $# Connor (1&#&) 3&0 4.S. 3#53&$%3&5 6103 7.8,.2n, 333- 3$$%3$59.)- or 0hether it in.ol.e, an un,ue in.asion o" pri.acy. (Fran("in $# Fo!,orth (&th Cir. 1&&3) 31 B.3r, #23- #25: see also %endo5a $# Cit& o' -est Co$ina (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 202- 212.)
Refusal to ubmit to a la0"ul ,etention is probable cause to arrestpursuant to (enal Code 14#+a, (1nter"ering 0ith a peace o""icer in the per"or(ance o" his or her ,uties). (In re Gre1or& S#- supraat p. 2#0.) 8.en 0hen the ,etention is illegal- e.ery person has a legal ,uty to sub(it (E$ans $# Cit& o' a(ers'ie"d (1&&3) 22 Cal.App.3th 321.)although ,eclining to ,o so is not a .iolation o" (!C! 14# in that a peace o""icer is not acting in the *performance of his (or her) duties/ by unla0"ully ,etaining so(eone. Gut the "orce use, (ust be tailore, to the circu(stances. +he initial ,etention (ust be la0"ul an, then the a(ount o" "orce use, (ust be reasonable un,er the circu(stances. KanFing a person out o" his .ehicle- pushing hi( up against his caran, han,cu""ing hi( 0hen that person is not atte(pting to escape nor resisting the o""icers in any0ay other than being *.erbally con"rontational-/ (ay be e?cessi.e. (2i.era" $# Estrada (&th Cir. 2011) 532 B.3r, 1053- 102#%102&.) &3
+he use o" firearms- handcuffs- putting a person into a loc?ed patrol caror si(ply a *show of force-/ (ay- un,er the circu(stances- cause the court to later "in, that an atte(pte, ,etention 0as in "act an arrestan,- i" (a,e 0ithout *probable cause-/ illegal. (United States $# Ramos34ara1osa (&th Cir. 1&2$) $15 B.2n, 131- 133: Ne, Yor( $# =uar"es (1&#3) 352 4.S. 53& 6#1 7.8,.2n, $$09: han,cu""s: Oro5co $# Te!as (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 323 622 7.8,.2n, 3119: "orce: United States $# Ricardo D# (&th Cir. 1&&0) &12 B.2n, 332- 330: *Detention in a patrol car e?cee,s per(issible Terr& +$# Ohio (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1 620 7.8,.2n, ##&9.) li(its absent so(e reasonable Custi"ication./ Gut there are e?ceptions) See *Detentions !s2 *rrests-/ abo.e. Detentions in a Residence During the Execution of a earch =arrant) +he occupants o" a resi,ence (ay be ,etaine, ,uring the e?ecution o" a search 0arrant e.en though they ,i, not (atch the ,escription o" the suspects (e.g.- Caucasian instea, o" A"rican%A(erican) belie.e, to be li.ing there at the ti(e. (2os An1e"es Count& $# Rette"e (2002) $$0 4.S. 50& 6152 7.8,.2n, &239: the court noting that until the rest o" the house is checFe, "or the suspects- other occupants (ay be ,etaine,.) 1t 0as "urther hel, that 0ith Fno0le,ge that one o" the sought%"or suspects ha, a "irear( registere, to hi(- the ,etainees coul, be hel, at gunpoint until the rest o" the house coul, be checFe,- e.en though the ,etainees 0ere unclothe, at the ti(e. 1t 0as not necessary to allo0 the ,etainees to co.er us until o""icers sa"ety coul, be assure,. (I.id.) See also %ueh"er $# %ena (200$) $33 4.S. &3 6151 7.8,.2n, 2&&9: ,etention o" a resi,ent la0"ul 0hile e.i,ence in a gang shooting case looFe, "or- at least i" not *prolonged./ +arcotics6Related Traffic tops #sing a *&ontrolled Tire Deflation De!ice/ (*&TDD/)) +he use o" a *controlled tire deflation de!ice/ to stop a .ehicle suspecte, o" being use, to s(uggle controlle, substances o.er the 4SNOe?ico bor,er hel, to be a ,etention only (thus re@uiring only a reasonable suspicion) an, not e?cessi.e "orce un,er the circu(stances. (United States $# Gu5man3)adi""a (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, #5$- ##5%##&.) &$
+ote) +he *controlled tire deflation de!ice-/ or *C+DD-/ is an accor,ion%liFe tray containing s(all- hollo0 steel tubes that puncture the tires o" a passing .ehicle an, cause a gra,ual release o" airbringing the .ehicle to a halt 0ithin a @uarter to hal" a (ile. Deadly (orce) Dea,ly "orce (i.e.- force li?ely to cause death or great bodily in%ury) (ay not be use, to en"orce a ,etention- unless the o""icer is attacFe, an, (ust ,e"en, hi( or hersel" against the use o" ,ea,ly "orce by the suspect. (See )eop"e $# Ce.a""os (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, 320- 32#: Tennessee $# Garner (1&#$) 321 4.S. 1- 12%1$ 6#$ 7.8,.2n, 1- 10%129.) See *Deadly (orce-/ un,er **rrests-/ belo0. Demandin1 Identi'ication: Ehile it is clear that a person 0ho has been *consensually encountered/ (see abo.e) nee, not i,enti"y hi(sel"- nor e.en talF to a police o""icer (See /o"ender $# 2a,son (1&#3) 351 4.S. 3$2 62$ 7.8,.2n, &039: ro,n $# Te!as (1&2&) 333 4.S. 32- $2 651 7.8,.2n, 3$29.)- there is nothing i(proper 0ith a peace o""icer *demanding/ that a ,etaine, person properly i,enti"y hi(sel". (United States $# Christian (&th Cir. 2003) 3$5 B.3r, 1103: not ,iscussing 0hether the o""icer can en"orce the ,e(an,.) A passenger in a la0"ully stoppe, .ehicle (ay be *asFe,/ "or his i,enti"ication. (United States $# Dia53Castaneda (&th Cir. 2002) 3&3 B.3r, 1135- 11$2%11$3.) +he Fourth Amendment is not i(plicate, by asFing a ,etaine, in,i.i,ual "or i,enti"ication- at least so long as the ,etention is not unnecessarily prolonge, in the process. ()eop"e $# 9i.anco (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th 1- 13%13.) +he only issue le"t hanging by Christian an, 9i.anco is 0hether a ,etaine, suspect must properly i,enti"y hi(sel"or be subCect to arrest "or re"using to ,o so. +he Court see(e, to hint- ho0e.er- that he cannot be "orce, to i,enti"y hi(sel". Io0e.er- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court rule, in 0ii.e" $# Si!th *udicia" District Court o' Ne$ada (2003) $32 4.S. 122 61$& 7.8,.2n, 2&29- that a person 0ho is la0"ully *detained/ (ay be charge, 0ith a cri(inal .iolation "or re"using to i,enti"y hi(sel". Such an i,enti"ication re@uire(ent .iolates neither the Fourth nor Fifth Amendment (sel"%incri(ination) rights o" the ,etaine, person. &5
Jote- ho0e.er- that the Court- in 0ii.e"- conce,e, that *a case (ay arise 0here there is a substantial allegation that "urnishing i,entity at the ti(e o" a stop 0oul, ha.e gi.en the police a linF in the chain o" e.i,ence nee,e, to con.ict the in,i.i,ual o" a separate o""ense-/ thus i(plicating the Fifth Amendment right against sel"%incri(ination. (Id.- at p. 1&1.) *lso note that Je.a,a has a speci"ic statute (aFing it a (is,e(eanor to re"use to i,enti"y onesel" 0hen la0"ully ,etaine,. Cali"ornia ,oes not ha.e such a speci"ic statutealthough arguably- a person in such a circu(stance can be charge, 0ith (!C! 14#+a,+1,- "or ,elaying an o""icer in the per"or(ance o" his or her ,uties- or (!C! 14#!" 0hen the subCect pro.i,es a "ictitious na(e. An argu(ent can be (a,e that ,espite the lacF o" a statute re@uiring a ,etainee to i,enti"y hi(sel"- the right to con,uct a *Terr& stop/ on less than probable cause carries 0ith it the inherent right to re@uire a ,etainee to i,enti"y hi(sel" so long as so(e statute (e.g.- (!C! 14#+a,+1,) is being .iolate,. *6+9he ability to brie"ly stop 6a suspect9- asF @uestions- or chec? identification in the absence o" probable cause pro(otes the strong go.ern(ent interest in sol.ing cri(es an, bringing o""en,ers to Custice./ (1talics a,,e,: 0a&es $# F"orida (1&#$) 320 4.S. #11- #15 6#3 7.8,.2n, 20$.) *+he principles o" Terr& ($# Ohio (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1) per(it a State to re@uire a suspect to ,isclose his na(e in the course o" a Terr& stop./ (0ii.e" $# Si!th *udicia" District Court o' Ne$ada- supra- at p. 1#2.) See )eop"e $# =uiro1a (1&&3) 15 Cal.App.3th &51uphol,ing a (!C! 14# con.iction "or an arrestee 0ho re"use, to i,enti"y hi(sel" ,uring the booFing process- an, )eop"e $# Christopher (2005) 132 Cal.App.3th 31#- 0here gi.ing a "alse na(e 0hen arreste, "or shopli"ting 0as hel, to be a .iolation o" (!C! 14#. &2
$ut see In re Gre1or& S# (1&#0) 112 Cal.App.3r, 253- 225- 0here the Court *assu(e(,) "or the saFe o" ,iscussion/ that a .iolation o" (enal Code section 14# (ay not be pre(ise, on a re"usal to ans0er @uestions- including a re@uest for identification. (1talics a,,e,) +he issue- ho0e.er,espite the Court s state, opinion that re"using to i,enti"y probably is not a (!C! 14# .iolation (pg. 22&)- 0as neither analy;e, nor ,iscusse, the issue in that other .ali, groun,s "or uphol,ing a (!C! 14# (,elaying the o""icer in the per"or(ance o" his ,uties) 0as "oun, by the ,etainee atte(pting to 0alF a0ay. Also- Gre1or& S# 0as ,eci,e, so(e 23 years be"ore 0ii.e". +ote) A care"ul rea,ing o" 0ii.e"- =uiro1a- an, Gre1or& S# in,icates that 0hether or not (!C! 14#+a,+1, can be charge, in a circu(stance 0here a ,etainee has re"use, to i,enti"y hi(sel" is a @uestion that 0ill ,epen, upon the speci"ic circu(stances o" the in,i.i,ual case at issue. 1n those cases 0here re"using to i,enti"y onesel" ,oes in "act ,elay the o""icer in the per"or(ance o" his ,uties (e.g.- ,i, it unnecessarily e?ten, the ti(e re@uire, to co(plete the ,etention or other0ise ,ra0 the o""icer a0ay "ro( co(pleting his other la0"ul ,uties)- the ans0er should be *yes./ 1" not- then the ans0er 0ill liFely be *no./ See State $# A"oi (2002) 2#0 Conn. #23- 0here the Connecticut Supre(e Court "oun, that by re"using to i,enti"y hi(sel"- the la0"ully ,etaine, ,e"en,ant 0as in "act in .iolation o" a state statute that speci"ically pro.i,e,) *A person is guilty o" inter"ering 0ith an o""icer 0hen such person obstructs- resists- hin,ers or en,angers any peace o""icer or "ire"ighter in the per"or(ance o" such peace o""icer s or "ire"ighter s ,uties . . . ./ (9en! Statutes +8e:! to 2331, )3a ; 121a: *Gecause a re"usal to pro.i,e i,enti"ication in connection 0ith a Terr& stop (ay ha(per or i(pe,e a police in.estigation into apparent cri(inal acti.ity- 0e see no reason 0hy such con,uct 0oul, be categorically e?clu,e, un,er the e?pansi.e language o" )3a< 121a./ (Id.- at p. #33.) &#
1t still "ollo0s- ho0e.er- that a person 0ho is only subCect to a *consensual encounter/ is not re@uire, to i,enti"y hi(sel". (See /o"ender $# 2a,son- supra.) Detentions o' an Emp"o&ee in the -or(p"ace (or a tudent at chool): Proble() Ehen an e(ployee s super.isors (or a stu,ent s principal- a (ilitary super.isor- or a la0 en"orce(ent super.isor) or,er the e(ployee (or stu,ent- (ilitary subor,inate- or police o""icer) to report to the o""ice or re(ain in the 0orFplace pen,ing an inter.ie0- at the re@uest or co(plicity o" la0 en"orce(ent- is the e(ployee *,etaine,/ "or purposes o" the Fourth AmendmentM Ans0er) Jot necessarily- but it ,epen,s upon the circu(stances. (See A1ui"era $# aca- infra.) Sheri"" s ,eputies 0ho are or,ere, to re(ain at the station pen,ing an inter.ie0 by 1nternal A""airs in.estigators about an allege, e?cessi.e "orce citi;en s co(plaint- 0here cri(inal prosecution coul, result- the ,eputies 0ere hel, to be not ,etaine, "or purposes o" the Fourth Amendment a"ter an e.aluation o" the "ollo0ing "actors (A1ui"era $# aca (&th Cir. 2002) $10 B.3r, 1151- 1152%1121- citing Drie.e" $# Cit& o' %i",au(ee (2th Cir. 2002) 2&# B.3r, 522- 53#.)) +he e?perience le.el o" the subor,inate: Ehether the treat(ent 0as consistent 0ith that allo0e, by ,epart(ent gui,elines or general policy: +he occurrence o" physical contact or threats o" physical restraint: An e?plicit re"usal o" per(ission to ,epart: 1solation o" the subor,inate o""icer: Per(ission to use the restroo( 0ithout acco(pani(ent: +he subor,inate o""icer s being in"or(e, that he 0as the subCect o" a cri(inal in.estigation: Ehether the subor,inate o""icer 0as spoFen to *in a (enacing or threatening (anner:/ Ehether the subor,inate o""icer 0as un,er constant sur.eillance: Ehether superior o""icers ,enie, a re@uest to contact an attorney or union representati.e: +he subor,inate o""icer s ability to retain la0 en"orce(ent e@uip(ent- inclu,ing 0eapons an, ba,ges: +he ,uration o" the ,etention: an, +he subor,inate s receipt o" o.erti(e pay. &&
Si(ilar cases) Jo sei;ure 0hen an on%,uty ci.ilian Air Borce e(ployee 0as or,ere, to report "or an inter.ie0 0ith an intelligence o""icer. (United States $# %ue11e (11th Cir. 2000) 22$ B.3r, 1252- 1220.) Jo sei;ure 0hen an on%,uty Coast Luar, o""icer 0as or,ere, to report "or an inter.ie0 0ith an intelligence o""icer. (United States $# aird (D.C. Cir. 1&##) #$1 B.2n, 325- 3#0%3#2.) +ote) Although there are no cases a.ailable ,escribing 0hen a stu,ent is or,ere, to the principal s o""ice at the re@uest o" la0 en"orce(ent "or an inter.ie0- a situation that o"ten arises- it is arguable that the sa(e analysis coul, be (a,e. +he o""icer telling the stu,ent- ho0e.er- that he is "ree to return to class 0oul, probably negate any argu(ent that he or she 0as ,etaine, un,er the circu(stances. Jote that Greene $# Camreta (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, 1011: 0here the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal rule, that inter.ie0ing a chil, .icti( on a school ca(pus 0ithout the parents consent re@uire, a search 0arrant or other court or,er- or e?igent circu(stances- as a Fourth Amendment sei;ure- 0as o.errule, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court in Camreta $# Greene (2011) >> 4.S. >> 6131 S.Ct. 2020: 12& 7.8,.2n, 111#9. +he Jinth Circuit s ,ecision- ho0e.er0as (erely .acate,- lea.ing the issue un,eci,e,. See P.C. 11174.3(a), setting out statutory
procedures police officers are to use in interviewing child victims while at school.
Sei5ure o' Firearms Durin1 a Detention: 9o:.t! Code #)11!) pro.i,es that a police o""icer (ay not sei;e or con"iscate any "irear( or a((unition "ro( an in,i.i,ual 0ho is la0"ully carrying or possessing the "irear( or a((unition. Io0e.er- the o""icer (ay te(porarily ,isar( an in,i.i,ual i" the o""icer reasonably belie.es it is i((e,iately necessary "or the protection o" the o""icer or another in,i.i,ual. An o""icer 0ho ,isar(s an in,i.i,ual is to return the "irear( be"ore ,ischarging the in,i.i,ual unless the o""icer arrests the in,i.i,ual or sei;es the "irear( as e.i,ence o" the co((ission o" a cri(e. +ote) +his ne0 section is in the part o" the 9o:ernment Code entitle, the *Ca"i'ornia Emer1enc& Ser$ices Act./ +his ne0 100
section is inten,e, to prohibit an e?ecuti.e or,er ,isar(ing in,i.i,uals 0ho are in la0"ul possession o" "irear(s ,uring a state o" e(ergency or crisis- an, 0ill con"or( Cali"ornia la0 to a ne0 "e,eral la0- (u4lic =a> 13"<2")- 0hich prohibits the con"iscation o" other0ise legal "irear(s "ro( la0%abi,ing citi;ens ,uring a state o" e(ergency by any agent o" the Be,eral Lo.ern(ent or by anyone recei.ing "e,eral "un,s. Io0e.er- it appears to be 0ritten broa, enough to a""ect a police o""icer s contacts 0ith in,i.i,uals on the street. An, note (!C! #33!)- pro.i,ing a peace o""icer the authority to ,etain "or in.estigation anyone 0ho the o""icer has *reasonable cause/ to belie.e illegally has in his or her possession a "irear( or other ,ea,ly 0eapon. Also- (!C! 2)#)3+4, ("or(erly (!C! 12331+e,) gi.es a peace o""icer the right to inspect a "irear( carrie, by any person on his person or in a .ehicle *on any public street in an incorporate, city or prohibite, area o" an unincorporate, territory./ Re"usal to allo0 a peace o""icer to inspect a "irear( is probable cause to arrest the subCect "or .iolating (!C! 2)#)3+a, ("or(erly (!C! 12331+a,+1,): illegally carrying a loa,e, "irear( in the liste, public places. Detention E!amp"es, in Genera") A"ter @uestioning a person at an airport- a ,etention 0as hel, to be la0"ul 0here the na(e gi.en to police 0as ,i""erent than that put on checFe, luggage- 0ith no ,ocu(entary proo" o" i,entity- 0hile tra.eling to a "ara0ay city Fno0n "or recei.ing narcotics- plus other suspicious circu(stances. ()eop"e $# Dau1hert& (1&&5) $0 Cal.App.3th 22$.) Carrying an a? on a bicycle at 3)00 a.(. is reasonable suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity Custi"ying a ,etention "or in.estigation. ()eop"e $# Foran&ic (1&&#) 53 Cal.App.3th 1#5.) Detaining a person on school groun,s "or purposes o" in.estigating the la0"ulness o" his presence there- as an *administrati!e search-/ is la0"ul. (In re *oseph F# (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th $01.) An Anchorage- AlasFa- Ounicipal Co,e or,inance "orbi,,ing any ite( a""i?e, to the 0in,shiel, (si(ilar to Cali"ornia s 0!C! 2213#+a,+1,: see )eop"e $# -hite (2003) 102 Cal.App.3th 535.) was not .iolate, by an air "reshener ,angling "ro( the rear .ie0 (irror. A tra""ic stop 0as "oun, to be illegal. (United States $# /in1 (&th Cir. 2001) 233 B.3r, 235- 230.) A tra""ic stop "or a .iolation o" 0!C! 2213#+a, 0as hel, to be illegal in )eop"e $# -hite- supra.- 0here insu""icient e.i,ence 0as 101
presente, in court o" an obstruction o" the ,ri.er s .ie0 cause, by an air "reshener ,angling "ro( the rear.ie0 (irror- but legal in )eop"e $# Co".ert (2002) 1$2 Cal.App.3th 105#- 0here the o""icer 0as able to testi"y 0hy he belie.e, the ,ri.er s .ie0 0as obstructe, by the sa(e type o" obCect an, the ,e"ense "aile, to present any e.i,ence to the contrary. !bser.ing ,e"en,ant breaF traction "or about 20 to 2$ "eet- lasting about 2 secon,s- 0as su""icient cause to suspect a .iolation o" 0!C! 2313"+c,e?hibition o" spee,. ( rierton $# Department o' %otor 9ehic"es (200$) 130 Cal.App.3th 3&&- $0&%$10.) Seeing three .ehicles 0ith "our GlacF (ale occupants eachone o" the occupants 0ho is Fno0n to be a gang (e(ber- ,ri.ing as i" in (ilitary "or(ation at 12)30 at night- hours a"ter a prior gang shooting- the .ehicles being in one o" the 0arring GlacF gang s territory- hel, to be insufficient to Custi"y a stop an, ,etention. ()eop"e $# 0ester (2003) 11& Cal.App.3th 325- 3#$%3&2.) Ehere the ,e"en,ant 0as con"ronte, by si? o""icers- all surroun,ing hi(0ith "i.e o" the( in uni"or( 0ith .isible "irear(s- in an area shiel,e, "ro( public .ie0 (an apart(ent hall0ay)- 0here his re@uest to shut the ,oor to his roo( 0as ,enie,- he 0as patte, ,o0n "or 0eapons- he 0as tol, three ti(es that he 0as subCect to arrest "or "ailing to register (thus i(plying a nee, to cooperate shoul, he 0ish to a.oi, the specter o" arrest)- an, 0here he 0as ne.er tol, that he 0as "ree to lea.e- a reasonable person in ,e"en,ant s position at the ti(e 0oul, not ha.e belie.e, that he 0as "ree to ter(inate the contact. (United States $# -ashin1ton (&th Cir. 2003) 3#2 B.3r, 1050- 105#%105&: "in,ing that ,e"en,ant s ,etention 0as *more intrusi!e than necessary/ an, that upon his ,enial o" anything illegal in his roo(- the ,etention beca(e illegal.) A stop an, ,etention base, upon stale in"or(ation concerning a threat0hich itsel" 0as o" @uestionable .eracity- an, 0ith little i" anything in the 0ay o" suspicious circu(stances to connect the persons stoppe, to that threat- is illegal. ()eop"e $# Dura5o (2003) 123 Cal.App.3th 22#) +hreat 0as purporte,ly "ro( Oe?ican gang (e(bers- an, ,e"en,ant 0as a Oe?ican (ale 0ho (0ith his passenger) glance, at the .icti( s apart(ent as he ,ro.e by "our ,ays later- 0here the o""icer a,(itte,ly 0as acting on his *gut feeling/ that ,e"en,ant 0as in.ol.e,.) Stopping the plainti""- an A"rican%A(erican (ale- a hal" (ile a0ay 0hile ,ri.ing a gray car in the ,irection o" a 0itness s house- 30 (inutes a"ter the 0itness calle, police to report that he ha, Cust been 0arne, by a "rien, that t0o A"rican%A(erican (ales 0ere co(ing to his house to ,o hi( har( an, that he ha, Cust seen t0o such (ales ,ri.ing by in a gray or 102
blacF car- 0as hel, to be a la0"ul stop base, upon a reasonable suspicion that the plainti"" 0as possibly one o" the suspects. (F"o,ers $# Fiore (1st Cir. 2003) 3$& B.3r, 23.) Despite local statutes to the contrary- an o""icer nee, not- un,er the Fourth Amendment- ha.e personally obser.e, a tra""ic .iolation in or,er to Custi"y (aFing a tra""ic stop- so long as the necessary *reasonable suspicion/ to belie.e a .iolation (such Fno0le,ge co(ing "ro( another o""icer in this case) ,i, in "act occur. (United States $# %iranda3Guerena (&th Cir. 2005) 33$ B.3r, 1233.) !bser.ation o" a trucF that (atche, the ,escription o" one that ha, Cust been stolen in a carCacFing- but 0ith a ,i""erent license plate that appeare, to be recently attache,- an, 0ith t0o occupants 0ho generally (atche, the suspects ,escription- constitute, the necessary reasonable suspicion to Custi"y the ,e"en,ant s ,etention. (United States $# 0art5 (&th Cir. 2005) 3$# B.3r, 1011- 1012%101#.) A search an, sei;ure con,ition Custi"ies a ,etention 0ithout a reasonable suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity. ()eop"e $# 9iers (1&&1) 1 Cal.App.3th &&0&&3%&&3: ,e"en,ant stoppe, an, ,etaine, in his .ehicle.) A *FnocF an, talF/ at the ,e"en,ant s (otel roo( Custi"ie, the e.entual ,etention o" ,e"en,ant 0hen (1) the o""icers ha, so(e li(ite, in"or(ation "ro( an earlier tra""ic stop that ,e"en,ant (ight be in.ol.e, in the (anu"acturing o" (etha(pheta(ine- inclu,ing the presence o" a pressure cooFer 0hich the o""icer Fne0 coul, be use, in the (anu"acturing o" (etha(pheta(ine: (2) a roo((ate tooF a "ull t0o (inutes to open the (otel roo( ,oor 0hile the o""icers coul, hear noises liFe people (o.ing things aroun, insi,e: (3) 0hen ,e"en,ant 0as contacte,- he acte, e?tre(ely ner.ous- contrary to ho0 he ha, acte, ,uring a pre.ious contact by the sa(e o""icers: an, (3) the roo((ate a,(itte, to being a (etha(pheta(ine user an, that other people ha, .isite, the roo( the night be"ore. (United States $# Crapser (&th Cir. 2002) 322 B.3r, 11311132%113&.) !bser.ing ,e"en,ant sitting in a parFe, (otor .ehicle late at night near the e?it to a 2%8le.en store parFing lot 0ith the engine running- ,espite prior Fno0le,ge o" a string o" recent robberies at 2%8le.ens- hel, not to be su""icient to Custi"y a ,etention an, pat,o0n. ()eop"e $# )errus:uia (2002) 1$0 Cal.App.3th 22#.) Spotlighting the ,e"en,ant in a high narcotics area an, then 0alFing up to hi( *brisFly/ 0hile asFing @uestions hel, to be an unla0"ul ,etention un,er the circu(stances. ()eop"e $# Garr& (2002) 1$5 Cal.App.3th 1100.) 103
Uoluntarily going 0ith the police to the police station- 0here he 0as inter.ie0e, as a possible 0itness- an, not a suspect- 0here nothing 0as e.er ,one or sai, to in,icate other0ise at least up until his arrest- 0as not an unla0"ul ,etention. ()eop"e $# 4amudio (200#) 33 Cal.3th 322- 331% 335.) !bser.ation by an o""icer traine, as a *,rug recognition e?pert/ o" ,e"en,ant apparently asleep in his .ehicle in a ,rugstore parFing lot- at #)00 p.(.- 0ith the parFing lights on- Fno0ing that people 0ho are un,er the in"luence o" ,rugs ten, to "all *asleep @uicFly- inappropriately- an, so(eti(es uncontrollably-/ an, then noticing that he 0as breathing "aster than usual- an,- 0hen a0aFene,- "in,ing ,e"en,ant to be irritableaggressi.e- an, o.erly asserti.ePall in,ications o" so(eone un,er the in"luence o" ,rugsPhel, to be su""icient cause to ,etain hi(. (Ramire5 $# Cit& o' uena )ar( (&th Cir. 200&) $50 B.3r, 1012- 1015%101#- 1020% 1021.) !bser.ing ,e"en,ant stan,ing near the open trunF o" a car- 0hich he i((e,iately shut upon the approach o" the o""icers an, 0alF a0ay- 0hile appearing ner.ous- 0hen co(bine, 0ith the o""icer s plain sight obser.ations o" e?pose, 0ires in the .ehicle 0here the ,oor panel an, the stereo tri( ha, been re(o.e,- 0ith tools such as scre0,ri.ers an, pliers lying aroun,- 0as (ore than enough reasonable suspicion to Custi"y the ,e"en,ant s ,etention. ()eop"e $# Os.orne (200&) 12$ Cal.App.3th 10$210$#.) Eith personal Fno0le,ge that so(eone ha, been illegally shooting a "irear( an, ha, an illegal ca(p"ire in the area o" ,e"en,ant s ca(psitecontacting an, ,etaining ,e"en,ant at the ca(psite the "ollo0ing (orning 0as la0"ul. (United States $# asher (&th Cir. 2011) 52& B.3r, 1151115$%1155.) %erchants, 2i.rar& Emp"o&ees and Theater O,ners) (!C! 1"3!)+f,) Detention o" a shopli"t or the"t suspect- or a person illegally recor,ing a (o.ie in a theater- by a (erchant- library e(ployee or theater o0ner- respecti.ely- "or the purpose o" ,eter(ining 0hether the suspect ,i, in "act steal property belonging to the .icti(- or illegally recor, a (o.ie- is authori;e, by statute. !nce the purpose o" the ,etention is acco(plishe,- the suspect (ust either be turne, o.er to an, arreste, by police- or release,. !nly non6deadly force (ay be use,. ((!C! 1"3!)+f,+2,)
103
See )eop"e $# 4e"ins(i (1&2&) 23 Cal.3r, 3$2: an, In re Christopher 0# (1&&1) 222 Cal.App.3r, 1$52.)
10$
Chapter 6
Arrests) De'ined) +he *ta?ing a person into custody, in a case and in the manner authorized by law./ ((!C! #34) Standard o' )roo') Re@uires *Probable &ause)/ *(A) police o""icer (ay arrest 0ithout (a) 0arrant (a person) . . . belie.e, by the o""icer upon reasonable (or *probable/) cause to ha.e been guilty o" a "elony (or (is,e(eanor)./ (8(phasis a,,e,: United States $# -atson (1&25) 323 4.S. 311- 312 635 7.8,.2n, $&#- 50$9.) Defined) Probable (or Reasonable) &ause to *rrest) *Reasonable or probable cause is sho0n i" a man of ordinary care (or caution) and prudence (or a reasonable and prudent person) 0oul, be le, to belie.e an, conscientiously entertain an honest and strong suspicion that the accuse, is guilty./ (See )eop"e $# 2e,is (1&#0) 10& Cal.App.3r, $&& 50#% 50&: )eop"e $# Campa (1&#3) 35 Cal.3r, #20- #2&: )eop"e $# )rice (1&&1) 1 Cal.3th 323- 310.) +ote) +he ter(s *reasonable/ an, *probable/ cause are use, interchangeably in both the co,es (See (!C! "")+a,+1,+&,) an, case la0- but (0hen properly use,) (ean the sa(e thing. *Reasonable cause/ an, Hreasonable suspicion/ (i.e.- the stan,ar, o" proo" "or a ,etention) do not (ean the sa(e thing an, are not to be con"use,. +ote) Oore than a *reasonable suspicion-/ but less than *clear and con!incing e!idence/ or *proof beyond a reasonable doubt./ =hen Probable &ause Exists) *(P)robable cause/ e?ists i"- un,er the totality o" the circu(stances Fno0n to the arresting o""icers- a pru,ent person 0oul, ha.e conclu,e, that there 0as a fair probability that the in,i.i,ual ha, co((itte, a cri(e./ (1talics a,,e,: United States $# 0ernande5 (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 330- 333: see also Duna,a& $# Ne, Yor( (1&2&) 332 4.S. 200- 20#- "n. &: 650 7.8,.2n, #239: )eop"e $# Scott (2011) $2 Cal.3th 3$2- 323.) Uarious courts ha.e use, .ariations o" this sa(e ,e"inition to ,e"ine probable cause) *Probable cause to arrest e?ists 0hen o""icers ha.e Fno0le,ge or reasonably trust0orthy in"or(ation su""icient to lea, a person o" reasonable caution to belie.e an o""ense has been or is being co((itte, by the person being arreste,./ *ohn $# Cit& o' E" %onte (&th Cir. 200#) $1$ B.3r, &35- &30: citing ec( $# Ohio (1&53) 32& 4.S. #&- &1 613 7.8,.2n, 1329.) 105
*Probable cause arises 0hen an o""icer has Fno0le,ge base, on reasonably trust0orthy in"or(ation that the person arreste, has co((itte, a cri(inal o""ense. (Citation)/ (%cSherr& $# Cit& o' 2on1 each (&th Cir. 200&) $#3 B.3r, 112&- 113$.) *1n Cali"ornia- Aan o""icer has probable cause "or a 0arrantless arrest Ai" the "acts Fno0n to hi( 0oul, lea, a 6person9 o" or,inary care an, pru,ence to belie.e an, conscientiously entertain an honest an, strong suspicion that the person is guilty o" a cri(e./ 6Citations.9/ ( "a(enhorn $# Cit& o' Oran1e (&th Cir. 2002) 3#$ B.3r, 353- 321: see also )eop"e $# )rice (1&&1) 1 Cal.3th 323- 310.) 8?cept perhaps "or a *specific intent/ ele(ent- *an o""icer nee, not ha.e probable cause "or e.ery ele(ent o" the o""ense./ ( "a(enhorn $# Cit& o' Oran1e- supra.- at p. 322.) *(+)his rule (ho0e.er-) (ust be applie, 0ith an eye to the core probable cause re@uire(ent: na(ely- that Aun,er the totality o" the circu(stances- a pru,ent person 0oul, ha.e conclu,e, that there 0as a "air probability that the suspect ha, co((itte, a cri(e. / (Citation o(itte,) Rodis $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2002) 3&& B.3r, 10&3- 10&&.) *Probable cause/ (erely re@uires that *the "acts an, circu(stances 0ithin 6the o""icers 9 Fno0le,ge an, o" 0hich they ha, reasonably trust0orthy in"or(ation 0ere su""icient to 0arrant a pru,ent (an in belie.ing that the 6plainti""9 ha, co((itte, or 0as co((itting an o""ense. . . . Police (ust only sho0 that- un,er the totality o" the circu(stances- . . . a pru,ent person 0oul, ha.e conclu,e, that there 0as a "air probability that 6the suspect9 ha, co((itte, a cri(e./ (0art $# )ar(s (&th Cir. 2005) 3$0 B.3r, 10$&105$%1055.) *Probable cause e?ists 0hen the "acts Fno0n to the arresting o""icer 0oul, persua,e so(eone o" Areasonable caution that the person to be arreste, has co((itte, a cri(e. 6Citation.9 A6P9robable cause is a "lui, conceptPturning on the assess(ent o" probabilities in particular "actual conte?ts . . . . 6Citation.9 1t is incapable o" precise ,e"inition. 6Citation.9 A+he substance o" all the ,e"initions o" probable cause is a reasonable groun, "or belie" o" guilt- an, that belie" (ust be Aparticulari;e, 0ith respect to the person to be . . . sei;e,. 6Citations.9 A6S9u""icient probability- not 102
certainty- is the touchstone o" reasonableness un,er the Bourth A(en,(ent / (Gi""an $# Cit& o' %arino (2002) 132 Cal.App.3th 1033- 1033.) *AReasonable and probable cause (ay e?ist although there (ay be so(e roo( "or ,oubt./ (2orenson $# Superior Court (1&$0) 3$ Cal.2n, 3&- $2.) *(+)he probable%cause stan,ar, is a practical- nontechnical conception that ,eals 0ith the "actual an, practical consi,erations o" e.ery,ay li"e on 0hich reasonable an, pru,ent (en- not legal technicians- act./ (Citations an, internal @uotation (arFs o(itte,: %ar&"and $# )rin1"e (2003) $30 4.S. 355- 320 61$2 7.8,.2n, 25&9: probable cause "or arrest o" all three occupants o" a .ehicle "oun, 0here a controlle, substance 0as "oun, 0ithin reach o" any o" the(.) !""icers ha, probable cause to arrest both the passenger an, the ,ri.er "or possession o" a billy club seen resting against the ,ri.er s ,oor. ()eop"e $# 9ermouth (1&21) 20 Cal. App. 3, 235- 2$5.) 1n"or(ing t0o suspects in a .ehicle that they 0oul, both be arreste, "or possession o" a conceale, "irear(- pro(pting a response "ro( ,e"en,ant that he , *ta?e the charge-/ 0as not the "unctional e@ui.alent o" an interrogation that re@uire, a %iranda a,(onish(ent. (United States $# Co""ins (5th Cir. 2012) 5#3 B.3r, 5&2- 201%203.) *+he substance o" all the ,e"initions o" probable cause is a reasonable groun, "or belie" o" guilt- an, that belie" (ust be Aparticulari;e, 0ith respect to the person to be . . . sei;e,. / ()eop"e $# Ce"is (2003) 33 Cal.3th 552- 523: citing %ar&"and $# )rin1"e- supra.) *Probable cause is a "lui, conceptPturning on the assess(ent o" probabilities in particular "actual conte?ts . . . ./ (I""inois $# Gates (1&#3) 352 4.S. 213- 231%232 625 7.8,.2n, $22- $3#9: using the ter( *fair probability/ to ,escribe probable cause. See also Rodis $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2002) 3&& B.3r, 10&3- 10&#.) Probable cause allo0s "or an o""icer s reasonable (istaFe. 1t only (eans that he or she is *probably/ right- or in e""ect- ha.ing (ore e.i,ence "or than against. (E! )arte Sou5a (1&23) 5$ Cal.App. &.) 10#
*6P9robable cause (eans A"air probability- not certainty or e.en a prepon,erance o" the e.i,ence./ (United States $# Gourde (&th Cir. 2005) 330 B.3r, 105$- 105&.) *Probable cause to arrests e?ists 0hen o""icers ha.e Fno0le,ge or reasonably trust0orthy in"or(ation su""icient to lea, a person o" caution to belie.e that an o""ense has been or is being co((itte, by the person being arreste,./ (Citations o(itte,: E,in1 $# Cit& o' Stoc(ton (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, 121#- 1230.) 4n,er the totality o" the circu(stances- a reasonable o""icer coul, belie.e that the arrestee possesse, cocaine in .iolation o" Eashington la0. +he arrestee s husban, an, &11 callers tol, the police that the arrestee 0as high on ,rugs. She sai, in her ,eposition that- gi.en her co((ents to the police o""icers- it 0oul, ha.e been reasonable "or the( to belie.e she 0as on ,rugs. +he police o""icers also ha, reasonable cause to taFe her to the hospital "or (ental e.aluation un,er Eashington s (ental health e.aluation statute. (2uchte" $# 0a1emann (&th Cir. 2010) 523 B.3r, &2$.) Detecti.es ha, probable cause to stop an, arrest ,e"en,ant an, his cohorts the o""icers sa0 "our (ales running "ro( one street to0ar, another. +he o""icer obser.e, ,e"en,ant carrying an obCect 0hich coul, be use, as a ,ea,ly 0eapon. +he o""icer also obser.e, speci"ic beha.ior that cause, hi( to entertain an honest an, strong suspicion that a cri(e 0as being co((itte,. Ie obser.e, a bricF in ,e"en,ant s han,- hear, a shout o" *he)s o!er there/ 0hich he belie.e, to ha.e co(e "ro( one o" the "our (ales- an, 0itnesse, a gesture "ro( one o" the group ,irecting the others 0here to go. Uie0e, collecti.ely- there 0ere clearly "acts to suggest the group inten,e, to use their ru,i(entary 0eapons to har( so(eone. +he o""icer s Fno0le,ge that ,e"en,ant 0as a (e(ber o" a street gang that *clai(e,/ that particular area reasonably supporte, this analysis o" the "acts. At this point- probable cause e?iste, to arrest ,e"en,ant "or possession o" a ,ea,ly 0eapon 0ith intent to co((it an assault- per (!C! 12324. (In re *#G# (2010) 1## Cal.App.3th 1$01.) *Probable cause to arrest e?ists 0hen o""icers ha.e Fno0le,ge or reasonably trust0orthy in"or(ation su""icient to lea, a person o" reasonable caution to belie.e that an o""ense has been or is being co((itte, by the person being arreste,. (Citation) Bor in"or(ation to a(ount to probable cause- it ,oes not ha.e to be conclusi.e o" guilt- an, it ,oes not ha.e to e?clu,e the possibility o" innocence. . . . (Citation) . . . (P)olice are not re@uire, Ato belie.e to an absolute certainty- or by clear an, con.incing 10&
e.i,ence- or e.en by a prepon,erance o" the a.ailable e.i,ence that a suspect has co((itte, a cri(e. (Citation) All that is re@uire, is a A"air probability- gi.en the totality o" the e.i,encethat such is the case. (Garcia $# Count& o' %erced (&th Cir. 2011) 53& B.3r, 1205- 120&.) Probable cause 0as "oun, to e?ist 0ith the ,e"en,ant s state(ents to his girl"rien, about his ,rea( concerning the stabbing o" the "irst .icti( in a series o" cri(es- e.en be"ore the (ur,er 0as reporte, in the ne0spapers. Also- ,e"en,ant 0as Fno0n to be in.ol.e, in the (artial arts an, liFe, to ,ress as a ninCa 0hich 0as consistent 0ith the suspect in"or(ation. De"en,ant tol, co% 0orFers that he possesse, a se(iauto(atic pistol si(ilar to the 0eapon use, in so(e o" the cri(es. De"en,ant also (atche, the physical ,escription o" the suspect in the .arious cri(es- being a uni@ue co(bination o" GlacF an, Japanese- 0ith a ,arF co(ple?ion that ten,e, to be lighter than (ost GlacFs. ()eop"e $# Scott (2011) $2 Cal.3th 3$2- 323%325.) Probable cause e?iste, un,er Je.a,a la0 0here the arresting agent Fne0 that ,e"en,ant (1) a,(itte, to ga(bling at .arious casinos un,er a ,i""erent na(e- (2) a,(itte, to using i,enti"ication not issue, by a go.ern(ent entity i,enti"ying hi( by that ,i""erent na(e- an, (3) possesse, an, ha, use, a cre,it car, issue, in that ,i""erent na(e. (Fa&er $# 9au1hn (&th Cir. 53& B.3r, 1051- 1053% 105$.) AsFing an apparently into?icate, ,e"en,ant- 0ho 0as obser.e, stan,ing the (i,,le o" the roa, picFing up tools an, 0hose .ehicle 0as partially blocFing the roa,- to step to the si,e o" the roa,- 0as reasonable un,er the circu(stances- an, not an illegal ,etention. Burther- the o""icer s obser.ations o" ,e"en,ant s apparent into?ication- e.en be"ore recei.ing in"or(ation "ro( the ,ispatcher that ,e"en,ant ha, "our prior con.ictions "or ,ri.ing un,er the in"luence- constitute, probable cause su""icient to Custi"y the arrest. ()eop"e $# Con"e& (2012) 211 Cal.App.3th &$3.) The *&ollecti!e Anowledge/ Doctrine) Probable cause can be establishe, by the *collecti!e ?nowledge/ o" other o""icers. +he o""icer (aFing a stop- search or arrest nee, not personally Fno0 all the precise in"or(ation relie, upon by other o""icers. ()eop"e $# Ramire5 (1&&2) $& Cal.App.3th 1$3#: United States $# Sando$a"39ene1as (&th Cir. 2002) 2&2 B.3r, 1101: United States $# ut"er (&th Cir. 1&&5) 23 B.3r, &15- &21: )eop"e $# Gome5 110
(2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $31- $31:United States $# %a&o (&th Cir. 200$) 3&3 B.3r, 1221- 1225- "n. 2.) *6E9here la0 en"orce(ent authorities are cooperating in an in.estigation . . . - the Fno0le,ge o" one is presu(e, share, by all./ (I""inois $# Andreas (1&#3) 353 4.S. 25$- 222- "n. $ 622 7.8,.2n, 10039.) *"<&hen (olice officers +or; to.ether to build 'collecti)e
;no+led.e, of (robable cause! the im(ortant =uestion is not +hat each officer ;ne+ about (robable cause! but ho+ )alid and reasonable the (robable cause +as that de)elo(ed in the officers, collecti)e ;no+led.e.3 ('eo(le v. Go)ez! supra! =uotin. 'eo(le !a)irez! supra! at (. 1%%%.)
A la0 en"orce(ent ,ispatcher s Fno0le,ge o" speci"ic "acts not passe, onto the o""icers in the "iel, (ay also be consi,ere, as a part o" the *collecti!e ?nowledge/ nee,e, to substantiate a "in,ing o" a *reasonable suspicion/ Custi"ying a tra""ic stop. (United States $# Fernande53Casti""o (&th Cir. 2003) 323 B.3r, 1113- 1123.) 1n"or(ation Fno0n to three separate o""icers- in.ol.ing in"or(ant in"or(ation "ro( three in"or(ants o" .arying ,egrees o" reliabilityhel, to be su""icient to Custi"y ,e"en,ant s arrest an, the i(poun,ing- an, searching- o" his .ehicle e.en though the arresting o""icer- hi(sel"- ,i, not ha.e enough personal Fno0le,ge upon 0hich to Custi"y a "in,ing o" probable cause. (United States $# *ensen (&th Cir. 200$) 32$ B.3r, 5&#.) +he collecti.e Fno0le,ge ,octrine is o" t0o types) (1) Ehen a nu(ber o" la0 en"orce(ent o""icers are all 0orFing together 0ith bits an, pieces o" in"or(ation sprea, out a(ong the in,i.i,ual o""icers- but 0hich 0hen all a,,e, altogether- a(ounts to reasonable suspicion or probable cause. (2) Ehen one or (ore o""icers 0ith in"or(ation a(ounting to reasonable suspicion or probable cause co((an, a separate o""icer- 0ho (ay Fno0 nothing about the nature o" the in.estigation- to ,etain- arrestan,Nor search. +here is so(e ,i""erence o" opinion as to 0hether the "irst category is su""icient unless there is sho0n to be so(e co((unication a(ong the o""icers in.ol.e,. +he secon, category is uni.ersally accepte, as co(ing 0ithin the rule. (United States $# Ramire5 (&th Cir. 2002) 323 B.3r, 1025: narcotics o""icers co((an,ing a patrol o""icer to (aFe a tra""ic stop) +he stop,etention- arrest an, search all uphel,.) +he *collecti!e ?nowledge doctrine/ ,oes not apply unless (1) the separate la0 en"orce(ent agents are 0orFing together in an 111
in.estigation e.en though they (ay not ha.e e?plicitly co((unicate, to the other the "acts that each has in,epen,ently learne,- or (2) unless one o""icer- 0ith ,irect personal Fno0le,ge o" all the "acts necessary to gi.e rise to a reasonable suspicion or probable cause- ,irects or re@uests another o""icer to con,uct a stop- search- or arrest. So(e cases suggest that "or the "irst rule to apply- there (ust also ha.e been so(e co((unication bet0een the t0o agents. (United States $# 9i""asenor (&th Cir. 2010) 50# B.3r, 352- 32$%325.) ,iscellaneous Rules) 1n"or(ation use, to establish probable cause nee, not be a,(issible in court) 8.g.- *hearsay-/ or e.en *double hearsay./ ()eop"e $# Superior Court + in1ham, (1&2&) &1 Cal.App.3r, 35335&: see also 0art $# )ar(s (&th Cir. 2005) 3$0 B.3r, 10$&- 1055% 1052.) +he "act that the in"or(ation a.ailable to police o""icers *ga.e rise to a .ariety o" Ain"erences- so(e o" 0hich support (the suspect s) innocence-/ is also irrele.ant. *(!)""icers (ay A,ra0 on their o0n e?periences an, speciali;e, training to (aFe in"erences "ro( an, ,e,uctions about the cu(ulati.e in"or(ation a.ailable to the( that (ight 0ell elu,e an untraine, person./ (0art $# )ar(s- supraat p. 1052.) Si(ilarly- the "act that i" .ie0e, in isolation- any single "act- in,epen,ently- (ight not be enough to establish probable cause is uni(portant. Probable cause is a ,eter(ination (a,e base, upon *cumulati!e information/ (o"ten re"erre, to as the *totality of the circumstances/). (I.id.) +he in"or(ation use, to establish probable cause (ay be "ro( the ,e"en,ant s o0n a,(issions 0hich- 0ithout in,epen,ent e.i,ence o" the corpus o" the cri(e- 0ill not be a,(issible in court. Io0e.er- the liFelihoo, o" con.iction is not rele.ant in establishing probable cause to arrest. ()eop"e $# Rios (1&$5) 35 Cal.2n, 2&2: ,e"en,ant s a,(ission that he ha, inCecte, ,rugs t0o 0eeFs earlier su""icient to establish probable cause "or the past possession o" a controlle, substance. Search inci,ent to the arrest 0as there"ore la0"ul.) *Police o""icers A(ust be gi.en so(e latitu,e in ,eter(ining 0hen to cre,it 0itnesses ,enials an, 0hen to ,iscount the(- an, 0e re not a0are o" any "e,eral la0 . . . that in,icates precisely 0here the 112
line (ust be ,ra0n. (Citation)/ *Probable cause arises 0hen an o""icer has Fno0le,ge base, on reasonably trust0orthy in"or(ation that the person arreste, has co((itte, a cri(inal o""ense. (Citation)/ (%cSherr& $# Cit& o' 2on1 each (&th Cir. 200&) $#3 B.3r, 112&- 113$%1135.) Examples) Probable cause to belie.e ,e"en,ant ha, been in possession o" narcotics "oun, "ro( the ,e"en,ant s o0n a,(issions 0hich0ithout in,epen,ent e.i,ence o" the corpus o" the cri(e- 0oul, not be a,(issible in court. Io0e.er- the liFelihoo, o" con.iction is not rele.ant in establishing probable cause to arrest. ()eop"e $# Rios (1&$5) 35 Cal.2n, 2&2: ,e"en,ant s a,(ission that he ha, inCecte, ,rugs t0o 0eeFs earlier (along 0ith the arresting o""icer s prior Fno0le,ge that ,e"en,ant 0as a narcotics user an, .isible puncture (arFs on his ar(s) hel, to be su""icient to establish probable cause to arrest hi( "or the past possession o" a controlle, substance. A subse@uent search inci,ent to the arrest 0as there"ore la0"ul.) Probable cause 0as "oun, 0here the ,e"en,ant 0as in the presence o" a co((ercial @uantity o" ,rugs 0hile in a .ehicle co(ing o.er the 1nternational Gor,er "ro( Oe?ico- ,e"en,ant 0as the sole passenger (other than the ,ri.er)- there 0as a strong o,or o" gasoline in the .ehicle (0ith the ,rugs being ,isco.ere, in the gas tanF)- hi,ing ,rugs in a .ehicle s gas tanF 0as Fno0n as a co((on (etho, use, by ,rug s(ugglers- an, the ,ri.er lie, about his i((igration status. (United States $# Carran5a (&th Cir. 2002) 2#& B.3r, 533.) Probable cause "oun, 0here ,e"en,ant 0as the bacFseat passenger in a (ini.an in 0hich a co((ercial @uantity o" (ariCuana 0as "oun,- an, ,e"en,ant acte, ner.ously an, a.oi,e, eye contact 0ith a Custo(s 1nspector. (United States $# 0ernande5 (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 330.) As the passenger in a .ehicle crossing the 4.S.NOe?ican bor,erignoring a bor,er inspector until another passenger 0as asFe, to (o.e "ro( a spot 0here contraban, 0as later "oun, to be hi,,enat 0hich ti(e ,e"en,ant atte(pte, to ,istract the inspector by in.iting hi( to a party- 0as su""icient to constitute probable cause "or arrest as soon as the contraban, 0as "oun,. (United States $# *u$eni"e +RRA3A, (&th Cir. 2000) 22& B.3r, 232- 233.)
113
Ehere a large a(ount o" (oney is "oun, rolle, up in a .ehicle s glo.e co(part(ent- an, "i.e plastic glassine baggies o" cocaine are "oun, behin, the center ar(rest o" the bacFseat- 0ith the ar(rest pushe, up into the close, position to hi,e the contraban,- such contraban, being accessible to all the occupants o" the .ehicle- the arrest o" all three subCects in the .ehicle (,ri.er- right "ront an, rear seat passengers) 0as supporte, by probable cause. (%ar&"and $# )rin1"e (2003) $30 4.S. 355 61$2 7.8,.2n, 25&9.) Conce,ing that (ost other circuits ha.e rule, that the (ere passing o" a counter"eit note (a [100 bill in this case)- 0hen couple, 0ith an i,enti"ication o" the person 0ho passe, the note- "urnishes probable cause to arrest the in,i.i,ual i,enti"ie, as passing the note (Citations at pg. &20- in"ra.)- the Jinth Circuit ,ecline, to ,eci,e the issue- "in,ing that 0hether or not the arrest 0as illegalthe arresting o""icers 0ere entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity "ro( ci.il liability. (Rodis $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 200&)- $$# B.3r, &53: re.ersing its prior "in,ing (2002- 3&& B.3r, 10&3.) that the o""icers lacFe, probable cause to (aFe the arrest.) A (inor (13 years ol,) 0as sei;e, 0ithout su""icient probable cause 0hen a ,etecti.e inter.ie0e, hi( at school concerning a "our%year%ol, s allegations o" chil, (olest- 0hen the .icti( s account o" the "acts 0ere inconsistent an, con"licting. Burther in.estigation shoul, ha.e been con,ucte, gi.en the proble(s 0ith the (inor s story. (Stoot $# Cit& o' E$erett (&th Cir. 200&) $#2 B.3r, &10- &1#%&21: but @uali"ie, i((unity supporte, su((ary Cu,g(ent in the o""icer s "a.or.) Probable cause "oun, 0here the si?%year%ol, .icti(- on t0o occasions- positi.ely i,enti"ie, ,e"en,ant as her attacFer- an, then a thir, ti(e in court un,er oath. She also i,enti"ie, the ,e"en,ant s "ather s car as the .ehicle use,. A cri(e lab analysis o" se(en taFen "ro( the .icti( coul, not eli(inate ,e"en,ant (pre% DJA). Also- ,e"en,ant s (o,us operan,i Fno0n to police "ro( prior si(ilar assaults (atche,. +he "act that the .icti( s initial ,escription o" the assailant .arie, "ro( ho0 ,e"en,ant actually appeare, ,i, not (ean that the o""icer ,i, not ha.e probable cause to arrest ,e"en,ant. (%cSherr& $# Cit& o' 2on1 each (&th Cir. 200&) $#3 B.3r, 112&- 113$.) *AOere propin@uity to others in,epen,ently suspecte, o" cri(inal acti.ity . . . ,oes not- 0ithout (ore- gi.e rise to probable cause. / (United States $# Co""ins (&th Cir. 200$) 322 B.3r, 5##- @uoting Y.arra $# I""inois (333 4.S. #$- &1 652 7.8,.2n, 23#9.) 113
Test) Ehether or not a person has been *arrested-/ (i.e.- *seized-/)- un,er the Fourth Amendment- is ,eter(ine, by consi,ering 0hether- in .ie0 o" all the circu(stances surroun,ing the inci,ent- a reasonable person 0oul, ha.e belie.e, that he 0as not "ree to lea.e an,Nor 0as about to go to Cail. (See In re *ames D# (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, &03- &13.) *+he stan,ar, "or ,eter(ining 0hether a person is un,er arrest is not si(ply 0hether a person belie.es that he is "ree to lea.e- see United States $# %endenha""- 335 4.S. $33- $$3- 53 7. 8,. 2, 3&2- 100 S. Ct. 1#20 (1&#0)- but rather 0hether a reasonable person 0oul, belie.e that he or she is being subCecte, to (ore than Ate(porary ,etention occasione, by bor,er%crossing "or(alities. United States $# ut"er- 23& B.3, 10&31100 (&th Cir. 2001)./ (United States $# 0ernande5 (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 330- 335: a bor,er arrest an, search case.) +here 0as no arrest 0here Be,eral Gureau o" 1n.estigations (BG1) agents ,i, not tell ,e"en,ant that he ha, the right to re"use to acco(pany the( to the BG1 o""ice- but neither ,i, they tell hi( that he ha, to go. +he agents use, no tools o" coercion to "orce ,e"en,ant to go 0ith the(: i.e.- they asFe, hi( i" he 0oul, co(e in to talF because they 0ere in.estigating cases- an, he agree, to ,o so. De"en,ant 0as not in custo,y ,uring the @uestioning until he con"esse, to the se?ual assault an, (ur,er. 1n the ti(e lea,ing to the con"ession- a reasonable person in ,e"en,antDs shoes 0oul, ha.e thought that he or she coul, get up an, go i" ,eclining to taFe part in "urther in.estigati.e @uestioning. (United States $# Red"i1htnin1 (&th Cir. 2010) 523 B.3r, 10&0.) Un"a,'u" Arrest) An arrest- i" ,one without probable cause- is a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment as an unla0"ul seizure- an, there"ore unconstitutional. Any e.i,ence reco.ere, as a ,irect pro,uct o" such an unla0"ul arrest 0ill be subCect to suppression. (See Smith $# Ohio (1&&0) 3&3 4.S. $31 610# 7.8,.2n, 3539.) Con"ession obtaine, as the pro,uct o" an illegal arrest is subCect to suppression- absent attenuating circu(stances. ( ro,n $# I""inois (1&2$) 322 4.S. $&0- 503 63$ 7.8,.2n, 315- 3229: /aupp $# Te!as (2003) $3# 4.S. 525 61$$ 7.8,.2n, #139.) Howe!er- 0hen probable cause e?ists- but the ,e"en,ant is later e?onerate,- there is no basis "or the o""icers ci.il liability "or an illegal arrest. *Probable cause arises 0hen an o""icer has Fno0le,ge base, on reasonably trust0orthy in"or(ation that the person arreste, has co((itte, a cri(inal o""ense. . . . AGecause (any situations 0hich con"ront o""icers in the course o" e?ecuting their ,uties are (ore or less a(biguous- roo( (ust be allo0e, "or so(e (istaFes on their part. / (%cSherr& $# Cit& o' 2on1 each (200&) $#3 B.3r, 112&- @uoting- at p. 113$- Gaus$i( $# )ere5 (&th Cir. 2003) 33$ B.3r, #13- #1#.) 11$
*lso- e.i,ence will not be suppresse, 0hen an arrest is in .iolation o" a statute only (e.g.- (is,e(eanor arrest not in the o""icer s presence)- not in.ol.ing a constitutional .iolationan, 0here the statute .iolate, ,oes not speci"ically (an,ate suppression o" the resulting e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# Dona"dson (1&&$) 35 Cal.App.3th $32: )eop"e $# Trapane (1&&1) 1 Cal.App.3th Supp. 10: )eop"e $# %c/a& (2002) 22 Cal.3th 501- 502%51&- a .iolation o" 0!C! 212)3!1 (ri,ing a bicycle in the 0rong ,irection): an, )eop"e $# Gome5 (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $31- $3#%$3&- seat belt .iolationciting At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista (2001) $32 4.S. 31# 613& 7.8,.2n, $3&9 see also )eop"e $# Ga""ardo (200$) 130 Cal.App.3th 233- 23&- "n. 1: )eop"e $# ennett (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th &02- &1#.) A .iolation by a police o""icer o" a state statutesuch statute li(iting the o""icer s right to (aFe a custo,ial arrest or a search- so long as not also in .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment- ,oes not result in the suppression o" the resulting e.i,ence unless (an,ate, by the ter(s o" the statute. Ehile a state is e(po0ere, to enact (ore restricti.e search an, sei;ure rules- .iolation o" those rules that are not also a Fourth Amendment .iolation- ,oes not in.oFe the Fourth Amendment.s e?clusionary rule. (9ir1inia $# %oore (200#) $$3 4.S. 153 6120 7.8,.2n, $$&9: )eop"e $# >inos (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 532- 5$3.) *lso- prosecution o" a ,e"en,ant is not preclu,e, (erely because a ,e"en,ant is ab,ucte, abroa, "or the purpose o" prosecution- e.en i" ,one in .iolation o" an e?tra,ition treaty- such as 0hen 4.S. la0 en"orce(ent agents "orcibly ab,uct a "oreign national in Oe?ico an, bring hi( to the 4nite, States "or prosecution. (A"$are53%achain (1&&2) $03 4.S. 5$$ 611& 7.8,.2n, 3319: see also /er $# I""inois (1##5) 11& 4.S. 335 630 7.8,. 3219: Fris.ie $# Co""ins (1&$2) 332 4.S. $1&- $22 6&5 7.8,.2n, $319: )eop"e $# Sa"cido (200#) 33 Cal.3th &3- 11&%125.) <eneral Rule) *(+)he (anner by 0hich a ,e"en,ant is brought to trial ,oes not a""ect the go.ern(ent s ability to try hi(./ (United States $# %atta3 a""esteros (&th Cir. 1&&$) 21 B.3r, 2$3- 252.) Exceptions) Ehere (1) the trans"er o" the ,e"en,ant .iolate, the applicable e?tra,ition treaty: or (2) the go.ern(ent engage, in (iscon,uct o" the (ost shocFing an, outrageous Fin, to obtain the ,e"en,ant s presence. (United States $# Anderson (&th Cir. 2005) 322 B.3r, 552555.) Gecause ,e"en,ant ha, not been e?tra,ite,- his argu(ent that his re(o.al "ro( Pana(a to the 4nite, States 0as not in co(pliance 115
0ith the ?@tradition TreatA, !S!<(an!, BaA 2), 1"34, 34 Stat! 2#)1 "aile,. Ooreo.er- the treaty ,i, not prohibit the use o" (eans besi,es e?tra,ition to obtain a ,e"en,antDs presence in the 4nite, States. +he Lo.ern(ent ha, not engage, in shocFing an, outrageous con,uct so as to 0arrant ,is(issal o" the cri(inal case against hi(. +he lies that an e(bassy o""icial tol, Pana(anian o""icials ca(e a"ter Pana(a ha, alrea,y ,eci,e, to cooperate in returning ,e"en,ant to the 4nite, States. Ooreo.er- ,e"en,ant 0as ,eporte, a"ter his passport 0as re.oFe,. +he trial court properly ,enie, ,is(issal base, on its super.isory po0ers. +here 0as no e.i,ence that ,e"en,ant s right to counsel 0as .iolate,- an, he ha, not ,e.elope, his argu(ent that international la0 0as .iolate,. Binally- e.en assu(ing the in,ict(ent process 0as ,e"icient "or its reliance on unla0"ully obtaine, e.i,encethat ,e"iciency 0as cure, 0hen ,e"en,ant 0as con.icte, by a Cury a"ter a trial that e?clu,e, all o" the suppresse, e.i,ence. (United States $# Struc(man (&th Cir. 2010) 511 B.3r, $50- $5&%$2$.) Ehile a state (ay i(pose stricter stan,ar,s on la0 en"orce(ent in interpreting its o0n state constitution (i.e.- *independent state grounds/)- a prosecution in "e,eral court is gui,e, by the "e,eral interpretation o" the Fourth Amendment an, is not re@uire, to use the state s stricter stan,ar,s. (United States $# ro.st (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, &#2- &#&%&&1&&2.) An o""icer is entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity "ro( a ci.il allegation o" unla0"ul arrest so long as at the ti(e o" the arrest (1) there 0as probable cause "or the arrest- or (2) *it is reasonably arguable that there 0as probable cause "or arrestPthat is- 0hether reasonable o""icers coul, ,isagree as to the legality o" the arrest such that the arresting o""icer is entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity./ (Rosen.aum $# -ashoe Count& (&th Cir. 2011) 553 B.3r, 1021- 1025: "in,ing that because no Je.a,a statute applie, to the plainti"" s *scalping/ o" ticFets to a "air- his arrest 0as unla0"ul an, because no reasonable o""icer 0oul, ha.e belie.e, so- the o""icer 0as not entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity.) Statutor& E"ements o' an Arrest) (!C! #34) +he arreste, person (ust be taFen into custo,y in a case an, in the (anner authori;e, by la0. (!C! #3)) +he arrest (ay be (a,e by actual restraint o" the person or the arreste, person s sub(ission to authority. (!C! #3)a) Reasonable "orce (ay be use, to a""ect an arrestpre.ent escape or o.erco(e resistance. (See belo0) 112
(!C! #34- #32- #31) An arrest (ay be (a,e by a peace o""icer or a pri.ate person. (See belo0) ,inors) +aFing a (inor *into temporary custody-/ as authori;e, by /&I 22)- is the "unctional e@ui.alent o" an arrest. (In re Char"es C# (1&&&) 25 Cal.App.3th 320- 32$: see also In re Thierr& S# (1&22) 1& Cal.3r, 222233- "n. 5.) Use o' Force) Reasonable (orce) !nly that a(ount o" force that is reasonably necessary un,er the circu(stances (ay be use, to a""ect an arrestpre.ent escape- or o.erco(e resistance. (0ead,aters Forest De'ense $# Count& o' 0um.o"dt (&th Cir. 2002) 225 B.3r, 112$.) *+he Fourth Amendment prohibition against unreasonable seizures per(its la0 en"orce(ent o""icers to use only such "orce to e""ect an arrest as is Aob%ecti!ely reasonable un,er the circu(stances./ (Emphasis added: Id.- at p. 1130.) +ote) A ci.il rights action pursuant to 42 !S!C! 1"#3 0as hel, to be proper against non%la0 en"orce(ent e(ployees o" a pri.ate corporation that operate, a "e,eral prison un,er contract. ()o""ard $# GEO Group, Inc# (&th Cir. 2010) 502 B.3r, $#3.) (actors to consi,er in ,eter(ining the a(ount o" "orce that (ay be use, inclu,e) +he se.erity o" the cri(e at issue: Ehether the suspect pose, an i((e,iate threat to the sa"ety o" the o""icers or others: Ehether the suspect 0as acti.ely resisting arrest or atte(pting to e.a,e arrest by "light: and Any other e?igent circu(stances present at the ti(e. ( e"" $# -o"'ish (1&2&) 331 4.S. $20 650 7.8,.2n, 3329: Che, $# Gates (&th Cir. 1&&3) 22 B.3r, 1332- 1330%1331- "n. $: r&an $# %ac)herson (&th Cir. 2010) 530 B.3r, #0$: Espinosa $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&# B.3r, $2#- $32: %attos $# A1arano (&th Cir. 2011) 551 B.3r, 333- 331: Youn1 $# 11#
Count& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 2011) 5$$ B.3r, 11$5- 1153: %endo5a $# Cit& o' -est Co$ina (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 202- 212.) <eneral Principles) *4 (olice officer ma* use force! includin. bloc;in. a )ehicle and
dis(la*in. his or her +ea(on! to accom(lish an other+ise la+ful sto( or detention as lon. as the force used is reasonable under the circumstances to (rotect the officer or members of the (ublic or to maintain the status =uo.3 ('eo(le v. Mc ugh (2004) 119 Cal.4((.4th 202! 211.)
See Tatum $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2005) 331 B.3r, 10&0- 0here the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal (eticulously ,iscusse, the issue o" la0 en"orce(ent s use o" "orce) Ehen a court analy;es e?cessi.e "orce clai(s- the initial in@uiry is 0hether the police o""icerDs actions 0ere obCecti.ely reasonable in light o" the "acts an, circu(stances con"ronting hi(. A police o""icer ha, probable cause to arrest a suspect "or being un,er the in"luence o" a controlle, substance or "or ,isor,erly con,uct 0here the o""icer obser.e, the suspect FicFing the ,oor to a police station "or no apparent reason- the suspect ,isobeye, co((an,s to stop- an, 0hen he 0as .erbally unresponsi.e- perspiring hea.ily- an, ha, bloo,shot eyes. Ehether a particular use o" "orce 0as obCecti.ely reasonable ,epen,s on se.eral "actors inclu,ing the se.erity o" the cri(e that pro(pte, the use o" "orce- the threat pose, by a suspect to the police or to others- an, 0hether the suspect 0as resisting arrest. An arresting o""icer s use o" a control hol, on an arrestee in or,er to place hi( in han,cu""s 0as obCecti.ely reasonable an, thus ,i, not support e?cessi.e "orce clai(: the o""icer ha, probable cause to arrest- the arrestee 0as beha.ing erratically- an, the arrestee spun a0ay "ro( the o""icer an, continue, to struggle a"ter o""icer tol, hi( to cal( ,o0n. Detention o" the arrestee a"ter the arrest ,i, not rise to the le.el o" e?cessi.e "orce e.en though the o""icers positione, the arrestee on his sto(ach "or appro?i(ately &0 secon,sthen positione, hi( on his si,e- an, "aile, to per"or( e(ergency resuscitation on the arrestee a"ter the arrestee FicFe, an, struggle, so that the brie" restraint on his sto(ach 0as necessary to protect the o""icers an, the arrestee hi(sel"- the o""icers (onitore, the arrestee- an, they calle, "or an a(bulance as soon as they notice, that arrestee 0as breathing hea.ily. Just as the Fourth 11&
Amendment ,oes not re@uire a police o""icer to use the least intrusi.e (etho, o" arrest- neither ,oes it re@uire an o""icer to pro.i,e 0hat hin,sight re.eals to be the (ost e""ecti.e (e,ical care "or an arreste, suspect.
$)en +here the force used is held to be unreasonable! an officer ma* still be (rotected from ci)il liabilit* under the doctrine of 7qualified immunity.3 7-he =ualified immunit* rule shields (ublic officers from (42 U.S.C.) 1983 actions unless the officer has )iolated a clearl* established constitutional ri.ht. -his turns on a determination of +hether it +ould be clear to a reasonable officer that his conduct +as unla+ful under the circumstances he confronted.3 (%endo5a $# Cit& o' -est Co$ina (2012) 205
Cal.App.3th 202- 211: citing Saucier $# /at5 (2001) $33 4.S. 1&3- 202 61$0 7.8.2n, 2229.) *+o be clearly establishe,- a right (ust be su""iciently clear Athat e.ery *reasonable o""icial 0oul, 6ha.e un,erstoo,9 that 0hat he is ,oing .iolates that right. / (Citations o(itte,: Reich"e $# 0o,ards (June 3- 2012) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S.Ct. 20##: 1#2 7.8,.2n, &#$9.) 1n Reich"e $# 0o,ards- the Supre(e Court hel, that it 0as not clearly establishe, that 0hen an arrest is (a,e 0ith probable cause- a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer (ight still be .iolating the arrestee s First Amendment "ree,o( o" speech 0here the arrestee ha, critici;e, the Uice Presi,ent. +he use o" "orce to a""ect an arrest is e.aluate, in light o" the Fourth Amendment.s prohibition on unreasonable seizures. (Graham $# Connor (1&#&) 3&0 4.S. 3#5 6103 7.8,.2n, 3339.) A sei;ure is a *go.ern(ental ter(ination o" "ree,o( o" (o.e(ent through (eans intentionally applie,./ (*ensen $# Cit& o' O!nard (&th Cir. 1&&#) 13$ B.3r, 102#- 10#3.) +his inclu,es the acci,ental use o" the 0rong 0eapon: e.g.acci,entally using a "irear( 0hen the o""icer inten,e, to use a +aser. (Torres $# Cit& o' %adera (&th Cir. 200#) $23 B.3r, 10$3.) *(A)cts by 0hich cruel an, sa,istic purpose to har( another 0oul, be (ani"est/ (ay also be a .iolation o" the ?i5hth Amendment.s proscription on *cruel and unusual/ punish(ent. (-atts $# 120
%c/inne& (&th Cir. 200$) 3&3 B.3r, 120: FicFing a prisoner in the genitals.) +he reasonableness o" the "orce use, to a""ect a particular sei;ure is ,eter(ine, by a *care"ul balancing o" Athe nature an, @uality o" the intrusion on the in,i.i,ual s Fourth Amendment interests against the counter.ailing go.ern(ental interest at staFe./ (Graham $# Connor- supraat p. 3&5 6103 7.8,.2n, at p. 3$$9@uoting Tennessee $# Garner (1&#$) 321 4.S. 1- # 6#$ 7.8,.2n, 129: *ac(son $# Cit& o' remerton (&th Cir. 2001) 25# B.3r, 535.) +he use o" e?cessi.e "orce on a prison or Cail in(ate is an ?i5ht Amendment *cruel an, unusual punish(ent/ issue. Also- rele.ant in@uiry is not the e?tent o" the inCury that results- but rather the ,egree o" "orce use,. (-i"(ins $# Gadd& (2010) $$& 4.S. 33 612$ 7.8,.2n, &&$9: citing 0udson $# %c%i""ian (1&&2) $03 4.S. 1- 3 6112 7.8,.2n, 1$59.) +he use o" a reasonable a(ount o" "orce necessary in han,cu""ing an, searching the plainti"" ,uring a la0"ul arrest is not a battery. (Fa&er $# 9au1hn (&th Cir. 53& B.3r, 1051-105$.) +he use o" reasonable "orce in e?tracting bloo,- 0hen ,one in a (e,ically appro.e, (anner- is la0"ul. (Ritsche" $# Cit& o' Fountain 9a""e& (200$) 132 Cal.App.3th 102: a (is,e(eanor case.) Bi.e ,eputies hol,ing ,o0n a resisting cri(inal ,e"en,ant "or the purpose o" obtaining his "ingerprints- in a courtroo( (but out o" the Cury s presence)- 0here there 0ere "oun, to be less .iolent alternati.es to obtaining the sa(e e.i,ence- is "orce that *shocFs the conscience/ an, a .iolation o" the ,e"en,ant s Fourteenth Amendment ,ue process rights. ()eop"e $# 0erndon (2002) 13& Cal.App.3th 223: hel, to be *harmless error/ in light o" other e.i,ence an, because ,e"en,ant create, the situation causing the "orce to be use,.) !""icers ha, reasonable cause un,er the Eashington statutes to taFe plainti"" "or a (ental e.aluation on the basis o" her paranoi, co((ents to the o""icers an, the &11 reports that she ha, been hi,ing un,er a car 0ith her son- screa(ing that so(eone 0as trying to Fill her an, that she 0oul, Fill hersel". +he o""icers use o" "orce in arresting an, ,etaining her 0as reasonable. +here 0as no genuine ,ispute "ro( the e.i,ence that she pose, a threat to hersel"- her neighbors- an, the o""icers. +he e.i,ence 0as 121
un,ispute, that she 0as acti.ely resisting arrest. (2uchte" $# 0a1emann (&th Cir. 2010) 523 B.3r, &2$.) +ho(as an, Rosalie A.ina sue, the 4nite, States un,er the Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA) "or assault an, battery an, intentional in"liction o" e(otional ,istress a"ter agents "ro( the Drug 8n"orce(ent A,(inistration (D8A) e?ecute, a search 0arrant at their (obile ho(e. 4pon entering the ho(e- the agents pointe, guns at +ho(as an, Rosalie- han,cu""e, the( an, "orce"ully pushe, +ho(as to the "loor. +he agents han,cu""e, the A.ina s "ourteen%year%ol, ,aughter on the "loor an, then han,cu""e, their ele.en%year%ol, ,aughter on the "loor an, pointe, their guns at her hea,. +he agents re(o.e, the han,cu""s "ro( the chil,ren appro?i(ately thirty (inutes a"ter they entere,. +he court hel, that the ,istrict court properly grante, su((ary Cu,g(ent in "a.or o" the 4nite, States as to +ho(as an, Rosalie because the agents use o" "orce against the( 0as reasonable. +he agents 0ere e?ecuting a search 0arrant at the resi,ence o" a suspecte, ,rug tra""icFer. +his presente, a ,angerous situation "or the agents an, the use o" han,cu""s on the a,ult (e(bers o" the "a(ily 0as reasonable to (ini(i;e the risF o" har( to the o""icers an, the A.inas. 1n a,,ition- the agents ,i, not act unreasonably 0hen they "orce"ully pushe, +ho(as A.ina to the "loor. At the ti(e o" the push- A.ina 0as re"using the agents co((an,s to get ,o0n on the groun,. Gecause this re"usal occurre, ,uring the initial entry- the agents ha, no 0ay o" Fno0ing 0hether A.ina 0as associate, 0ith the suspecte, ,rug tra""icFer- 0ho( they thought li.e, there. +he court ho0e.er- "oun, that the ,istrict court i(properly grante, su((ary Cu,g(ent to the 4nite, States concerning the agents con,uct to0ar, the A.inas (inor ,aughters. +he court hel, that a Cury coul, "in, that 0hen the agents pointe, their guns at the ele.en%year%ol, ,aughter s hea,0hile she 0as han,cu""e, on the "loor- that this con,uct a(ounte, to e?cessi.e "orce. Si(ilarly- the court hel, that a Cury coul, "in, that the agents ,ecision to "orce the t0o girls to lie "ace ,o0n on the "loor- 0ith their han,s cu""e, behin, their bacFs- 0as unreasonable. Lenuine issues o" "act e?iste, as to 0hether the actions o" the agents 0ere e?cessi.e in light o" girls ages an, the li(ite, threats they pose,. (A$ina $# United States (&th Cir. 2012) 5#1 B.3r, 1122- 1130%1133.) The Taser) An o""icer use, a +aser to sub,ue the plainti"" a"ter he 0as stoppe, "or a seat belt .iolation. +he +aser- (o,el T25- using co(presse, nitrogen to propel a pair o" *probes/ (i.e.- alu(inu( ,arts tippe, 122
0ith stainless steel barbs connecte, to the T25 by insulate, 0ires) at its target- 0as hel, to be a "or( o" *non%lethal "orce-/ constituting an *inter(e,iate or (e,iu(- though not insigni"icant@uantu( o" "orce./ ( r&an $# %ac)herson (&th Cir. 2010) 530 B.3r, #0$- #23%#33.) Plainti"" 0as ob.iously irate- yelling e?pleti.es an, other *gibberish-/ an, hitting his thighs- 0hile ,resse, only in bo?er shorts an, tennis shoes. Plainti"" got out o" his car a"ter being or,ere, to stay in it. Ie also (ay ha.e taFen a step to0ar,s the o""icer although he 0as still 1$ to 2$ "eet a0ay "ro( hi(. 4se o" the +aser on the plainti""- 0ho ne.er .erbally threatene, the o""icer nor (a,e any atte(pt to "lee- 0as hel, to be e?cessi.e un,er these circu(stances. (I.id.) +he use o" a +aser to sub,ue non%threatening- although uncooperati.e- suspects- ,epen,ing upon the circu(stances- absent a threat to the sa"ety o" the o""icers or others- (ay constitute e?cessi.e "orce an, a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (%attos $# A1arano (&th Cir. 2011) 551 B.3r, 333) +0o cases: one in.ol.ing a +asing o" the .icti( in a ,o(estic .iolence situation 0here she 0as the .icti(- an, the other being o" an uncooperati.e ,ri.er 0ho re"use, to sign a tra""ic citation. Goth cases resulte, in a "in,ing o" a Fourth Amendment e?cessi.e "orce .iolation- but 0ith @uali"ie, i((unity "or the o""icers- the inci,ents happening be"ore there 0as any rele.ant case la0. +he Court cite, three prior cases- being the only "e,eral cases on the issue- 0here it ha, been hel, that the use o" a +aser 0as not a Fourth Amendment .iolation: i.e.- Russo $# Cit& o' Cincinnati (5th Cir. 1&&2) &$3 B.2n, 1035: 0inton $# Cit& o' E",ood (10th Cir. 1&&3) &&2 B.2n, 223: an, Draper $# Re&no"ds (11th Cir. 2003) 35& B.3r, 1220. +hese three cases- respecti.ely- in.ol.e, o""icers being attacFe, by a suici,al- ho(ici,al- (ental patient 0ho 0as ar(e, 0ith t0o Fni.es- a .iolently resisting suspect 0ho 0as "lailing at- FicFing- an, biting the arresting o""icersan, a lone o""icer being con"ronte, by an angry- con"rontationalan, agitate, trucF ,ri.er 0ho re"use, "i.e ti(es to pro,uce certain ,ocu(ents as he pace, bacF an, "orth- yelling at the o""icer. (Id.- at pp. 335%33#.) Punching an, +asering a non%resisting an, co(pliant arrestee 0ho the o""icer Fne0 0as e(otionally trouble, an, physically ill- an, continue, to ,o so 0hen the arrestee ,i, 123
no (ore than "linch "ro( the pain an, cry "or help- an, then asphy?iating hi( by sitting on his chest- 0as unreasonable "orce. +he o""icer also 0as not entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity un,er the circu(stances. (%endo5a $# Cit& o' -est Co$ina (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 202- 213%220.)
4sing a +aser in nine "i.e%secon, cycles- t0o 0hile it 0as ine""ecti.ely ,eploye, in probe (o,e an, se.en 0hen it 0as ,eploye, in ,ri.e%stun (o,e- 0as hel, to be reasonable 0here o""icers 0ere atte(pting to rescue a three%year%ol, chil, "ro( a suspect s grasp (a *choFe hol,/)- an, to sub,ue the .iolently resisting suspect 0ho ,ie, as a result. (%ar:ue5 $# Cit& o' )hoeni! (&th Cir. 2012) 5&3 B.3r, 1152- 1123%1125.) +he Court "urther ,eter(ine, that the 0arnings pro.i,e, on the +aser itsel"- 0hich inclu,e, the possibility o" ,eath- 0ere su""icient as a (atter o" la0- at least in so "ar as re@uire, un,er Ari;ona statutory la0. (Id.- at pp. 1122%1123.)
+0o police o""icers repeate, use o" a +aser against a suspect- 0ho ,ie, shortly therea"ter- 0as hel, to be reasonable 0here it 0as "oun, to be necessary to rescue a chil, "ro( the suspect (her gran,"ather) 0ho hel, the chil, in a choFe hol, ,uring an atte(pt at an *e?orcis(-/ an, e.en though the o""icers tase, hi( nine ti(es- each a "i.e%secon, cycle- an, then 0restle, hi( into sub(ission. (%ar:ue5 $# Cit& o' )hoeni! (&th Cir. 2012) 5&3 B.3r, 1152- 1123%1122.) +ote) *T* ER/ is an acrony( "or *+ho(as A. S0i"t s 8lectric Ri"le./ (See Id.- at p. 1120- "n. 1.) Pepper pray) +he use o" pepper spray on non%.iolent ,e(onstrators 0as ,eter(ine, to be e?cessi.e 0here there 0ere less intrusi.e alternati.es. (0ead,aters Forest De'ense $# Count& o' 0um.o"dt (&th Cir. 2002) 225 B.3r, 112$.) 1t has been hel, that s@uirting pepper spray ran,o(ly into a cro0, o" ,e(onstrators 0here there 0as insu""icient cause to belie.e the ,e(onstrators pose, an i((e,iate threat to the sa"ety o" the o""icers or others (ight be e?cessi.e an, e?pose the o""en,ing police o""icers to ci.il liability. (2am. $# Decatur (C.D.1ll. 1&&5) &32 B.Supp. 1251.)
123
Io0e.er- the use o" a *chemical irritant/ against party%goers 0ho are i(pe,ing a la0"ul arrest an, "ighting 0ith la0 en"orce(ent o""icers- particularly a"ter a 0arning- 0as not i(proper- or e?cessi.e. (*ac(son $# Cit& o' remerton (&th Cir. 2001) 25# B.3r, 535- 5$1%5$3.) +he use o" pepper spray on "ighting prison in(ates in a (a?i(u( security prison- in an atte(pt to stop the "ight- 0as hel, to be reasonable- although the "ailure to pro.i,e (e,ical attention to other in(ates 0ho (ight also ha.e been a""ecte, by the pepper spray .apors- sho0ing a *deliberate indifference/ to their health0ill subCect correctional authorities to potential ci.il liability. (C"ement $# Gome5 (&th Cir. 2002) 2&# B.3r, #&#.) +he use o" pepper spray an, a baton on a non%co(bati.e- albeit uncooperati.e- citi;en ,uring a tra""ic stop is e?cessi.e "orce an, a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (Youn1 $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 2011) 5$$ B.3r, 11$5.) $aton) See Youn1 $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 2011) 5$$ B.3r, 11$5- abo.e- un,er *Pepper pray./ Ehere the "acts are in ,ispute- a police o""icer ,oes not ha.e @uali"ie, i((unity "or using his baton to breaF the plainti"" s car 0in,o0 an, pulling hi( out o" the car through the 0in,o0. Such "orce (ay be e?cessi.e. (Co"es $# Ea1"e (&th Cir. Dec. $- 2012) >>B.3r, >> 62012 4.S. App. 78T1S 23&239.) $ean $ag and Pepperball (irearms) 4se o" *less6lethal/ cloth%case, beanbag shot against an unar(e,(entally ,erange, suspect- particularly 0hen not 0arne, "irst- (ay be e?cessi.e. (Deor"e $# Ruther'ord (&th Cir. 2001) 232 B.3r, 111&.) 1n an appeal o" a ,enial o" a su((ary Cu,g(ent (otion- it 0as rule, that intentionally "iring a pepperball proCectile at a group o" ,e(onstrators- hitting plainti"" in the eye- 0as a sei;ure o" the plainti"" ,espite the "act that he 0as not speci"ically targete,. Also- absent e.i,ence that the cro0, 0as .iolent- co((itting a cri(e- threatening the o""icers- or acti.ely a.oi,ing arrest- the use o" "orce by "iring pepperballs into a cro0e, o" party goers 0as e?cessi.e. (Ne"son $# Cit& o' Da$is (&th Cir. 2012) 5#$ B.3r, #52.) 12$
As a *less lethal/ 0eapon- the la0"ulness o" the use o" a beanbag shotgun is ,epen,ent upon a ,eter(ination that its use 0as reasonable un,er the circu(stances. 1n this case- 0here the out%o"% control subCect 0asn t threatening anyone but hi(sel"- its use 0as unCusti"ie,. (G"enn $# -ashin1ton Count& (&th Cir. 2011) 523 B.3r, #53- #2#%##0.) (irearms) Pointing a gun at close range at an unar(e,- unresisting suspect 0ho is only being ,etaine,- is probably e?cessi.e- an, coul, result in ci.il liability. (Ro.inson $# So"ano Count& (&th Cir. 2002) 22# B.3r, 1002.) *(P)ointing a loa,e, gun at a suspect- e(ploying the threat o" ,ea,ly "orce- is use o" a high le.el o" "orce./ Espinosa $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&# B.3r, $2#- $3#.) Si(ilarly- pointing a "irear( at a suspect 0hile he s being arreste, 0hen it is apparent that the arrestee is not a threat to o""icer sa"ety is e?cessi.e "orce su""icient to create ci.il liability. (0op(ins $# on$icino (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 2$2- 225%222.) A SEA+ tea( hol,ing chil,ren at gunpoint a"ter o""icers gaine, control o" a situation is unreasonable- an, coul, result in ci.il liability. (0o""and $# 0arrin1ton (10th Cir. 2001) 25# B.3r, 112&.) Pointing an, *training/ a "irear( at a "i.e%0eeF%ol, in"ant 0hile con,ucting a Fourth Eai.er search is e?cessi.e- an, a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (%ot"e& $# )ar(s (&th Cir. 200$) 332 B.3r, 1022- 10##%10#&.) Pain &ompliance) +he use o" *pain compliance/ to arrest passi.ely resistant ,e(onstrators 0as uphel, as reasonable- in that it 0as use, only a"ter a 0arning- 0as not applie, any (ore than necessary to gain co(pliance- an, 0as so(ething that coul, be en,e, instantaneously 0hen the protestor sub(itte,. (Forrester $# Cit& o' San Die1o (&th Cir. 1&&3) 2$ B.3r, #03.) Duty to =arn) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has hel, a nu(ber o" ti(es that 0here it is possible to ,o so- the o""icer (ust 0arn a person be"ore applying "orce- at least 0hen the "orce is liFely to cause inCury. 125
(Deor"e $# Ruther'ord (&th Cir. 2001) 232 B.3r, 111&- 12#3beanbag: r&an $# %ac)herson (&th Cir. 2010) 530 B.3r, #0$: +aser.) *pplicable tatutes) (!C! 2"2) 7a0"ul resistance to the co((ission o" a public o""ense (ay be (a,e) 1! 2! Gy the party about to be inCure,: Gy other parties.
See also CA=C8IB, C 3413- * elf6Defense and Defense of *nother./ A ,e"en,ant has a right o" sel"%,e"ense i" he *reasonably belie.e, that he 0as in i((inent ,anger o" su""ering bo,ily inCury/ through the application o" unreasonable "orce applie, by a person atte(pting to (aFe a citi;en s arrest. ()eop"e $# Adams (200&) 125 Cal.App.3th &35.) *Sel"%,e"ense/ ,oes not Custi"y an assault absent a *an i((e,iate threat o" unla0"ul "orce- an, the nee, "or the action to be co((ensurate 0ith the threat- 0ith no (ore "orce use, than reasonably necessary to (eet it./ Iarshinsulting- nor ,e(eaning 0or,s alone are insu""icient to trigger the right to use sel"%,e"ense in return. (United States $# Urena (&th Cir. 2011) 5$& B.3r, &03- &05%&02: being calle, a *bitch/ hours earlier ,i, not Custi"y a pree(pti.e striFe by ,e"en,ant.) (!C! 2"3) Party about to be in%ured: circu(stances in 0hich "orce is authori;e,) Gy the party- in 0hat cases an, to 0hat e?tent) 1! 2! +o pre.ent an o""ense against his person- or his "a(ily- or so(e (e(ber thereo". +o pre.ent an illegal atte(pt by "orce to taFe or inCure property in his la0"ul possession.
See also CA=C8IB, C 3413- * elf6Defense and Defense of *nother./ (!C! 2"4) ;ther Parties: circu(stances in 0hich "orce is authori;e,) Any other person- in ai, or ,e"ense o" the person about to be inCure,- (ay (aFe resistance su""icient to pre.ent the o""ense. 122
See also CA=C8IB, C 3413- * elf6Defense and Defense of *nother./ (!C! #34a) *1" a person has Fno0le,ge- or by the e?ercise o" reasonable care- shoul, ha.e Fno0le,ge- that he is being arreste, by a peace o""icer- it is the ,uty o" such person to re"rain "ro( using "orce or any 0eapon to resist such arrest./ 1t is illegal to resist any arrest or ,etention by a peace o""icer- e.en i" it is ,eter(ine, to be an illegal arrest or ,etention. (E$ans $# Cit& o' a(ers'ie"d (1&&3) 22 Cal.App.3th 321.) +he person illegally arreste, or ,etaine, has a ci.il re(e,y against the o""en,ing o""icer(s). (See 42 !S!C! 1"#3) (!C! #3)) *+he person arreste, (ay be subCecte, to such restraint as is reasonable "or his arrest an, ,etention./ (!C! #3)a) *Any peace o""icer 0ho has reasonable cause to belie.e a person to be arreste, has co((itte, a public o""ense (ay use reasonable "orce to a""ect the arrest- to pre.ent escape- or to o.erco(e resistance./ An o""icer is not re@uire, to ,esist in his or her e""orts (erely because the accuse, o""ers so(e resistance. ()eop"e $# 0ard,ic( (1&2#) 203 Cal. $#2- $#2.) 4se o" e?cessi.e "orce by an o""icer gi.es the arrestee the right to use sel"%,e"ense- an, negates the ele(ent o" *acting in the performance of his or her duties/ "or any potential charge 0here this ele(ent (ust be pro.e,. (8.g.: (!C! 14#+a,- 243+4, & +c,- an, 24)+c, & +d,) An o""icer 0ho uses e?cessi.e "orce is subCect to prosecution "or a "elony ((!C! 14") an,Nor- i" the .icti( is a prisoner an, the o""icer is guilty o" *0ill"ul inhu(anity or oppression to0ar,s (the) prisoner-/ a [3-000 "ine an, re(o.al "ro( o""ice ((!C! 141)- in a,,ition to any other applicable assault or battery .iolations. (!C! #43) *Ehen the arrest is being (a,e by an o""icer un,er the authority o" a 0arrant- a"ter in"or(ation o" the intention to (aFe the arrest- i" the person to be arreste, either "lees or "orcibly resists- the o""icer (ay use all necessary (eans to e""ect the arrest./ 12#
(!C! #44) *+o (aFe an arrest- a pri.ate person- i" the o""ense is a "elony- an, in all cases a peace o""icer- (ay breaF open the ,oor or 0in,o0 o" the house in 0hich the person to be arreste, is- or in 0hich they ha.e reasonable groun,s "or belie.ing the person to bea"ter ha.ing ,e(an,e, a,(ittance an, e?plaine, the purpose "or 0hich a,(ittance is ,esire,./ +ote) +his is Cali"ornia s *?noc? and notice/ statute- "or (aFing arrests. (See *Anoc? and +otice-/ belo0) (!C! #4)) *Any person 0ho has la0"ully entere, a house "or the purpose o" (aFing an arrest- (ay breaF open the ,oor or 0in,o0 thereo" i" ,etaine, therein- 0hen necessary "or the purpose o" liberating hi(sel"- an, an o""icer (ay ,o the sa(e- 0hen necessary "or the purpose o" liberating a person 0ho- acting in his ai,la0"ully entere, "or the purpose o" (aFing an arrestan, is ,etaine, therein./ (!C! #42) *Any person (aFing an arrest (ay taFe "ro( the person arreste, all o""ensi.e 0eapons 0hich he (ay ha.e about his person- an, (ust ,eli.er the( to the (agistrate be"ore 0ho( he is taFen./ (!C! 4"3!)+f,+2,) A (erchant- library e(ployee or theater o0ner (ay use a reasonable a(ount o" non%,ea,ly "orce necessary to protect hi(sel" an, to pre.ent escape or pre.ent loss o" tangible or intangible property. #se of Deadly (orce) &ausing Death) Ehen the use o" "orce results in the ,eath o" another person- a *homicide-/ or a *?illing of a human being by another human being-/ has occurre,. ()eop"e $# Antic( (1&2$) 1$ Cal.3r, 2&- #2.) See CA=C8IB, C )33- *HomicideI <eneral Principles./ *Deadly (orce Defined)/ *Borce that the actor uses 0ith the purpose o" causing or that he Fno0s to create a substantial risF o" causing death or serious bodily in%ury./ (Emphasis added: See Bodel (enal Code 3!11+2, (1&52)) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal ha, pre.iously hel, that *deadly force-/ 0hen e.aluating the use o" "orce by a la0 en"orce(ent agency through the use o" a police ,og- shoul, 12&
be ,e"ine, as) *(orce which is reasonably li?ely to cause (or which Ghad a reasonable probability of causing)) death./ (9era Cru5 $# Cit& o' Escondido (&th Cir. 1&&2) 13& B.3r, 5$&- 553: use o" a police ,og is not ,ea,ly "orce.) 8.g.) 4se o" a police ,og to bite an, hol, a potentially ,angerous "leeing "elon "or up to a (inute- until the arresting o""icer coul, insure that the situation 0as sa"e- ,i, not constitute the use o" *deadly force-/ an, 0as there"ore not a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment (sei;ure)- ,espite the "act that the suspect s ar( 0as se.erely inCure, by the ,og. (%i""er $# C"ar( Count& (&th Cir. 2003) 330 B.3r, &$&.) +he abo.e- ho0e.er- 0as a (inority opinion. As a resultthe Jinth Circuit has recently change, its (in,- a,opting the (aCority rule- agreeing that e.en in the use o" a police ,og- *deadly force/ shoul, be ,e"ine, as *force that creates a substantial ris? of death or serious bodily in%ury./ (Smith $# Cit& o' 0emet (&th Cir. 200$) 3&3 B.3r, 5#&.) +ote) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal "urther hel, in Smith that the ,e"en,ant plea,ing guilty to resisting arrestper (!C! 14#+a,+1,- ,oes not preclu,e hi( "ro( suing the o""icers "or using unreasonable "orce so long as the o""icer s legal actions can be separate, "ro( his use o" unreasonable "orce. +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court later rule, in Yount $# Cit& o' Sacramento (200#) 33 Cal.3th ##$- that it is not necessary to "in, the o""icers la0"ul actions ,i.isible "ro( their use o" unreasonable use o" "orce in or,er "or the cri(inal ,e"en,ant to be guilty o" resisting arrest an, still sue. Gase, upon this theory- the Jinth Circuit "oun, that a cri(inal ,e"en,ant- e.en a"ter plea,ing guilty to resisting arrest per (!C! 14#+a,+1,- (ay sue the o""icer "or using unreasonable "orce in a continuous course o" action so long as at least part o" the o""icer s actions 0ere la0"ul. (0ooper $# Count& o' San Die1o (&th Cir. 2011) 52& B.3r, 1122.) Goth Smith an, 0ooper are ,og bite cases. Io0e.er- the use o" a police ,og ,oes not necessarily constitute the use o" ,ea,ly "orce. 1t ,epen,s upon the circu(stances o" the case in @uestion. 1n such a case- the 130
issue "or a ci.il Cury is to (erely ,eter(ine 0hether the "orce use, 0as reasonable un,er the circu(stances. (Thompson $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es (2005) 132 Cal.App.3th 1$3.) +on6&riminal Homicides) Jot all ho(ici,es- ho0e.er- are cri(inal. +he non%cri(inal ho(ici,es are co((only groupe, into t0o general categories: *excusable/ ((!C! 1"): 0hen co((itte, by *accident or misfortune/) an, *%ustifiable/ ((!C! 1"2 et se*!)- 0hen authori;e, by la0. See )eop"e $# 9e"e5 (1&#3) 133 Cal.App.3r, $$#- $55%$5#)eop"e $# Fr&e (1&&2) 2 Cal.3th 113#- 11$$: an, CA=C8IB C )3)<)3" (:ustifiable) an, C )13<)11 +Excusable) Io(ici,e +he use o" deadly force- an, the resulting Filling o" a hu(an being- (ay be *%ustifiable/ (i.e.- not illegal) 0hen co((itte, as authori;e, by statute- an, as li(ite, by case la0. *pplicable tatutes: (!C! 1"2) Io(ici,e is %ustifiable 0hen co((itte, by public officers an, those acting by their co((an, in their ai, an, assistance- 0hen) 1! 1n obe,ience to any Cu,g(ent o" a co(petent court: or 2! Ehen necessarily co((itte, in o.erco(ing actual resistance to the e?ecution o" so(e legal process- or in the ,ischarge o" any other legal ,uty: or 3! Ehen necessarily co((itte, in retaFing "elons 0ho ha.e been rescue, or ha.e escape,- or 0hen necessarily co((itte, in arresting persons charge, 0ith a "elony- an, 0ho are "leeing "ro( Custice or resisting such arrest. See /ortum $# A"(ire (1&22) 5& Cal.App.3r, 32$333: Foster $# Cit& o' Fresno (J.D. Cal. 200$) 3&2 B.Supp.2n, 1130- 11$&: an, CA=C8IB C )31) *:ustifiable Homicide) $y Public ;fficer./ (!C! 1"1) Io(ici,e is also %ustifiable 0hen co((itte, by any person in any o" the "ollo0ing situations) 131
1! Ehen resisting any atte(pt to murder- co((it a felony- or to ,o great bodily in%ury upon any person: or 2! Ehen co((itte, in defense of habitationproperty or person- at least in cases o" .iolent "elonies: or 3! Ehen co((itte, in defense of person- or o" a wife or husband- parent- child- master- mistressor ser!ant o" such person- at least in cases o" .iolent "elonies: or 4! Ehen necessarily co((itte, in atte(pting to apprehend any person "or any felony- or in suppressing any riot- or in ?eeping an, preser!ing the peace. See also CA=C8IB C )3#) *:ustifiable Homicide) &itizen *rrest (+on6Peace ;fficer)-/an, C )3") *:ustifiable Homicide) +on6Peace ;fficer Preser!ing the Peace./ "imitations) 1n rea,ing these statutes ((!C! 1"2 & 1"1)- a literal interpretation 0oul, see( to in,icate the conclusion that Filling a suspect in any felony situation- e.en i" only a property o""ense- to pre.ent the co((ission o" a "elony against a person- or to arrest or stop any "leeing "elony suspect- non.iolent as 0ell as .iolent- is la0"ul. (orcible and *trocious &rime) Although (aybe true at one ti(e- (o,ern case la0 no longer allo0s such a liberal application o" the Custi"iable ho(ici,e ,e"ense. +o,ay- the use o" ,ea,ly "orce is speci"ically li(ite, to ,e"en,ing against- or in the atte(pt to arrest so(eone- "or *forcible and atrocious/ cri(es only. ()eop"e $# Ce.a""os (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, 320- 32#: Tennessee $# Garner (1&#$) 321 4.S. 112%1$ 6#$ 7.8,.2n, 1- 10%129: )eop"e $# %artin (1&#$) 15# Cal.App.3r, 1111- 1123: an, CA=C8IB C )3") *:ustifiable HomicideI +on6Peace ;fficer Preser!ing the Peace./ History) +he 0or,ing in the statutes- re"erring to "elonies see(ingly 0ithout li(itation- co(es "ro( the *&ommon "aw/ 0hich- in its early history- (a,e all felonies- o" 0hich there 0ere only a "e0- capital o""enses.
132
+he Co((on 7a0 Custi"ication "or this rule has been @uote,- "or historical .alue only- by (ore recent cases) *A!r,inarily- an o""icer or pri.ate person- in (aFing an arrest "or a "elony- (ay use 0hate.er "orce is reasonably necessary to o.erco(e a resisting "elon or to stop a "leeing "elon- e.en to the e?tent o" taFing his li"e: an,- i" ,ea,ly "orce is use,- the ho(ici,e is Custi"iable. +he supporti.e theory is that *"elons ought not to be at large- an, that the li"e o" a "elon has been "or"eite,: "or "elonies at co((on la0 0ere punishable 0ith ,eath./ / (See )eop"e $# %artin (1&#$) 15# Cal.App.3r, 1111- 111$.) +o,ay- 0ith the la0 .astly e?pan,e,- there are (any non%.iolent- non%capital "elonies "or 0hich ,ea,ly "orce is not an appropriate response. ()eop"e $# Ce.a""os, supra: Tennessee $# Garner, supra2) The Fourth Amendment) +he restrictions on the use o" ,ea,ly "orce ha.e their genesis in the 4nite, States Constitution. A Fourth Amendment *seizure/ occurs 0hene.er *there is a go.ern(ental ter(ination o" "ree,o( o" (o.e(ent through (eans intentionally applie,./ ( ro,er $# In&o (1&#&) 3#& 4.S. $&3- $&2 6103 7.8,.2n, 52#- 53$9.) *+he use o" ,ea,ly "orce to pre.ent the escape o" all "elony suspects- 0hate.er the circu(stances- is constitutionally unreasonable./ (8(phasis a,,e,: Tennessee $# Garner- supra, at p. 11 6#$ 7.8,.2n, at p. &9.) Si(ilarly- the in,iscri(inate use o" a *booby trap/ (a "elony- per (!C! 123))) (or a *trap gun-/ a (is,e(eanor per Fish & 9ame Code, 2331)- set up in the house or else0here to 0ar, o"" e?pecte, intru,ers- has been hel, to constitute an illegal use o" "orce 0hich- by its .ery nature- cannot be li(ite, to those trespassers 0ho constitute a threat o" ,eath or great bo,ily inCury. ()eop"e $# Ce.a""os, supra.) See CA=C8IB C )33 et se*!
133
*(orcible and *trocious &rime-/ Defined) A *forcible and atrocious crime-/ 0arranting the use o" ,ea,ly "orce: *is any "elony that by its nature an, the (anner o" its co((ission threatens- or is reasonably belie.e, by the *defendant/ (i.e.- the !ictim o" an assault 0ho uses ,ea,ly "orce in response- an, 0ho is no0 being charge, 0ith a ho(ici,e) to threaten li"e or great bo,ily inCury so as to instill in hi( or her a reasonable "ear o" ,eath or great bo,ily inCury./ (Tennessee $# Garner- supra.) Borcible an, atrocious cri(es ha.e been hel, to inclu,e murder- rape- robbery (at least- 0hen the suspect is ar(e,) an, mayhem. ()eop"e $# Ce.a""os (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, 3202) Depen,ing upon the circu(stances- they (ight also inclu,e the so%calle, *inherently dangerous felonies/ (0ith the e?ception o" burglary: ,iscusse, belo0) liste, in the *felony murder/ statute: i.e.arson- car%ac?ing- ?idnapping- train wrec?ingtorture- felony child molest an, other forcible sex offenses- an, murder perpetrated by means of discharging a firearm from a motor !ehicle with the intent to inflict death. (See (!C! 1#") +ote) Uiable argu(ents (ight be (a,e to inclu,e other "elonies as 0ell- ,epen,ing upon the circu(stances o" an in,i.i,ual case. Si(ilarly- contrary to a literal rea,ing o" the Custi"iable ho(ici,e statutes (e.g.- (!C! 1"1!2)Filling so(eone in defense of property- e.en one s o0n ho(e (but see (!C! 1"#!)- belo0)- 0hen not pro.oFe, by a threat o" ,eath or serious bo,ily har( to any person- is probably not Custi"iable. ()eop"e $# Ce.a""os, supra2) (Gut- see (!C! 1"#!)belo0.) Although a trespasser (ay be physically eCecte,using 0hate.er non%,ea,ly "orce is reasonably necessary un,er the circu(stances shoul, he or she re"use to lea.e 0hen re@ueste,- Filling the non.iolent trespasser is only liFely to lea.e the lan,o0ner- 0ho thought he ha, a right to ,e"en, his property interests at all costs- "acing possible ci.il 133
an, cri(inal penalties. ()eop"e $# Cor"ett (1&33) 52 Cal.App. 22- 3$%35: CA=C8IB C )32) *:ustifiable Homicide) Defending *gainst Harm to Person with Home or on Property./ $urglary of a Residence 0as consi,ere, at Co((on 7a0 to be a ,angerous "elony. Oo,ernly- ho0e.er- burglary is not nor(ally consi,ere, a "orcible an, atrocious cri(e- at least 0here the character an, (anner o" the burglary ,oes not reasonably create a "ear o" ,eath or great bo,ily har( to any person 0ithin the ho(e. ()eop"e $# Ce.a""os (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, 320- 32&.) (!C! 1"#!)) Io0e.er- Cali"ornia has enacte, a statutory presumption that a resi,ent o" a ho(e is in "act in reasonable "ear o" ,eath or great bo,ily inCury to hi(sel"- his "a(ily- or any (e(ber o" the househol,- 0hen so(eone- not a (e(ber o" the "a(ily or househol,- has "orcibly an, unla0"ully entere, the resi,ence- thus legali;ing the resi,ent s use o" ,ea,ly "orce within the residence- absent e.i,ence ten,ing to rebut the presu(ption. ()eop"e $# O,en (1&&1) 255 Cal.App.3r, &&5- 1003%1003.) +his presu(ption- ho0e.er- is rebuttable. Shoul, the ho(eo0ner ha.e Fno0n un,er the circu(stances that the burglar was not a threat- he (ight .ery 0ell be cri(inally an, ci.illy liable "or using ,ea,ly "orce against the intru,er. (See )eop"e $# O,en- supra- at pp. 1003%1002: an, CA=C8IB C )32 (*:ustifiable Homicide) Defending *gainst Harm to Person =ithin Home or on Property./) Be,erally- it is not necessary "or a trial court to instruct the Cury that) *1n the ho(e- the nee, "or sel"%,e"ense an, property ,e"ense is (ost acute./ +he stan,ar, "e,eral sel"%,e"ense Cury instructions ("th Cir! Bodel Crim! DurA Instr! 2!1) are su""icient. (United States $# %orsette (&th Cir. 2010) 522 B.3r, 1200.) elf%Defense) A personal assault 0hich itsel" is not su""icient to cause a reasonable apprehension o" ,eath or great bo,ily inCury- e.en i" the assault constitutes a "elonyis insufficient to Custi"y the use o" ,ea,ly "orce against the 13$
assailant. *(+)he "elony conte(plate, by the (Custi"iable ho(ici,e) statute is one that is (ore ,angerous than a personal assault./ ()eop"e $# *ones (1&51) 1&1 Cal.App.2n, 32#- 3#1%3#2: an, see (!C! 1"1!1- 1"1!3- abo.e.) See CA=C8IB C )33 et se*! Any person- inclu,ing a peace o""icer- (ay use ,ea,ly "orce against another 0hen the circu(stances reasonably create a "ear o" i((inent ,eath or serious bo,ily har( to the person- an, the use o" ,ea,ly "orce reasonably appears necessary to resist the threat. ()eop"e $# 0umphre& (1&&5) 13 Cal.3th 1023- 10#2: )eop"e $# 0ardin (2000) #$ Cal.App.3th 52$- 52&%530: )eop"e $# 0arris (1&21) 20 Cal.App.3r, $33- $32.) 1n ,e"en,ing onesel" or another- ,ea,ly "orce (ay only be use, in response to the illegal application o" ,ea,ly "orce "ro( the aggressor. +hus- *a (is,e(eanor assault (ust be su""ere, 0ithout the pri.ilege o" retaliating 0ith ,ea,ly "orce./ ()eop"e $# *ones, supraat p. 3#2: )eop"e $# C"ar( (1&#2) 130 Cal.App.3r, 321- 3#0.) 1n or,er "or the ,e"ense o" sel"%,e"ense to apply- it (ust be sho0n that there e?iste,) A reasonable belie" that the use o" "orce 0as necessary to ,e"en, onesel" against the i((e,iate use o" unla0"ul "orce: and +he use o" no (ore "orce than 0as reasonably necessary in the circu(stances. ()eop"e $# %ini'ie (1&&5) 13 Cal.3th 10$$105$: an, see United States $# i11s (&th Cir. 2005) 331 B.3r, 105&: reCecting the argu(ent that the ,e"en,ant (ust also sho0 that there 0ere no reasonable alternati.es to the use o" "orce.)
E2g.) An assault by "ists ,oes not Custi"y the person being assaulte, in using a ,ea,ly 0eapon in response unless that person reasonably belie.es that 135
the assault is liFely to result in the in"liction o" ,eath or great bo,ily inCury. Dea,ly "orce is Custi"ie, only 0hen the apparent peril is imminent: (eaning at the .ery ti(e o" the ,ea,ly response. A threat o" "uture har( ,oes not legally Custi"y the application o" ,ea,ly "orce in sel"%,e"ense. (Gut see *(leeing (elon-/ belo0.) *'mminent peril/ re"ers to the situation 0hich- "ro( all reasonable appearances(ust be instantly ,ealt 0ith. ()eop"e $# Aris (1&#&) 21$ Cal.App.3r, 112#- 11#2%11##: In re Christian S# (1&&3) 2 Cal.3th 25#%2#3.) +he ho(ici,e o" the ,e"en,ant s gran,"ather 0as not (itigate, (0hich 0oul, ha.e re,uce, the o""ense to a .oluntary (anslaughter un,er a *heat o" passion/ theory) by the "act that the gran,"ather ha, been o.erly critical an, *(ean/ to the ,e"en,ant in the past. ()eop"e $# /ana,&er (2003) 113 Cal.App.3th 1233.) A person using a "irear( to scare o"" attacFing ,ogs (ay ha.e a .iable sel"%,e"ense argu(ent. ()eop"e $# 2ee (200$) 131 Cal.App.3th 1313: con.iction "or ,ischarging a "irear( 0ith gross negligence re.erse, "or "ailure o" the court to allo0 a sel"% ,e"ense argu(ent.) A con.icte, "elon- charge, 0ith being a "elon in possession o" a "irear( ((!C! 2"#33 et! se*!E "or(erly 12321)- (ay use the ,e"ense o" sel"% ,e"ense 0here he grabbe, a "irear( 0hen con"ronte, 0ith an i((inent ,anger in those instances 0here *the "irear( only beca(e a.ailable ,uring an e(ergency an, 0as possesse, te(porarily in response to the e(ergency an, there 0as no other (eans o" a.oi,ing the ,anger-/ an, the "irear( 0as then i((e,iately therea"ter transporte, or gi.en to la0 en"orce(ent. ()eop"e $# /in1 (1&2#) 22 Cal.3r, 12- 23: see also (!C! 2"#)3- "or(erly (!C! 12321+h,.)
132
Si(ilarly- an in(ate o" a penal institution has a potential ,e"ense to a (!C! 4)32 (1n(ate in Possession o" a Eeapon) charge 0hen the possession 0as in response to an i((inent ,anger0here there is no opportunity to seeF the help o" authorities- an, the 0eapon is gi.en to authorities as soon as the ,anger has passe,. ()eop"e $# Saa$edra (2002) 1$5 Cal.App.3th $51- $5#%$20.) Gut note that the ,anger has to be i((inent. A threat o" so(e "uture har( is not Custi"ication "or possessing a prohibite, 0eapon in .iolation o" (!C! 4)32. ()eop"e $# 9e"as:ue5 (1&#3) 1$# Cal.App.3r, 31#- 320.) *$are fear-/ or the Filler s subCecti.e "ear- by itsel"is not su""icient to Custi"y sel"%,e"ense or the ,e"ense o" others. Jot only (ust the person atte(pting to e?ercise the right to sel"%,e"ense or ,e"ense o" others honestly "eel the nee, to use "orcebut the circu(stances (ust be su""icient to e?cite the "ears o" a reasonable person as 0ell. ()eop"e $# Sonier (1&$2) 113 Cal.App.2n, 222- 22#: )eop"e $# 2ope5 (1&3#) 32 Cal.2n, 523- 52$: )eop"e $# -i""iams (1&22) 2$ Cal.App.3r, 231- 23&: (!C! 1"#: CA=DIC C )!14: *Io(ici,e in De"ense o" Oe(ber o" Ba(ily./) **pparent necessity/ is all that is re@uire,. As long as the person is acting reasonably- he (ay act on appearances e.en though it is later ,isco.ere, that there in "act 0as no real nee, "or sel"%,e"ense. ()eop"e $# Da,son (1&3#) ## Cal.App.2n, #$- &5: )eop"e $# )ena (1&#3) 1$1 Cal.App.3r, 352- 32$% 32#.) Bor e?a(ple- in using ,ea,ly "orce to pre.ent a resi,ential burglary- 0hether or not the ,ecease, actually ha, the intent to co((it a burglary is irrele.ant to the issue o" 0hether the person 0ho Fille, hi( coul, legally use ,ea,ly "orce. ()eop"e $# -a"(er 13#
(1&23) 32 Cal.App.3r, #&2.) +he issue 0ill be 0hat the person 0ho applie, the "orce reasonably belie!ed the circu(stances to be. Io0e.eran honest but unreasonable belie"0hile insu""icient to establish a clai( o" sel"%,e"ense in a (ur,er case- (ight be enough to negate (alice a"orethought an, thus re,uce (ur,er to a non%statutory .oluntary (anslaughter- so(eti(es re"erre, to as *imperfect self6defense./ ()eop"e $# F"anne" (1&2&) 2$ Cal.3r, 5##- 523: )eop"e $# Uriarte (1&&0) 223 Cal.App.3r, 1&2: see also )eop"e $# Sai""e (1&&1) $3 Cal.3r, 11031102- "n. 1: %cNei" $# %idd"eton (&th Cir. 200$) 302 B.3r, &20.) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court has hel, that such an *honest, but unreasonable belief/ theory applies to the co((ission o" a ho(ici,e in the ,e"ense o" a thir, person as 0ell. (See )eop"e $# Rand"e (200$) 3$ Cal.3th &#2.) Io0e.er- the theory o" an *imperfect self6 defense/ is not a.ailable 0here the ,e"en,ant s acts are base, only upon his o0n ,elusions. ()eop"e $# %e;ia32enares (2005) 13$ Cal.App.3th 1332.) +he *i(per"ect sel"%,e"ense/ theory ,i, not apply 0here the .icti( ha, the right to use "orce to try to escape an unla0"ul- hour s long i(prison(ent an, to protect hi(sel" an, the other .icti( 0hen ,e"en,ant s acco(plice attacFe, the other .icti( in another roo(. +hus- 0hen the .icti( charge, ,e"en,ant upon the soun, o" the acco(plice snapping the other .icti( s necF- ,e"en,ant ha, the option o" "leeingstepping out o" the 0ay- or taFing 0hat he ha, co(ing to hi(. Ie ,i, not ha.e the right to ,e"en, hi(sel" "ro( the .icti( s la0"ul resort to sel"%,e"ense an, the ,e"ense o" the other .icti(. ()eop"e $# Frandsen (2011) 1&5 Cal.App.3th 255.) 13&
;riginal *ggressor, or ;ne Engaged in ,utual &ombat, &laiming elf6Defense) Loa,ing another into a ,ea,ly @uarrel also i(poses so(e restrictions on the use o" sel"%,e"ense. +he one 0ho initiates a @uarrel 0ith the intention o" "orcing a ,ea,ly response in an atte(pt to Custi"y the use o" ,ea,ly "orce in return cannot clai( sel"%,e"ense 0hen he Fills his .icti(. ()eop"e $# Garnier (1&$0) &$ Cal.App.2n, 3#&- 3&5.) See CA=C8IB C 3411) *Right to elf6Defense) ,utual &ombat or 'nitial *ggressor-/ an, CA=C8IB C 3412) *Right to elf6Defense) *,ay +ot $e &ontri!ed./ Si(ilarly- a person 0ho starts the con"rontation 0ith an unCusti"iable attacF or 0ho .oluntarily engages in a "ight or (utual co(bat- an, su,,enly "in,s hi(sel" losingcannot clai( sel"%,e"ense unless he "irst atte(pts to 0ith,ra0 "ro( the a""ray an, co((unicates that 0ith,ra0al to his a,.ersary. ()eop"e $# o"ton (1&2&) 23 Cal.3r, $1- 5#: (!C! 1"1!3.) A Cury instruction base, upon this theory is erroneous 0hen it in"ers that one engage, in (utual co(bat (ust be success"ul in co((unicating his intent to 0ith,ra0. 1t nee, only be sho0n that the ,e"en,ant *really and in good faith ha!e endea!ored to decline any further struggle . . . ./ ()eop"e $# =uach (2003) 115 Cal.App.3th 2&3- 300%303: see also (!C! 1"1!3) *,utual &ombat/ has a legal ,e"inition. 1t consists o" "ighting by (utual intention or consent- as (ost clearly re"lecte, in an e?press or i(plie, agree(ent to "ight. +here 130
(ust be e.i,ence "ro( 0hich the Cury coul, reasonably "in, that both co(batants actually consente, or inten,e, to "ight be"ore the clai(e, occasion "or sel"%,e"ense arose. ()eop"e $# Ross (2002) 1$$ Cal.App.3th 1033- 1033%1032.) +ote- ho0e.er- that a *public officer/ ,oes not lose his or her right o" sel"%,e"ense ,ue to initiating a con"rontation through the use o" reasonable "orce to a""ect an arrestpre.ent escape- or o.erco(e resistance. ((!C! #32!)+4,) !nce the aggressor (aFes a goo, "aith atte(pt at 0ith,ra0al- an, atte(pts to in"or( his opponent o" this "act- he regains his right to clai( sel"%,e"ense shoul, the original .icti( continue the attacF. ()eop"e $# utton (1#&$) 105 Cal. 52#- 532%53$: )eop"e $# 0ec(er (1#&$) 10& Cal. 3$1- 353% 35$.) See CA=C8IB C 3414) *Danger +o "onger Exists or *ttac?er Disabled./ An *original aggressor-/ or a person engage, in *mutual combat-/ (ay clai( the right to sel"%,e"ense if he "irst e""ecti.ely co((unicates (or atte(pts to co((unicate) by words or conduct that he 0ants to both (1) stop the "ighting an, (2) is in "act stopping the "ighting. ()eop"e $# 0ernande5 (2003) 111 Cal.App.3th $#2.) See )eop"e $# Nem (2003) 113 Cal.App.3th 150- at pp. 155%152,isagreeing 0ith 0ernande5?s conclusion that the 0or, *inform-/ in "or(er CA=DIC )!)4- 0as (islea,ing because it necessarily cause, a Cury to belie.e that the original aggressor s words 0ere the 131
only 0ay to co((unicate an intent to 0ith,ra0. 1" the one 0ho originally ha, a right to sel"% ,e"ense continues the altercation a"ter the aggressor has broFen o"" his assault an, there is no longer i((inent peril to the original .icti(- that .icti( cannot clai( the ,e"ense 0hen he catches an, assaults the "or(er aggressor. ()eop"e $# Smith (1&#1) 122 Cal.App.3r, $#1- $&0: )eop"e $# )ere5 (1&20) 12 Cal.App.3r, 232- 235.) See also CA=C8IB C 3414) *Danger +o "onger Exists or *ttac?er Disabled./ Io0e.er- i" the original .icti( reasonably an, in goo, "aith "eels that he (ust pursue his attacFer in or,er to e""ecti.ely secure hi(sel" "ro( "urther ,anger- then sel"% ,e"ense is still applicable. ()eop"e $# 0atchett (1&32) $5 Cal.App.2n, 20- 22.) +he pursuit- ho0e.er- (ust not be (oti.ate, by re.enge nor a"ter the necessity "or sel"% ,e"ense has cease,. ()eop"e $# Fina"i (1&15) 31 Cal.App. 32&: )eop"e $# Con("in1 (1#&5) 11 Cal. 515- 525.) Also- i" the original aggressor use, less than ,ea,ly "orce- his inten,e, .icti( (ay not respon, 0ith ,ea,ly "orce- an, i" he ,oesthen the original aggressor has the right to use ,ea,ly "orce in sel"%,e"ense. ()eop"e $# 0ec(er- supra- at p. 353.) !n the other han,- the one originally attacFe, has no ,uty to atte(pt to 0ith,ra0. Ie (ay stan, his groun, an, nee, not taFe a,.antage o" an opportunity to escape "ro(or a.oi, another s attacF or any atte(pt to use ,ea,ly "orce against hi(. ()eop"e $# Da,son (1&3#) ## Cal.App.2n, #$- &$: )eop"e $# Gon5a"es (1##2) 21 Cal. $5&$2#.) 132
*(E)hen a (an 0ithout "ault hi(sel" is su,,enly attacFe, in a 0ay that puts his li"e or bo,ily sa"ety at i((inent ha;ar,- he is not co(pelle, to "ly or to consi,er the proposition o" "lying- but (ay stan, his groun,- an, ,e"en, hi(sel" to the e?tent o" taFing the li"e o" the assailant- i" that be reasonably necessary. ()eop"e $# Ne,comer (1#&2) 11# Cal. 253- 223.) +his *rule applies e.en though the assaile, person (ight (ore easily ha.e gaine, sa"ety by "light or by 0ith,ra0ing "ro( the scene./ ()eop"e $# Da,son- supra.) Sel"%De"ense is not a.ailable to a person charge, 0ith (ur,er un,er the "elony (ur,er statute: i.e.- one 0ho Fills another ,uring the co((ission o" one o" the ,angerous "elonies liste, in the (ur,er statute: (!C! 1#". +he purpose o" the *felony murder rule/ is to ,eter e.en acci,ental Fillings by i(posing strict liability on anyone 0ho causes another s ,eath 0hile co((itting any one or (ore o" the speci"ie, "elonies. ()eop"e $# 2oustaunau (1&#5) 1#1 Cal.App.3r, 153120.) Jeither sel"%,e"ense nor ,e"ense o" property is a.ailable to one 0ho uses "orce to resist a la0"ul arrest or to ,eter a la0"ul entry upon one s lan,. (See (!C! 2"3) $urden of Proof) 4n,er "e,eral la0- it has been hel, that Custi"ication "or possessing a "irear( (other0ise illegal un,er 1# !S!C! "22+5,+1,) in sel"%,e"ense is an affirmati!e defense "or 0hich the ,e"en,ant (ust pro.e by a *preponderance of the e!idence/ the necessity "or ,oing so. (United States $# eas"e& (&th Cir. 2003) 335 B.3r, &30.) 133
See also CA=C8IB C 3411: *Right to elf6 Defense) ,utual &ombat or 'nitial *ggressor./ (leeing (elon) +he use o" *deadly force/ to stop a *dangerous person/ "leeing "ro( the scene o" a *forcible and atrocious crime-/ or suspecte, o" ha.ing co((itte, such a cri(e- is legally Custi"iable. (See Tennessee $# Garner- (1&#$) 321 4.S. 1 6#$ 7.8,.2n, 19: (!C! 1"2!3, 1"1!4- abo.e.) See CA=C8IB C )31) *:ustifiable Homicide) $y Public ;fficer./ An o""icer (ay not use ,ea,ly "orce to apprehen, a suspect in those circu(stances 0here the suspect poses no i((e,iate threat to the o""icer or others. Gut on the other han,- it is constitutionally reasonable to use ,ea,ly "orce to pre.ent an escape 0hene.er an o""icer has probable cause to belie.e that the suspect poses a threat o" serious physical har(- either to the o""icer or to others. 1n (aFing this ,ecision- a court (ust consi,er) (1) +he se.erity o" the cri(e at issue: (2) Ehether the suspect poses an i((e,iate threat o" serious physical har( to the o""icers or others: and (3) Ehether the suspect is acti.ely resisting arrest or atte(pting to e.a,e arrest by "light. (-i"(inson $#Torres (&th Cir. 2010) 510 B.3r, $35- $$0%$$3.) A *dangerous person/ is one 0ho *poses a signi"icant threat o" ,eath or serious bo,ily inCury to the person atte(pting the apprehension or to othersor has co((itte, a "orcible an, atrocious "elony./ ()eop"e $# %artin (1&#$) 15# Cal.App.3r, 11111123.) Police (ay use ,ea,ly "orce to stop an escaping .iolent "elony suspect 0ho 0oul, pose a substantial risF to others i" apprehension is ,elaye,. (Forrett $# Richardson (&th Cir. 1&&2) 112 B.3r, 315: ,ea,ly "orce use, to stop a *home in!asion/ suspect 0ho ha, pre.iously shot an, 0oun,e, a .icti(.) 133
Ehile the co((ission o" a .iolent cri(e in the i((e,iate past is an i(portant "actor- it is not Custi"ication "or using ,ea,ly "orce *on sight./ (0arris $# Roderic( (&th Cir. 1&&2) 125 B.3r, 11#&- 1203.) See also 0op(ins $# Anda&a (&th Cir. 1&&2) &$# B.2n, ##1- ##2: hol,ing that an o""icer s secon, use o" ,ea,ly "orce 0as unreasonable e.en though the suspect ha, .iolently assaulte, the o""icer a "e0 (inutes be"orebut by the ti(e o" the secon, use o" ,ea,ly "orce- although he 0as a,.ancing to0ar,s the o""icer- he 0as 0oun,e, an, unar(e,. +he "orce use, (ust still be no greater than necessary un,er the circu(stances. +he use o" so% calle, *less lethal/ (e.g.- bean bag a((unition) "orce (ay still be ,ea,ly- an, not necessarily appropriate ,espite the "act that the suspect upon 0hich it is use, is threatening .iolence. (Deor"e $# Ruther'ord (&th Cir. 2001) 232 B.3r, 111&: i(posing a duty to warn- 0here appropriate- be"ore using potentially ,ea,ly "orce.) Absent circu(stances that ele.ate an inci,ent into a ,angerous "elony assault- ,ea,ly "orce is not la0"ul in atte(pting to arrest a (is,e(eanor suspect. ()eop"e $# -i"d (1&25) 50 Cal.App.3r, #2&- #32% #33.) * high6speed pursuit (ay or (ay not allo0 "or the use o" ,ea,ly "orce- each case ,epen,ing upon its in,i.i,ual circu(stances. ( rosseau $# 0au1en (2003) $33 4.S. 1&3 6150 7.8,.2n, $#39: "in,ing that an o""icer 0ho shot a suspect 0ho 0as atte(pting to "lee in his .ehicle ,i, not ha.e *fair notice/ base, upon the con"licting case la0 as to 0hether the "orce she use, 0as e?cessi.e. She 0as there"ore entitle, to *@ualified immunity/ "ro( ci.il suit.) 8n,ing a ,angerous high spee, .ehicle chase 0ith spee,s in e?cess o" #$ (iles per hour- 0here the suspect 0as ,ri.ing recFlessly an, "orcing other (otorists o"" the 13$
roa,- by bu(ping the suspect s car an, pushing hi( o"" the roa, se.erely inCuring hi(- is reasonable "orce. Also- there is no ,uty to breaF o"" the chase. (Scott $# 0arris (2002) $$0 4.S. 322 6152 7.8,.2n, 5#59.) +he Court hel, in Scott that there 0as no special Fourth Amendment stan,ar, "or unconstitutional ,ea,ly "orce- but all that (atters is 0hether the police o""icer s actions 0ere reasonable. (Id.- at pp. 3#1%3#3: see also Acosta $# 0i"" (&th Cir. 2002) $03 B.3r, 1323.) !ther "e,eral circuits ha.e appro.e, the use o" ,ea,ly "orce to halt a ,angerous high% spee, .ehicular police pursuit- although un,er circu(stances 0hich- arguably- 0ere (ore aggra.ate, than in 0au1en. ee) Scott $# C"a& Count& (5th Cir. 2000) 20$ B.3r, #52- #22) Shooting a "leeing "elon 0hose recFless ,ri.ing pose, an i((e,iate threat to the sa"ety o" o""icers an, innocent ci.ilians. Smith $# Fre"and (5th Cir. 1&&2) &$3 B.2n, 333- 332%33#) Shooting a "leeing misdemeanant 0ho pose, a ,anger to o""icers at a police roa,blocF 0hen it appeare, liFely he 0oul, *,o al(ost anything to a.oi, capture./ Co"e $# one (#th Cir. 1&&3) &&3 B.2n, 132#- 1330%1333) Shooting a ,e"en,ant "leeing in a trucF 0hen he pose, a threat to tra.elers on a cro0,e, high0ay. )ace $# Capo.rianco (11th Cir. 2002) 2#3 B.3r, 122$- 12#1) Shooting a "leeing "elon in a .ehicle 0hen it appeare, liFely he 0oul, continue to 135
use his car aggressi.ely ,uring a police pursuit. Dea,ly "orce (ay not be Custi"ie,- ho0e.erin a *nonchalant-/ or *rapi, Sun,ay ,ri.e/ spee, pursuit 0here the ,ri.er 0as ra((e, t0ice (un,er circu(stances that 0ere contrary to CIP policy) an, then shot si? ti(es 0ithout a prior 0arning an, 0ithout a sho0ing that the o""icer- or any other o""icer- 0as in i((e,iate ,anger. (Adams $# Speers (&th Cir. 2002) 323 B.3r, &#&.) *(+)he har( resulting "ro( "ailing to apprehen, hi( ,oes not (by itsel") Custi"y the use o" ,ea,ly "orce to ,o so./ (Espinosa $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&# B.3r, $2#- $32: @uoting Tennessee $# Garner (1&#$) 321 4.S. 1- 11% 12 6#$ 7.8,.2n, 19.) +he @uestion is not 0hether an obCecti.ely reasonable o""icer 0oul, ha.e belie.e, it 0as constitutional to har( 0ithout a legiti(ate la0 en"orce(ent obCecti.e- but 0hether such an o""icer 0oul, ha.e belie.e,- in the circu(stances 0ith 0hich the o""icer 0as con"ronte,- a legiti(ate la0 en"orce(ent obCecti.e e?iste,. 1n this case0here an o""icer shot a 0o(an "ollo0ing a high%spee, chase- the o""icer (ight ha.e ha, a (istaFen un,erstan,ing as to 0hether a particular a(ount o" "orce 0as legal in those circu(stances. Jothing in the uni.erse o" cases prior to the o""icer s con,uct 0oul, ha.e alerte, hi( that his split%secon, ,ecision in ,ealing 0ith so(eone 0ho ha, Cust le, police on a ,angerous high%spee, chase an, 0ho 0as using her car as a 0eapon shocFe, the conscience. (Case& $# %ar(1ra' +In re A#D#, (&th Cir. 2011) 535 B.3r, $$$: "in,ing that the o""icer 0as entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity "ro( ci.il liability.)
132
A police o""icer s use o" ,ea,ly "orce is constitutional 0here an escaping suspect constitutes a threat o" serious physical har( to o""icers or others. (-i"(inson $# Torres (&th Cir. 2010) 510 B.3r, $35- $$0%$$3: atte(pts to "lee in a stolen .ehicle en,angere, t0o o""icers lying on the groun, an,Nor stan,ing nearby.) Transferred 'ntent) 1n atte(pting to ,eter(ine the legality o" a clai( o" sel"%,e"ense- an, presu(ably the other legal Custi"ications "or co((itting a ho(ici,e- it is i(portant to note that the doctrine of transferred intent applies. 8.g.) Acci,entally shooting an innocent person 0hile la0"ully atte(pting to ,e"en, onesel" "ro( so(eone else s use o" ,ea,ly "orce is a *%ustifiable homicide-/ there being no cri(inal intent. ()eop"e $# %athe,s (1&2&) &1 Cal.App.3r, 101#- 1023: )eop"e $# 2e$itt (1&#3) 1$5 Cal.App.3r, $00- $02% $0#.) #se of Deadly (orce by Police ;fficers) AttacFing a police o""icer 0ith a ,ea,ly 0eapon Custi"ies the o""icer s use o" ,ea,ly "orce in response) Ehere the suspect .iolently resiste, arrestphysically attacFe, the o""icer- an, grabbe, the o""icer s gun. ( i""in1ton $# Smith (&th Cir. 2002) 2&2 B.3r, 1122- 11#$.) Ehere a suspect- 0ho ha, been beha.ing erratically- s0ung a Fni"e at an o""icer. (Re&no"ds $# Count& o' San Die1o (&th Cir. 1&&5) #3 B.3r, 1152- 115#.) Pointing a gun at a police o""icer. (See Scott $# 0enric( (&th Cir. 1&&3) 3& B.3r, &12- &13.) Ehen the suspect attacFe, an o""icer 0ith a rocF an, a sticF. (Garcia $# United States (&th Cir. 1&#2) #25 B.2n, #05- #12.) De"en,ant- acting in a bi;arre (anner- reporte, to ha.e alrea,y assaulte, so(eone- an, apparently un,er the in"luence o" ,rugs- hol,ing a pen 0ith its 13#
point "acing to0ar, the o""icers 0hich *(ay in"lict lethal "orce-/ Custi"ie, three o""icers hol,ing hi( ,o0n 0hile he 0as han,cu""e,. (Gre1or& $# Count& o' %aui (&th Cir. 200#) $23 B.3r, 1103: suspect ,ie, o" a heart attacF 0hile being hel, ,o0n.) A police o""icer s use o" ,ea,ly "orce is constitutional 0here an escaping suspect constitutes a threat o" serious physical har( to o""icers or others. (-i"(inson $# Torres (&th Cir. 2010) 510 B.3r, $35- $$0%$$3: atte(pts to "lee in a stolen .ehicle en,angere, t0o o""icers lying on the groun, an,Nor stan,ing nearby.) 1t 0as "urther hel, that the o""icer s use, o" ,ea,ly "orce un,er these circu(stances0here the o""icer ,i, not act 0ith an *intent to harm-/ but rather 0ith a *legitimate law enforcement ob%ecti!e-/ ,i, not ,epri.e plainti""s o" their Fourteenth Amendment ,ue process right to *"a(ilial association/ 0ith the ,ecease,. (Id.- at pp. $$3%$$$.) Howe!er- the (ere "act alone that a person possesses ,ea,ly 0eapons ,oes not Custi"y the use o" ,ea,ly "orce. (0arris $# Roderic( (&th Cir. 1&&2) 125 B.3r, 11#&- 1202.) See also Curno, $# Rid1ecrest )o"ice (&th Cir. 1&&1) &$2 B.2n, 321- 323%32$: hol,ing that ,ea,ly "orce 0as unreasonable 0here the suspect possesse, a gun but 0as not pointing it at the o""icers an, 0as not "acing the o""icers 0hen they shot. An, Tin1 $# United States (&th Cir. 1&&1) &22 B.2n, 1$03- 1$0#%1$11: 4se o" ,ea,ly "orce hel, to be unreasonable 0hen the suspect ha, alrea,y ,roppe, his gun. Possession o" a pocFet Fni"e- 0ith 0hich the ,ecease, 0as threatening to cut his o0n throat but not bran,ishing it to0ar,s o""icers- resulting in the o""icers shooting an, Filling hi( a"ter beanbag roun,s "aile, to sub,ue hi(- (ay not ha.e 0arrante, the use o" "irear(s (nor e.en the beanbag shotgun) an, thus subCecting the o""icers to ci.il 13&
liability. (G"enn $# -ashin1ton Count& (&th Cir. 2011) 523 B.3r, #53- #20%##0.) As a *less lethal/ 0eapon- the la0"ulness o" the use o" a beanbag shotgun is ,epen,ent upon a ,eter(ination that its use 0as reasonable un,er the circu(stances. 1n this case- 0here the out%o"%control subCect 0asn t threatening anyone but hi(sel"- its use 0as unCusti"ie,. ('d.- at #2#%##0.) +he reasonableness o" the "orce use, by a police o""icer (ust be Cu,ge, "ro( the perspecti.e o" a reasonable o""icer on the scene. Also- the court (ust allo0 "or the "act that police o""icers are o"ten "orce, to (aFe split%secon, Cu,g(ents in circu(stances that are tense- uncertain- an, rapi,ly e.ol.ing. +he ulti(ate @uestion is 0hether an o""icer s actions are obCecti.ely reasonable in light o" the "acts an, circu(stances con"ronting hi(- the "orce allo0e, un,er the circu(stances enco(passing a range o" con,uct. +he a.ailability o" a less intrusi.e alternati.e 0ill notby itsel"- ren,er an o""icer s con,uct as unreasonable. (-i"(inson $# Torres (&th Cir. 2010) 510 B.3r, $35- $$0% $$3.) *(P)ointing a loa,e, gun at a suspect- e(ploying the threat o" ,ea,ly "orce- is use o" a high le.el o" "orce./ Espinosa $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&# B.3r, $2#- $3#.) +he use o" a police ,og (ay be *deadly force./ (Smith $# Cit& o' 0emet (200$) 3&3 B.3r, 5#&: o.erruling prior authority to the contrary an, ,e"ining ,ea,ly "orce as *force that creates a substantial ris? of death or serious bodily in%ury./) Gut it ,epen,s upon the circu(stances. (Thompson $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es (2005) 132 Cal.App.3th 1$3.) See *Deadly (orce, Defined-/ abo.e. Ehen the "leeing "elon 0as Fno0n to ha.e shot a .icti( in the course o" a burglary "ro( 0hich he 0as escaping- the use o" ,ea,ly "orce to stop hi( is Custi"ie,. (Forrett $# Richardson (&th Cir. 1&&2) 112 B.3r, 315- 320.)
1$0
* high6speed pursuit (ay or (ay not allo0 "or the use o" ,ea,ly "orce- each case ,epen,ing upon its in,i.i,ual circu(stances. ( rosseau $# 0au1en (2003) $33 4.S. 1&3 6150 7.8,.2n, $#39: "in,ing that an o""icer 0ho shot a suspect 0ho 0as atte(pting to "lee in his .ehicle ,i, not ha.e *fair notice/ base, upon the con"licting case la0 as to 0hether the "orce she use, 0as e?cessi.e. She 0as there"ore entitle, to *@ualified immunity/ "ro( ci.il liability.) Police o""icers in.ol.e, in high spee, chases are entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity un,er 42 !S!C! 1"#3 unless a person 0ho is inCure, (i.e.- the plainti"" in the resulting ci.il suit) can pro.e that the o""icer acte, 0ith a ,eliberate intent to har(. ( in1ue $# )runcha( (&th Cir. 200#) $12 B.3r, 115&: see also 0!C! 11334!1.) Pointing an, *training/ a "irear( at a "i.e%0eeF%ol, in"ant 0hile con,ucting a Fourth Eai.er search is e?cessi.e- an, a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (%ot"e& $# )ar(s (&th Cir. 200$) 332 B.3r, 1022- 10##%10#&.) 8n,ing a ,angerous high spee, .ehicle chase 0ith spee,s in e?cess o" #$ (iles per hour- 0here the suspect 0as ,ri.ing recFlessly an, "orcing other (otorists o"" the roa,by bu(ping the suspect s car an, pushing hi( o"" the roa, se.erely inCuring hi(- is reasonable "orce. Also- there is no ,uty to breaF o"" the chase. (Scott $# 0arris (2002) $$0 4.S. 322 6152 7.8,.2n, 5#59.) +he use o" ,ea,ly "orce is la0"ul 0hene.er an o""icer has a *reasonable belief/ that ,e"en,ant poses a threat o" ,eath or serious har(. Io0e.erthis language ,oes not negate the nee, "or *probable cause/ in that the later re"ers to the @uantity o" e.i,ence re@uire, "or such a reasonable belie". ()rice $# Ser& (&th Cir. 200#) $13 B.3r, &52.) Shooting a person 0ho ha, not yet been accuse, o" any cri(e- ,i, not appear to be a threat to the public- an, coul, not escape- e.en though he ha, been uncooperati.e an, re"use, to sho0 his han,s- hel, to raise @uestions o" "act "or a ci.il Cury to ,eci,e 0hether the o""icers ha, use, e?cessi.e "orce by shooting an, Filling hi(. (Espinosa $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&# B.3r, $2#. $32%$3#.) 1$1
+he potential ci.il liability o" an o""icer 0ho shot a han,cu""e, prisoner- seate, in the bacFseat o" a patrol car 0ith a se(iauto(atic pistol- Filling hi(- un,er the (istaFen belie" that she 0as using her stun gun- is an issue "or a ci.il Cury to ,eci,e. +he @uestion 0as 0hether her con,uct in (istaFenly applying ,ea,ly "orce 0as obCecti.ely unreasonable un,er the totality o" the circu(stances. 1nstea, o" "in,ing that the circu(stances "orce, her to (aFe a split%secon, Cu,g(ent about "iring a 0eapon- a reasonable Cury coul, conclu,e that her o0n poor Cu,g(ent an, lacF o" prepare,ness cause, her to act 0ith un,ue haste. (Torres $# Cit& o' %adera (&th Cir. 2011) 53# B.3r, 111&.) Punching an, tasering a non%resisting an, co(pliant arrestee 0ho the o""icer Fne0 0as e(otionally trouble, an, physically ill- an, continue, to ,o so 0hen the arrestee ,i, no (ore than "linch "ro( the pain an, cry "or help- an, then asphy?iating hi( by sitting on his chest- 0as unreasonable "orce. +he o""icer also 0as not entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity un,er the circu(stances. (%endo5a $# Cit& o' -est Co$ina (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 202- 213%220.) See CA=C8IB C )33 et se*! 2e1a" Authorit& 'or Arrests: *rrests by a Peace ;fficer) (!C! #34, #32) A peace officer *may/ (aFe an arrest un,er the "ollo0ing circu(stances) Pursuant to an arrest warrant: or Ehene.er the o""icer has reasonable (or probable) cause to belie.e the suspect has co((itte, a cri(e: and Ehene.er the o""icer has reasonable (or probable) cause to belie.e a cri(e has in "act been co((itte,. +ote that only *reasonable/ or *probable/ cause is nee,e,) +he "act that the o""icer (ay be (istaFen as to ,e"en,ant s guilt- o" that a cri(e e.en occurre,- is irrele.ant so long as the arrest is (a,e 0ith probable cause to belie.e he is guilty an, that a cri(e occurre,. +he arrest 0oul, still be la0"ul. 1$2
+he use o" the 0or, *may/ in the statute in,icates that the o""icer is un,er no obligation to (aFe an arrest. 1t is a (atter o" ,iscretion 0hether or not,espite the e?istence o" *probable cause-/ an arrest 0ill be (a,e. An o""icer is not generally (absent a co((an, to ,o so in a particular- applicable statute) re@uire, to arrest an in,i.i,ual ,espite the o""icer s ,eter(ination that an arrest coul, legally be (a,e. (%ichen'e"der $# Cit& o' Torrance (1&22) 2# Cal.App.3r, 202- 205%202: Tom"inson $# )ierce (1&50) 12# Cal.app.2n, 112- 115.) (!C! 1)3: *Posse &omitatus)/ A uni"or(e, peace o""icer- or any peace o""icer ,escribe, in (!C! #33!1- #33!2+a,, +4,, +c,, +d,, +e,, or +f,- or #33!33+a,- has statutory authority to co((an, any *able6 bodied/ in,i.i,ual o.er the age o" 1# to assist in an arrest. Re"using such a co((an, is punishable by a "ine o" "ro( [$0 to [1-000. 1n a domestic !iolence situation (see (!C! 13133 et se*!)- a peace o""icer shoul, be a0are o" the "ollo0ing) When a peace officer makes an arrest for a violation of P.C. 243(e)(1) (domestic violence battery), the peace officer is no longer required to inform the victim of his or her right to make a citizens arrest; this requirement having been eliminated as of 1 1 1!" (P.C. 243(e)(5) # 836(b)) $lso, %hen a peace officer makes an arrest for a violation of P.C. 273.5(a) (domestic violence involving corporal in&ury), the peace officer is no longer required to inform the victim of his or her right to make a citizens arrest this requirement having been eliminated as of 1 1 1!' (P.C. 273.5(j) # 836(b)) Ehen respon,ing to a situation in.ol.ing the .iolation o" a ,o(estic .iolence restraining or protecti.e or,er (per Fam! Code, 2343 et se*!- 2233 et se*!- or 1133 et se*!)- or o" a protecti.e or,er issue, pursuant to (!C! 132!2 (Uicti( or Eitness 1nti(i,ation)- the peace o""icer hi( or hersel" must- absent e?igent circu(stances- (aFe the arrest i"un,er the circu(stances- i" it is la0"ul to ,o so. ((!C! #32+c,+1,, 13131+4,) (See *,isdemeanor A'n The Presence Re@uirement-/ belo0.) 1$3
*rrests by a Pri!ate Person) (!C! #34, #31: A pri!ate person (ay (aFe an arrest un,er the "ollo0ing circu(stances) Ehene.er the person has reasonable (or probable) cause to belie.e the suspect has co((itte, a cri(e- and Ehene.er a cri(inal o""ense has in fact been co((itte,.
Per the abo.e- 0hile a pri.ate person (ay be (istaFen as to 0ho co((itte, a particular cri(e- there is no roo( "or error as to 0hether a cri(e actually occurre,. Exception) (!C! 4"3+f,+1,) A (erchant- library e(ployee- or theater o0ner (ay act upon probable cause that an o""ense is occurring in ,etaining a shoplifter- boo? thief- or so(eone 0ho is atte(pting to operate a !ideo recording de!ice in a theater. +ote: the section re"ers to such a contact as a *detention-/ as oppose, to an arrest. Pri.ate persons- liFe police o""icers- (ay su((on others to assist in an arrest. ((!C! #3") Io0e.er- there is no penalty "or a person re"using to help. +he pri.ate person (ay ,elegate to a peace o""icer his or her authority to actually per"or( the arrest "or the person. ()eop"e $# S;osten (1&5#) 252 Cal.App.2n, $3&.) A police ,ispatcher- being subCecte, to ,e"en,ant s nu(erous harassing telephone calls- (ay ,elegate to a police o""icer the responsibility to arrest the ,e"en,ant "or her. +he o""ense- o.er the phone- 0as hel, to be in her presence. +he arrest 0as ti(ely in that o""icers respon,e, i((e,iately to 0here ,e"en,ant 0as calling "ro( an, tooF hi( into custo,y. +he arrest 0as hel, to be a la0"ul citi;en s arrest. ()eop"e $# "oom (2010) 1#$ Cal.App.3th 13&5.) A pri.ate person (aFing an arrest (ust- 0ithout unnecessary ,elay- taFe the person arreste, be"ore a (agistrate or ,eli.er hi( or her to a peace o""icer. ((!C! #41)
1$3
1n a domestic !iolence situation (see (!C! 13133 et se*!)- a peace o""icer is no longer re@uire, to (aFe a goo, "aith e""ort to e?plain to the .icti(N0itness o" his or her right to (aFe a pri.ate person s arrest: this re@uire(ent ha.ing been eli(inate, as o" 1N1N13. ((!C! #32+4,) +he pro.ision that a peace o""icer co((its a "elony shoul, he or she re"use to taFe a subCect 0ho 0as arreste, by a pri.ate citi;ene.en 0hen the o""icer ,eter(ines that the arrest 0as (a,e 0ithout probable cause ((!C! 142)- 0as a(en,e, 0ith the a,,ition o" su4d! +c, 0hich states that: *+his section shall not apply to arrests (a,e pursuant to Section #31:/ i.e.- a pri!ate person)s arrest. 7a0 prior to enact(ent o" su4d! +c,) Although taFing a citi;en s arrestee 0hen not supporte, by probable cause- as it 0as 0i,ely belie.e, (!C! 142 as pre.iously 0ritten re@uire,0oul, not subCect the o""icer to any ci.il liability in state court (/inne& $# Count& o' Contra Costa (1&20) # Cal.App.3r, 251- 252%25&: 0am.ur1 $# -a"3%art Stores (2003) 115 Cal.App.3th 3&2- $03% $03.)- the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal 0as o" the opinion that the o""icer in such a situation 0as still subCect to "e,eral ci.il liability. (Arpin $# Santa C"ara 9a""e& Transportation A1enc& (&th Cir. 2001) 251 B.3r, &12- &23%&2$.) +he a,,ition o" su4di:ision +c,- eli(inating the re@uire(ent that an o""icer accept a prisoner arreste, by a pri.ate citi;en- a.oi,s the ,ile((a o" incurring "e,eral ci.il liability 0hile atte(pting to "ollo0 the ,ictates o" a state statute. Gut the rule re(aine, that "or an o""icer to allo0 a citi;en to (aFe a citi;en s arrest an, then to taFe the suspect into custo,y 0hen there is insu""icient probable cause to Custi"y the arrest- 0oul, subCect the o""icer to potential "e,eral ci.il liability. (0op(ins $# on$icino (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 2$2223%225.) +he "e,eral ci.il liability still e?iste, ,espite the "act that the o""icers 0ere e?e(pt "ro( state ci.il liability in a citi;en s arrest situation. (I.id.: an, see (!C! #41.) 1$$
+he tale ,isdemeanor Rule applies to pri.ate person s arrests as 0ell. (See Green $# Department o' %otor 9ehic"es (1&22) 5# Cal.App.3r, $35: arrest (a,e so(e 3$ to 30 (inutes a"ter the obser.ation hel, to be la0"ul: see also O1u"in $# *e''ries (1&$3) 121 Cal.App.2n, 211: 20 (inute ,elay: arrest la0"ul.) (See belo0) *'n the Presence/ re@uirement) Ois,e(eanors (an, in"ractions) (ust ha.e occurre, in the pri.ate person s (in the case o" a pri.ate person s arrest) presence. ((!C! #32+a,+1,, #31!1: *ac(son $# Superior Court (1&$0) &# Cal.App.2n, 1#3: see also 0!C! 43333.) A police ,ispatcher- being subCecte, to ,e"en,ant s nu(erous harassing telephone calls- (ay ,elegate to a police o""icer the responsibility to arrest the ,e"en,ant "or her. +he o""ense- o.er the phone- 0as hel, to be in her presence. +he arrest 0as ti(ely in that o""icers respon,e, i((e,iately to 0here ,e"en,ant 0as calling "ro( an, tooF hi( into custo,y. +he arrest 0as hel, to be a la0"ul citi;en s arrest. ()eop"e $# "oom (2010) 1#$ Cal.App.3th 13&5.) +ote) (!C! #32 is not restricte, by its ter(s to a,ults. +here is no authority "or the argu(ent that (inors cannot also (aFe citi;en s arrests- or that the phrase *pri!ate persons/ is restricte, to a,ults. ;ut6of6 tate ;fficers in *(resh Pursuit)/ (!C! #)2!2) *Any peace o""icer o" another State- 0ho enters this State in "resh pursuit- an, continues 0ithin this State in "resh pursuit- o" a person in or,er to arrest hi( on the groun, that he has co((itte, a "elony in the other State- has the sa(e authority to arrest an, hol, the person in custo,y- as peace o""icers o" this State ha.e to arrest an, hol, a person in custo,y on the groun, that he has co((itte, a "elony in this State.3 (!C! #)2!39
-he arrestin. officer is then to ta;e the arrestee 7immediately before a magistrate3 of the count* in +hich the arrest is made. -he ma.istrate is to determine +hether the (erson had been la+full* arrested. >f so! the arrestee is to be held for extradition. >f not! he is to be 7dischar.e(d).3
(ederal ;fficers) 1$5

(!C! #33!#+a,) Be,eral cri(inal in.estigators an, "e,eral la0 en"orce(ent o""icers are not Cali"ornia peace o""icers. Io0e.era"ter ha.ing been certi"ie, by their agency hea,s as ha.ing satis"ie, the training re@uire(ents o" (!C! #32- or the e@ui.alent thereo"- they (ay e?ercise the po0ers o" arrest o" a Cali"ornia peace o""icer un,er the "ollo0ing circu(stances) Any circu(stance speci"ie, in (!C! #32 (see abo.e) or /&I )1)3 (Oental patients 0ho are a ,anger to the(sel.es- others- or 0ho are gra.ely ,isable,). Ehen inci,ental to the per"or(ance o" their "e,eral la0 en"orce(ent ,uties. Ehen re@ueste, by a Cali"ornia la0 en"orce(ent agency to be in.ol.e, in a Coint tasF "orce or cri(inal in.estigation. Ehen probable cause e?ists to belie.e that a public o""ense that in.ol.es i((e,iate ,anger to persons or property has Cust occurre, or is being co((itte,. See also su4d! +4,) *Duly authori;e, "e,eral e(ployees 0ho co(ply 0ith the training re@uire(ents set "orth in Section #32 are peace o""icers 0hen they are engage, in en"orcing applicable state or local la0s on property o0ne, or possesse, by the 4nite, States go.ern(ent- or on any street- si,e0alF- or property a,Cacent thereto- 0ith the 0ritten consent o" the sheri"" or the chie" o" policerespecti.ely- in 0hose Curis,iction the property is situate,./ (see )eop"e $# Redd (2010) 3# Cal.3th 5&1- 203%203- 211% 222.) Ehen arresting pursuant to (!C! #33!#- an arrestee (ust be taFen i((e,iately be"ore a (agistrate or ,eli.ere, to a peace o""icer- as speci"ie, in (!C! #41. Be,eral o""icers o" the Gureau o" 7an, Oanage(ent an, the Borest Ser.ice o" the Depart(ent o" Agriculture ha.e no authority to en"orce Cali"ornia statutes 0ithout the 0ritten consent o" the sheri"" or the chie" o" police in 0hose Curis,iction they are assigne,. See also su4d! +d, pro.i,ing these o""icers 0ith si(ilar po0ers ,uring a *state o" 0ar e(ergency or a state o" e(ergency-/ as ,e"ine, in 9o:.t! Code #))#.
1$2
(!C! #33!#+4,) Be,eral e(ployees 0ho ha.e (et the training re@uire(ents o" (!C! #32 are peace o""icers 0hen they are engage, in en"orcing applicable state or local la0s on property o0ne, or possesse, by the 4nite, States go.ern(ent- or on any street- si,e0alF- or property a,Cacent thereto- so long as they ha.e the 0ritten consent o" the sheri"" or the chie" o" police respect"ullyin 0hose Curis,iction the property is situate,. (!C! #33!#+c,) Jational ParF Rangers are not Cali"ornia peace o""icers. Io0e.er- a"ter ha.ing been certi"ie, by their agency hea,s as ha.ing satis"ie, the training re@uire(ents o" (!C! #32!3or the e@ui.alent thereo"- they (ay e?ercise the po0ers o" a Cali"ornia peace o""icer un,er any circu(stance speci"ie, in (!C! #32 (see abo.e) or /&I )1)3 (Oental patients 0ho are a ,anger to the(sel.es- others- or 0ho are gra.ely ,isable,)- "or .iolations o" state or local la0s- but only) Ehen inci,ental to the per"or(ance o" their "e,eral ,uties: or Ehen re@ueste, by a Cali"ornia State ParF Ranger to assist in preser.ing the peace an, protecting state parFs an, other property "or 0hich Cali"ornia State ParF Rangers are responsible. ()eop"e $# Redd (2010) 3# Cal.3th 5&1- 203%203- 211%222.) (!C! #33!#+e, "urther pro.i,es "or li(ite, la0 en"orce(ent po0ers "or a @uali"ie, person 0ho is appointe, as a Eashoe tribal la0 en"orce(ent o""icer. The an Fsidro Port of Entry- in San Diego- is state lan, an, not "e,eralalthough the attache, "acilities belong to the "e,eral go.ern(ent. A "e,eral 1((igration an, Jaturali;ation Agent at that location (ay there"ore la0"ully (aFe a citi;en s arrest "or a state cri(inal .iolation (e.g.- ,ri.ing 0hile un,er the in"luence) an, turn hi( o.er to state an, local la0 en"orce(ent o""icers. ()eop"e $# Crusi""a (1&&&) 22 Cal.App.3th 131.) $ounty Hunters- or *$ail Enforcement *gents-/ ha.e long e?ercise, a &ommon "aw po0er to locate- arrest- an, return to custo,y persons release, "ro( custo,y on bail pro.i,e, by a bail%bon,s(an- 0hen the person "ails to (aFe a necessary court appearance. (Ta&"or $# Taintor (1#22) #3 4.S. 355 621 7.8,. 2#29.)
1$#
Gecause state courts ha.e "oun, that a bounty hunter s broa, authority co(es "ro( the i(plie, ter(s o" a pri.ate agree(ent bet0een the bon,s(an (i.e.- a pri.ate citi;en) an, the ,e"en,antbounty hunters are unbur,ene, by (any o" the constitutional an, statutory restrictions 0hich control the con,uct o" state la0 en"orce(ent o""icers. (Reese $# United States (1&5&) 25 4.S. 1322 61& 7.8,. $31- $339.) Lenerally- *the co((on%la0 right o" recapture is (only) li(ite, by the reasonable (eans necessary to a""ect the arrest./ (2ope5 $# Cotter (10th Cir. 1&#&) #2$ B.2n, 223- 222.) Gounty hunters *enCoy e?traor,inary po0ers to capture an, use "orce/ in tracFing ,o0n an, arresting "ugiti.es. (/ear $# 0i"ton (3th Cir. 1&#3) 5&& B.2n, 1#1- 1#2.) Jot being agents o" the state- bounty hunters are not restricte, by the usual constitutional constraints that apply to la0 en"orce(ent. (See )eop"e $# *ohnson (1&32) 1$3 Cal.App.2n, #20- #23: 2andr& $# A3A."e ondin1, Inc# ($th Cir. 1&&5) 2$ B.3r, 200- 203%20$: United States $# Rhodes (&th Cir. 1&#3) 231 B.2n, 353- 352.) 8.g.) +he *Exclusionary Rule/ ,oes not apply to the actions o" a bounty hunter. ()eop"e $# 0ou"e (1&20) 13 Cal.App.3r, #&2- #&$.) Cali"ornia has only recently sought to regulate the licensing an, training re@uire(ents "or bounty hunters. (See (!C! 12"" et se*!- an, Ins! Code 1#13!1.) !ther pro.isions pro.i,e "or the arrest o" a bail Cu(per by the bounty hunter 0hen the bounty hunter s authority is in 0riting upon a certi"ie, copy o" either the un,ertaFing o" bail or the certi"icate o" a bail ,eposite, 0ith the court. ((!C! 1333, 1331) (!C! 1331 also re@uires the bon,s(an or bounty hunter to bring the bail Cu(per be"ore a (agistrate- or ,eli.er hi( to the custo,y o" a sheri"" or police ,epart(ent- 0ithin 3# hours a"ter arrest or a"ter being brought into this state- e?clu,ing 0eeFen,s an, holi,ays. 1t is a (is,e(eanor to .iolate this section. (!C! #41!) pro.i,es that an out6of6state bounty hunter (ust "irst seeF an arrest 0arrant "ro( a local (agistrate- "iling 0ith the court an a""i,a.it listing the na(e an, 0hereabouts o" the "ugiti.ecertain particulars o" the "ugiti.e s o""ense- an, the circu(stances o" the "ugiti.e s .iolation o" the ter(s o" his bail. +he bounty 1$&
hunter is also re@uire, to bring the "ugiti.e be"ore the (agistrate a"ter 0hich a hearing is hel,. +he (agistrate (ay then authori;e the bounty hunter to re(o.e the "ugiti.e "ro( the state. Io0e.er- a bounty hunter 0ho ignores the re@uire(ents o" section #41!)- because he acts outsi,e Cali"ornia s statutory regulations- is not acting *under color of state law-/ an,- there"ore- is not ci.illy liable- at least in a +itle 42 !S!C! 1"#3 "e,eral ci.il rights suit. (Ou5ts $# %ar&"and Nationa" Insurance Co# (&th Cir. 1&23) $0$ B.2n, $32.) Pen. Code 1299: The Gail Bugiti.e Reco.ery Persons Act) Designates this article as the *Gail Bugiti.e Reco.ery Persons Act./ Note: The Bail Fu i!i"e #e$o"e%& Pe%'on' ($!) *hi$h e+,i%ed on -anua%& 1) 2.1.) ha' been %eena$!ed he%e *i!h al/o'! iden!i$al ,%o"i'ion' !ha! *e%e 0i%'! ena$!ed on -anua%& 1) 2.... Pen. Code 1299..1: 1e0ini!ion': Bor purposes o" this article- the "ollo0ing ,e"initions apply) Su4d! +a,) *$ail (ugiti!e/ is ,e"ine, as a ,e"en,ant in a pen,ing cri(inal case 0ho has been release, "ro( custo,y un,er a "inancially secure, appearance- cash- or other bon, an, has ha, that bon, ,eclare, "or"eite,- or a ,e"en,ant in a pen,ing cri(inal case 0ho has .iolate, a bon, con,ition 0hereby apprehension an, reincarceration are per(itte,. Su4d! +4,) *$ail/ is ,e"ine, as a person license, by the Depart(ent o" 1nsurance pursuant to Ins! Code 1#33. Su4d! +c,) *Depositor of $ail/ is ,e"ine, as a person 0ho or entity that has ,eposite, (oney or bon,s to secure the release o" a person charge, 0ith a cri(e or o""ense. Su4d! +d,) *$ail (ugiti!e Reco!ery Person/ is ,e"ine, as a person 0ho is pro.i,e, 0ritten 150
authori;ation pursuant to (!C! 1333 an, 1331 by the bail or ,epositor o" bail- an, is contracte, to in.estigatesur.eil- locate- an, arrest a bail "ugiti.e "or surren,er to the appropriate court- Cail- or police ,epart(ent- an, any person 0ho is e(ploye, to assist a bail or ,epositor o" bail to in.estigatesur.eil- locate- an, arrest a bail "ugiti.e "or surren,er to the appropriate court- Cail- or police ,epart(ent. Pen. Code 1299..2: Persons Authorized to Arrest Bail Fugitives: Su4d+a,) Jo person- other than a certi"ie, la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- shall be authori;e, to apprehen,,etain- or arrest a bail "ugiti.e unless that person (eets one o" the "ollo0ing con,itions) +1, 1s a *bail/ as ,e"ine, in (!C! 12""!31+4, or a *depositor of bail/ as ,e"ine, in (!C! 12""!31+c,. +2, 1s a *bail fugiti!e reco!ery person/ as ,e"ine, in (!C! 12""!31+d,. +3, Iol,s a bail license issue, by a state other than Cali"ornia or is authori;e, by another state to transact an, post bail an, is in co(pliance 0ith the pro.isions o" (!C! #41!) 0ith respect to the arrest o" a bail "ugiti.e. +4, 1s license, as a pri.ate in.estigator as pro.i,e, in Cha-ter 11!3 (co((encing 0ith &&( Code 1)12) o" $i:ision 3 o" the &usiness and (rofessions Code. +), Iol,s a pri.ate in.estigator license issue, by another state- is authori;e, by the bail or ,epositor o" bail to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e- an, is in co(pliance 0ith the pro.isions o" (!C! #41!) 0ith respect to the arrest o" a bail "ugiti.e. Su4d! +4,) +his article shall not prohibit an arrest pursuant to (!C! #31- #3#- an, #3". Pen. Code 1299..4: 2uali0i$a!ion' o0 a Bail Fu i!i"e #e$o"e%& Pe%'on: 151
Su4d! +a,: A bail "ugiti.e reco.ery person- a bail agentbail per(ittee- or bail solicitor 0ho contracts his or her ser.ices to another bail agent or surety as a bail "ugiti.e reco.ery person "or the purposes speci"ie, in sub,i.ision (!C! 1233!31+d,- an, any bail agentbail per(ittee- or bail solicitor 0ho obtains licensing a"ter January 1- 2000an, 0ho engages in the arrest o" a ,e"en,ant pursuant to (!C! 1331 shall co(ply 0ith the "ollo0ing re@uire(ents) +1, +he person shall be at least 1# years o" age. +2, +he person shall ha.e co(plete, a 30%hour po0er o" arrest course certi"ie, by the Co((ission on Peace !""icer Stan,ar,s an, +raining pursuant to (!C! #32. Co(pletion o" the course shall be "or e,ucational purposes only an, not inten,e, to con"er the po0er o" arrest o" a peace o""icer or public o""icer- or agent o" any "e,eralstate- or local go.ern(ent- unless the person is so e(ploye, by a go.ern(ental agency. +3, +he person shall ha.e co(plete, a (ini(u( o" 20 hours o" classroo( e,ucation certi"ie, pursuant to Ins! Code 1#31!1. +4, +he person shall not ha.e been con.icte, o" a "elony- unless the person is license, by the Depart(ent o" 1nsurance pursuant to Ins! Code 1#33. Su4d! +4,) 4pon co(pletion o" any course or training progra( re@uire, by this section- an in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e shall carry certi"icates o" co(pletion 0ith hi( or her at all ti(es in the course o" per"or(ing his or her ,uties un,er this article. Pen. Code 1299..5: Bail Fu i!i"e (,,%ehen'ion': 1n per"or(ing a bail "ugiti.e apprehension- an in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!31 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e shall co(ply 0ith all la0s applicable to that apprehension.
152
(en! Code 12""!32) Re@uire, Apprehension Docu(entation) An in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e shall ha.e in his or her possession proper ,ocu(entation o" authority to apprehen, issue, by the bail or ,epositor o" bail as prescribe, in (!C! 1333 an, 1331 be"ore (aFing any apprehension. +he authority to apprehen, ,ocu(ent shall inclu,e all o" the "ollo0ing in"or(ation) (1) +he na(e o" the in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e an, any "ictitious na(e- i" applicable: (2) +he a,,ress o" the principal o""ice o" the in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e: and (3) +he na(e an, principal business a,,ress o" the bail agency- surety co(pany- or other party contracting 0ith the in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e. Pen. Code 1299..7: #e,%e'en!in 3ne'el0 !o be a 4*o%n 5a* 6n0o%$e/en! 300i$e%: Su4d! +a,) An in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e shall not represent hi(sel" or hersel" in any (anner as being a s0orn la0 en"orce(ent o""icer. Su4d! +4,) An in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e shall not 0ear any uni"or( that represents hi(sel" or hersel" as belonging to any part or ,epart(ent o" a "e,eralstate- or local go.ern(ent. Any uni"or( shall not ,isplay the 0or,s 4nite, States- Gureau+asF Borce- Be,eral- or other substantially si(ilar 0or,s that a reasonable person (ay (istaFe "or a go.ern(ent agency. Su4d! +c,) An in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e shall not 0ear or other0ise use a ba,ge that represents hi(sel" or hersel" as belonging to any part or ,epart(ent o" the "e,eralstate- or local go.ern(ent. Su4d! +d,) An in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e shall not use a "ictitious na(e that 153
represents hi(sel" or hersel" as belonging to any "e,eralstate- or local go.ern(ent. Su4d! +e,) An in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e (ay 0ear a CacFet- shirt- or .est 0ith the 0or,s =GA17 G!JD R8C!U8RK AL8J+-= =GA17 8JB!RC8O8J+-= or =GA17 8JB!RC8O8J+ AL8J+= ,isplaye, in letters at least t0o inches high across the "ront or bacF o" the CacFet- shirt- or .est an, in a contrasting color to that o" the CacFet- shirt- or .est. Pen. Code 1299..8: P%o$edu%al #e7ui%e/en!' in 8a9in (%%e'!': Su4d! +a,) 8?cept un,er e?igent circu(stances- an in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e shall- prior to an, no (ore than si? hours be"ore atte(pting to apprehen, the bail "ugiti.e- noti"y the local police ,epart(ent or sheri""Ds ,epart(ent o" the intent to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e in that Curis,iction by ,oing all o" the "ollo0ing) +1,) 1n,icating the na(e o" an in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e entering the Curis,iction. +2,) Stating the appro?i(ate ti(e an in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e 0ill be entering the Curis,iction an, the appro?i(ate length o" the stay. +3,) Stating the na(e an, appro?i(ate location o" the bail "ugiti.e. Su4d! +4,) 1" an e?igent circu(stance ,oes arise an, prior noti"ication is not gi.en as pro.i,e, in su4d! +a,- an in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e shall noti"y the local police ,epart(ent or sheri""Ds ,epart(ent i((e,iately a"ter the apprehension- an, upon re@uest o" the local Curis,iction- shall sub(it a ,etaile, e?planation o" those e?igent circu(stances 0ithin three 0orFing ,ays a"ter the apprehension is (a,e. Su4d! +c,) +his section shall not preclu,e an in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e "ro( (aFing or atte(pting to (aFe a la0"ul arrest o" a bail 153
"ugiti.e on bon, pursuant to (!C! 1333 an, 1331. +he "act that a bench 0arrant is not locate, or entere, into a 0arrant ,epository or syste( shall not a""ect a la0"ul arrest o" the bail "ugiti.e. Su4d! +d,) Bor the purposes o" this section- notice (ay be pro.i,e, to a local la0 en"orce(ent agency by telephone prior to the arrest or- a"ter the arrest has taFen place- i" e?igent circu(stances e?ist. 1n that case the na(e or operator nu(ber o" the e(ployee recei.ing the notice in"or(ation shall be obtaine, an, retaine, by the bail,epositor o" bail- or bail "ugiti.e reco.ery person. Pen. Code 1299..9: Fo%$ible 6n!%ie': An in,i.i,ual- authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e shall not "orcibly enter a pre(ises e?cept as pro.i,e, "or in (!C! #44 (i.e.- *?noc? and notice/ re@uire(ents). (en! Code 12""!13) 4se o" Birear(s or !ther Eeapons) An in,i.i,ual authori;e, by (!C! 12""!32 to apprehen, a bail "ugiti.e shall not carry a "irear( or other 0eapon unless in co(pliance 0ith the la0s o" the state. A bail agent (ay- upon re@uest o" the surety liable "or the un,ertaFing- arrest a ,e"en,ant an, transport hi( to a court- (agistrate- sheri""- or police- as ,irecte,: although a bail agent has no e?plicit statutory authority to carry a loa,e, "irear( 0hen per"or(ing his ,uties- liFe any person 0ho ,oes not ha.e a per(it to carry a "irear(- he (ay carry a loa,e, "irear( 0hile engage, in the act o" (aFing or atte(pting to (aFe a la0"ul arrest o" the ,e"en,ant. (#1 Op#Ca"#Att&#Gen. 2$2- 2%2&%&#.) A bail reco.ery agent 0as not *atte(pting to (aFe a la0"ul arrest/ 0hen stoppe, by police o""icersan, thus the Cali"ornia statute pro.i,ing that a person atte(pting to (aFe la0"ul arrest (ay carry loa,e, han,gun (i.e.- "or(erly (!C! 12331+',E no0 (!C! 223)3) 0as inapplicable. +he o""icers ha, probable cause to arrest the agent "or carrying loa,e, "irear( 0hen the agent 0as arreste, because he 0as in his car hal" blocF a0ay "ro( "ugiti.e. 15$
(Go"t $# Cit& o' Si1na" 0i"" (C.D.Cal. 2001) 132 B.Supp.2n, 1221.) Pen. Code 1299.11: :iola!in !he Bail Fu i!i"e #e$o"e%& Pe%'on' ($!: ;! i' a /i'de/eano% !o "iola!e o% $on',i%e !o "iola!e an& ,%o"i'ion o0 !he Bail Fu i!i"e #e$o"e%& Pe%'on' ($!) o% !o hi%e an indi"idual !o a,,%ehend a bail 0u i!i"e) 9no*in !ha! !he indi"idual i' no! au!ho%i<ed b& P.C. 1299..2 !o a,,%ehend a bail 0u i!i"e. Puni'h/en!: 8i'de/eano%: =, !o one &ea% in $oun!& jail and>o% a ?5)... 0ine. Pen. Code 1299.12 (@e*): 5i$en'in P%i"a!e ;n"e'!i a!o%': +he abo.e is speci"ically not inten,e, to e?e(pt "ro( licensure persons other0ise re@uire, to be license, as pri.ate in.estigators pursuant to &&( 1)12 et se*! *rrest ;ptions) A peace o""icer has fi!e options 0hen he or she (aFes an arrest pursuant to (!C! #32 or taFes custo,y o" a prisoner "ro( a pri.ate person- arreste, pursuant to (!C! #31) Release =ithout &harges) 1"- a"ter a subCect has been arreste,- the o""icer "eels that base, upon a,,itional in"or(ation collecte,- the arrest is not Custi"ie, (i.e.- there is insu""icient probable cause)- he or she (ay uncon,itionally release the prisoner pursuant to authority ,escribe, in (!C! #4"+4,+1,. 1"- 0hen arreste, by a pri.ate person- the person changes his or her (in, about 0anting to arrest the subCect- the prisoner (ay si(ply be release, 0ithout any "urther action. !ther0ise- any such arrest an, release (ust be ,ocu(ente, pursuant to (!C! #)1!2- 0ith a certi"icate issue, to the arreste, person by the arresting agency ,escribing such action as a ,etention only. +he legal status o" anyone so release, shall be ,ee(e, a ,etention only: not an arrest. ((!C! #4"+c,) +ote) 1t is also arguable that a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer (ay choose to release a subCect "or 0ho( probable cause does e?ist. +here is nothing in the case or statutory la0 155
that says that (!C! #4"+4, is the e?clusi.e authority "or releasing an arreste, prisoner. +ote- ho0e.er- (!C! 4311!13 prohibiting la0 en"orce(ent "ro( releasing a Cail in(ate "or the purpose o" allo0ing the in(ate to seeF (e,ical care at a hospital- an, then i((e,iately re%arresting the sa(e in,i.i,ual upon ,ischarge "ro( the hospitalunless the hospital ,eter(ines this action 0oul, enable it to bill an, collect "ro( a thir,%party pay(ent source. ee? an *rrest =arrant) (1.e.- a *+otify =arrant./) Shoul, the peace o""icer ,eter(ine that- although probable cause "or an arrest e?ists- the person (ay not be la0"ully arreste, (e.g.- a (is,e(eanor not in the o""icer s presence or the pri.ate person s presence- or a *stale misdemeanor-/ (see belo0: *"egal Re@uirements of an *rrest/)- or as a ,iscretionary option to taFing the subCect into custo,y or 0riting a (is,e(eanor citation- an arrest report (ay be "ille, out 0ith the appropriate notation (a,e (or bo?- e.g.- *\ noti"y 0arrant-/ checFe,). +his is not an arrest an, re@uires (a"ter a *detention for in!estigation/ ,uring 0hich i,enti"ication in"or(ation is collecte, an, a brie" in.estigation is con,ucte,) the i((e,iate release o" the subCect. +he local prosecuting agency to 0hich the reports are "or0ar,e, 0ill then noti"y the subCect o" 0hen an, 0here to appear in court to ans0er to any charges "ile, in court. Shoul, the person "ail to respon, to this noti"ication- an arrest 0arrant 0ill be sought. Stopping a suspect in a (is,e(eanor o""ense- a noise .iolationnot occurring in the o""icer s presence- at least 0here there are possible alternati.e- less intrusi.e (etho,so" i,enti"ying the suspect- is probably unla0"ul. +he Court is to balance la0 en"orce(ent s interest in cri(e pre.ention 0ith the ,etainee s interest in personal security "ro( go.ern(ent intrusion. (See United States $# 0ens"e& (1&#$) 35& 4.S. 221 6#3 7.8.2n, 5039.) 1n a (is,e(eanor situation- la0 en"orce(ent s interest (ay not out0eigh the suspect s. (United States $# Gri11 (&th Cir. 2002) 3&# B.3r, 1020.)
152
'ssuance of a ,isdemeanor &itation) A (is,e(eanor arrest "or an o""ense 0hich is not *stale/ an, 0hich did occur in the o""icer s (or a pri.ate citi;en s) presence- but 0hen booFing is either not legal or not appropriate un,er the circu(stances- (ay result in the subCect being cite, an, release, at the scene. Ois,e(eanor citations are in "act an arrest- although the subCect is release, 0ithout booFing- an, (ust there"ore be con,ucte, accor,ing to the rules on (is,e(eanor cri(es occurring in the o""icer s presence- etc. (See belo0: *"egal Re@uirements of an *rrest/) Ois,e(eanor arrestees areas a general rule- to be cite, an, release, unless one o" the e?ceptions liste, in (!C! #)3!2+i, applies. ((!C! #)3!2+a,) Jote also that all persons release, on a (is,e(eanor citation (ust be booFe, an, "ingerprinte, either at the scene or at the arresting agency at so(e point prior to appearing in court- an,- i" release, prior to ,oing so- shoul, be so noti"ie, o" their responsibility to co(ply. ((!C! #)3!2+5,) GooFing at the scene re@uires the o""icer to use a (obile "ingerprint ,e.ice to taFe all "ingerprints instea, o" (erely a thu(bprint.
$oo?ing into :ail) Ehen one or (ore o" the circu(stances liste, in (!C! #)3!2+i, ,oes e?ist- an, the subCect is other0ise la0"ully arreste, (e.g.- a "elony arrest- or a (is,e(eanor in the o""icer s or pri.ate person s presence 0hich is not *stale./)- the arreste, person (ay be subCecte, to a custo,ial arrest an, transporte, to county Cail "or booFing. Ta?e the ub%ect Directly $efore a ,agistrate) Ehen court is in session- an, a Cu,ge is a.ailable- a subCect (ay be transporte, ,irectly to the Cu,ge. +he o""ense (ust be a "elony- or the con,itions "or a la0"ul (is,e(eanor arrest (ust be present (i.e.- in the presence o" the o""icer or pri.ate person (aFing the arrest an, not stale). See also (!C! #)3!) an, 0!C! 43333!), 43332, 43333, 43334- an, 4333) (belo0)- "or con,itions un,er 0hich 15#
persons arreste, "or certain in"ractions or (is,e(eanors (ay be taFen i((e,iately be"ore a (agistrate. 2e1a" Re:uirements o' an Arrest: (elonies) A peace o""icer (ay (aFe an arrest "or a "elony- 0ith or 0ithout a 0arrant- at any ti(e- ,ay or night- at any location- 0hether or not the "elony has occurre, in the o""icer s presence- so long as such arrest is supporte, by *probable cause./ ((!C! #32+a,+2,, +3,) Exception) Earrantless arrests in a person s ho(e. (See belo0) See also 0!C! 43331) Ehen probable cause e?ists to belie.e that a particular person has .iolate, a 0ehicle Code "elony- the subCect *shall be ,ealt 0ith in liFe (anner as upon arrest "or the co((ission o" any other "elony-/ accor,ing to the general pro.isions o" the Penal Co,e on "elony arrests. (See )eop"e $# Superior Court @SimonA (1&22) 2 Cal.3r, 1#5- 1&&.) ,isdemeanors and 'nfractions) *'n the Presence/ re@uirement) Ois,e(eanors (an, in"ractions) (ust ha.e occurre, in the o""icer s (or pri.ate person s- in the case o" a pri.ate person s arrest) presence. ((!C! #32+a,+1,, #31!1: *ac(son $# Superior Court (1&$0) &# Cal.App.2n, 1#3: see also 0!C! 43333.) *'n the Presence,/ Defined) *'n the presence/ is co((only interprete, to re"er to ha.ing personal Fno0le,ge that the o""ense in @uestion has been co((itte,- (a,e Fno0n to the o""icer through any o" the o""icer s "i.e senses. (See )eop"e $# ur1ess (1&$&) 120 Cal.App.2n, 35- 31.) +he cri(e o" (aFing annoying or harassing telephone calls- per (!C! 2)3@- is ,one in the listener s presence. ()eop"e $# "oom (2010) 1#$ Cal.App.3th 13&5: harassing phone calls to a police ,ispatcher.) Exceptions) A peace o""icer has statutory authori;ation to a""ect a 0arrantless arrest "or (is,e(eanors 0hich did not occur in the o""icer s presence un,er li(ite, circu(stances) 1. :u!enile *rrests) (/&I Code 22)+a,: In re Samue" 9# (1&&0) 22$ Cal.App.3r, $11.) 15&
2. Dri!ing =hile #nder the 'nfluence of *lcohol andJor Drugs- 0hen any o" the "ollo0ing circu(stances e?ist (0!C! 43333!))) +a, +he person 0as in.ol.e, in a tra""ic acci,ent. +4, +he person is obser.e, in or about a .ehicle that is obstructing a roa,0ay. +c, +he person 0ill not be apprehen,e, unless i((e,iately arreste,. +d, +he person (ay cause inCury to hi(sel" or hersel" or ,a(age property unless i((e,iately arreste,. +e, +he person (ay ,estroy or conceal e.i,ence o" the cri(e unless i((e,iately arreste,. ()eop"e $# Scho'ie"d (2001) &0 Cal.App.3th &5#: the (etabolic ,estruction o" alcohol in a D41 suspect s bo,y (i.e.- the *burn off/ rate) @uali"ies as the *destruction of e!idence/ "or purposes o" this e?ception.) See also Troppman $# Gour"e& (200$) 125 Cal.App.3th 2$$- at pp. 250%251- 0here it 0as note, that the prior Supre(e Court case o" %ercer $# Department o' %otor 9ehic"es (1&&1) $3 Cal.3r, 2$3- 25#%25&- re@uiring so(e obser.ation o" the .ehicle s (o.e(ent by the arresting o""icer- 0as no longer .ali, case la0 in light o" the a(en,(ent to this statute. 8.en though the o""icer ,i, not obser.e ,e"en,ant s .ehicle (o.ing- 0here the police o""icer ,isco.ere, ,e"en,ant asleep behin, 0heel 0ith his "oot on the braFe- the engine running- an, the gear in ,ri.e- in the (i,,le o" interstate high0ay- ,e"en,ant s arrest "or ,ri.ing 0hile un,er the in"luence 0as la0"ul base, upon the circu(stantial e.i,ence that ,e"en,ant ha, ,ri.en there 0hile un,er the in"luence. (9i""a"o.os $# 4o"in (1&&$) 3$ Cal.App.3th $$5.) 120
+he ol, Cali"ornia rule o" re@uiring a .ali, arrest- e.en o" an unconscious suspect- prior to the e?traction o" a bloo, sa(ple (See )eop"e $# Superior Court 60a,(ins7 (1&22) 5 Cal.3r, 2$2- 252.)- 0as abrogate, by passage o" (ro-osition #- in 1&#2. Jo0- so long as probable cause e?ists to belie.e that the ,e"en,ant 0as ,ri.ing 0hile into?icate,a "or(al arrest is not a prere@uisite to a 0arrantless sei;ure o" a bloo, sa(ple. ()eop"e $# Trotman (1&#&) 213 Cal.App.3r, 330- 33$: )eop"e $# De"toro (1&#&) 213 Cal.App.3r, 1312- 1322- 132$.) 3. $attery on chool <rounds ,uring school hours. ((!C! 243!)) 3. &arrying a "oaded (irearm- in .iolation o" (!C! 2)#)3+a, ("or(erly (!C! 12331+a,+1,. ((!C! 2)#)3+5,- "or(erly (!C! 12331+a,+),+A,) $. *ssault or $attery *gainst the Person of a (irefighter, Emergency ,edical Technician, or Paramedic- per (!C! 241+4, or 243+4,. ((!C! #32!1) 5. Persons Violating a Domestic Violence Protecti!e or Restraining ;rder issue, un,er authority o") CC( )21!2 (Harassment ;rders): Fam! Code, 2233 et se*! (Domestic Violence): (!C! 132!2 (Victim or =itness 'ntimidation): (!C! 242!"1 ( tal?ing): (!C! 1233!3"1+a,+2, (*cts of !iolence, threats, stal?ing, sexual abuse, and harassment, in Domestic Violence): /&I 213!) (During &hild Dependency Proceedings): /&I 1)2)1!33, (Elder or Dependent *dult *buse) or imilar orders "ro( another state- tribe- or territory: 121
. . . 0here the o""icer has probable cause to belie.e the suspect has Fno0le,ge o" the or,er an, has co((itte, an act in .iolation o" the or,er. ((!C! #32+c,+1,) Jote) +his section- an, (!C! 13131+4,- at least 0hen *domestic !iolence/ (per Fam! Code 2343 et se*!- 2233 et se*!- or 1133 et se*!) is in.ol.e,- or 0hen !ictim or witness intimidation (per (!C! 132!2) is in.ol.e,- (aFe this arrest mandatory upon the o""icer- absent *exigent circumstances/ e?cusing the lacF o" an arrest. 2. *ssaults or $atteries upon the suspect s current or "or(er spouse- "ianc]- "ianc]e- a current or "or(er cohabitant (per Fam! Code, 223")- a person 0ith 0ho( the suspect currently is ha.ing or has pre.iously ha, an engage(ent or ,ating relationship (per (!C! 243+f,+13,)- a person 0ith 0ho( the suspect has parente, a chil,- or is presu(e, to ha.e parente, a chil, (per the niform (arenta5e Act: Fam! Code, 1233 et se*!)- a chil, o" the suspect- a chil, 0hose parentage by the suspect is the subCect o" an action un,er the niform (arenta5e Act- a chil, o" a person in one o" the abo.e categories- or any other person relate, to the suspect by consanguinity or a""inity 0ithin the secon, ,egree- 0hen the o""icer has probable cause an, the arrest is (a,e as soon as probable cause arises. ((!C! #32+d,) (!C! 13133+4,: *&ohabitant/ is ,e"ine, in the (enal Code as *t0o unrelate, a,ult persons li.ing together "or a substantial perio, o" ti(e- resulting in so(e per(anency o" relationship. Bactors that (ay ,eter(ine 0hether persons are cohabiting inclu,e- but are not li(ite, to(1) se?ual relations bet0een the parties 0hile sharing the sa(e li.ing @uarters(2) sharing o" inco(e or e?penses122
(3) Coint use or o0nership o" property(3) 0hether the parties hol, the(sel.es out as husban, an, 0i"e($) the continuity o" the relationshipand (5) the length o" the relationship./ Fam! Code, 223": *&ohabitant/ is ,e"ine, in the FamilA Code as a person 0ho regularly resi,es in the househol,. *(ormer &ohabitant/ is ,e"ine, as a person 0ho "or(erly regularly resi,e, in the househol,. (!C! 243+f,+13,: *Dating Relationship/ is ,e"ine, as "re@uent- inti(ate associations pri(arily characteri;e, by the e?pectation o" a""ection or se?ual in.ol.e(ent in,epen,ent o" "inancial consi,erations. #. Elder *buse) Assaults or batteries upon any person 0ho is 5$ years o" age or ol,er an, 0ho is relate, to the suspect by bloo, or legal guar,ianship- 0hen the o""icer has probable cause an, the arrest is (a,e as soon as probable cause arises. ((!C! #32+d,) &. &arrying a &oncealed (irearm- per (!C! 2)433 ("or(erly (!C! 1232))- 0hen a peace o""icer has reasonable (or probable) cause to belie.e a .iolation has occurre, 0ithin the area o" an airport (as *airport/ is ,e"ine, by the (u4! tilities Code, 21313) to 0hich access is controlle, by the inspection o" persons an, property- an, 0hen the arrest is (a,e as soon as reasonable (or probable) cause arises. ((!C! #32+e,) 10. ;perating a Vessel or Recreational Vessel, or ,anipulation of =ater ?is, *@uaplane or imilar De!ice, 0hile un,er the in"luence o" ,rugs an,Nor alcohol- or a,,icte, to the use o" ,rugs. (Far! & %a:! Code, 2))+4,, +c,, +d, or +e,) 4pon in"or(ation "ro( a co((issione,- 0arrant or petty o""icer o" the 4nite, States Coast Luar, establishing *reasonable cause-/ a peace o""icer 123
(ay arrest "or a .iolation o" any the abo.e o""enses. (Su4d! +5,) 11. ;perating a Vessel =hile #nder the 'nfluence of *lcohol andJor Drugs- 0hen the person is in.ol.e, in an acci,ent on the 0aters o" this state0ith *reasonable cause-/ any peace o""icer (ay arrest. (Far! & %a:! Code, 223!1) 9ehic"e Code Violations) +he 0ehicle Code contains li(ite, e?ceptions "or citing a person "or a (is,e(eanor or in"raction e.en though the o""ense cite, "or did not occur in the peace o""icer s presence) 0!C! 1232#+c,) A peace o""icer- or a regularly e(ploye, an, salarie, e(ployee o" a city or county 0ho has been traine, as a tra""ic collision in.estigator upon re.ie0 by a peace o""icer- at the scene o" an acci,ent- (ay cite any ,ri.er in.ol.e, in the tra""ic collision 0ho is unable to pro.i,e e!idence of financial responsibility. 0!C! 43233+a,) A peace o""icer 0ho has success"ully co(plete, a course or courses o" instruction- appro.e, by the Co((ission on Peace !""icer Stan,ar,s an, +raining (i.e.- P.!.S.+.) in the in.estigation o" tra""ic acci,ents (ay cite any person in.ol.e, in a tra""ic acci,ent 0hen the o""icer has probable cause to belie.e the person .iolate, a pro.ision o" the Uehicle Co,e not ,eclare, to be a "elony or a local or,inance an, 0hen the offense cited for was a factor in the occurrence of the traffic accident. Su4d! +d, pro.i,es that the o""ense nee, not occur in the o""icer s presence. Io0e.er- su4d! +c, pro.i,es that such a citation is not consi,ere, as an *arrest./ 9ehic"e Code Par?ing &itations) ParFing .iolations are *ci!il infractions/ only- en"orceable un,er a separate ci.il a,(inistrati.e sche(e- an, subCect to ci.il penalties. (0!C! 43233 et se*!) (See T&"er $# Count& o' A"ameda (1&&$) 33 Cal.App.3th 222: United States $# Choudhr& (&th Cir. 2005) 351 B.3r, 10&2- 1101: #2 Op#Att?&#Gen#Ca"# 32 (1&&&).) Cali"ornia peace o""icers are speci"ically authori;e, un,er the 0ehicle Code to en"orce parFing citations. (0!C! 43232+a,: )eop"e $# 0art (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 32&: United States $# Choudhr&- supra.) 123
A parFing .iolation- e.en though ci.il- is cause "or a police o""icer to stop an, ,etain a .ehicle s ,ri.er ,espite the "act that such a .iolation is but a *pretext/ "or ,etaining the ,ri.er to in.estigate so(e other o""ense "or 0hich the o""icer ,oes not ha.e a reasonable suspicion- per the rule o" -hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9. (United States $# Choudhr&- supra.) * tale ,isdemeanor Rule)/ +he arrest "or a (is,e(eanor (ust occur at the ti(e- or shortly a"ter- the co((ission o" the o""ense. ()eop"e $# 0ampton (1&#$) 153 Cal.App.3r, 22.) 1" not- it is a *stale misdemeanor/ "or 0hich the ,e"en,ant (ay not be arreste, e.en i" it ha, occurre, in the o""icer s presence. ()eop"e $# Crai1 (1&02) 1$2 Cal. 32- 32.) Ehat is an, 0hat is not stale ,epen,s upon the circu(stances) *Jo har, an, "ast rule can- ho0e.er- be lai, ,o0n 0hich 0ill "it e.ery case respecting 0hat constitutes a reasonable ti(e. Ehat (ay be so in one case un,er particular circu(stances (ay not be so in another case un,er ,i""erent circu(stances. All that can be a""ir(e, 0ith sa"ety is that the o""icer (ust act pro(ptly in (aFing the arrestan, as soon as possible un,er the circu(stances- an, be"ore he transacts other business. . . . . A(E)e hol, that in or,er to Custi"y an arrest 0ithout 0arrant the arrestor (ust procee, as soon as (ay be to (aFe the arrest. An, i" instea, o" ,oing that he goes about other (atters unconnecte, 0ith the arrest- the right to (aFe the arrest 0ithout a 0arrant ceases- an, in or,er to (aFe a .ali, arrest he (ust then obtain a 0arrant there"or (sic)./ (O"eson $# )incoc( (1&25) 5# 4tah $02- $1$%$15 62$1 P. 23- 259.) *1n or,er to Custi"y a ,elay- there shoul, be a continue, atte(pt on the part o" the o""icer or person apprehen,ing the o""en,er to (aFe the arrest: he cannot ,elay "or any purpose 0hich is "oreign to the acco(plish(ent o" the arrest./ (*ac(son $# Superior Court (1&$0) &# Cal.App.2n, 1#3- 1#2: ne?t ,ay- arrest illegal.) +he stale misdemeanor rule applies to arrests by pri.ate citi;ens- un,er authority o" (!C! #31- as 0ell. (Green $# Department o' %otor 9ehic"es (1&22) 5# Cal.App.3r, $35: arrest (a,e so(e 3$ to 30 (inutes a"ter the obser.ation hel, to be la0"ul: see also O1u"in $# *e''ries (1&$3) 121 Cal.App.2n, 211: 20 (inute ,elay- arrest la0"ul.) 12$
A police ,ispatcher- being subCecte, to ,e"en,ant s nu(erous harassing telephone calls- (ay ,elegate to a police o""icer the responsibility to arrest the ,e"en,ant "or her. +he o""ense- o.er the phone- 0as hel, to be in her presence. Also- the arrest 0as ti(ely in that o""icers respon,e, i((e,iately to 0here ,e"en,ant 0as calling "ro( an, tooF hi( into custo,y. +he arrest 0as hel, to be a la0"ul citi;en s arrest. ()eop"e $# "oom (2010) 1#$ Cal.App.3th 13&5.) anctions for Violations) A .iolation by a peace o""icer o" either the *in the presence-/ or- arguably- the *stale misdemeanor/ rulesor any other statutory (as oppose, to constitutional) li(itation on taFing so(eone into physical custo,y- does not re@uire the suppression o" any e.i,ence- in that these rules are statutory- or non%constitutionally base, case la0- onlyan, e.i,ence is suppresse, only 0hen it s ,isco.ery is the ,irect pro,uct o" a constitutional !iolation. ( arr& $# Fo,"er (&th Cir. 1&&0) &02 B.2n, 220- 222: )eop"e $# Dona"dson (1&&$) 35 Cal.App.3th $32: )eop"e $# Trapane (1&&1) 1 Cal.App.3th Supp. 10: see also *ac(son $# Superior Court (1&$0) &# Cal.App.2n, 1#3: an, )eop"e $# %c/a& (2002) 22 Cal.3th 501- 502%51&- a .iolation o" 0!C! 212)3!1 (ri,ing a bicycle in the 0rong ,irection): an, )eop"e $# Gome5 (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $31- $3&- seat belt .iolationciting At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista (2001) $32 4.S. 31# 613& 7.8,.2n, $3&9: United States $# %iranda3Guerena (&th Cir. 2005) 33$ B.3r, 1233: )eop"e $# ennett (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th &02- &1#.) *Gut the re@uire(ent that a (is,e(eanor (ust ha.e occurre, in the o""icerDs presence to Custi"y a 0arrantless arrest is not groun,e, in the Fourth Amendment./ (-e"sh $# -isconsin (1&#3) 355 4.S. 230- 2$5 6#0 7.8,.2n, 2329: opinion o" Justice Ehite- citing Street $# Surd&(a (3th Cir. 1&23) 3&2 B.2n, 35#- 321%222.) A .iolation by a police o""icer o" a state statutesuch statute li(iting the o""icer s right to (aFe a custo,ial arrest or a search- so long as not also in .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment- ,oes not result in the suppression o" the resulting e.i,ence unless (an,ate, by the ter(s o" the statute. Ehile a state is e(po0ere, to enact (ore restricti.e search an, sei;ure rules- .iolation o" those rules that are not also a Fourth Amendment .iolation- ,oes not in.oFe the Fourth Amendment.s e?clusionary rule. (9ir1inia $# %oore (200#) $$3 4.S. 153 6120 7.8,.2n, $$&9: )eop"e $# >inos (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 532- 5$3.) 125
*-he )iolation of a state statute! standin. alone! does not

form the basis for su((ression under the Fourth Amendment.3 ('eo(le v. ardacre (2004) 116 Cal.4((.4th 1292! 1/012 United States $# %iranda3
Guerena (&th Cir. 2005) 33$ B.3r, 1233.) *>t is elemental that the ille.alit* taintin. e)idence and
renderin. it inadmissible is ille.alit* flo+in. from the )iolation of a defendant,s constitutional ri.hts?(rimaril* those in)ol)in. unla+ful searches and sei@ures in )iolation of the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution and the essentiall* identical .uarantee of (ersonal (ri)ac* set forth in article I! section 19! of the California Constitution . "Citations.& $)idence obtained in )iolation of a statute is not inadmissible (er se unless the statutor* )iolation also has a constitutional dimension.3 ('eo(le v. *rannon (197/) /2 Cal.4((./d 971! 97%2
)eop"e $# )i'er (1&#&) 215 Cal.App.3r, &$5- &52%&53.) See also the sa(e reasoning being use, in Rodri1ue5 $# Superior Court (1&##) 1&& Cal.App.3r, 13$3- 1320: suggesting that because a *nighttime/ search ,oes not .iolate any constitutional principles- e.i,ence ,isco.ere, ,uring a nightti(e search 0ithout Cu,icial authori;ation- in .iolation o" the re@uire(ents o" (!C! 1)33, shoul, not result in suppression o" any e.i,ence. An, see )eop"e $# Co""ins (2003) 11$ Cal.App.3th 132) Uiolation o" the a,(inistrati.e pro.isions "or the searching o" prisoners in a prison- absent a constitutional .iolation,oes not re@uire the suppression o" any resulting e.i,ence. +he use o" a *Phlebotomist/ to ,ra0 bloo, "ro( a *Dri.ing 0hile 4n,er the 1n"luence/ (i.e.- *D41/) suspect- as oppose, to using one o" the (e,ical pro"essionals authori;e, by 0!C! 231)#- not being a constitutional .iolation (erely ,ue to the .iolation o" the statute- ,oes not result in the suppression o" any e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# Esa&ian (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th 1031E )eop"e $# %c0u1h (2003) 11& Cal.App.3th 202: )eop"e $# %ate";an (200$) 12& Cal.App.3th 352- 325%322.) A .iolation o" *implied consent law-/ "orcing a *D41/ (Dri.ing Ehile 4n,er the 1n"luence/) suspect to su((it to a bloo, test instea, o" a breath test- being a .iolation o" state la0 only- ,oes not e?pose the o""icer to any ci.il 122
liability. (Ritsche" $# Cit& o' Fountain 9a""e& (200$) 132 Cal.App.3th 102.) Ehile a state (ay i(pose stricter stan,ar,s on la0 en"orce(ent in interpreting its o0n state constitution (i.e.*independent state grounds/)- a prosecution in "e,eral court is gui,e, by the "e,eral interpretation o" the Fourth Amendment an, is not re@uire, to use the state s stricter stan,ar,s. (United States $# ro.st (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, &#2- &#&%&&1- &&2.) OistaFenly collecting bloo, sa(ples "or inclusion into Cali"ornia s DJA ,ata base (See P.C. V 2&5)- 0hen the ,e"en,ant ,i, not actually ha.e a @uali"ying prior con.iction- ,oes not re@uire the suppression o" the (istaFenly collecte, bloo, sa(ples- nor is it groun,s to suppress the resulting (atch o" the ,e"en,ant s DJA 0ith that le"t at a cri(e scene. ()eop"e $# Ro.inson (2010) 32 Cal.3th 1103- 1115%112&.) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal is no0 in accor, 0ith the rule o" 9ir1inia $# %oore. (Ed1er"& $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&& B.3r, &35&$$%&$5.) *rrest for an 'nfraction or ,isdemeanor) Release Re@uirement) Persons subCect to citation "or the .iolation o" a cri(e ,ee(e, to be an *infraction/ must be release, on a citation- e?cept in li(ite, circu(stances. 1" the person to be cite, ,oes not ha.e a ,ri.er s license or other satis"actory e.i,ence o" i,enti"ication- the o""icer may (in lieu o" a custo,ial arrest- at the o""icer s ,iscretion) re@uire the arrestee to place a right thu(bprintor le"t thu(bprint or "ingerprint i" the person has a (issing or ,is"igure, right thu(b- on the pro(ise to appear. ((!C! #)3!)) See also (u4lic 8esources Code )1#2!11- "or the authority "or uni"or(e, e(ployees o" a ParFs an, Recreation District to issue (is,e(eanor an, in"raction citations "or .iolations o" state la0- city or county or,inances- or ,istrict rules- regulations- or or,inances 0hen the .iolation is co((itte, 0ithin a recreation "acility an, in the presence o" the e(ployee issuing the citation.
12#
Exceptions) +he e?ceptions to the re@uire(ent that the subCect be release, on his 0ritten pro(ise to appear 0hen arreste, "or an in"raction- as liste, in (!C! #)3!)+a,- are) As speci"ie, in 0!C! 43332- 43333- 4333) an, 4333)!) (see belo0): or +he arrestee re"uses to sign a 0ritten pro(ise to appear: or +he arrestee has no satis"actory i,enti"ication: or +he arrestee- 0ithout satis"actory i,enti"ication- re"uses to pro.i,e a thu(bprint or "ingerprint. Gecause the section is 0ritten in the ,isCuncti.e- it is the opinion o" the State Attorney Leneral that i" the person ,oes not ha.e satis"actory e.i,ence o" i,enti"ication- the o""icer has the ,iscretion to taFe the person into physical custo,y ,espite the "act that the person is 0illing to sign a 0ritten pro(ise to appear an, to pro.i,e a thu(bprint. (200$- Opn#Ca"#Att&#Gen2- ^0$%205) !""icers 0ere entitle, to su((ary Cu,g(ent on plainti"" s "alse arrest clai( "aile, because it 0as un,ispute, that plainti"" re"use, to sign a notice to appear- an, (!C! #3)!)+a, authori;e, plainti"" s arrest an, ,etention "or "ailing to sign the notice to appear. (A1ha $# Rosen1ren (&th Cir. 200#) 225 Be,.Appro?. $2&: 200# 4.S.App. 78T1S &&33: an unpublishe, ,ecision.) See United States $# %ota (&th Cir. 1&&3) &#2 B.2n, 13#30here it 0as hel, that a physical arrest o" a person co((itting a business license in"raction 0as a constitutional .iolation re@uiring the suppression o" e.i,ence) Yuestionable authority a"ter 9ir1inia $# %oore (200#) $$3 4.S. 153 6120 7.8,.2n, $$&9- hol,ing that booFing a suspect "or a non%booFable cri(inal .iolation is not a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (See * anctions for Violations-/ abo.e.) 0!C! 43332: Persons 0ho 0oul, other0ise be cite, an, release, "or a 0ehicle Code in"raction or (is,e(eanor shall be arreste, an, taFen i((e,iately be"ore a (agistrate 0hen the person) Bails to present his ,ri.er s license or other satis"actory e.i,ence o" his i,entity "or e?a(ination: or Re"uses to gi.e his 0ritten pro(ise to appear: or De(an,s an i((e,iate appearance be"ore a (agistrate: or 12&
1s charge, 0ith .iolating 0!C! 231)2 (i.e.- *dri!ing while under the influence./).
*;ther atisfactory E!idence of His 'dentity)/ +he arresting o""icer has the ,iscretion to ,eter(ine 0hat constitutes *other satisfactory e!idence of his identity-/ 0hen the subCect "ails to pro.i,e a ,ri.er s license as re@uire, by the section. ()eop"e $# %onroe (1&&3) 12 Cal.App.3th 1123- 11#2: )eop"e $# %c/a& (2002) 22 Cal.3th 501- 51&%52$.) Io0e.er- that ,iscretion is not unli(ite,. 1,enti"ication ,ocu(ents 0hich are an *effecti!e e@ui!alent/ are presumpti!ely (i.e.- in the absence o" contrary e.i,ence) su""icient. +his 0oul, inclu,e a Cali"ornia i,entity car, (issue, per 0!C! 13333) or any current 0ritten i,enti"ication 0hich contains at a (ini(u( a photograph an, ,escription o" the person na(e, on it- a current (ailing a,,ress- a signature o" the person- an, a serial or other i,enti"ying nu(ber. ()eop"e $# %onroe- supra- at p. 11#5.) +he o""icer is not legally obligate, to (aFe ra,io or other in@uires in an atte(pt to .eri"y the person s oral assertions o" i,entity. (Id.- at p. 11#&: )eop"e $# %c/a&- supra.) An o""icer s re"usal to accept oral state(ents as su""icient e.i,ence o" i,entity 0ill be uphel, on appeal. ()eop"e $# %c/a&- supra: )eop"e $# Grant (1&&0) 212 Cal.App.3r, 13$1- 13$$: see also )eop"e $# Anderson (1&5#) 255 Cal.App.2n, 12$- 12#.) An o""icer s re"usal to accept a Social Security car, uphel, on appeal. ()eop"e $# Far"e& (1&21) 20 Cal.App.3r, 10321035- "n. 2.) See &&( Code 2)223- ,escribing 0hat is consi,ere, to be Gbona fide e!idence of age/ "or purposes o" purchasing alcoholic be.erages) (1) A .ali, .ehicle operator s license containing the person s na(e- ,ate o" birth- physical ,escription an, picture. (2) A .ali, passport issue, by the 4nite, States or a "oreign go.ern(ent. (3) A .ali, (ilitary i,enti"ication car, that inclu,es a ,ate o" birth an, picture o" the person. 1#0
0!C! 43333: *rrestable ;ffenses) +his section lists 12 ,i""erent circu(stances in 0hich an arresting o""icer has the option o" either taFing a person *without unnecessary delay/ be"ore a (agistrateor releasing the person 0ith a 10%,ays 0ritten notice to appear) Uiolation o" 0!C! 13#)2 or 13#)3- relating to inCuring or ta(pering 0ith a .ehicle. Uiolation o" 0!C! 23133 or 23134- relating to recFless ,ri.ing. Uiolation o" 0!C! 2#33+a,- relating to "ailure to stop an, sub(it to an inspection or test o" a .ehicle s lights per 0!C! 2#34. Uiolation o" 0!C! 2#33+a,- relating to "ailure to stop an, sub(it to a braFe test. Uiolation o" 0!C! 2#33+a,- relating to "ailure to stop an, sub(it to a .ehicle inspection- (easure(ent- or 0eighingper 0!C! 2#32- or a re"usal to a,Cust the loa, or obtain a per(it- per 0!C! 2#33. Uiolation o" 0!C! 2#33+a,- relating to continuing to ,ri.e a"ter being la0"ully or,ere, not to ,ri.e by a (e(ber o" the Cali"ornia Iigh0ay Patrol "or .iolating the ,ri.er s hours o" ser.ice or ,ri.er s log regulations- per 0!C! 34)31+a,. Uiolation o" 0!C! 2#33+4,- +c, or +d,- relating to "ailure or re"usal to co(ply 0ith any la0"ul out%o"%ser.ice or,er. Uiolation o" 0!C! 23332 or 23333- relating to ,uties in the e.ent o" an acci,ent. Uiolation o" 0!C! 2313"- relating to participating in a spee, contest or e?hibition o" spee,. Uiolation o" 0!C! 14231, 14231!1, 14231!2, or 14231!)relating to ,ri.ing on a suspen,e, or re.oFe, license. Ehen the person arreste, has atte(pte, to e.a,e arrest. Uiolation o" 0!C! 23332- relating to persons upon .ehicular crossings. Uiolation o" 0!C! 2#13- relating to the re"usal to stop an, sub(it a .ehicle to an inspection o" its si;e- 0eight- an, e@uip(ent. Uiolation o" 0!C! 21421!)- relating to being "oun, on a "ree0ay 0ithin 23 hours o" being cite, "or sa(e- an, re"using to lea.e 0hen la0"ully or,ere, to ,o so by a peace o""icer a"ter ha.ing been in"or(e, that he is subCect to arrest. Uiolation o" 0!C! 2#33+a, relating to being "oun, on a bri,ge or o.erpass 0ithin 23 hours o" being cite, "or sa(e1#1
an, re"using to lea.e 0hen la0"ully or,ere, to ,o so by a peace o""icer pursuant to 0!C! 21"22- a"ter ha.ing been in"or(e, that he is subCect to arrest. Uiolation o" 0!C! 21233!)- relating to ri,ing a bicycle 0hile un,er the in"luence o" alcohol an,Nor ,rugs. Uiolation o" 0!C! 21221!)- relating to operating a (otori;e, scooter 0hile un,er the in"luence o" alcohol an,Nor ,rugs.
0!C! 12#31!)+e,) The #nlicensed Dri!er) *Jot0ithstan,ing (0!C!) Section 43333 or any other pro.ision o" la0- a peace o""icer (ay not ,etain or arrest a person solely on the belie" that the person is an unlicensed dri!er- unless the o""icer has reasonable cause to belie.e the person is un,er the age o" 15 years./ See *ingha) v. "ity o# Manhattan *each (9th Cir. 200/)
/29 1./rd 72/! amended and su(erseded on denial of rehearin. at /41 1./rd 9/92 arrest for dri)in. +ith an ex(ired dri)er,s license! in contra)ention of this statute! sub6ects the offendin. officer to federal ci)il liabilit*9
Yuestionable authority a"ter 9ir1inia $# %oore (200#) $$3 4.S. 153 6120 7.8,.2n, $$&9- hol,ing that booFing a suspect "or a non%booFable cri(inal .iolation is not a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (See * anctions for Violations-/ abo.e.) 0!C! 4333)) +on6Residents) A nonresident 0ho is arreste, "or any .iolation o" the 0ehicle Code an, 0ho "ails to pro.i,e satis"actory e.i,ence o" i,entity and an a,,ress 0ithin this State at 0hich he can be locate, may be taFen i((e,iately be"ore a (agistrate. 0!C! 4333)!)) Traffic *rrest $ail $ond &ertificate) Pro.isions "or the arresting o""icer to recei.e a guarantee, tra""ic arrest bail bon, certi"icate (0ith the re@uire(ents "or such a certi"icate liste,) 0hen a nonresi,ent ,ri.er o" a co((ercial .ehicle o" 2-000 poun,s or (ore (e?clu,ing house cars) is arreste, "or .iolating any pro.ision o" the 0ehicle Code an, "ails to pro.i,e satis"actory e.i,ence o" i,enti"ication and an a,,ress 0ithin the State at 0hich he can be locate,. (!C! #)3!2+i,) ,isdemeanor &itations) A person arreste, "or a misdemeanor (ust also be cite, (on a *misdemeanor citation form/) an, release, unless one o" the "ollo0ing statutory e?ceptions applies) 1#2
+he person is into?icate,. +he person re@uires (e,ical treat(ent. +he person 0as arreste, "or one or (ore o" the o""enses liste, in 0!C! 43332 or 43333 (see abo.e). +he person has outstan,ing 0arrants. +he person is unable to pro.i,e *satisfactory e!idence of identification/ (see abo.e). Prosecution 0oul, be Ceopar,i;e, by i((e,iate release. Reasonable liFelihoo, that the o""ense 0oul, continue or that persons or property 0oul, be i((inently en,angere, by the release o" the person. +he person ,e(an,s to be taFen be"ore a (agistrate or re"uses to sign the notice to appear. +here is reason to belie.e that the person 0oul, not appear on the citation. +he person 0as subCect to (!C! 1213!1. (!C! 1213!1 prohibits the release o" a person "or a speci"ie, cri(e on his or her o0n recogni;ance- or on bail in an a(ount that is either (ore or less than the a(ount that is containe, in the bail sche,ule "or that o""ense. +his inclu,es the "ollo0ing o""enses) Serious "elonies- per (!C! 11"2!1+c,. Uiolent "elonies- per (!C! 221!)+c,. Do(estic .iolence 0ith corporal inCury- per (!C! 213!). Eitness inti(i,ation- per (!C! 132!1+c,. Spousal rape- per (!C! 222. StalFing- per (!C! 242!". Belony cri(inal threats- per (!C! 422. Ois,e(eanor ,o(estic .iolence- per (!C! 243+e,+1,. Restraining or,er .iolations- per (!C! 213!2- i" the ,etaine, person (a,e threats to Fill or har(- engage, in .iolence against- or 0ent to the resi,ence or 0orFplace o"- the protecte, party.
1t is not unconstitutional to (aFe a custo,ial arrest (i.e.transporting to Cail or court) o" a person arreste, "or a (inor (is,e(eanor (At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista (2001) $32 4.S. 31# 613& 7.8,.2n, $3&9.)- or e.en "or a "ine%only1#3
in"raction. ()eop"e $# %c/a& (2002) 22 Cal.3th 501- 502: see also United States $# %cFadden (2n, Cir. 2001) 23# B.3r, 1&#- 203.) Cali"ornia s statutory pro.isions re@uire the release o" (is,e(eanor arrestees in (ost circu(stances. (e.g.- see (!C! #)3!), #)3!2, 0!C! 43333, 43)33) Io0e.er.iolation o" these statutory re@uire(ents is not a constitutional .iolation an,- there"ore- should not result in suppression o" any e.i,ence reco.ere, as a result o" such an arrest. ()eop"e $# %c/a&- supraat pp. 502%51&- a .iolation o" 0!C! 212)3!1 (ri,ing a bicycle in the 0rong ,irection): )eop"e $# Gome5 (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $31$3&- seat belt .iolation (0!C! 2131)+d,+1,)- citing At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista (2001) $32 4.S. 31# 613& 7.8,.2n, $3&9: )eop"e $# ennett (July 21- 2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th &02- &1#.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has recently a""ir(e, this principle) A .iolation by a police o""icer o" a state statutesuch statute li(iting the o""icer s right to (aFe a custo,ial arrest or a search- so long as not also in .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment- ,oes not result in the suppression o" the resulting e.i,ence unless (an,ate, by the ter(s o" the statute. Ehile a state is e(po0ere, to enact (ore restricti.e search an, sei;ure rules- .iolation o" those rules that are not also a Fourth Amendment .iolation- ,oes not in.oFe the Fourth Amendment.s e?clusionary rule. (9ir1inia $# %oore (200#) $$3 4.S. 153 6120 7.8,.2n, $$&9: )eop"e $# >inos (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 532- 5$3.) =ith an Existing =arrant of *rrest) (!C! #1#) A peace o""icer ser.ing upon a person a 0arrant o" arrest "or a (is,e(eanor o""ense un,er the 0ehicle Code or un,er any local or,inance relating to stopping- stan,ing- parFing- or operation o" a (otor .ehicle an, 0here no 0ritten pro(ise to appear has been "ile, an, the 0arrant states on its "ace that a citation (ay be use, in lieu o" physical arrest- (ay- instea, o" taFing the person be"ore a (agistrate- prepare a notice to appear an, release the person on his or her pro(ise to appear. 1n such a case1#3
issuing a citation is ,ee(e, to be co(pliance 0ith ,irections o" the 0arrant. +he o""icer shall en,orse on the 0arrant: *Section #1#- (enal Code- co(plie, 0ith-/ an, return the 0arrant to the (agistrate 0ho issue, it. (!C! #21!1) A person "or 0ho( an arrest 0arrant has been issue, "or a (is,e(eanor o""ense may be release, upon the issuance o" a citation- issue, per (!C! #)3!2 to #)3!#- in lieu o" physical arrest- unless one o" the "ollo0ing con,itions e?ists) +he (is,e(eanor cite, in the 0arrant in.ol.es .iolence. +he (is,e(eanor cite, in the 0arrant in.ol.es a "irear(. +he (is,e(eanor cite, in the 0arrant in.ol.es resisting arrest. +he (is,e(eanor cite, in the 0arrant in.ol.es gi.ing "alse in"or(ation to a peace o""icer. +he person arreste, is a ,anger to hi(sel" or hersel" or others ,ue to into?ication or being un,er the in"luence o" ,rugs or narcotics. +he person re@uires (e,ical e?a(ination or (e,ical care or 0as other0ise unable to care "or his or her o0n sa"ety. +he person has other ineligible charge, pen,ing against hi( or her. +here is reasonable liFelihoo, that the o""ense or o""enses 0oul, continue to resu(e- or that the sa"ety o" persons or property 0oul, be i((e,iately en,angere, by the release o" the person. +he person re"uses to sign the notice to appear. +he person cannot pro.i,e satis"actory e.i,ence o" personal i,enti"ication. +he 0arrant o" arrest in,icates that the person is not eligible to be release, on a citation.
Arrest -arrants)
Defined) A warrant of arrest is a 0ritten or,er- signe, by a (agistratean, generally ,irecte, to a peace o""icer- co((an,ing the arrest o" the ,e"en,ant. ((!C! #13- #14- W #1))
1#$
A 0arrant 0ill issue *if- and only if- the (agistrate is satis"ie, "ro( the co(plaint that the o""ense co(plaine, o" has been co((itte, an, that there is reasonable groun, to belie.e that the ,e"en,ant has co((itte, it- . . . ./ (Emphasis added: (!C! #13+a,) +he 0arrant (ust be supporte, by a s0orn state(ent (a,e in 0riting- re"lecting the probable cause "or the arrest. ((!C! #11+4,) Io0e.eran *administrati!e warrant-/ issue, pursuant to 1# !S!C! 4213+a, "or the retaFing o" an allege, parole .iolator- is not subCect to the oath or a""ir(ation re@uire(ent o" the Fourth Amendment. (United States $# Sherman (&th Cir. 2002) $02 B.3r, #5&: noting that the rule is to the contrary 0hen the 0arrant is "or a super.ise, release .iolation- per 1# !S!C! 3)#3+i,- as hel, by United States $# 9ar1as3Ama&a (&th Cir. 2003) 3#& B.3r, &01.) +he *complaint/ (ust be bacFe, by a "actual sho0ing (i.e.- a declaration or affida!it) re"lecting probable cause. (See )eop"e $# Sess"in (1&5#) 5# Cal.2n, 31#.) &ontent) An arrest 0arrant is ,irecte, to *any peace officer- or any public officer or employee authorized to ser!e process where the warrant is for a !iolation of a statute or ordinance which such person has the duty to enforce/ (8(phasis a,,e,)- an, states the "ollo0ing ((!C! #12)) +he cri(e- ,esignate, in general ter(s. +he ,e"en,ant s na(e- or- i" this is unFno0n- any na(e. (8.g.*John Doe./) +he ,ate an, ti(e o" issuance. Gail. +he city or county 0here it is issue,. +he ,uty o" the arresting o""icer to bring the ,e"en,ant be"ore the (agistrate. +he Cu,ge s signature. +he court.
;ther Types of *rrest =arrants) $ench =arrant) An arrest 0arrant "or a ,e"en,ant 0ho has been ,ischarge, on bail an, subse@uently "ails to appear in court. ((!C! "1" et se*!) 1#5
A bench 0arrant- issue, by a neutral an, ,etache, (agistrate upon a ,e"en,ant s "ailure to appear- is legal Custi"ication "or (aFing entry into a resi,ence in 0hich there is probable cause to belie.e the subCect o" the 0arrant is hi,ing- ,espite the "act that such a 0arrant is issue, 0ithout a "in,ing o" probable cause. (United States $# Gooch (&th Cir. 2002) $05 B.3r, 11$5.) Telephonic *rrest =arrant) An arrest 0arrant utili;ing telephonic co((unication bet0een the (agistrate an, the a""iant- an, "acsi(ile (i.e.- *fax/) trans(ission e@uip(ent or co(puter e%(ailto sen, the necessary ,ocu(ents to the (agistrate "or signature an, return o" the 0arrant to the a""iant. ((!C! #11+c,, +d,, +e, & +f,) See (!C! #11+f, "or the suggeste, 0arrant "or(at. *Rame& =arrant)/ A ter( o" art use, to ,escribe an arrest 0arrant issue, prior to the court "iling o" a cri(inal case against a speci"ic ,e"en,ant. (See )eop"e $# Rame& (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, 253.) +ote) !r,inarily- a prere@uisite to the issuance o" an arrest 0arrant is the "iling o" a co(plaint 0ith the (agistratecharging a "elony originally triable in the superior court o" the county- or 0here the co(plaint is presente, to a Cu,ge in a (is,e(eanor or in"raction case- charging an o""ense triable in that Cu,ge s court. Io0e.er- the "or(al "iling o" a 0ritten co(plaint is not a con,ition prece,ent to issuance o" an arrest 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Case (1&#0) 10$ Cal.App.3r, #25- #32.) 7ong appro.e, by case la0 ()eop"e $# Case, supra: an, )eop"e $# itta(er (1&#&) 3# Cal.3r, 1035- 1020%1022.)pre%"iling arrest 0arrants are no0 authori;e, by statute. ((!C! #11+a,) * *D+*, :ohn Doe/ =arrant) An arrest 0arrant (ust i,enti"y the subCect o" the subCect o" the 0arrant 0ith reasonable certainty. Describing the subCect o" an arrest 0arrant as (erely *John Doe/ 0ith a ,escription o" a particular DJA pro"ile is su""icient to (eet this constitutional re@uire(ent. (State o' -isconsin $# Da.ne& (2003) 2$3 Eis.2n, 33 6553 J.E.1n, 3559.) 1#2
+he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court is in agree(ent- hol,ing that a DJA pro"ile is an accurate- reliable- an, .ali, (etho, o" i,enti"ying a ,e"en,ant in an arrest 0arrant because it is particular in its ,escription. 1t neither .iolates the Fourth Amendment- Cali"ornia s statutes authori;ing arrest 0arrants (see (!C! #13- #1)- #)"- #23)- nor a ,e"en,ant s ,ue process rights. ()eop"e $# Ro.inson (2010) 32 Cal.3th 1103- 112&%1133.) +ecessity of an *rrest =arrant) Earrantless arrests- at least at any location other than 0ithin one s pri.ate ho(e or other area to 0hich the public ,oes not ha.e rea,y access (see belo0)- ha.e been hel, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court to be la0"ul- at least 0hen the o""ense is a "elony (0hether or not it occurre, in the o""icer s presence)- or "or any o""ense ("elony or (is,e(eanor) 0hich occurs in the o""icer s presence (see belo0). (United States $# -atson (1&25) 323 4.S. 311 635 7.8,.2n, $&#9.) Surroun,ing a barrica,e, suspect in his ho(e is in e""ect a 0arrantless arrest- Custi"ie, by the e?igent circu(stances. +he passage o" ti(e ,uring the ensuing stan,o"" ,oes not ,issipate that e?igency to 0here o""icers are e?pecte, to seeF the authori;ation o" a Cu,ge to taFe the suspect into physical custo,y. (Fisher $# Cit& o' San *ose (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, 105&: o.erruling its o0n prior hol,ing (at $0& B.3r, &$2) 0here it 0as hel, that "ailure to obtain an arrest 0arrant ,uring a 12 hour stan,o"" resulte, in an illegal arrest o" the barrica,e, suspect.) er!ice and Return) (elony arrest warrants (ay be e?ecute, anyti(e- any0here- ,ay or night. ((!C! #32+a,, #43) $ut see Stea1a"d $# United States (1&#1) 3$1 4.S. 203 65# 7.8,.2n, 3#9- belo0- (an,ating a search 0arrant to e?ecute an arrest 0arrant in a third party)s ho(e. ,isdemeanor arrest warrants (ay be ser.e, anyti(e- any0here,ay or night- except that 0hen the suspect is not in public but not alrea,y in custo,y (e.g.- in his resi,ence)- the 0arrant (ay not be ser.e, bet0een /.I.. p2m2 and 7I.. a2m2 unless the 0arrant is *endorsed/ "or *night ser!ice/ in 0hich case it (ay be ser.e, at any ti(e. ((!C! #43+4,) 1##
*+ight er!ice/ (ust be Custi"ie, in the 0arrant a""i,a.it,escribing the nee, to (aFe the arrest in other than the ,ayti(e. (See )eop"e $# /im."e (1&##) 33 Cal.3r, 3#0- 3&3: ,iscussing the nee, "or Custi"ying nightti(e ser.ice "or a search 0arrant.) Euery) 1" an o""icer is alrea,y la0"ully in the house- (ay a (is,e(eanor arrest 0arrant be e?ecute, ,espite the lacF o" a nightti(e en,orse(entM #n?nown. (!C! #43 itsel" ,oes not pro.i,e "or any such e?ception. Gut since this li(itation on arrests has been hel, to be statutory onlyan, not o" constitutional origins ()eop"e $# -hitted (1&25) 50 Cal.App.3r, $5&.)- no e.i,ence 0oul, be suppresse, any0ay- (aFing this @uestion (oot. +ecessity of Ha!ing a &opy of The *rrest =arrant) +he la0 conte(plates that 0hen an arrest is (a,e- the o""icer should ha.e a copy o" the 0arrant in his possession. ()eop"e $# Thomas (1&$2) 1$5 Cal.App.2n, 112- 120.) Io0e.er- it has been hel, that there is no .iolation e.en though he ,oes not. ((!C! #42: )eop"e $# %i""er (1&51) 1&3 Cal.App.2n, #3#- #3&.) Io0e.er- i" re@ueste,- the arrestee shall be sho0n a copy o" the 0arrant as soon as it is practicable to ,o so. ((!C! #42) Anoc? and +otice) +he *FnocF an, notice/ rules (see Search Earrants- belo0) apply as 0ell to the e?ecution o" an arrest 0arrant- an, "or 0arrantless arrests 0ithin a resi,ence. ((!C! #44.) +he rule that e.i,ence 0ill not be suppresse, as a result o" a FnocF an, notice .iolation- as ,ictate, by 0udson $# %ichi1an (2005) $32 4.S. $#5 615$ 7.8,.2n, $59 (a search 0arrant case.)- is applicable as 0ell as in a 0arrantless- yet la0"ul- arrest case- pursuant to (!C! #44. (In re Fran( S# (2005) 132 Cal.App.3th 13$.) Procedure *fter *rrest) Disposition of Prisoner) An o""icer (aFing an arrest in obe,ience to a 0arrant (ust procee, 0ith the arrestee as co((an,e, by the 0arrant- or as pro.i,e, by la0. ((!C! #4#) 1#&
'n6&ounty *rrest =arrants) 1" the o""ense is "or a "elony- an, the arrest occurs in the county in 0hich the 0arrant 0as issue,- the o""icer (aFing the arrest (ust taFe the ,e"en,ant be"ore the (agistrate 0ho issue, the 0arrant or so(e other (agistrate o" the sa(e county. ((!C! #21) +ote) 1n reality- an arrestee is typically taFen to Cail 0here he or she 0ill a0ait the a.ailability o" a (agistrate. ;ut6of6&ounty *rrest =arrants) 1" the ,e"en,ant is arreste, in another county on either a "elony ((!C! #21) or a (is,e(eanor ((!C! #22) 0arrant- the o""icer (ust- 0ithout unnecessary ,elay) 1n"or( the ,e"en,ant in 0riting o" his right to be taFen be"ore a (agistrate in that county: and Jote on the 0arrant that he has so in"or(e, ,e"en,ant: and 4pon being re@ueste, by the ,e"en,ant- taFe hi( be"ore a (agistrate in that county. +hat (agistrate is to a,(it the ,e"en,ant to the bail speci"ie, on the 0arrant- i" any. ((!C! #21- #22) 1" the o""ense is a (is,e(eanor- an, no bail is speci"ie, on the 0arrant- the (agistrate (ay set the bail. ((!C! #22) 1" the ,e"en,ant ,oes not bail out "or any reason- la0 en"orce(ent o""icers "ro( the county 0here the 0arrant 0as issue, ha.e "i.e ($) ,ays (or "i.e ($) court days i" the o""ense is a "elony an, the la0 en"orce(ent agency is (ore than 300 (iles "ro( the county 0here the ,e"en,ant is being hel,) to taFe custo,y o" the ,e"en,ant. ((!C! #21, #22) (See 52 Op#Ca"#Att&#Gen. 2#- 2%15%2&)
1&0
+ote9
-here are no similar statutor* re=uirements for an out5of5count* arrest made without an arrest +arrant (i.e.! a 7(robable cause3 arrest).
+ote) *rrests without a =arrant: (!C! #4"+a,) An o""icer (or pri.ate person) (aFing an arrest without a warrant shall- 0ithout unnecessary ,elay- taFe the prisoner not other0ise release, be"ore the nearest or (ost accessible (agistrate in the county in 0hich the o""ense is triablean, a co(plaint stating the charge against the arreste, person shall be lai, be"ore such (agistrate. +ecessity of Ha!ing Probable &ause or Reasonable uspicion) 4ntil recently- it has been hel, that be"ore a police o""icer (ay enter a ho(e- absent consent to enter- the o""icer (ust ha.e *probable cause/ to belie.e the person 0ho is the subCect o" the arrest 0arrant is actually insi,e at the ti(e. (See )eop"e $# *aco.s (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, 322: United States $# Gorman (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 110$: United States $# Dia5 (&th Cir. 2002) 3&1 B.3r, 1023: United States $# )hi""ips (&th Cir. 1&23) 3&2 B.2n, 1131: (United States $# Gooch (&th Cir. 2002) $05 B.3r, 11$5- 11$&- "n. 2: Cue$as $# De Roco (&th Cir. 200#) $31 B.3r, 225: United States $# %a&er (&th Cir. 200#) $30 B.3r, 10&&- 11%3%1103.) *1t is not ,ispute, that until the point o" GuieDs arrest the police ha, the right- base, on the authority o" the arrest 0arrant- to search any0here in the house that Guie (ight ha.e been "oun,- . . ./ (%ar&"and $# uie (1&&0) 3&3 4.S. 32$- 330 610# 7.8,.2n, 225- 2#39.) An arrest 0arrant constitutes legal authority to enter the suspect s resi,ence an, search "or hi(. ()eop"e $# 2e "anc (1&&2) 50 Cal.App.3th 1$2- 153.) *Gecause an arrest 0arrant authori;es the police to ,epri.e a person o" his liberty- it necessarily also authori;es a li(ite, in.asion o" that personDs pri.acy interest 0hen it is necessary to arrest hi( in his ho(e./ (Stea1a"d $# United States (1&#1) 3$1 4.S. 203- 213%21$- "n. 2 65# 7.8,.2n, 3#359.) *+hus- "or Fourth Amendment purposes- an arrest 0arrant "oun,e, on probable cause i(plicitly carries 0ith it the li(ite, authority to enter a ,0elling in 0hich the suspect 1&1
li.es 0hen there is reason to belie!e the suspect is 0ithin./ (1talics a,,e,: )a&ton $# Ne, Yor( (1&#0) 33$ 4.S. $23503 653 7.8,.2n, 53&- 5519.) +his *reason to belie!e/ language- in (aFing re"erence to the liFelihoo, that the subCect is ho(e at the ti(e the arrest 0arrant is ser.e,- has until recently been interprete, by both state an, "e,eral authority to re@uire "ull%blo0n *probable cause/ to belie.e the suspect is there at that ti(e. (See )eop"e $# *aco.s- supra: United States $# Gorman- supra: an, United States $# )hi""ips- supra: see * ufficiency of E!idence to $elie!e the uspect is 'nside-/ belo0.) Joting that "i.e other "e,eral circuits ha.e rule, that so(ething less than probable cause is re@uire,- an, that the Jinth Circuit is a (inority opinion (see United States $# Gorman- supra.)- the Bourth District Court o" Appeal (Di.. 2) "oun, instea, that an o""icer e?ecuting an arrest 0arrant or con,ucting a probation or parole search (ay enter a ,0elling i" he or she has only a reasonable belief- "alling short o" probable cause to belie.e- the suspect both li.es there an, is present at the ti(e. 8(ploying that stan,ar,the entry into ,e"en,ant s apart(ent to con,uct a probation search 0as la0"ul base, on all o" the in"or(ation Fno0n to the o""icers. Accor,ingly- the court uphel, the trial court s conclusion that the o""icers ha, obCecti.ely reasonable groun,s to conclu,e the ,e"en,antNprobationer li.e, at the subCect apart(ent- an, there"ore the o""icers ha, the right to enter the apart(ent to con,uct a 0arrantless probation search. ()eop"e $# Do,ne& (2011) 1&# Cal.App.3th 5$25$2%552.) Also noting that the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court- in )eop"e $# *aco.s- supra- 0hen rea, correctly (see pg. 32&- "n. 3)- ,i, not "in, that probable cause 0as re@uire,- contrary to popular belie". (Id.- at p. 552.) See * ufficiency of E!idence that the uspect is 'nside-/ belo0. The *Stea1a"d =arrant)/ 1" the person is in a third party)s homeabsent consent to enter- a search warrant "or the resi,ence (ust be obtaine, in a,,ition to the arrest 0arrant. (Stea1a"d $# United States- supraat pp. 211%222 65# 7.8,.2n, at pp. 3$%$29: )eop"e $# Codinha (1&#2) 13# Cal.App.3r, 152: see (!C! 1)24+a,+2,.) 1&2
+ote) Securing such a search 0arrant 0ill- o" coursere@uire *probable cause/ to belie.e that the subCect o" the arrest 0arrant is in the place to be searche,. tatute of "imitations) !btaining an arrest 0arrant 0ill *toll/ (i.e.*stop/) the running o" the statute o" li(itations "or the charge, o""ense(s). ((!C! #33- #34: )eop"e $# 2ee (2000) #2 Cal.App.3th 13$2.) Expiration) +here is no statutory re@uire(ent that an arrest 0arrant be e?ecute, 0ithin any particular ti(e li(its. +here"orearrest 0arrants ,o not e?pire- an, ,o not nee, to be rene0e, or e?ten,e,. +hey 0ill re(ain in the syste( until purge,- ser.e,- or recalle, by the court. Effect of an *rrest =arrant on the Exclusion of E!idence after an 'llegal Detention) +he "act that the ,e"en,ant ha, an outstan,ing arrest 0arrant (ay,epen,ing upon the circu(stances- be su""icient o" an inter.ening circu(stance to allo0 "or the a,(issibility o" the e.i,ence sei;e, inci,ent to arrest ,espite the "act that the original ,etention 0as illegal. ()eop"e $# rend"in (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 252: an illegal tra""ic stop.) +he circu(stances to be consi,ere, are) +he te(poral pro?i(ity o" the Fourth Amendment .iolation to the procure(ent o" the challenge, e.i,ence: +he presence o" inter.ening circu(stances (e.g.- an arrest 0arrant): +he "lagrancy o" the o""icial (iscon,uct. (Id.- at pp. 25&%222: citing ro,n $# I""inois (1&2$) 322 4.S. $&0 63$ 7.8,.2n, 3159.) * Defecti!e *rrest =arrant) Arresting a subCect 0ith the goo, "aith belie" that there 0as an outstan,ing arrest 0arrant- only to ,isco.er a"ter the "act that the arrest 0arrant ha, been recalle,- ,oes not re@uire the suppression o" any resulting e.i,ence 0here the (istaFe is the result o" 1&3
negligence onlyan, 0as not recFless or ,eliberate. (0errin1 $# United States (200&) $$$ 4.S. 13$ 6122 7.8,.2n, 3&59.) 1" o""icers (aFing an arrest ha.e probable cause to arrest hi( an, the arrest is other0ise la0"ul (e.g.- in public)- then it is irrele.ant 0hether the arrest 0arrant is in.ali,. (United States $# *ennin1s (&th Cir. 200#) $1$ B.3r, &#0- &#$.) Statutor& 2imitations) Daytime and +ighttime *rrests ((!C! #43)) (elony *rrests) An arrest "or the co((ission o" a "elony (ay be (a,e) =ithout an *rrest =arrant) Any ti(e o" the ,ay or nightin any public place or 0hile alrea,y in custo,y on another charge- 0hether or not the o""ense occurre, in the o""icer s presence. ((!C! #32+a,+2,) Exception) A police o""icer cannot (aFe a 0arrantless arrest 0ithin the subCect s o0n ho(e ()eop"e $# Rame& (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, 253- 225: )a&ton $# Ne, Yor( (1&#0) 33$ 4.S $23 653 7.8,.2n, 53&9.)- or the ho(e o" another person (Stea1a"d $# United States (1&#1) 3$1 4.S. 203 65# 7.8,.2n, 3#.9: see belo0.)- absent an e?ception. Exception to Exception) Ehen the o""icer is alrea,y an,Nor other0ise la0"ully in the ho(e- e?igent circu(stances e?ist- or ,e"en,ant is stan,ing in the threshol,. (See e?a(ples- belo0.) =ith an *rrest =arrant) Any ti(e o" the ,ay or nightin any place- inclu,ing the subCect s o0n ho(e. ((!C! #32+a,)) Exception K/) Cannot (aFe a "elony 0arrant arrest 0ithin a thir, person s ho(e- unless the o""icer also "irst obtains a search 0arrant "or the thir, person s ho(e (See Stea1a"d $# United States, supra- an, belo02) or is alrea,y an, other0ise la0"ully in the thir, person s ho(e.
1&3
Exception K-) Pri.ate persons (ay not ser.e arrest 0arrants. ((!C! #13- #12) ,isdemeanor Land 'nfraction0 *rrests) =ithout an *rrest =arrant) Any ti(e o" the ,ay or nightin any public place or 0hile alrea,y in custo,y. ((!C! #32+a,+1,) Exception K/) Cannot (aFe a 0arrantless arrest 0ithin the subCect s o0n ho(e ()eop"e $# Rame&2 upra) )a&ton $# Ne, Yor(, supra.)- or the ho(e o" another person (Stea1a"d $# Ne, Yor(- supra- an, belo0.)- absent an e?ception. Exception to Exception) Ois,e(eanor or in"raction co((itte, in the o""icer s presence or the presence o" a pri.ate citi;en (in the case o" a pri.ate person s arrest)0hile alrea,y an,Nor other0ise la0"ully in the ho(e. ()eop"e $# Gra$es (1&5#) 253 Cal.App.2n, 21&: see also e?a(ples- belo0un,er *&ase "aw "imitations-/ HRame&./) Euery) 1" an o""icer is alrea,y la0"ully in the house- (ay a (is,e(eanor arrest 0arrant be e?ecute, ,espite the lacF o" a nightti(e en,orse(entM 4nFno0n. (!C! #43 itsel" ,oes not pro.i,e "or any such e?ception. Gut since this li(itation on arrests has been hel, to be statutory onlyan, not o" constitutional origins ()eop"e $# -hitted (1&25) 50 Cal.App.3r, $5&.)- no e.i,ence 0ill be suppresse, any0ay(aFing this @uestion (oot. Exception K-) Cannot (aFe a 0arrantless arrest "or a (is,e(eanor or in"raction not co((itte, in the o""icer s presence- or the presence o" the pri.ate person (in the case o" a pri.ate person s arrest). Gut see e?ceptions- abo.e. Exception K8) Cannot (aFe a 0arrantless arrest "or a *stale misdemeanor (or infraction)./ (*ac(son $# 1&$
Superior Court (1&$0) &# Cal.App.2n, 1#3- 1#2: see abo.e.) =ith an *rrest =arrant) Any ti(e o" the ,ay or nightin any place- inclu,ing the subCect s o0n ho(e. ((!C! #32+a,) Exception K/) Cannot (aFe a (is,e(eanor 0arrant arrest at night 0ithin the subCect s ho(e unless the 0arrant is *endorsed for night ser!ice/ by a Cu,ge. ((!C! #43+4,) (See abo.e) *+ighttime/ "or purposes o" an arrest 0arrant is 10)00 p.(. to 5)00 a.(. +he nee, "or a nightti(e en,orse(ent (ust be Custi"ie, be"ore a Cu,ge 0ill appro.e it: i.e.- 0hy ,oes this ,e"en,ant nee, to be arreste, at nightM (See )eop"e $# /im."e (1&##) 33 Cal.3r, 3#0- 3&3: ,iscussing the nee, "or Custi"ying nightti(e ser.ice "or a search 0arrant.) Exception K-) Cannot (aFe a (is,e(eanor 0arrant arrest 0ithin a thir, person s ho(e- unless the o""icer also "irst obtains a search 0arrant "or the thir, person s ho(e (See Stea1a"d $# United States, supra2) or is alrea,y an, other0ise la0"ully in the thir, person s ho(e. Exception K8) Pri.ate citi;ens (ay not ser.e arrest 0arrants. ((!C! #13- #12) )ena" Code B CD6) Victim and =itness &onfidential 'nformation) Re@uires the establish(ent o" proce,ures to protect the con"i,entiality o" *confidential personal information/ o" .icti(s an, 0itnesses. +he section is ,irecte, pri(arily at prosecutors an, the courts- but also contains a pro.ision "or ,ocu(ents "ile, by la0 en"orce(ent 0ith a court in support o" search an, arrest 0arrants: i.e.- an affida!it. Su4d! +4,) *&onfidential personal information/ inclu,es- but is not limited to- a,,resses- telephone nu(bers- ,ri.er s license an, Cali"ornia i,enti"ication car, nu(bers- social security nu(bers,ate o" birth- place o" e(ploy(ent- e(ployee i,enti"ication nu(bers- (other s (ai,en na(e- ,e(an, ,eposit account 1&5
nu(bers- sa.ings or checFing account nu(bers- an, cre,it car, nu(bers. "i!e "ineups) An e? parte court or,er re@uiring an un%charge, cri(inal suspect to sub(it to a li.e lineup- e.en though there is probable cause to arrest the subCect- is unen"orceable. +here is no statutory proce,ure "or acco(plishing such a proce,ure. (Good,in $# Superior Court (2001) &0 Cal.App.3th 21$.) Case 2a, 2imitations) Rame&: =ithin ;ne)s ;wn Residence) Earrantless arrests 0ithin a pri.ate resi,ence are restricte, because o" the constitutional right to pri.acy interests a person- e.en cri(inal suspects- ha.e 0ithin their o0n ho(e. (See belo0) <eneral Rule) Arrests in one s ho(e "or a "elony or (is,e(eanor (ay only be (a,e 0ith prior Cu,icial authori;ation in the "or( o" an arrest 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Rame& (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, 253- 225: )a&ton $# Ne, Yor( (1&#0) 33$ 4.S. $23 653 7.8,.2n, 53&9.) Police o""icers nee, either (1) an arrest 0arrant or (2) probable an, e?igent circu(stances to la0"ully enter a person s ho(e to arrest its occupant. (/ir( $# 2ouisiana (2002) $35 4.S. 53$ 61$3 7.8,.2n, $&&9.) Io0e.er- surroun,ing a barrica,e, suspect in his ho(e is in e""ect a 0arrantless arrest- Custi"ie, by the e?igent circu(stances. +he passage o" ti(e ,uring the ensuing stan,o"" ,oes not ,issipate that e?igency to 0here o""icers are e?pecte, to seeF the authori;ation o" a Cu,ge to taFe the suspect into physical custo,y. (Fisher $# Cit& o' San *ose (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, 105&: o.erruling its prior hol,ing (at $0& B.3r, &$2) 0here it 0as rule, that "ailure to obtain an arrest 0arrant ,uring a 12%hour stan,o"" resulte, in an illegal arrest o" the barrica,e, suspect.) Exceptions) +here are nu(erous exceptions to this rule) &onsent) Ehen the occupant o" a house consents to the police o""icers entry o" his or her ho(e. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6/enner7 (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, 5$- 5#: )eop"e $# )eterson (1&2#) #$ Cal.App.3r, 153- 121: see also )eop"e $# Rame&- supraat p. 22$: an, )a&ton $# Ne, 1&2
Yor(- supraat p. $#3 653 7.8,.2n, at p. 53&9: an, )eop"e $# Ne,ton (1&#0) 102 Cal.App.3r, $5#- $2#.) Gut- *an allege, consenter (ust be a0are o" the purpose o" the re@ueste, entry an, a consent obtaine, tricFery or subter"uge ren,ers a subse@uent search an, sei;ure in.ali,./ ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6/enner7- supra.- at p. 5&: (erely asFing "or per(ission to enter *to talF to/ the suspect ,oes not Custi"y the 0arrantless entry an, arrest: see also In re *ohnn& 9# (1&2#) #$ Cal.App.3r, 120- 132.) Per(ission to enter nee, not be an e?press consent. AsFing the ho(eo0ner "or ,e"en,ant an, "or per(ission to *co(e in an, looF aroun,/ 0hen it 0as ,enie, that he 0as present 0as reasonably interprete, by the police as consent to enter to "in, ,e"en,ant "or any purpose that they ,esire,inclu,ing arrest. ()eop"e $# Ne,ton- supra.) Bor the o""icers to .ali,ly rely upon consent- they (ust reasonably an, in goo, "aith belie.e that the person gi.ing consent ha, the authority to consent to their entry into the resi,ence. ()eop"e $# Escudero (1&2&) 23 Cal.3r, #00- #05.) #nderco!er Entries) Consent obtaine, by o""icers 0orFing un,erco.er- "or the purpose o" continuing an in.estigation- is .ali,. 1t is the *intrusion into-/ not the arrest 0hile insi,e- 0hich o""en,s the constitutional stan,ar,s un,er Rame&. Arresting the ,e"en,ant a"ter ha.ing gaine, la0"ul entry is not a Rame& .iolation. ()eop"e $# E$ans (1&#0) 10# Cal.App.3r, 1&3- 1&5.) *+he Fourth Amendment ,oes not protect Aa 0rong,oer s (isplace, belie" that a person 0ho( he .oluntarily con"i,es his 0rong,oing 0ill not re.eal it. / (Tou.us $# Superior Court (1&#1) 113 Cal.App.3r, 32#3#3.) An, Cust because the un,erco.er o""icer has (o(entarily le"t the resi,ence- such action "ollo0e, i((e,iately by the reentry o" the arresting o""icers- ,oes not .iolate Rame& or 1&#
)a&ton. ()eop"e $# Cespedes (1&#2) 1&1 Cal.App.3r, 25#.) Gut the reentry (ust be si(ultaneous 0ithor i((e,iately a"ter- the un,erco.er o""icer s e?it. ()eop"e $# E""ers (1&#0) 10# Cal.App.3r, &33: arrest unla0"ul 0hen a"ter the *buy-/ ,uring an un,erco.er narcotics in.estigation- the police ,ro.e to a parFing lot one (ile a0ay- spent ten to t0enty (inutes "or(ulating a plan to arrest the ,e"en,ant- an, then returne, an, reentere, the house to (aFe the arrest.) 8.i,ence obser.e, in plain .ie0 by o""icers entering a resi,ence 0ith the suspect s consent an, 0ith e?igent circu(stances- 0hile the o""icers ,i, a protecti.e s0eep an, checF "or .icti(s o" a shooting- Custi"ie, a later 0arrantless entry to sei;e an, process that e.i,ence so long as the police ,i, not gi.e up control o" the pre(ises. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Chapman7 (2012) 203 Cal.App.3th 1003- 1013%1021: o""icers le"t one o""icer insi,e to secure the scene an, the ,ecease, .icti( 0hile a0aiting in.estigators- cri(inologists- an, the coroner.) Exigent circumstances) *A(A) 0arrantless intrusion (ay be Custi"ie, by hot pursuit o" a "leeing "elon- or imminent destruction o" e.i,ence 6citation9- or the nee, to pre.ent a suspect s escape- or the ris? of danger to the police or to other persons insi,e or outsi,e the ,0elling. 6citations9/ (1talics a,,e,: %innesota $# O"son (1&&0) 3&$ 4.S. &1- 100 610& 7.8,.2n, #$- &$9.) 8?a(ples) A 0arrantless entry into ,e"en,ant s resi,ence base, upon 0itness in"or(ation that ,e"en,ant- an ar(e, robber- ha, entere, the ho(e (inutes earlier0as la0"ul. (-arden, %ar&"and )enitentiar& $# 0a&den (1&52) 3#2 4.S. 2&3 61# 7.8,.2n, 2#29.) Ehere ,e"en,ant- the suspect in an ongoing ,rug transaction- ha, been stan,ing in the ,oor0ay 0ith a bro0n paper bag in her han,- retreate, into the .estibule o" her ho(e as police o""icers pulle, up to her house shouting *police-/ "ollo0ing her into the 1&&
house 0as la0"ul. (United States $# Santana (1&25) 322 4.S. 3# 63& 7.8,.2n, 3009.) *(resh or Hot Pursuit-/ or at the en, o" a *substantially continuous in!estigation)/ A continuous in.estigation "ro( cri(e to arrest o" the subCect in his ho(e- 0ithin a li(ite, ti(e perio, (e.g.- 0ithin hours)- an, 0ithout an opportunity to stop an, obtain an arrest 0arrant- is *fresh pursuit./ 1t is not necessary that the suspect be physically in .ie0 ,uring the *pursuit./ ()eop"e $# Escudero (1&2&) 23 Cal.3r, #00- #0&%#10: In re 2a$o&ne %# (1&&0) 221 Cal.App.3r, 1$3: )eop"e $# Gi".ert (1&5$) 53 Cal.2n, 5&0: United States $# *ohnson (&th Cir. 2000) 202 B.3r, $3#.) Ehere there 0as a t0o an, a hal" hour in.estigation bet0een a robbery%(ur,er an, the location o" the ,e"en,ant s ho(e- the o""icers 0ere "oun, to be in *fresh pursuit-/ Custi"ying a 0arrantless entry to looF "or the suspect. ()eop"e $# Gi".ert (1&5$) 53 Cal.2n, 5&0- 205.) Ehen o""icers contact a rape .icti( hal" a blocF "ro( the cri(e scene- less than an hour a"ter the rape ()eop"e $# -hite (1&#5) 1#3 Cal.App.3r 11&&1203%1203.)- or i((e,iately across the street (inutes a"ter she escape, "ro( the sleeping suspect ()eop"e $# /i"patric( (1&#0) 10$ Cal.App.3r, 30130&%311.)- it is *fresh pursuit/ 0hen the o""icers go to the respecti.e suspects ho(es- (aFe a 0arrantless entry- an, arrest the suspects. +his 0as "oun, to be necessary to pre.ent the escape o" the suspect an, the ,estruction o" e.i,ence. +racing an ar(e, robbery suspect by the .ehicle ,escription an, license nu(ber to a particular resi,ence- Custi"ies a 0arrantless entry. ()eop"e $# Dau1hhetee (1&#$) 15$ Cal.App.3r, $23.) +he entry an, securing o" a ho(e pen,ing the obtaining o" a search 0arrant- i((e,iately "ollo0ing a gang shooting- 0as Custi"ie, 0hen it 0as belie.e, that a secon, shooter an, the "irear(s use, 0ere liFely in the house. (In re E"i5a.eth G# (2001) ## Cal.App.3th 3&5.) 200
Presence o" an ar(e, suspect- 0ho ha, co((itte, a .icious (ur,er 0ho 0as liFely to "lee- 0ith the possibility that ,e"en,ant 0oul, ,ispose o" e.i,ence: 0arrantless entry an, arrest 0as la0"ul. ()eop"e $# -i""iams (1&#&) 3# Cal.3r, 1112- 113#% 113&.) A strong reason to belie.e that ,e"en,ant 0as the Filler in the (ur,er o" t0o (en- that he 0as probably ar(e, an, at a particular apart(ent- an, that he 0as liFely to "lee i" not i((e,iately arreste,- Custi"ie, the 0arrantless entry. ()eop"e $# aci1a"upo (1&&1) 1 Cal.3th 103- 122%123.) !""icers (ay e.en pursue a person into his ho(e upon atte(pting to cite hi( "or an in"raction 0here the suspect "lees into his ho(e. +he ,e"en,ant s resistance con.erts the o""ense into a (is,e(eanor *resisting arrest/ (i.e.- (!C! 14#+a,)- an, allo0s "or a *hot pursuit/ into the suspect s house to arrest hi( on that charge. ()eop"e $# 2"o&d (1&#&) 215 Cal.App.3r, 132$: citing United States $# Santana (1&25) 322 4.S. 3#- 32%33 63& 7.8,.2n" 3009.) Gut see United States $# *ohnson (&th Cir. 2001) 2$5 B.3r, #&$- &0#- "n. 5: an, Sims $# Stanton (&th Cir. Jan. 15- 2013) >> B.3r, >> 62013 4.S. App. 78T1S 10$29- 0here it 0as held that Hhot pursuit/ ,oes not allo0 "or the chasing o" a suspect into a pri.ate resi,ence e?cept 0here the un,erlying o""ense is a "elony- or in other i,enti"ie, *rare circu(stances./ Ia.ing use, a tracFing ,e.ice to "ollo0 ,e"en,ants 0ith stolen stereo speaFers to a particular house- the i((e,iate 0arrantless entry an, search 0as Custi"ie, by the reasonable "ear that ,e"en,ants 0oul, ,isasse(ble- ,estroy or hi,e the speaFersan, 0ash o"" i,enti"ying "luorescent po0,er i" they 0aite, "or a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# 0u"" (1&&$) 33 Cal.App.3th 133#- 13$$.) Earrantless entry to arrest a D41 (i.e.- *Dri!ing while #nder the 'nfluence/) suspect) 201
'llegal) -e"sh $# -isconsin (1&#3) 355 4.S. 230 6#0 7.8,.2n, 2329- 0here the state treate, a person s "irst D41 o""ense as a non% cri(inal o""ense- subCecting the suspect to ci.il "or"eiture only. "egal) )eop"e $# 0ampton (1&#$) 153 Cal.App.3r, 22- 33- 0here a 0arrantless entry 0as uphel, to pre.ent the ,estruction o" e.i,ence (the bloo,Nalcohol le.el) an, there 0as reason to belie.e ,e"en,ant inten,e, to resu(e ,ri.ing. -e"sh can be ,istinguishe, by the si(ple "act that Cali"ornia treats D41 cases as serious (is,e(eanors. "egal) 8ntering a house 0ithout consent or a 0arrant to taFe a suspecte, D41 ,ri.er into custo,y an, to re(o.e hi( "ro( the house "or i,enti"ication an, arrest by a pri.ate citi;en 0ho sa0 ,e"en,ant s ,ri.ing- hel, to be legal. +he "act that the ,e"en,ant s bloo,Nalcohol le.el (ight ,issipate to so(e ,egree pen,ing the obtaining o" a telephonic arrest 0arrant- plus the "act that the suspect (ight lea.e an, ,ri.e again- 0as su""icient cause to establish an e?igent circu(stance. ()eop"e $# Thompson (2005) 3# Cal.3th #11.) +ote) +he Court ,i""erentiate, on its "acts -e"sh $ -isconsin (1&#3) 355 4.S. 230 6#0 7.8,.2n, 2329- 0here it 0as hel, that a "irst ti(e D41- being no (ore than a ci.il o""ense 0ith a [200 "ine un,er Eisconsin la0- 0as not aggra.ate, enough to allo0 "or a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence to arrest the perpetrator. +he cut o"" bet0een a (inor an, a serious o""ense see(s to be 0hether or not the o""ense is one "or 0hich incarceration is a potential punish(ent. ()eop"e $# Thompsonsupra- at pp. #21%#23- citing I""inois 202
$# %cArthur (2001) $31 4.S. 325335- 332 613# 7.8,.2n, #3#9: an, noting (at pp. #22%#23) that the Jinth Circuit s opinion on this issue is a (inority opinion.) 'llegal) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appealarguing the continuing .ali,ity o"- -e"shhel, that Cali"ornia s interpretation un,er Thompson is 0rong- an, that a 0arrantless entry into a ho(e to arrest a (is,e(eanor ,ri.ingS0hile%un,er%the%in"luence suspect is a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (0op(ins $# on$icino (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 2$225#%25&: "in,ing that 0arrantless entries into resi,ences in (is,e(eanor cases *0ill sel,o(- i" e.er- Custi"y a 0arrantless entry into the ho(e./) 8ntering a resi,ence 0ith probable cause to belie.e only that the non%booFable o""ense o" possession o" less than an ounce o" (ariCuana is occurring (F&S 113)1+4,)- is closer to the -e"sh situation- being a *nonCailable o""ense-/ an, a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment 0hen entry is (a,e 0ithout consent. ()eop"e $# 0ua (200#) 1$# Cal.App.3th 1022: )eop"e $# Torres et a"! (2012) 20$ Cal.App.3th &#&- &&3%&&#.) +he Torres Court also reCecte, as *speculation/ the People s argu(ent that there being "our people in the ,e"en,ants hotel roo( in,icte, that a *(ariCuana% s(oFing party/ 0as occurring- 0hich probably in.ol.e, a booFable a(ount o" (ariCuana. ()eop"e $# Torres et a"!- supraat p. &&5.) 8ntering the curtilage o" a ho(e in pursuit o" a suspect 0ith the intent to ,etain hi( 0hen the subCect is ignoring the o""icer s ,e(an,s to stopat 0orst a (is,e(eanor .iolation o" (!C! 14#)- is illegal. +he 0arrantless "resh or hot pursuit o" a "leeing suspect into a resi,ence (or the curtilage o" a resi,ence) is li(ite, to "elony suspects only. (Sims 203
$# Stanton (&th Cir. Jan. 15- 2013) >> B.3r, >> 62013 4.S. App. 78T1S 10$2920 +his decision is based upon the +inth &ircuit)s interpretation of the #nited tates upreme &ourt decision in -e"sh $ -isconsin (1&#3) 355 4.S. 230 6#0 7.8,.2n, 2329- an, con"licts 0ith the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court s reasoning in )eop"e $# Thompson (2005) 3# Cal.3th #11 (see *Earrantless entry to arrest a D41 (i.e.*Dri!ing while #nder the 'nfluence/) suspect-/ abo.e). +ote) +he issue is 0hether a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence in pursuit o" a "leeing suspect is unla0"ul 0hen the suspecte, o""ense is any (is,e(eanor or less (Jinth Circuit s rule)- or "or non%booFable in"ractions only (Cali"ornia rule). A reasonable belie" in the i((inent threat to li"e or the 0el"are o" a person 0ithin the ho(e- 0ith probable cause to belie.e a (issing person 0as insi,e- an, a reasonable belie" that the person insi,e nee,e, ai,- Custi"ie, a 0arrantless entry. ()eop"e $# Coddin1ton (2000) 23 Cal.3th $2&- $#0.) Exigent &ircumstances- Custi"ying a 0arrantless resi,ential arrest- inclu,e an e.aluation o" the "ollo0ing circu(stances) +he gra.ity o" the o""ense: Ehether the suspect is reasonably belie.e, to be ar(e,: Ehether probable cause is clear: Ehether the suspect is liFely to be "oun, on the pre(ises: an, +he liFelihoo, that the suspect 0ill escape i" not pro(ptly arreste,. ()eop"e $# -i""iams (1&#&) 3# Cal.3r, 1112113#%113&.)
203
!""icers are already lawfully inside 0hen probable cause ,e.elops. ()eop"e $# Rame&- supra: )eop"e $# D&(e (1&&0) 223 Cal.App.3r, 53#- 5$2%5$&- 551.) ee United States $# ro.st (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, &#2- &&2: an, )eop"e $# %cCarter (1&#1) 112 Cal.App.3r, #&3- &0#: both cases 0ith o""icers insi,e e?ecuting search 0arrants.
De"en,ant is standing in the threshold) Case la0 has consistently hel, that an arrest 0ithout a 0arrant- either outsi,e or e!en with the suspect standing in the threshold o" his o0n ho(e- is la0"ul. Bor e?a(ple) A 0arrantless arrest at the threshol, o" ,e"en,ant s (otel roo(- 0here ,e"en,ant opene, the ,oor in response to the o""icers FnocF an, a"ter ha.ing looFe, outsi,e an, seeing the o""icers stan,ing at the ,oor- is la0"ul. )a&ton ,ra0s a *bright line/ at the threshol,. So long as the o""icers ,i, not (isi,enti"y the(sel.es or use coercion to get ,e"en,ant to open the ,oor- an, ,e"en,ant ac@uiesce, in the proce,ure- he is subCect to a 0arrantless arrest. +he "act that ,e"en,ant 0as physically insi,e the ,oor is also irrele.ant so long as the o""icers are outsi,e at the ti(e the arrest is (a,e. (United States $# 9aneaton (&th Cir. 1&&$) 3& B.3r, 1323- 1325%1322) Ehere o""icers use no "orce- threats- or subter"uge- a suspect s ,ecision to open the ,oor e?poses hi( to a public place- an, the pri.acy interests protecte, by )a&ton are not .iolate,.) De"en,ant- stan,ing in her ,oor0ay as o""icers approache,- is in public. Burther- she (ay not ,e"eat an arrest 0hich has been set in (otion by atte(pting to escape into a pri.ate place. (United States $# Santana (1&25) 322 4.S. 3# 63& 7.8,.2n, 3009.) Ehen the o""icer atte(pte, to arrest ,e"en,ant in the threshol, o" her apart(ent ,oor- only to ha.e her pull a0ay an, into the apart(ent- the o""icer (ay "ollo0 her in to co(plete the arrest he ha, set 20$
in (otion on her ,oorstep. ()eop"e $# 0ampton (1&#$) 153 Cal.App.3r, 22- 3$%35.) Howe!er- arresting ,e"en,ant 0ho 0as still in be,e.en though he coul, (an, ,i,) reach the ,oor an, open it "ro( his be,- 0as a .iolation o" )a&ton. 1t is irrele.ant that the o""icer 0as still outsi,e the resi,ence 0hen he pronounce, ,e"en,ant un,er arrest in that it is the ,e"en,ant s location- an, not the o""icer s- that is i(portant. (United States $# =uaempts (&th Cir. 200$) 311 B.3r, 1035.) A parolee (an,- there"ore- presu(ably- a probationer 0ho is on search an, sei;ure Fourth Amendment 0ai.er con,itions) (ay be arreste, in his ho(e 0ithout the necessity o" a 0arrant. Police are authori@ed to enter a
house +ithout a +arrant +here the sus(ect is a (arolee +ho had no le.itimate ex(ectation of (ri)ac* a.ainst +arrantless arrests. ('eo(le v. +e,is (1999) 74 Cal.4((.4th 662! 55$%523: In re Fran( S# (2005) 132
Cal.App.3th 13$- 1$1.) 'n!iting Defendant ;utside) +he ,e"en,ant (ay e.en be *in!ited/ outsi,e- e.en though the o""icer s intent to arrest is not ,isclose,. Ehen the ,e"en,ant lea.es the protection o" his ho(e- Rame& ,oes not apply an, the arrest outsi,e is la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Ti""er& (1&2&) && Cal.App.3r, &2$- &2&% &#0: )eop"e $# Green (1&#3) 135 Cal.App.3r, 35&- 322: )eop"e $# *ac(son (1&#5) 1#2 Cal.App.3r, 3&&- $0$: 0art $# )ar(s (&th Cir. 2005) 3$0 B.3r, 10$&- 105$.) A suspect (ay be arreste, 0ithout a 0arrant 0hen he is in public. Case la0 tells us that any0here*0hether it be the ,ri.e0ay- la0n- or "ront porch-/ 0hich are *open to Aco((on or Ageneral use / by those 0ishing to contact the resi,ent o" a house- are *public places./ ()eop"e $# O"son (1&21) 1# Cal.App.3r, $&2- $&#.) See In re Dann& 0# (2002) 103 Cal.App.3th &2- "or a thorough ,iscussion o" the la0 on *public places/ as it relates to the 23 separate statutes 0here such is an ele(ent. An, 0hile it is illegal "or a police o""icer to use a ruse to (aFe a 0arrantless entry into a suspect s 205
ho(e- it has been hel, that it is not illegal to tricF the suspect out. ()eop"e $# Rand (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, $2&- $#3.) Bor e?a(ple) Calling the suspect s house an, "alsely telling hi( the police are co(ing 0ith a 0arrant- causing ,e"en,ant- by his o0n choice- to atte(pt to "lee his resi,ence 0ith the contraban,- is la0"ul. +here is no constitutional .iolation in arresting hi( 0hen he co(es outsi,e. (I.id.: )eop"e )orras (1&2&) && Cal.App.3r, #23: but note this Court s in.itation to the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court to re.ie0 the la0"ulness o" purposely e.a,ing Rame& in this (anner (pp. #2&%##0) an, the Supre(e Court s re"usal to ,o so by ,enying appellant s petition "or a hearing.) +hese cases- ho0e.er- are 0hen an o""icer has probable cause to arrest the suspect. Ehere there is no pre%e?isting probable cause- using a ruse to tricF people outsi,e ,uring a narcotics in.estigation at an apart(ent co(ple?- "or the purpose o" con"ronting as (any people as they coul, lure outsi,e (resulting in the ,e"en,ant s illegal ,etention 0hen he 0as surroun,e, by a tea( o" o""icers all ,resse, in rai, gear) is illegal. *A ,eception use, to gain entry into a ho(e an, a ruse that lures a suspect out o" a resi,ence is a ,istinction 0ithout (uch ,i""erence. . . ./ ()eop"e $# Re&es (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 2- 12%13.) $ut see In re R#/# (200#) 150 Cal.App.3th 151$0here the Court critici;e, the police tactic o" in.iting a ,runF suspect out "ro( a non%public location onto the public street an, then arresting hi( "or being *,runF in public-/ ruling that such 0as illegal arrest e.en though he *.oluntarily ac@uiesce,/ to go to a public place. 1t is unFno0n i" this ruling can be applie, to a Rame& situation as 0ell.
202
+here is e.en so(e authority allo0ing a police o""icer to order the ,e"en,ant out o" his house- a"ter 0hich he is arreste,. Rame& "orbi,s 0arrantless entries onlyan, is not a rele.ant issue 0hen the ,e"en,ant is arreste, in public- no (atter ho0 he ca(e to be in public. ()eop"e $# Trude"" (1&#$) 123 Cal.App.3r, 1221- 122#%1230.) Io0e.er- it has been hel, that 0hen o""icers are outsi,e 0ith guns ,ra0n- or,ering ,e"en,ant to co(e out- he has in e""ect been sei;e, (i.e.- arreste,) 0hile in his house. 7ea.ing the house un,er such coerci.e circu(stances is not an e?ception to Rame&N)a&ton. (United States $# A"3 A55a,a& (&th Cir. 1&#$) 2#3 B.2n, #&0- #&3% #&$: Fisher $# Cit& o' San *ose (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, 105&, 1023%102$.) ufficiency of E!idence to $elie!e the uspect is 'nside) +he a(ount o" e.i,ence a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer (ust ha.e in,icating that a cri(inal suspect is in "act presently insi,e his o0n resi,ence in or,er to Custi"y a non%consensual entry- 0ith or 0ithout an arrest 0arrant- has been ,ebate, o.er the years) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court- in )e&ton $# Ne, Yor( (1&#0) 33$ 4.S. $23 653 7.8,.2n, 53&9- (erely states that a police o""icer (ust ha.e a *reason to belie!e/ the suspect is insi,e his resi,ence- 0ithout ,e"ining the phrase. A Cali"ornia lo0er appellate court "oun, that the o""icers nee,e, a *reasonable belief-/ or *strong reason to belie!e-/ the suspect 0as ho(e. ()eop"e $# -hite (1&#5) 1#3 Cal.App.3r, 11&&- 1203%120&: reCecting the ,e"ense argu(ent that "ull *probable cause/ to belie.e the subCect 0as insi,e is re@uire,: see also United States $# %a1"uta (11th Cir. 1&&$) 33 B.3r, 1$30- 1$3$- using a *reasonable belief/ stan,ar,.) !ther authority in,icates that a "ull (easure o" *probable cause/ is re@uire,. (See Dorman $# United States (D.C. Cir. 1&20) 33$ B.2n, 3#$- 3&3: see also United States $# )hi""ips (&th Cir. 1&23) 3&2 B.2n, 1131: a locFe, co((ercial establish(ent- at night: United States $# Gorman (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 110$: ,e"en,ant in his girl"rien, s house 0ith 0ho( he 0as li.ing: an, United 20#
States $# Dia5 (&th Cir. 2002) 3&1 B.3r, 1023: an, United States $# Gooch (&th Cir. 2002) $05 B.3r, 11$5- 11$&- "n. 2.) 1t has been argue, that the Cali"ornia Supre(e Courtinterpreting the language o" (!C! #44 (i.e.- *reasonable grounds for belie!ing him to be (inside)/)- has "oun, that any arrest- 0ith or 0ithout an arrest 0arrant- re@uires probable cause to belie.e the subCect is insi,e in or,er to Custi"y a non%consensual entry into a resi,ence. ()eop"e $# *aco.s (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, 322- 32#%32&.) Joting that "i.e other "e,eral circuits ha.e rule, that so(ething less than probable cause is re@uire,- an, that the Jinth Circuit is a (inority opinion (see United States $# Gorman- supra.)- the Bourth District Court o" Appeal (Di.. 2) "oun, instea, that an o""icer e?ecuting an arrest 0arrant or con,ucting a probation or parole search (ay enter a ,0elling i" he or she has only a reasonable belief- "alling short o" probable cause to belie.e- the suspect li.es there an, is present at the ti(e. 8(ploying that stan,ar,- the entry into ,e"en,ant s apart(ent to con,uct a probation search 0as la0"ul base, on all o" the in"or(ation Fno0n to the o""icers. Accor,ingly- the court uphel, the trial court s conclusion that the o""icers ha, obCecti.ely reasonable groun,s to conclu,e the ,e"en,antNprobationer li.e, at the subCect apart(ent an, 0as present at the ti(e- an, there"ore the o""icers ha, the right to enter the apart(ent to con,uct a 0arrantless probation search. ()eop"e $# Do,ne& (2011) 1&# Cal.App.3th 5$2- 5$2%552.) Also noting that the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court- in )eop"e $# *aco.s- supra (pg. 32&- "n. 3)- ,i, not "in, that probable cause 0as re@uire,- contrary to popular belie". (Id.- at p. 552.) +he Jinth Circuit- in a case ,ealing 0ith 0hether the subCect o" a Bourth 0a.ier search in "act li.es at the place to be searche,- hol,s by the probable cause stan,ar,. (United States $# o"i$ar (&th Cir. 2012) 520 B.3r, 10&1- 10&3%10&$.) =ithin a Third Person)s Home) Probable cause Custi"ying an arrest 0arrant "or one person ,oes not authori;e entry into to a thir, person s ho(e to looF "or the subCect o" the arrest 0arrant. +o ,o so .iolates the pri.acy interests o" the thir, party. +here"ore- a search warrant- base, upon probable cause to belie.e the 0ante, 20&
subCect is in "act in the ho(e o" the thir, party (absent e?igent circu(stances)- is necessary. (Stea1a"d $# United States (1&#1) 3$1 4.S. 203 65# 7.8,.2n, 3#9: )eop"e $# Codinha (1&#2) 13# Cal.App.3r, 152: so(eti(es re"erre, to as a * teagald =arrant./ See also (!C! 1)24+a,+2,: legal authori;ation "or obtaining such a search 0arrant.) +he arrestee- i" ,oing no (ore than (erely .isiting the la0"ul resi,ent- probably has no stan,ing to contest the unla0"ul entry o" another s house. (United States $# Under,ood (&th Cir. 1&#3) 212 B.2n, 3#2.) 1t is 0hen a police o""icer obtains e.i,ence against the thir, party ho(eo0ner- 0hile looFing "or the subCect o" the arrest- that Stea1a"d beco(es an issue. +he ho(eo0ner- in such a case- has stan,ing to contest the 0arrantless entry o" his house in ,e"ense at his o0n prosecution. (Stea1a"d $# United States- supraat pp. 212- 215 65# 7.8,.2n, at pp. 3$3#9.) Gut- there is so(e authority that- as an o.ernight guest in another s apart(ent- ,e"en,ant 0ith an outstan,ing arrest 0arrant does ha.e stan,ing to contest the entry o" the be,roo( in 0hich he is staying 0hen ,one 0ithout a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# 0ami"ton (1&#$) 15# Cal.App.3r, 10$#.) A "re@uent .isitor- 0ith "ree reign o" the house ,espite the "act that he ,i, not stay o.ernight- (ight also ha.e stan,ing to contest an allege,ly illegal entry o" a thir, person s ho(e. ()eop"e $# Ste,art (2003) 113 Cal.App.3th 232.) 0ami"ton an, Ste,art ha.e so(e support in %innesota $# O"son (1&&0) 3&$ 4.S. &1 610& 7.8,.2n, #$9: an, )eop"e $# Ti""er& (1&2&) && Cal.App.3r, &2$- &2#%&2&. +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has interprete, )e&ton?s *reason to belie!e/ re@uire(ent (See also United States $# Under,ood (&th Cir. 1&#3) 212 B.2n, 3#2.) as necessitating *probable cause/ to belie.e a suspect is insi,e a thir, person s ho(e be"ore a non%consensual entry (ay be (a,e. (United States $# Gorman (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 110$: atte(pt to ser.e an arrest 0arrant re@uires *probable cause/ to belie.e the subCect o" the 0arrant is insi,e.) Cali"ornia s Bourth District Court o" Appeal has hel, other0ise- "in,ing that only a reasonable belief- "alling 210
short o" probable cause to belie.e- that the suspect li.es there an, is present at the ti(e- is necessary to Custi"y a non%consensual entry. ()eop"e $# Do,ne& (2011) 1&# Cal.App.3th 5$2- 5$2%552.) Also noting that the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court- in )eop"e $# *aco.s- supra (pg. 32&- "n. 3)- ,i, not "in, that probable cause 0as re@uire,- contrary to popular belie". (Id.- at p. 552.) +ote) +he *present at the time/ re@uire(ent apparently only applies to e?ecuting an arrest 0arrant. 1t has ne.er been re@uire, that a person on a Fourth 0a.ier be ho(e at the ti(e o" a 0arrantless entry an, search. (See )eop"e $ 2i"ientha" (1&2#) 22 Cal.3r, #&1- &00.) &onse@uences of a Rame&J)a&ton Violation) A 0arrantless arrest in the ho(e- in .iolation o" )a&ton $# Ne, Yor(- supra- an, )eop"e $# Rame&- supra- does not in.ali,ate a later state(ent (a,e to police 0hich 0as not *an exploitation of the illegal entry./ (Ne, Yor( $# 0arris (1&&0) 3&$ 4.S. 13 610& 7.8,.2n, 139: )eop"e $# -at(ins (1&&3) 25 Cal.App.3th 1&- 2&%31: United States $# %anue" (&th Cir. 1&#3) 205 B.2n, &0#- &11%&12.) See also )eop"e $# %ar:ue5 (1&&2) 1 Cal.3th $$3$5&: 0arris rule applies to an arrest (a,e 0ith probable cause but in .iolation o" the Cali"ornia Constitution an, )eop"e $# Rame&- supra. 8.en 0here Rame& an, )a&ton are .iolate,- so long as the police ha.e probable cause to (aFe the arrest- only e.i,ence secure, in the ho(e is subCect to suppression. De"en,ant s arrest is not suppresse,- nor are his state(ents later (a"ter lea.ing the house) (a,e to police as a pro,uct o" that arrest. ()eop"e $# -at(ins- supra.) Con,ucting an illegal parole search 0ithin a ho(e 0here there e?ists probable cause to arrest the subCect (e.en though he 0as only ,etaine,) 0ill not cause the suppression o" a con"ession obtaine, a"ter the subCect co(es to the la0 en"orce(ent o""icer s o""ice 0here he is interrogate,. (United States $# 211
Cra,'ord (&th Cir. 2003) 322 B.3r, 103#- 10$3% 10$&.) Si(ilarly- physical e!idence reco.ere, "ro( the ,e"en,ant s person upon searching hi( at the police station- shoul, also be a,(issible. ()eop"e $# -at(ins- supra- at p. 31- "n. #: citing out%o"%state authority.) +his is supporte, by ,icta in )eop"e $# %ar:ue5- supraat p. $5&- 0here the Court note, that a Rame& .iolation- *0oul, re@uire suppression solely o" e.i,ence obtaine, "ro( searching the ho(e at the ti(e o" the arrest./ +ote) Ehat this (eans is that shoul, a court rule that Rame&E)a&ton has been .iolate,- any oral or physical e.i,ence sei;e, "ro( the ,e"en,ant a"ter re(o.ing hi( "ro( the ho(e 0ill not be suppresse,- being the pro,uct o" a la0"ul arrest an, not the pro,uct o" the illegal entry into the resi,ence. 1n other 0or,s- ,on t @uestion or search the in,i.i,ual until he has been re(o.e, "ro( the ho(e in any case 0here the entry is @uestionable. $ut +ote) 8arlier case authority has in,icate, that a Rame& .iolation is but one "actor "or the court to consi,er in ,eter(ining 0hether the ,e"en,ant s subse@uent con"ession is a pro,uct o" his "ree 0ill. ()eop"e $# Trude"" (1&#$) 123 Cal.App.3r, 12211231%1232.) */noc( and Notice)/ *+o (aFe an arrest- a pri.ate person- i" the o""ense is a "elony- an, in all cases a peace o""icer- (ay breaF open the ,oor or 0in,o0 o" the ho(e in 0hich the person to be arreste, is- or in 0hich they ha.e reasonable groun,s "or belie.ing the person to be- a"ter ha.ing ,e(an,e, a,(ittance an, e?plaine, the purpose "or 0hich a,(ittance is ,esire,./ ((!C! #44) See *Anoc? and +otice:/ un,er * earch =arrants-/ belo0. )ro."ems: *rresting for the =rong ;ffense) As long as- 0hen arreste,- probable cause to arrest "or some o""ense 0as present- it is irrele!ant that ,e"en,ant 0as arreste, "or 212
the 0rong o""ense. ()eop"e $# 2e,is (1&#0) 10& Cal.App.3r, $&&50#%50&: In re Dona"d 2# (1&2#) #1 Cal.App.3r, 220- 22$: see also )eop"e $# Richardson (200#) 33 Cal.3th &$&- &##%&&0: an, )eop"e $# Carmona (2011) 1&$ Cal.App.3th 13#$- 13&1.) Jo sanctions 0ill be i(pose, "or ha.ing selecte, the 0rong charge. *SubCecti.e intentions (o" the arresting o""icer) play no role in or,inary- probable%cause Fourth Amendment analysis./ (-hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05- #13 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&- &#9.) *(A)n o""icer s reliance on the 0rong statute ,oes not ren,er his actions unla0"ul i" there is a right statute that applies to the ,e"en,ant s con,uct./ (In re *ustin /# (2002) &# Cal.App.3th 5&$: Stopping ,e"en,ant "or his thir, (rear 0in,o0) braFe light out ,espite not Fno0ing the correct legal Custi"ication "or "in,ing that the inoperable light 0as in .iolation o" the 0ehicle Code.) See also )eop"e $# Rodri1ue5 (1&&2) $3 Cal.App.3th 12$0: ,e"en,ant arreste, "or ho(ici,e "or 0hich there 0as no probable cause- 0hile the o""icer ,i, ha.e probable cause to belie.e ,e"en,ant ha, in "act co((itte, another ho(ici,e: arrest la0"ul. Arresting ,e"en,ant "or *littering/ (per (!C! 314!4) "or urinating in public 0as a la0"ul arrest e.en though the o""icer use, the 0rong o""ense. De"en,ant s actions 0ere in "act a .iolation o" (!C! 313- 312- "or ha.ing create, a public nuisance. ()eop"e $# %cDona"d (2005) 132 Cal.App.3th $21- $30.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has rule, that so long as a police o""icer has probable cause to arrest "or some o""ense- it (atters not that- subCecti.ely- the o""icer erroneously belie.e, that he only ha, probable cause "or another o""ense. (De$enpec( $# A"'ord +2003) $33 4.S. 135 6150 7.8,.2n, $329: reCecting the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeals opinion that arresting "or the 0rong o""ense 0as only la0"ul i" the t0o o""enses 0ere *closely (or Afactually ) related-/ as ,escribe, in Gasho $# United States (&th Cir. 1&&3) 3& B.3r, 1320132#: an, A"'ord $# 0aner (&th Cir. 2003) 333 B.3r, &22: petition grante,.) +he Jinth Circuit 0as .irtually alone on this issue- 0ith other "e,eral circuits "ollo0ing the sa(e rule as Cali"ornia. (See United States $# )u"$ano ($th Cir. 1&#0) 52& B.2n, 213
11$1: United States $# Saunders ($th Cir. 1&23) 325 B.2n, $: /"in1"er $# United States (#th Cir. 1&5&) 30& B.2n, 2&&: United States e! re" 2a e""e $# 2a9a""ee (2n, Cir. 1&2$) $12 B.2n, 2$0: Richardson $# onds (2th Cir. 1&##) #50 B.2n, 1322: /ni1ht $# *aco.son (11th Cir. 2002) 300 B.3r, 1222.) Howe!er: an arrest "or 0hat the o""icer belie.es to be a "elony- an, 0hich ,i, not occur in the o""icer s presence- but 0hich is in "act only a (is,e(eanor- (ay be an illegal arrestper (!C! #32+a,+1, (i.e.- (is,e(eanor not in the o""icer s presence.)- an,Nor the *stale (is,e(eanor/ rule (see abo.e). ,ista?en $elief in Existence of Probable &ause to *rrest or earch, an *rrest =arrant, or that a Fourth =ai!er Exists, $ased upon Erroneous 'nformation recei!ed from Various ources) Problem) An o""icer arrests an,Nor searches a person un,er the (istaFen belie" that there is an arrest 0arrant outstan,ing "or the person- the person is subCect to a *Fourth =ai!er/ (i.e.- he has pre.iously 0ai.e, his Fourth Amendment search an, sei;ure rights)- or the o""icer is gi.en other erroneous in"or(ation through either court- la0 en"orce(ent- or other o""icial channels. Rule) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court initially hel, that an o""icer s *good faith/ 0ill .ali,ate the resulting arrest an,Nor search- at least in those cases 0here the erroneous in"or(ation ca(e "ro( a *court source./ (Ari5ona $# E$ans (1&&$) $13 4.S. 1 6131 7.8,.2n, 339: see also )eop"e $# Do,nin1 (1&&$) 33 Cal.App.3th 1531.) Extension of Rule) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court subse@uently rule, (in a $%to%3 ,ecision) that an o""icer s goo, "aith reliance on erroneous in"or(ation 0ill not in.ali,ate an arrest e.en 0hen that in"or(ation co(es "ro( a la0 en"orce(ent source- so long as the error 0as base, upon non%reoccurring negligence only. Deliberate illegal acts- or a recFless ,isregar, "or constitutional re@uire(entsor reoccurring or syste(atic negligence- 0ill not e?cuse the resulting unla0"ul arrest. (0errin1 $# United States (200&) $$$ 4.S. 13$ 6122 7.8,.2n, 3&59.) Reasoning) +his is because the *Exclusionary Rule/ 0as i(ple(ente, pri(arily to ,eter intentional or recFless police misconduct: not (iscon,uct by the courts or other non%la0 en"orce(ent sources- or e.en la0 en"orce(ent 0hen their error 0as si(ply non%reoccurring negligence. 1t is not necessary to 213
suppress the resulting e.i,ence 0hen to ,o so ,oes not "urther the purposes o" the Exclusionary Rule. (Ari5ona $# E$ans- supra. At pp. 1$%15 6131 7.8,.2n, at pp. 32%3#9: United States $# 2eon (1&#3) 35# 4.S. #&2- &20%&21 6#2 7.8,.2n, 522- 5&29: )eop"e $# -i""is (2002) 2# Cal.3th 22: )eop"e $# Te""e5 (1&#2) 12# Cal.App.3r, #25- ##0: I""inois $# /ru"" (1&#2) 3#0 4.S. 330 6&3 7.8,.2n, 3539.) *(8).i,ence shoul, be suppresse, Aonly i" it can be sai, that the la0 en"orce(ent o""icer ha, Fno0le,ge- or (ay properly be charge, 0ith Fno0le,ge- that the search 0as unconstitutional un,er the Fourth Amendment. / (I""inois $# /ru""- supra.- at pp. 33#%33&.) *+o trigger the e?clusionary rule- police con,uct (ust be su""iciently ,eliberate that e?clusion can (eaning"ully ,eter itan, su""iciently culpable that such ,eterrence is 0orth the price pai, by the Custice syste(./ (0errin1 $# United States- supra.- at p. 133.) "aw Enforcement !s2 +on6"aw Enforcement ource) A"ter the ,ecision in Ari5ona $# E$ans (1&&$)- an, be"ore 0errin1 $# United States- supra- Cali"ornia courts ,ebate, 0hat 0as a la0 en"orce(ent source- an, 0hat 0as not- interpreting E$ans as establishing a bright line test "or the issue. +hese cases 0ill liFely still be rele.ant in those cases 0here it is ,eter(ine, to be a la0 en"orce(ent source an, in.ol.es ,eliberate illegal acts- recFless ,isregar, "or constitutional re@uire(ents- or reoccurring or syste(atic negligence. "aw enforcement source cases 0here the resulting e.i,ence 0as suppresse,) Police &omputer Records) Arrest base, upon an arrest 0arrant 0hich 0as suppose, to ha.e been recalle, si? (onths earlier- but 0hich 0as still re"lecte, as outstan,ing in the police ,epart(ent s co(puter syste(. ()eop"e $# Ramire5 (1&#3) 33 Cal.3r, $31- $33%$33: )eop"e $# Armstron1 (1&&1) 232 Cal.App.3r, 22#- 231: %iranda $# Superior Court (1&&3) 13 Cal.App.3th 152#.) Parole is a la0 en"orce(ent source. 8rroneous in"or(ation "ro( a state Depart(ent o" Corrections parole o""icer resulte, in a belie" that the ,e"en,ant 0as subCect to a Fourth Ea.ier. +he resulting 21$
0arrantless search 0as hel, to be illegal. ()eop"e $# -i""is (2002) 2# Cal.3th 22.) Gut see )eop"e $# Te""e5 (1&#2) 12# Cal.App.3r, #25- 0here erroneous in"or(ation "ro( Parole ,i, not preclu,e the use o" the *<ood (aith/ e?ception to the e?clusionary rule. +his case is o" @uestionable .ali,ity gi.en the rule in -i""is. Exception) Ehere an o""icer is erroneously tol, that the ,e"en,ant is on parole- only to "in, out later that he 0as subCect to a probationary Fourth 0ai.er instea,- the search 0ill be uphel,. 1t is not rele.ant 0hat type o" Fourth 0a.ier applies to the ,e"en,ant- the o""icer acting in *good faith./ ()eop"e $# 0i"" (2003) 11# Cal.App.3th 1333.) Probation) Gase, upon the reasoning o" )eop"e $# -i""is (2002) 2# Cal.3th 22- it 0as hel, that an a,ult Probation Depart(ent- e.en 0hen the error 0as (a,e by a clerF- is a law enforcement source. +his Court @uestione, the continuing .ali,ity o" In re Arron C# (1&&2) $& Cal.App.3th 135$ ("in,ing Ju.enile Probation to be a court source)- but note, that Arron C# ,ealt 0ith *Ju.enile Probation-/ 0hich 0orFs closer 0ith the courts than ,oes a,ult probation ,epart(ents. ()eop"e $# Fer1uson (2003) 10& Cal.App.3th 352.) See In re Arron (1&&2) $& Cal.App.3th 135$belo0. Exception) Although e.i,ence o" a ,ri.ing un,er the in"luence .iolation is subCect to suppression in a cri(inal prosecution 0hen it is ,isco.ere, as a pro,uct o" a tra""ic stop base, upon out,ate, police recor,s that the .ehicle ,e"en,ant 0as ,ri.ing 0as stolen- that sa(e e.i,ence 0ill not be suppresse, in Department of ,otor Vehicles administrati!e proceedings in.ol.ing the suspension o" ,e"en,ant s ,ri.er s license. ()ar( $# 9a"$erde (2002) 1$2 Cal.App.3th #22.) 215
Jon%la0 en"orce(ent source cases 0here the resulting e.i,ence 0as not suppresse,) (ourth =a!ier 'nformation from the &ourts) 8rroneous in"or(ation concerning 0hether ,e"en,ant 0as still on probation an, subCect to a Fourth Eai.er- the error create, by a court cler?- is a *court source./ ()eop"e $# Do,nin1 (1&&$) 33 Cal.App.3th 1531.) Io0e.er- the Court in Do,nin1 note, that once la0 en"orce(ent is on notice o" the ,e"ects in the court syste(- *good faith/ (ay not apply the ne?t ti(e. ()eop"e $# Do,nin1, supraat p. 15$2- "n. 25: *Ee caution- ho0e.er- that 0here the police ,epart(ent has Fno0le,ge o" "la0s in a recor, or ,ata base syste(- it 0oul, not see( Aob%ecti!ely reasonable to rely solely on it 0ithout taFing a,,itional steps to ensure its accuracy./) Re!ersed Prior &on!iction) A probationary Fourth Eai.er con,ition "ro( a prior case that 0as legally in e""ect at the ti(e o" the search in issue Custi"ies the search. +he "act that the prior con.iction is subse@uently .acate,- thus nulli"ying the search con,ition- ,oes not retroacti.ely (aFe the search in issue illegal. ()eop"e $# %i""er (2003) 123 Cal.App.3th 215.) Ehere ,e"en,ant s prior con.iction 0as o.erturne, on appeal- but only a"ter o""icers con,ucte, a probationary search base, upon that con.iction. Sa(e result as in %i""er. *(+)he integrity o" the process is best ser.e, . . . by a rule 0hich ,eter(ines the .ali,ity o" the search on the basis o" the legal situation 0hich e?its at the ti(e the search is (a,e./ ()eop"e $# Fie"ds (1&#1) 11& Cal.App.3r, 3#5- 3&0.) "egislati!e ource) Relying upon a statute authori;ing a 0arrantless a,(inistrati.e searcha"ter 0hich that statute is later ,eclare, to be 212
unconstitutional- is la0"ul as ha.ing co(e "ro( a *legislati!e source/ (I""inois $# /ru"" (1&#2) 3#0 4.S. 330 6&3 7.8,.2n, 3539.)- in that the e?clusionary rule 0as not create, to punish the 7egislature any (ore than it 0as create, to punish the courts. ee also: %ichi1an $# DeFi""ippo (1&2&) 333 4.S. 31- 32%3# 651 7.8,.2n, 333- 33&% 3$09: goo, "aith reliance on an or,inance that 0as later ,eclare, to be unconstitutional. +he allege, unconstitutionality o" a statutethe .iolation "or 0hich ser.es as the basis "or a search 0arrant- is irrele.ant so long as o""icers reasonably relie, upon the statute s .ali,ity at the ti(e o" the obtaining o" the search 0arrant. (United States $# %ee( (&th Cir. 2003) 355 B.3r, 20$- 213.) Department of ,otor Vehicles ource) 1n.ali, in"or(ation concerning the status o" a .ehicle s registration- entere, into the syste( by a non%la0 en"orce(ent *,ata entry clerF-/ is a non%la0 en"orce(ent source. +he o""icer s arrest an, search in reasonable reliance upon recor,s sho0ing that the ,e"en,ant s .ehicle s registration 0as e?pire, an, that a "rau,ulent tab ha, been place, on the license plate (,isplaying "alse registration tabs- per 0!C! 23- 31- 4231 an, 43333!1)- 0as uphel, un,er the *good faith/ e?ception. ()eop"e $# 0ami"ton (2002) 102 Cal.App.3th 1311.) :u!enile Probation) At least 0ithin the Ju.enile Court- Probation is (ore aligne, 0ith the courts than la0 en"orce(ent- an, is there"ore a *court source./ 8rroneous in"or(ation "ro( Ju.enile Probation ,oes not preclu,e application o" good faith to sa.e the resulting search. (In re Arron C# (1&&2) $& Cal.App.3th 135$.) Reliance upon a Cu.enile s Fourth Ea.ier.ali, at the ti(e- Custi"ies a search irrespecti.e o" 0hether the 0a.ier 0as 21#
la0"ully i(pose,. ()eop"e $# Rios (2011) 1&3 Cal.App.3th $#3- $&2%$&#.) $ut see )eop"e $# 0o,ard (1&#3) 152 Cal.App.3r, #- at pp. 1&%21- 0here Probation (erely "aile, to in"or( a police o""icer o" the correct li(its o" a particular probation search con,ition. +he Court hel, the resulting search to be illegal. 0o,ardho0e.er- is critici;e, by both Do,nin1supra- at p. 15$2- "n. 12- an, Arron C#supraat p. 1322. *rresting and earching in 'gnorance of an Existing =arrant of *rrest) An arrest an, search o" a person 0ithout probable cause cannot be .ali,ate, a"ter the "act 0hen it is belate,ly ,isco.ere, that an arrest 0arrant e?ists "or that person. (%oreno $# aca (&th Cir. 200$) 331 B.3r, 533- 53#%531.) +his (ay no longer be .ali, authority in light o" the ,ecision in 0errin1 $# United States- supra. See * earching =hile 'n 'gnorance of a earch &ondition-/ un,er *(ourth =ai!er earches-/ belo0. ,inors and &urfew) +here is a split o" authority on the legality o" *arresting/ a (inor "or a cur"e0 .iolation) Oinors .iolating cur"e0 (ay be stopped- detained- an, transported to a cur"e0 center- the police station- or other "acility 0here the (inor can a0ait the arri.al o" a parent or other responsible a,ult. A search o" the (inor prior to placing hi( in a cur"e0 center 0ith other chil,ren is also reasonable. (In re Ian C# (2001) #2 Cal.App.3th #$5.) Ge"ore Ian C#- it 0as hel, that a cur"e0 .iolation did not Custi"y the transportation o" a (inor to a police station "or interrogationsuch a custo,ial arrest not being one o" the alternati.es allo0e, un,er the Eel"are an, 1nstitutions Co,e- re"erring to /&I 231, 222, 222 an, 222!). +he Court "urther hel, that such a transportation- as an illegal arrest- 0as also a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment. (In re *ustin # (1&&&) 5& Cal.App.3th #2&.) In re *ustin # 0as critici;e, in the later ,ecision o" In re Char"es C# (1&&&) 25 Cal.App.3th 320. +he Court in Char"es C# hel, that the arrest an, transportation o" a (inor to a police station "or a 21&
.iolation o" cur"e0- at least 0here the (inor s parents coul, not be locate, 0hile still in the "iel,- 0as not i(proper. 4n,er such circu(stances- taFing the (inor to a police station is the least intrusi.e alternati.e le"t to the o""icer. (/&I 222) Burther /&I 231+4,+2, pro.i,es that a (inor as ,escribe, by /&I 231 (0hich inclu,es cur"e0 .iolators) (ay be taFen into custo,y an, hel, in a *secure facility-/ 0hich inclu,es a police station- so long as not con"ine, 0ith a,ults- "or up to 23 hours 0hile the (inor s parents are locate,. 7astly- the Court hel, that e.en i" in .iolation o" the Eel"are an, 1nstitutions Co,e- the Fourth Amendment is not .iolate, by transporting a cur"e0 .iolator to a police station- so suppression o" any resulting e.i,ence is not re@uire,. +he Court "urther note, that taFing a (inor *into temporary custody-/ as authori;e, by /&I 22)- is the "unctional e@ui.alent o" an arrest. (In re Char"es C#, supraat p. 32$- "n. 3: see also In re Thierr& S# (1&22) 1& Cal.3r, 222- 233- "n. 5: an, In re *ustin #- supraat p. ##&.) +ote) In re Char"es C#, supra- is the better rule. In re *ustin #supra- critici;e, by both Char"es C# (at pp. 325%322.) an, In re Ian C#- supraat p. #50- is a straine, ,ecision at best- an, o" @uestionable .ali,ity. ,inors and Truancy) !bser.ation o" a (inor carrying a bacFpacF on the street ,uring school hours 0ithin se.eral (iles o" a high school 0as su""icient cause to stop an, ,etain the (inor an, in@uiry as to his status as a stu,ent. Ehen ,e"en,ant 0as unable to pro.i,e a satis"actory reason "or 0hy he 0as out o" school- an, ha, i,enti"ication in so(eone else s na(e- he 0as properly arreste, "or being truant (?d! Code, 4#224) an, searche, inci,ent to arrest. (In re 0um.erto O! (2000) #0 Cal.App.3th 232: reco.ery o" a ,agger "ro( his bacFpacF 0as la0"ul.) In'ormation )ro$ided to an Arrested )erson: )#C# B F61: 'nformation to be Pro!ided) +he person (aFing the arrest (ust in"or( the person being arreste, o" the "ollo0ing) +he intention to arrest hi(: +he cause o" the arrest (i.e.- the charges): an, 220
+he authority to (aFe it. ()eop"e $# Superior Court @2o1ueA (1&23) 3$ Cal.App.3r, 1- $.) 8?ceptions) +here is no nee, to co(ply 0ith the abo.e 0hen) +he person (aFing the arrest has reasonable cause to belie.e that the person to be arreste, is actually engage, in the co((ission o"- or an atte(pt to co((itan o""ense (See )eop"e $# Darne"" (1&$1) 102 Cal.App.2n, $31 $3$: )eop"e $# Thomas (1&$2) 1$5 Cal.App.2n, 112- 130: )eop"e $# 9a"en5ue"a (1&$&) 121 Cal.App.2n, 331- 333.): or +he person to be arreste, is pursue, i((e,iately a"ter co((ission o" the o""ense- or a"ter an escape. (See )eop"e $# )oo" (1#5$) 22 Cal. $22- $25: A""en $# %cCo& (1&33) 13$ Cal.App. $00- $0#: )eop"e $# Camp.e"" (1&22) 22 Cal.App.3r, #3&- #$3: an, *ohanson $# Department o' %otor 9ehic"es (1&&$) 35 Cal.App.3th 120&- 121#.)
8.en 0here an e?ception applies- i" the arrestee asFs 0hat he or she is being arreste, "or- he or she (ust be tol,. ((!C! #41) (oreign +ationals: (!C! #34c+a,+1,) *d!isal to *rresteeJDetainee) 4pon the arrest an, booFing or ,etention "or (ore than t0o (2) hours o" a Fno0n or suspecte, "oreign national- the arresteeN,etainee shall be a,.ise, *without delay/ that he or she has a right to co((unicate 0ith an o""icial "ro( the consulate o" his or her nati.e country. 1" the arresteeN,etainee chooses to e?ercise that right- the peace o""icer shall noti"y the pertinent o""icial in his or her agency or ,epart(ent o" the arrest or ,etention an, that the "oreign national 0ants his or her consulate noti"ie,. ()eop"e $# Enraca (2012) $3 Cal.3th 23$2$5%2$#: )eop"e $# %endo5a (2002) 32 Cal.3th 5#5- 20&.) +his is a statutory enact(ent o" the 1&53 0ienna Con:ention on Consular 8elations- Article 32: a +reaty signe, by the 4nite, States an, 15& other countries. Although there is so(e ,isagree(ent- it is generally accepte, that a "oreign national has the *standing/ necessary to in.oFe the pro.isions o" the 0ienna Con:ention in so "ar as they re@uire notice to an 221
arresteeN,etainee o" his right to contact his consulate. (See United States $# Super$i""e (Uir. 1slan,s- 1&&&) 30 B.Supp.2n, 522- 525%52#.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court- until recently (see belo0)- ,ecline, to ,eci,e 0hether a "oreign national 0ho ha, not been a,.ise, o" his rights un,er the 0ienna Con:ention ha, an en"orceable right in 4.S. courts. (Sanche532"amas $# Ore1on (2005) $3# 4.S. 331- 333 615$ 7.8,.2n, $$29: assu(ing "or the saFe o" argu(ent that they ,i,- 0hile speci"ically ,eclining to ,eci,e the issue. Bour ,issenting opinions 0oul, ha.e hel, that the ,e"en,ants ha, a right to raise these issues. (Id.- at pp. 35&%32#.) +he o""icer s ,epart(ent is responsible "or (aFing the re@ueste, noti"ication. (su4d! +a,+2,) +he 0ienna Con:ention also pro.i,es that any co((unication a,,resse, to the consular post by the person arreste,- in prison- custo,y or ,etention shall be "or0ar,e, by the authorities *without delay./ (Art! 32+1, +4,) +he la0 en"orce(ent o""icial in charge o" a custo,ial "acility 0here a "oreign national is house, shall ensure that the arrestee is allo0e, to co((unicate 0ith- correspon, 0ith- an, be .isite, by- a consular o""icer o" his or her country. (su4d! +a,+3,) 7ocal la0 en"orce(ent agencies are to incorporate these re@uire(ents into their respecti.e policies an, proce,ures. (su4d! +c,) *utomatic +otice to (oreign &ountry) Bi"ty%si? ($5) countries are liste, in su4di:ision +d, 0hich must be noti"ie, o" the arrest or ,etention (pursuant to su4d! +a,+1,: i.e.- (ore than 2 hours) o" one o" their "oreign nationals *0ithout regar, to an arreste, or ,etaine, "oreign national s re@uest to the contrary./ +ote) Although Oe?ico is one o" the 120 (0hich inclu,es the 4nite, States) countries that signe, the Con.ention- it is not one o" the countries liste, that (ust be automatically noti"ie, o" the arrest- booFing or ,etention o" a "oreign national.
222
anctions for Violations) 1t has been generally accepte, that a .iolation o" the pro.isions o" the 0ienna Con:ention an,presu(ably- this statute- will not result in the suppression o" any e.i,ence. (United States $# 2om.era3Camor"in1a (&th Cir. 2000) 205 B.3r, ##2: )eop"e $# Corona (2001) #& Cal.App.3th 1325: United States $# Rodri1ue53)reciado (&th Cir. 200$) 3&& B.3r, 111#- 1130.) Jot in"or(ing a Japanese national o" his right to contact the Japanese consulate upon his arrest is not a .iolation o" the Da-an Con:ention- Article 12+1,. 8.en i" Article 12+1, coul, be interprete, as re@uiring such noti"ication- a .iolation 0oul, not result in the suppression o" the ,e"en,ant s later state(ents nor any physical e.i,ence reco.ere, as the result o" a consensual search. (United States $# Amano (&th Cir. 2000) 22& B.3r, #01- #03.) Japan- although a signatory to the 0ienna Con:ention- is not one o" the $5 countries liste, in (!C! #34c that (ust be noti"ie, upon the arrest or ,etention o" one o" their citi;ens. +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court- until recently- has reCecte, appeals on this issue on procedural groun,s,eclining to ,eci,e this issue on its (erits. (See reard $# Greene (1&&#) $23 4.S. 321 6130 7.8,.2n, $2&9.) Howe!er- a nu(ber o" Custices ha.e e?presse, ,issatis"action 0ith a.oi,ing the issue- in generalan, not sanctioning states "or .iolating the Con:ention- in particular. (See also Torres $# %u""in (2003) $30 4.S. 103$ 61$2 7.8,.2n, 3$39.) +he *'nternational &ourt of :ustice/ (1CJ)- in a la0suit brought against the 4nite, States by Oe?ico an, ,eci,e, on Oarch 31- 2003- "oun, that there are $3 ,eath ro0 in(ates (22 o" 0hich are in Cali"ornia) 0ho 0ere not pro.i,e, 0ith a noti"ication o" their consular rights- in .iolation o" the 0ienna Con:ention. +he Court conclu,e, that the o""en,ing state an, local Curis,ictions .iolating these re@uire(ents 0ere *obligated/ to re.ie0 an, reconsi,er these cases. (See %e!ico $# United States o' America 6A$ena7 (2003) 2003 1.C.J. Jo. 12#.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court- in Sanche53 2"amas $# Ore1on (2005) $3# 4.S. 331- 3$1%3$5 615$ 7.8,.2n, $$29- 0hile "in,ing that the rulings o" 223
the 1CJ ,eser.e, *respectful consideration-/ hel, that they 0ere not bin,ing upon 4.S. courts an, ,ecline, to "ollo0 their gui,ance on this issue. 1n Oay- 200$- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court ,is(isse, as i(pro.i,ently grante, a 0rit o" certiorari in a +e?as case challenging state la0 en"orce(ent o""icers "ailure to pro.i,e a capital ,e"en,ant- an, Oe?ican national- 0ith a 0ienna Con:ention noti"ication. (%ede""in $# Dret(e (200$) $33 4.S. 550 6151 7.8,.2n, &#29.) +he Court in %ede""in $# Dret(e ,i, not ,is(iss the 0rit out o" a lacF o" interest- ho0e.er- but rather because the ,e"en,ant initiate, ne0 procee,ings in the +e?as courts- base, upon the 1CJ s latest pronounce(ent (%e!ico $# United States o' America 6A$ena7- supra.) an, an e?ecuti.e or,er issue, by Presi,ent Gush "or A(erican courts to re.ie0 .iolations o" the 0ienna Con:ention (see 'nternational Herald Tribune (3N3N0$)- that (ight 0ell resol.e the issues. 8.en so- "our 4.S. Supre(e Court Custices ,issente,- noting that *(n)onco(pliance 0ith our treaty obligations is especially 0orriso(e in capital cases-/ an, that the ,e"en,ant in this case ha, raise, so(e *,ebatable/ issues that *suggest the .ery real possibility o" his .ictory in state court./ (%ede""in $# Dret(e- supra.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court "inally rule, on the issues o" (1) the proper re(e,y "or an Article 32 .iolation an, (2) 0hether "ailing to raise the issue at the trial court le.el preclu,e, the raising o" the issue post%con.iction. (Sanche532"amas $# Ore1on (2005) $3# 4.S. 331 615$ 7.8,.2n, $$29 (Coine, 0ith usti""o $# *ohnson (^0$%$1)- a case "ro( the Uirginia Supre(e Court). 1n these t0o casesthe Court hel, that a .iolation o" the Uienna Con.ention ,oes not 0arrant the suppression o" e.i,ence- inclu,ing a ,e"en,ant s state(ents. +he Court also hel, (in the usti""o $# *ohnson portion o" the ,ecision) that "ailing to raise the issue in the state courts 0ill preclu,eproce,urally- the ,e"en,ant "ro( litigating the issue by 0ay o" a "e,eral 0rit o" habeas corpus.
223
+ot decided 0as 0hether the 0ienna Con:ention grants in,i.i,uals en"orceable rights in a state courtor 0hether the pro.isions o" the Con:ention are so(ething to be en"orce, .ia political channels bet0een countries- the Court assu(ing- "or the saFe o" argu(ent- that such rights 0ere en"orceable 0ithout ,eci,ing the issue. (Sanche532"amas $# Ore1on- supra.- a p. 333.) Bour ,issenting opinions 0oul, ha.e speci"ically hel, that the ,e"en,ants ha, a right to raise these issues. (Id.- at pp. 35&%32#.) $ut note) An e?tra,ite, ,e"en,ant has stan,ing to seeF en"orce(ent o" an e?tra,ition treaty s restrictions on the potential punish(ent to 0hich he (ay be subCecte,. ( enite5 $# Garcia (&th Cir. 2002) 325 B.3r, 525: e?tra,ite, "ro( Uene;uela un,er the un,erstan,ing that he 0oul, not be subCecte, to the ,eath penalty or a li"e sentence.) +he 0ienna Con:ention ,oes not pro.i,e a "oreign national any rights that are en"orceable in a 42 !S!C! 1"#3 ci.il rights suit against la0 en"orce(ent "or .iolating the person s rights pro.i,e, "or un,er the Con:ention. (Corne;o $# Count& o' San Die1o (&th Cir. 2002) $03 B.3r, #$3.) +hen- in Jo.e(ber- 2005- the +e?as appellate court re"use, to co(ply 0ith the presi,ent s co((an, to pro.i,e ,e"en,ants 0hose Uienna Con.ention rights 0ere .iolate, 0ith a hearing on the issue- ,eci,ing that it 0oul, not allo0 Jose 8rnesto Oe,ellin to "ile a secon, habeas petition seeFing relie". (%ede""in $# Te!as- 05%&#3.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court uphel, +e?as on this issue- "in,ing that the ter(s o" the 0ienna Con:ention are not *sel"%e?ecuting-/ ,i, not ha.e the "orce o" ,o(estic la0- an, 0ere not bin,ing on 4.S. Courts. +he Court also hel, that the Presi,ent ha, no authority to ,ictate the proce,ures to be use, in state court an, there"ore coul, not legally or,er state courts to gi.e prisoners hearings on this issue. (%ede""in $# Te!as (200#) $$2 4.S. 3&1 6120 7.8,.2n, 1&09.) See also In re %artine5 (200&) 35 Cal.3th &3$- 0here the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court conclu,e, that petitioner 0as preclu,e, "ro( rene0ing his Uienna Con.ention clai( because he ha, pre.iously raise, the issue an, the court 22$
ha, ,enie, relie" on its (erits. +here"ore- his petition 0as successi.e- an, he "aile, to ,e(onstrate any change o" circu(stance or the applicability o" any e?ception to the proce,ural bar o" successi.eness to 0arrant reconsi,eration o" his clai(. +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court has hel, that e.en assu(ing a ,e"en,ant is not a,.ise, o" his consular rights in .iolation o" the Uienna Con.ention- relie" 0ill not be grante, absent a sho0ing o" preCu,ice. ()eop"e $# %endo5a (2002) 32 Cal.3th 5#5- 20&%211.) Bailing to a,.ise an arreste, Bilipino (ur,er suspect o" his right to ha.e his consulate noti"ie, o" his arrest ,oes notby itsel"- ren,er a con"ession ina,(issible. ()eop"e $# Enraca (2012) $3 Cal.3th 23$- 2$5%2$#.) 4sing the sa(e reasoning- ,e"en,ant s clai( un,er the 4nite, States bilateral consular con.ention 0ith the Philippines also "aile,. (Id- at p. 2$#.) +ote also (!C! #344+a,) 7a0 en"orce(ent agencies are re@uire, to *"ully cooperate/ 0ith the 4nite, States 1((igration an, Jaturali;ation Ser.ice 0hen it is suspecte, that an arreste, person is in the 4nite, States in .iolation o" "e,eral i((igration la0s. Su4d! +4,: Such cooperation is to inclu,e the "ollo0ing) +1,: Atte(pt to .eri"y the legal i((igration status o" such person through @uestioning that person an, ,e(an,ing ,ocu(entation. +2,: Joti"y the person o" his or her apparent status as an alien 0ho is present in the 4nite, States illegally an, in"or( hi( or her that- apart "ro( any cri(inal Custice procee,ings- he or she (ust either obtain legal status or lea.e the 4nite, States. +3,: Joti"y the Cali"ornia Attorney Leneral an, the 4nite, States 1((igration an, Jaturali;ation Ser.ice o" the apparent illegal status o" the person an, pro.i,e any a,,itional in"or(ation that (ay be re@ueste, by any other public entity. Su4d +c,: *Any legislati.e- a,(inistrati.e- or other action by a city- county- or other legally authori;e, local 225
go.ern(ental entity 0ith Curis,ictional boun,aries- or by a la0 en"orce(ent agency- to pre.ent or li(it the cooperation re@uire, by su4di:ision +a, is e?pressly prohibite,./ +he constitutionality o" this section is @uestionable. (See 2ea1ue $# United 2atin American Citi5ens $# -i"son (C.D. Cal. 1&&$) &0# B.Supp. 2$$.) %iranda: Any person 0ho is arreste,- or 0ho is subCecte, to a contact 0ith la0 en"orce(ent 0hich has the "or(al attributes o" an arrestan, is @uestione,- (ust "irst be a,.ise, o"- acFno0le,ge his un,erstan,ing o"an, "reely an, .oluntarily 0ai.e- his Fifth Amendment right against sel"% incri(ination- pursuant to %iranda $# Ari5ona (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 335 615 7.8,.2n, 5&39.) See *%iranda and the "aw-/ Secon, 8,ition- to be publishe, January- 2013. ,inors W /&I 22)+c,: 1n any case 0here a minor (person un,er the age o" 1#) is taFen *into temporary custody/ 0ith probable cause to belie.e he or she is in .iolation o" /&I 231 or 232 (i.e.- ,elin@uent or status o""en,er)- or that he or she has .iolate, an or,er o" the Cu.enile court or escape, "ro( any co((it(ent or,ere, by the Cu.enile court- the o""icer shall a,.ise such (inor that anything he says can be use, against hi( or heran, shall a,.ise the (inor o" his or her constitutional rights inclu,ing the right to re(ain silent- the right to ha.e counsel present ,uring any interrogation- an, the right to ha.e appointe, counsel i" he or she is unable to a""or, counsel. A %iranda%style a,(onish(ent ob.iously co.ers these re@uire(ents. (See %iranda $# Ari5ona (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 335 615 7.8,.2n, 5&39.) +his a,(onish(ent- un,er the ter(s o" the statute (/&I 22)+c,)is to be (a,e 0hether or not the (inor is to be subCecte, to a custo,ial interrogation. Io0e.er- there is no sanction "or a "ailure to co(ply 0ith the re@uire(ents o" this statute- unless- o" coursethe (inor is in "act interrogate, in 0hich case the stan,ar, %iranda rules apply. +ote) +he statute ,oes not re@uire that this a,(onish(ent be (a,e *immediately/ upon arrest. A (inor 0ho is taFen *into temporary custody-/ as authori;e, by /&I 22)- has been arrested. (In re Char"es C# (1&&&) 25 222
Cal.App.3th 320- 32$: see also In re Thierr& S# (1&22) 1& Cal.3r, 222- 233- "n. 5.) See also 1# !S!C! )333- "or a si(ilar "e,eral re@uire(ent. Section )333 re@uires that "e,eral la0 en"orce(ent agents also noti"y the parents o" a Cu.enile s rights- an, that it be ,one *i((e,iately/ a"ter the chil, is taFen into custo,y. A one%hour ,elay in noti"ying the parents o" the Cu.enile s %iranda rights 0as not unreasonable gi.en the "act that it 0as ,one as soon as it 0as ,isco.ere, that the arreste, subCect 0as a Cu.enile. (United States $# -end& G# (&th Cir. 2001) 2$$ B.3r, 251.) *lso- 0hen a (inor taFen be"ore a probation o""icer pursuant to /&I 222 (Alternati.e Dispositions "or Oinors in +e(porary Custo,y Ehen Ju.enile Court Procee,ings are not Re@uire,)- an, it is allege, that the (inor is a person ,escribe, in /&I 231 (Status !""en,er) or 232 (Delin@uent)- the probation o""icer *shall/ i((e,iately a,.ise the (inor an, his parent or guar,ian o" rights e@ui.alent to those pro.i,e, in the %iranda ,ecision. (/&I 221!)) Fo""o,3Up Re:uirements A'ter Arrest: ;ther Rights of the *rrestee) Right to *ccess to an *ttorney- per (!C! #2)+4,) Any attorney entitle, to practice in the courts o" recor, o" Cali"ornia (ay- at the re@uest o" the prisoner or any relati.e o" the prisoner- .isit the prisoner. Any o""icer ha.ing charge o" the prisoner 0ho 0ill"ully re"uses or neglects to allo0 that attorney to .isit a prisoner is guilty o" a misdemeanor- an, *shall "or"eit an, pay to the party aggrie.e, the su( o" [$00- to be reco.ere, by action in any court o" co(petent Curis,iction./ (I.id#) Ehile the section ,oes not speci"y when an attorney- at the re@uest o" the prisoner or a relati.e- shoul, be allo0e, to see the prisoner- it is suggeste, the re@uest be honore, as soon as is practical. +he courts ten, to be critical o" any purpose"ul ,elay in allo0ing an in%custo,y suspect to consult 0ith his attorney. (See )eop"e $# Stro."e (1&$1) 35 Cal.2n, 51$- 52$%525: *+he con,uct o" the o""icers (re"using 22#
to allo0 ,e"en,ant s attorney access to hi( 0hile o""icers obtaine, a con"ession) . . . was patently illegal./ Howe!er- see )eop"e $# 2edesma (1&##) 203 Cal.App.3r, 5#2- 5&$%5&5- an, "n. #) Uiolating (!C! #2)+4, is not a constitutional .iolation re@uiring the suppression o" the ,e"en,ant s state(ents 0here the ,e"en,ant ha, other0ise 0ai.e, his rights un,er %iranda. Right to *ccess to a Physician or Psychiatrist) (!C! #2)!)) Any physician or surgeon- inclu,ing a psychiatrist- or psychologist 0ith a ,octoral ,egree an, t0o years e?perience- license, to practice in this state- e(ploye, by the prisoner or his attorney- shall be per(itte, to .isit the prisoner 0hile he or she is in custo,y. +ote) +he statute pro.i,es no sanction "or "ailing to co(ply 0ith this pro.ision. Right to Telephone &alls- per (!C! #)1!)+a,) An arreste, person has the right- i((e,iately a"ter booFing an,- e?cept 0hen physically i(possible- no later than three (3) hours a"ter arrest- to (aFe at least three (3) co(plete, telephone calls. +he calls are to be "ree i" co(plete, in the local calling area- an, are at the arrestee s e?pense i" outsi,e the local area. +he calls (ust be allo0e, i((e,iately on re@uest- or as soon as practicable. +he calls (ay be (a,e to) An attorney o" the arrestee s choice- public ,e"en,er- or other attorney assigne, to assist in,igents (0hich (ay not be (onitore,). A bail bon,s(an. A relati.e or other person. +his in"or(ation- inclu,ing the phone nu(ber o" the public ,e"en,er or other attorney assigne, to assist in,igent ,e"en,ants- (ust be poste,. (Su4d! +4,) (n a%%e'!in o% boo9in o00i$e% i' al'o %e7ui%ed !o in7ui%e a' !o *he!he% an a%%e'!ed ,e%'on i' a $u'!odial ,a%en! *i!h %e',on'ibili!& 0o% a /ino% $hild and i0 'o) !o no!i0& !he a%%e'!ee !ha! he o% 'he i' en!i!led !o /a9e !*o addi!ional !ele,hone $all' (0o% a !o!al o0 5) !o a%%an e $hild $a%e. (Su4d! +c,) 22&
(olice facilities and places of detention shall post a sign stating that a custodial parent %ith responsibility for a minor child has the right to t%o additional telephone calls' (4ubd. (d)) 1" the arrestee so re@uests- the three telephone calls shall be allo0e, *immediately-/ or as soon as is practicable. (Su4d! +e,) +he signs poste, pursuant to the abo.e shall (aFe the speci"ie, noti"ications in 8nglish an, any non% 8nglish language spoFen by a substantial nu(ber o" the public- as speci"ie, in 9o:.t! Code 12"2!20ho are ser.e, by the police "acility or place o" ,etain(ent. (Su4d! +f,) +he rights an, ,uties set "orth in this section shall be en"orce, regar,less o" the arresteeDs i((igration status. (Su4d! +5,) +his section is not inten,e, to *abrogate a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer s ,uty to a,.ise a suspect o" his or her right to counsel or o" any other right./ (Su4d! +h,) 1t is a misdemeanor to 0ill"ully ,epri.e an arreste, person o" these rights. (Su4d! +i,) +he only recogni;e, e?ception to this rule is *physical impossibility./ (Car"o $# Cit& o' Chino (&th Cir. 1&&2) 10$ B.3r, 3&3.) Io0e.er- the allege, "act that ,e"en,ants 0ere ,enie, right to call an attorney i((e,iately a"ter they 0ere booFe, ha, no bearing on a,(issibility o" any e?traCu,icial state(ents (a,e prior to ti(e 0hen ,e"en,ants 0ere booFe,. ()eop"e $# Stout (1&52) 55 Cal.2n, 1#3.) Case 7a0) Plainti"" s ci.il rights 0ere .iolate, by ,enying her access to a telephone 0hile she 0as Caile, a"ter her arrest on charges o" ,ri.ing 0hile un,er the in"luence o" alcohol. +he state right to a post% 230
booFing telephone call ((!C! #)1!)) creates a liberty interest protecte, by the Fourteenth Amendment o" the 4nite, States Constitution: an, due process protections o" prisoners liberty rights 0ere clearly establishe, long be"ore plainti"" 0as arreste, in 1&&1. (Car"o $! Cit& o' Chino- supra.) Howe!er- 0ithhol,ing per(ission to a (otoristarreste, "or ,ri.ing a (otor .ehicle on a public high0ay 0hile un,er the in"luence o" into?icating li@uor- "ro( telephoning an attorney 0ithin the statutory three%hour perio, a"ter his arrest ((!C! #)1!))- 0as not a ,enial o" ,ue process 0here booFing proce,ures co((ence, appro?i(ately t0o hours an, t0enty%"i.e (inutes "ro( the ti(e o" arrest an, 0here- i" ,e"en,ant ha, been per(itte, to (aFe the call then- an, as a result o" legal a,.ice consente, to sub(it to a che(ical test- the results o" such test 0oul, ha.e little or no probati.e .alue. (2ac& $ Orr (1&5&) 225 Cal App 2n, 1&#.) Police (ay re@uire arrestee "irst to ,isclose telephone nu(ber o" person to 0ho( call is being place,- an, then place the call an, o.ertly listen to ,e"en,antDs si,e o" any non%attorney%client con.ersation 0ithout in.a,ing ,e"en,ant s right to pri.acy an, 0ithout i(plicating his pri.ilege against sel"%incri(ination. ()eop"e $# Siripon1s (1&##) 3$ Cal.3r, $3#.) *lso- ,enial o" arreste, personDs right to (aFe telephone call to bail bon,s(an ,i, not preCu,ice hi( 0here there 0as no su""icient sho0ing that such a ,enial resulte, in ,enial o" "air trial in the (atter or pre.ente, hi( "ro( obtaining an, presenting e.i,ence o" his innocence. (In re Ne,.ern (1&51) $$ Cal 2n, $0#.) ,inors: /&I 221+4,) Arreste, Cu.eniles shall be a,.ise, o"- an, ha.e the right to (aFe two (2) co(plete, telephone calls upon being taFen to a place o" con"ine(ent an,- e?cept 0hen physically i(possible- 0ithin one (1) hour a"ter being taFen into custo,y.
231
+he calls are to be to a parent or guar,ian- a responsible relati.e- or to the (inor s e(ployer- an, the secon, call to an attorney. +he calls are to be at public e?pense- i" local- an, (a,e in the presence o" a public o""icer or e(ployee. Eill"ully ,epri.ing a (inor o" his or her right to (aFe these calls is a (is,e(eanor. Uiolating this section is not groun,s "or e?clu,ing e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# Casti""e (2003) 10# Cal.App.3th 35&- 3#&%3&0: .acate, an, re(an,e, on other groun,s. See also )eop"e $# 2essie (2010) 32 Cal.3th 11$2- 1151- "n. 2- an, 115&%1120.) Su4d! +a, re@uires an o""icer to *ta?e immediate steps/ to noti"y a parent- guar,ian or responsible a,ult o" the "act an, location o" a (inor taFen to Cu.enile hall or other place o" con"ine(ent. ;ther tatutory ;bligations of the *rresting ;fficer) (!C! #344+a,) 7a0 en"orce(ent agencies are re@uire, to *fully cooperate/ 0ith the 4nite, States 1((igration an, Jaturali;ation Ser.ice 0hen it is suspecte, that an arreste, person is in the 4nite, States in .iolation o" "e,eral i((igration la0s. Su4d! +4,) Such cooperation is to inclu,e the "ollo0ing) +1,) Atte(pt to .eri"y the legal i((igration status o" such person through @uestioning that person an, ,e(an,ing ,ocu(entation. +2,) Joti"y the person o" his or her apparent status as an alien 0ho is present in the 4nite, States illegally an, in"or( hi( or her that- apart "ro( any cri(inal Custice procee,ings- he or she (ust either obtain legal status or lea.e the 4nite, States. +3,) Joti"y the Cali"ornia Attorney Leneral an, the 4nite, States 1((igration an, Jaturali;ation Ser.ice o" the apparent illegal status o" the person 232
an, pro.i,e any a,,itional in"or(ation that (ay be re@ueste, by any other public entity. Su4d +c,) *Any legislati.e- a,(inistrati.e- or other action by a city- county- or other legally authori;e, local go.ern(ental entity 0ith Curis,ictional boun,aries- or by a la0 en"orce(ent agency- to pre.ent or li(it the cooperation re@uire, by su4di:ision +a, is e?pressly prohibite,./ (!C! #4#) An o""icer (aFing an arrest in obedience to a warrant must procee, 0ith the arrestee as co((an,e, by the 0arrant- or as pro.i,e, by la0. (!C! #4"+a,) An o""icer (or pri.ate person) (aFing an arrest without a warrant shall- 0ithout unnecessary ,elay- taFe the prisoner not other0ise release, be"ore the nearest or (ost accessible (agistrate in the county in 0hich the o""ense is triablean, a co(plaint stating the charge against the arreste, person shall be lai, be"ore such (agistrate. (!C! #4"+4,) Any peace o""icer (ay release from custodyinstea, o" taFing such person be"ore a (agistrate- any person arreste, 0ithout a 0arrant 0hene.er) +he o""icer is satis"ie, that there are insu""icient groun,s "or (aFing a cri(inal co(plaint against the person. (Su4d! +4,+1,) +he person arreste, 0as arreste, "or into?ication onlyan, no "urther procee,ings are ,esirable. (Su4d! +4,+2,) +he person 0as arreste, only "or being un,er the in"luence o" a controlle, substance or ,rug an, such person is ,eli.ere, to a "acility or hospital "or treat(ent an, no "urther procee,ings are ,esirable. (Su4d! +4,+3,) +ote) 1t is also arguable that a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer (ay choose to release a subCect "or 0ho( probable cause does e?ist. +here is nothing in the case or statutory la0 that says that (!C! #4"+4, is the e?clusi.e authority "or releasing an arreste, prisoner. +ote- ho0e.er- (!C! 4311!13- prohibiting la0 en"orce(ent "ro( releasing a Cail in(ate "or the purpose o" allo0ing the in(ate to seeF (e,ical care at a hospital- an, then i((e,iately re%arresting the 233
sa(e in,i.i,ual upon ,ischarge "ro( the hospitalunless the hospital ,eter(ines this action 0oul, enable it to bill an, collect "ro( a thir,%party pay(ent source. (!C! #4"+c,) Any recor, o" arrest o" a person release, pursuant to (!C! #4"+4,+1, or +3, shall inclu,e a recor, o" release- an, shall therea"ter be ,ee(e, a ,etention only. Ci$i" 2ia.i"it&) +here shall be no ci.il liability on the part o"- an, no cause o" action shall arise against- any peace o""icer acting 0ithin the scope o" his or her authority- "or "alse arrest or "alse i(prison(ent arising out o" any arrest 0hen) (!C! #32 +a,- +4,) Such arrest 0as la0"ul or 0hen the o""icer- at the ti(e o" the arrest- ha, reasonable or probable cause to belie.e the arrest 0as la0"ul. (!C! #3#) A (agistrate orally or,ere, the o""icer to arrest a person 0ho 0as co((itting a public o""ense in the (agistrate s presence. (!C! #3") An o""icer 0as respon,ing to an oral re@uest "or assistance in (aFing an arrest.
233
Chapter G
Searches and Sei5ures) Thin1s Su.;ect to Search and Sei5e: E!idence of a crime. &ontraband. 'nstrumentalities of a crime. (ruits of a crime. ()eop"e $# Tha&er (1&5$) 53 Cal.2n, 53$: -arden, %ar&"and )enitentiar& $# 0a&den (1&52) 3#2 4.S. 2&3 61# 7.8,.2n, 2#29: Guidi $# Superior Court (1&23) 10 Cal.3r, 1.) Searches and Sei5ures: eizure) A sei;ure o" property occurs 0hen there is so(e (eaning"ul inter"erence 0ith an in,i.i,ual s possessory interest in that property. (United States $# *e''erson (&th Cir. 200&) $55 B.3r, &2#- &33citing United States $# *aco.son (1&#3) 355 4.S. 10&- 113 6#0 7.8,.2n, #$9: United States $# /aro (1&#3) 35# 4.S. 20$- 213 6#2 7.8,.2n, $309.) earch) A search occurs 0hen an e?pectation o" pri.acy that society is prepare, to consi,er reasonable is in"ringe, upon. +he Fourth Amendment protects against trespassory searchesbut only 0ith regar, to those ite(s (=persons, houses, papers, and effects=) that it enu(erates. (United States $# *ones (Jan. 23- 2012) $5$ 4.S. >>- >>>- 6132 S.Ct. &3$: 1#1 7.8,.2n, &119: hol,ing that placing a tracFing ,e.ice on a suspect s .ehicle (i.e.- the .ehicle co(ing 0ithin the category o" *effects/) an, then (onitoring its (o.e(ent is legally a *search./) Ta?ing a D+* sample .ia a *buccal s0ab/ o" the (outh is a search un,er the Fourth Amendment. (Friedman $# oucher (&th Cir. 200&) $#0 B.3r, #32- #$2%#$3.) Aey in a "oc?) Ehether or not police using a Fey in a locF- 0here the locF is other0ise e?pose, to public .ie0 (e.g.- the "ront ,oor to a suspect s house)- is a search has been subCect to a ,i""erence o" opinion. (See )eop"e $# Ro.inson (2012) 20# Cal.App.3th 232232%2$$: ,iscussing the con"licting cases- but noting that it nee, 23$
not be ,eci,e, in this case because e.en i" it 0as a search- the search 0as not unreasonable because 0hen balance, 0ith the go.ern(ental interest it ser.e,- the intrusion 0as (ini(al. 1nserting an, turning a Fey in a locF hel, to be a search) United States $# Concepcion (2th Cir. 1&&1) &32 B.2n, 1120- 1122.) Conclu,ing that testing a Fey in an apart(ent ,oor locF 0as a search. *A Feyhole contains informationPin"or(ation about 0ho has access to the space beyon,. As the 6F7ourth 6A7mendment protects pri.ate in"or(ation rather than "or(al ,e"initions o" property- 6citations9- the locF is a potentially protecte, ;one. An, as the tu(bler o" a locF is not accessible to strangers . . . the use o" an instru(ent to e?a(ine its 0orFings (that is- a Fey) looFs a lot liFe a search. . . . 6_9 Gecause the agents obtain in"or(ation "ro( the insi,e o" the locF- 0hich is both use, "re@uently by the o0ner an, not open to public .ie0- it see(s irresistible that inserting an, turning the Fey is a Asearch. / Io0e.er- the Court hel, that the Fourth Amendment 0as not .iolate, in that the insertion o" the Fey into the ,oor locF 0as such a *minimal intrusion./ (Id.- at p. 1123.) (See *,inimal 'ntrusion Exception-/ belo0.) )orti""o3Re&es (&th Cir. 1&2$) $2& B.2, #33- #3#) Putting a Fey into the ,oor locF o" a UolFs0agen auto(obile hel, to be *the beginning o" the search/ an, thus the *reasonable e?pectancy o" pri.acy/ ,octrine o" /at5 $# United States (1&52) 3#& 4.S. 332 61& 7.8,.2n, $259 applies. 1nserting an, turning a Fey in a locF hel, not to be a search) United States $# Sa"1ado (5th Cir. 2001) 2$0 B.3r, 33#- 3$5) *(+)he (ere insertion o" a Fey into a(n apart(ent ,oor) locF- by an o""icer 0ho la0"ully possesses the Fey an, is in a location 0here he has a right to be- to ,eter(ine 0hether the Fey operates the locF- is not a search./ 235
United States $# 0a,(ins (1st Cir. 1&&#) 13& B.3r, 2&- 33- "n. 1) *(1)nsertion o" a Fey into the locF o" a storage co(part(ent "or the purpose o" i,enti"ying o0nership ,oes not constitute a search./ United States $# 2&ons (1st Cir. 1&&0) #&# B.2n, 210212%213) 1insertion o" Fey into pa,locF o" storage unit "or purpose o" i,enti"ying o0nership ,i, not in"ringe on any reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy. United States $# De arde"e.en (5th Cir. 1&3#) 230 B.2n, 330- 333) +he ,e"en,ant ha, no *reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the i,entity o" his .ehicle./ A set o" car Feys la0"ully "oun, in ,e"en,ant s possession a"ter his arrest 0ere "oun, to "it the ,oor an, trunF locFs o" a car "oun, in a parFing lot an, suspecte, to belong to ,e"en,ant. %athis $# State (AlasFa 1&#&) 22# P.2n, 1151- 115$) *1nsertion o" the Fey ,i, not constitute a search o" the locFer- but (erely an i,enti"ication o" it as belonging to the 6,e"en,ants9./ )eop"e $# Carro"" (1&23) 12 1ll.App.3r, #5&- #2$% #25) 1nsertion an, turning o" a Fey in the "ront ,oor o" ,e"en,ant s apart(ent hel, not to be a search. 1t is possible that the recent 4nite, States Supre(e Court case o" United States $# *ones (Jan. 23- 2012) $5$ 4.S. >> 6132 S.Ct. &3$: 1#1 7.8,.2n, &119.)- ree(phasi;ing the Co((on 7a0 theory that a trespassory intrusion- 0here the go.ern(ent physically intru,es into a constitutionally protecte, area- is a search- an, subCect to the restrictions o" the Fourth Amendment- arguably tipping the scale to "in,ing that any use o" a Fey in a locF belonging to a ,e"en,ant to be a search. (See )eop"e $# Ro.inson (2012) 20# Cal.App.3th 232- 233- "n. 11- W 233.) Howe!erin a post%*ones case- the 8ight Circuit Court o" Appeal conclu,e, that a police ,etecti.e ,i, not co((it a trespass 0hen he locate, a suspect s car in a parFing lot by using the suspect s Fey "ob to trigger the carDs alar(. +he court reasone, that the ,etecti.e ha, la0"ully sei;e, the Fey "ob an, the *(ere trans(ission o" electric signals alone/ through the Fey "ob 0as not a trespass on the car. (United States $# Co,an (#th Cir. 2012) 523 B.3r, &32- &$5.) 232
earch !s2 eizure) A 0arrantless seizure o" a container o" contraban, ,oes not necessarily also allo0 "or a 0arrantless search o" that container. (Ro.e& $# Superior Court 6)eop"e7 (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 1.) Petition "or re.ie0 0as grante, by the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court in this case (Jan. 1#- 2012)- 0ith the ,ecision being ,epublishe,(aFing Ro.e& no longer a.ailable "or citation. +he stan,ar,s applicable to these t0o concepts are .ery si(ilar- i" not the sa(e. As the Supre(e Court has note,) *Although the interest protecte, by the Fourth Amendment inCunction against unreasonable searches is @uite ,i""erent "ro( that protecte, by its inCunction against unreasonable sei;ures 6citation9- neither the one nor the other is o" in"erior 0orth or necessarily re@uires only lesser protection. Ee ha.e not else0here ,ra0n a categorical ,istinction bet0een the t0o inso"ar as concerns the ,egree o" Custi"ication nee,e, to establish the reasonableness o" police action- an, 0e see no reason "or a ,istinction in the particular circu(stances be"ore us here./ (Ari5ona $# 0ic(s (1&#2) 3#0 4.S. 321- 32# 6&3 7.8,.2n, 3329.) Genera" Ru"e) 1n or,er "or a search to be la0"ul- a search warrant- supporte, by probable cause- (ust "irst be obtaine,. (Fourth Amendment, nited States Constitution: Art 1, 13, California Constitution) earch =arrant) *(A)n or,er in 0riting- in the na(e o" the peoplesigne, by a (agistrate- ,irecte, to a peace o""icer- co((an,ing hi( or her to search "or a person or persons- a thing or things- or personal property- an, bring it be"ore the (agistrate./ ((!C! 1)23) Probable &ause) Roughly the sa(e stan,ar,s apply 0hether the issue is an arrest or a search. (S(e"ton $# Superior Court (1&5&) 1 Cal.3r, 1331$0.) See **rrests-/ abo.e- an, * earches with a earch =arrant-/ belo0. )resumptions) Searches an, sei;ures are presu(e,- as a general rule- to be unreasonable in the absence o" su""icient *indi!idualized suspicion/ o" 0rong,oing to support a "in,ing o" *probable cause./ (Chand"er $# %i""er (1&&2) $20 4.S. 30$- 30# 6132 7.8,.2n, $13- $1&9.) *nd then- e.en 0ith probable cause- searches 0ithout a search warrant are presu(e, to be unlawful- absent one o" the narro0ly construe, e?ceptions 23#
to the search 0arrant e?ception. (%ince& $# Ari5ona (1&2#) 332 4.S. 3#$3&0 6$2 7.8,.2n, 2&0- 2&#%2&&9: In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#- 25: re.erse, on other groun,s.) +he prosecution bears the bur,en o" Custi"ying a 0arrantless search- re@uiring proo" o" a recogni;e, e?ception to the search 0arrant re@uire(ent. (-e"sh $# -isconsin (1&#3) 355 4.S. 23023&%2$0 6#0 7.8,.2n, 232- 232%2339: )eop"e $# *ames (1&22) 1& Cal.3r, &&- 105.) Remed& 'or 9io"ations: The *Exclusionary Rule)/ Earrantless searchesper"or(e, 0ithout probable cause an, 0ithout an e?ception to the 0arrant re@uire(ent (or e.en 0hen a 0arrant is use,- but 0here the 0arrant is later ,eter(ine, to be legally ,e"ecti.e)- subCects any reco.ere, e.i,ence to exclusion from being used as e!idence in court. (-ee(s $# United States (1&13) 232 4.S. 3#3 6$# 7.8,. 5$29.) The Fourth Amendment) Although the Fourth Amendment 0as originally inten,e, to restrict the actions o" the "e,eral go.ern(ent onlythe sa(e e?clusionary rule- as a .iolation o" the Fourteenth Amendment *due process/ clause- is applicable to the states (0hich inclu,es counties an, (unicipalities) as 0ell. (%app $# Ohio (1&51) 352 4.S. 533 65 7.8,.2n, 10#1.) Reasoning) Uiolating one s Fourth Amendment rights is such a "un,a(ental- i(portant- issue that to ,o so is auto(atically a .iolation o" the Fourteenth Amendment ,ue process rights o" the person subCecte, to the illegal search or sei;ure. (I.id.) See *Exclusionary Rule-/ un,er *The Fourth Amendment, United States Constitution-/ abo.e. ,otion to uppress) Cali"ornia tests the constitutionality o" a search or sei;ure (i.e.- Fourth Amendment issues) .ia the proce,ures as spelle, out in (!C! 1)3#!).) *1n ruling on a (otion to suppress- the trial court is charge, 0ith (1) "in,ing the historical "acts: (2) selecting the applicable rule o" la0: and (3) applying the "or(er to ,eter(ine 0hether or not the rule o" la0 as applie, to the establishe, "acts has been .iolate,./ ()eop"e $# )arson (200#) 33 Cal.3th 332- 33$: citing )eop"e $# A&a"a (2000) 23 Cal.3th 233- 22&.) 23&
+he appellate court then *re.ie0(s) the trial court s resolution o" the "irst in@uiry (abo.e)- 0hich in.ol.es @uestions o" "act- un,er the ,e"erential substantial%e.i,ence stan,ar,- but subCect(s) the secon, an, thir, in@uires to in,epen,ent re.ie0./ ()eop"e $# )arson- supra- citing )eop"e $# A&a"a- supra.- an, )eop"e $# -ea$er (2001) 25 Cal.3th 25- &23.) (ruit of the Poisonous Tree) +he e.i,ence that is suppresse, is li(ite, to the direct products o" the constitutional .iolation: i.e.- the *fruit of the poisonous tree./ (-on1 Sun $# United States (1&53) 321 4.S. 321 6& 7.8,.2n, 3319.) See *(ruit of the Poisonous Tree-/ un,er *The Fourth Amendment- United States Constitution- abo.e. *8.i,ence obtaine, by such illegal action o" the police is A"ruit o" the poisonous tree- 0arranting application o" the e?clusionary rule i"- Agranting establish(ent o" the pri(ary illegality- the e.i,ence to 0hich instant obCection is (a,e has been co(e at by e?ploitation o" the illegality or instea, by (eans su""iciently ,istinguishable to be purge, o" the pri(ary taint. / (United States $# Cra,'ord (&th Cir. 2003) 322 B.3r, 103#- 10$3- @uoting ro,n $# I""inois (1&2$) 322 4.S. $&0- at p. $&& 63$ 7.8,.2n, 3159.) Jot all courts are in agree(ent that such a re(e,y is reser.e, e?clusi.ely "or constitutional .iolations. (See ,iscussion in United States $# 2om.era3Camor"in1a (&th Cir. 2000) 205 B.3r, ##2- ##5%##2- an, in the ,issenting opinion- p. #&3.) 8?a(ples) !bser.ations (a,e a"ter an unla0"ul- 0arrantless entry into a structure cannot be use, to establish probable cause "or later obtaining a search 0arrant. (%urra& $# United States (1&##) 3#2 4.S. $33- $30 6101 7.8,.2n, 322- 3#29: urro,s $# Superior Court (1&23) 13 Cal.3r, 23#- 2$1.) A consent to search gi.en *i((e,iately "ollo0ing an illegal entry or search/ is in.ali, because it *is inseparable "ro( the unla0"ul con,uct./ ()eop"e $# Ro.erts (1&$5) 32 Cal.2n, 323- 322.) A consent to enter a resi,ence- obtaine, i((e,iately a"ter a co%resi,ent s arrest on the "ront porch an, a 230
conte(poraneous illegal protecti.e s0eep o" the resi,encehel, to be in.ali, as the "ruit o" the illegal protecti.e s0eep. Plain sight obser.ations (a,e insi,e the resi,ence ,uring the allege,ly consensual entry 0ere hel, to be illegal. ()eop"e $# -erner (2012) 202 Cal.App.3th 11&$1210%1212.) Exceptions) Pri!ate persons (unless 0orFing as an *agent of law enforcement/) (ay .iolate a subCect s constitutional rights 0ithout threat o" suppression- in that the constitutional protections apply to go!ernment searches only. ()eop"e $# *ohnson (1&32) 1$3 Cal.App.2n, #23.) A licensed pri!ate in!estigator 0ho is acting in "urtherance o" a pri.ate interest- rather than "or a la0 en"orce(ent or go.ern(ent purpose- is not subCect to the restrictions o" the Fourth Amendment. ()eop"e $# %an1ie'ico (1&22) 2$ Cal.App.3r, 1031- 1035%1032: )eop"e $# De *uan (1&#$) 121 Cal.App.3r, 1110- 111&.) $ail bondspersons an, *$ounty Hunters-/ although allo0e, to taFe a ,e"en,ant into custo,y ((!C! #41!), 1333, 1331,- they are acting as pri.ate citi;ens an, are not subCect to the 8?clusionary Rule. ()eop"e $# 0ou"e (1&20) 13 Cal.App.3r, #&2- #&$: 2andr& $# A3A."e ondin1, Inc# (1&&5) 2$ B.3r, 200- 203%20$.) 8.en an off6duty police officer *may/ not be acting as a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer in con,ucting a search- 0hen he acts in his capacity as a pri.ate citi;en- an, through (ere curiosity. ()eop"e $# -achter (1&25) $# Cal.App.3r, 311&20%&23: see also )eop"e $# )eterson (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, ##3- #&3: o""%,uty police trainee acting out o" concern "or his o0n sa"ety.) Exception to Pri!ate Persons Exception) **gents of "aw Enforcement)/ Anyone acting at the re@uest o"- or un,er the ,irection o"- a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- is an agent o" the police an, is hel, to the sa(e stan,ar,s as the police. ()eop"e $# Fierro (1&5$) 235 Cal.App.2n, 333- 332.) 231
Sei;ure o" bloo, by a state hospital- 0orFing 0ith la0 en"orce(ent (i.e.- an *agent/ o" la0 en"orce(ent)- taFing an, testing bloo, "ro( e?pectant (others an, testing "or ,rugs- hel, to be an illegal go.ern(ental search. (Fer1uson et a"# $# Cit& o' Char"eston (2001) $32 4.S. 52 613& 7.8,.2n, 20$9.) 1n ,eter(ining 0hether a person is acting as a police agent- t0o "actors (ust be consi,ere,) (1) Ehether the go.ern(ent Fne0 o" an, ac@uiesce, in the pri.ate search: an, (2) 0hether the pri.ate in,i.i,ual inten,e, to assist la0 en"orce(ent orinstea,- ha, so(e other in,epen,ent (oti.ation. +he "irst "actor re@uires e.i,ence o" (ore than (ere Fno0le,ge an, passi.e ac@uiescence by a police o""icer be"ore "in,ing an agency relationship. 1t taFes so(e e.i,ence o" a police o""icer s control or encourage(ent. As "or the secon, "actor- a ,ual purpose (e.g.- to help the police and hi(sel") is not enough. ()eop"e $# -i"(inson (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th 1$$3- 1$53%1$5&: also reCecting Cali"ornia s pre%Proposition # stricter stan,ar,s.) A ci.il rights action pursuant to 42 !S!C! 1"#3 0as hel, to be proper against non%la0 en"orce(ent e(ployees o" a pri.ate corporation that operate, a "e,eral prison un,er contract. ()o""ard $# GEO Group, Inc# (&th Cir. 2010) 502 B.3r, $#3.) The *<ood (aith/ Exception) 1n those cases 0here en"orcing the *Exclusionary Rule/ 0oul, not a,.ance its re(e,ial purposese.i,ence sei;e, unla0"ully 0ill not be suppresse,. (I""inois $# /ru"" (1&#2) 3#0 4.S. 330- 332 6&3 7.8,.2n, 353- 3239: United States $# 2eon (1&#3) 35# 4.S. #&2- &20%&21 6#2 7.8,.2n, 5225&29: 0errin1 $# United States (200&) $$$ 4.S. 13$ 6122 7.8,.2n, 3&59.) See *<ood (aith-/ belo0- an, *,ista?en $elief in Existence of Probable &ause to *rrest or earch, an *rrest =arrant, or that a Fourth =ai!er Exists, $ased upon Erroneous 'nformation recei!ed from Various ources-/ abo.e. The Taint has been *ttenuated) *(L)ranting establish(ent o" the pri(ary illegality-/ 0hether or not the resulting e.i,ence is subCect 232
to suppression is a @uestion o" 0hether *the e.i,ence . . . has been co(e at by e?ploitation o" that illegality or instea, by (eans su""iciently ,istinguishable to be purge, o" the pri(ary taint./ (-on1 Sun $# United States (1&53) 321 4.S. 321- 3#2%3## 6& 7.8,.2n, 331- 3$$9.) 1n ,eter(ining 0hether the *primary taint/ (i.e.- an illegal search- ,etention or arrest) has been su""iciently *purged/ re@uires consi,eration o" three "actors) +he *temporal proximity/ bet0een the illegal act an, the resulting e.i,ence. +he presence o" any *inter!ening circumstances:/ and +he *purpose and flagrancy/ o" the o""icial (iscon,uct. (Ta&"or $# A"a.ama (1&#2) 3$2 4.S. 5#2- 5&0 623 7.8,.2n, 313- 31&9: see also United States $# Cra,'ord (&th Cir. 2003) 323 B.3r, 200- 21&%222: ro,n $# I""inois (1&2$) 322 4.S. $&0- 500%50$ 63$ 7.8,.2n, 315- 32$%32#9: /aupp $# Te!as (2003) $3# 4.S. 525- 533 61$$ 7.8,.2n, #13- #22.) A %iranda a,(onish(ent an, 0ai.er- alone- is legally insu""icient to attenuate the taint o" an illegal arrest. ( ro,n $# I""inoissupra: /aupp $# Te!assupra.) +he "act that the ,e"en,ant ha, an outstan,ing arrest 0arrant (ay- ,epen,ing upon the circu(stances- be su""icient o" an inter.ening circu(stance to allo0 "or the a,(issibility o" the e.i,ence sei;e, inci,ent to arrest ,espite the "act that the original ,etention 0as illegal. ()eop"e $# rend"in (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 252: an illegal tra""ic stop.) +he circu(stances to be consi,ere, are) +he te(poral pro?i(ity o" the Fourth Amendment .iolation to the procure(ent o" the challenge, e.i,ence: +he presence o" inter.ening circu(stances (e.g.- an arrest 0arrant): 233
+he "lagrancy o" the o""icial (iscon,uct. (Id.- at pp. 25#%222: citing ro,n $# I""inois (1&2$) 322 4.S. $&0 63$ 7.8,.2n, 3159.)
De"en,ant- the passenger in a (otor .ehicle stoppe, "or illegally tinte, 0in,o0s (0!C! 2213#+a,)- 0as arreste, on an outstan,ing arrest 0arrant. 8.en ha, the tra""ic stop ha, been illegal- the ,isco.ery o" the arrest 0arrant 0as su""icient to attenuate any possible taint o" an illegal tra""ic stop. +)eop"e $# Carter (2010) 1#2 Cal.App.3th $22- $2&%$30.) 1n a "e,eral asset "or"eiture procee,ing- the C8! o" a (ariCuana ,ispensary "iling an a""i,a.it a,(itting to the ,ispensary s connection to (oney s illegally sei;e, .ia a search 0arrant later ,eter(ine, to be in.ali,- e.en though the a""i,a.it 0as "ile, so(e t0o (onths a"ter the sei;urehel, to still be the pro,uct o" the illegal search 0here the only 0ay "or the ,ispensary to get the (oney bacF 0as to "ile the a""i,a.it in response to the Lo.ern(ent s atte(pt to retain the (oney. (United States $# H1FD,61D#77 in U#S# Currenc& (&th Cir. 2010) $&0 B.3r, &32- &3&%&$3.) =hen the Purposes of the Exclusionary Rule are +ot er!ed) +he 8?clusionary Rule is not inten,e, to pre.ent all police (iscon,uct or as a re(e,y "or all police errors. *The use of the exclusionary rule is an exceptional remedy typically reser!ed for !iolations of constitutional rights./ (United States $# Smith (&th Cir. 1&&&) 1&5 B.3r, 1033- 1030.) *+o trigger the e?clusionary rule- police con,uct (ust be su""iciently ,eliberate that e?clusion can (eaning"ully ,eter itan, su""iciently culpable that such ,eterrence is 0orth the price pai, by the Custice syste(./ (0errin1 $# United States (200&) $$$ 4.S. 13$ 6122 7.8,.2n, 3&59: see also )eop"e $# 2ea" (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th 1021- 1053% 105$.) +he e?clusionary rule shoul, only be use, 0hen necessary to ,eter *,eliberate- recFless- or grossly negligent con,uctor in so(e circu(stances- recurring or syste(atic negligence./ (0errin1 $# United States- at p. 133 612& S.Ct. at p. 202.9.) 233
+he sei;ure o" ,e"en,ant s .ehicle base, upon it ha.ing been reporte,- an, in the co(puter syste(- as *stolen-/ e.en though the ,e"en,ant s ac@uisition o" the .ehicle ,i, not "it *neatly/ into the ele(ents o" 0!C! 13#)1 (i.e.- the .ehicle 0as purchase, "ro( a ,ealership- albeit 0ith ,e"en,ant pro.i,ing the ,ealer 0ith "rau,ulent in"or(ation in his application "or cre,it- a"ter 0hich ,e"en,ant cease, (aFing pay(ents)- ,i, not (aFe the sei;ure *unreasonable./ +here 0as no ba, "aith on the part o" the ,etecti.e 0ho entere, the .ehicle into the co(puter syste( as stolen. +he sei;ing o""icers 0ere entitle, to rely upon the in"or(ation as containe, in the co(puter syste(. (United States $# Noster (&th Cir. 200&) $&0 B.3r, 523- 52&% 533.) Gut note that accor,ing to the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal- a search inci,ent to arrest that 0as la0"ul prior to the ,ecision in Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9- is still subCect to the ne0 rule in Gantapplying the rule retroacti.ely- in any case that 0as not yet "inal as o" the ,ate o" the ,ecision in Gant (April 21- 200&). +he o""icer s goo, "aith in applying the prior rule is irrele.ant. (United States $# Gon5a"e5 (&th Cir. 200&) $2# B.3r, 1130.) The ,inimal 'ntrusion Exception: +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has recogni;e,- at least by in"erencethat in those instances 0here there is a *minimal intrusion/ into a ,e"en,ant s pri.acy rightssuppression o" the resulting e.i,ence (ay not be re@uire,. *Ehen "ace, 0ith special la0 en"orce(ent nee,s,i(inishe, e?pectations o" pri.acy- minimal intrusions- or the liFe- 6it9 has "oun, that certain general- or in,i.i,ualcircu(stances (ay ren,er a 0arrantless search or sei;ure reasonable./ (1talics a,,e,: I""inois $# %cArthur (2001) $31 4.S. 325- 330 613# 7.8,.2n, #3#9.) *(A)lthough a 0arrant (ay be an essential ingre,ient o" reasonableness (uch o" the ti(e- "or less intrusi.e searches it is not/ (United States $# Concepcion (2th Cir. 1&&1) &32 B.2n, 1120- 1122: the issue being 0hether turning a Fey in a ,oor locF 0as a search- but such a (ini(al intrusion that a search 0arrant 0as not necessary.) 23$
Eithout obtaining a 0arrant- the police searche, the ,e"en,ant s cell phone "or its phone nu(ber. +he police later use, the nu(ber to subpoena the phone s call history "ro( the telephone co(pany. 8.en though there 0as no urgent nee, to search the cell phone "or its phone nu(ber- the Se.enth Circuit pointe, out *that bit o" in"or(ation (ight be so tri.ial that its sei;ure 0oul, not in"ringe the Fourth Amendment./ (United States $# F"ores32ope5 (2th Cir. 2012) 520 B.3r, #03- #05%#02.) Cali"ornia s Birst District Court o" Appeal (Di.. $) has "oun, this theory to be a 0hole separate e?ception to the search 0arrant re@uire(ent- calling it the *Oini(al 1ntrusion 8?ception./ ()eop"e $# Ro.inson (2012) 20# Cal.App.3th 232- 235%2$$: *+he (ini(al intrusion e?ception to the 0arrant re@uire(ent rests on the conclusion that in a .ery narro0 class o" Asearches the pri.acy interests i(plicate, are Aso s(all that the o""icers ,o not nee, probable cause: "or the search to be reasonable./ (Id.- at p. 232.) Joting that searches o" the person- at least absent an o""icer%sa"ety issuean, searches o" a resi,ence(ay be outsi,e the scope o" the (ini(al intrusion theory. (Id.- at p. 23&.) *Although the 4nite, States Supre(e Court has not clearly articulate, the para(eters o" the e?ception"e,eral authorities pro.i,e su""icient support "or conclu,ing that in appropriate circu(stances- the (ini(al intrusion e?ception to the 0arrant re@uire(ent (ay be applie, to uphol, 0arrantless searches base, on less than probable cause. Ooreo.er- although the high court s ,ecisions in the area ha.e pri(arily been Custi"ie, by o""icer sa"ety concerns (Citations)- nothing in the high court s Curispru,ence appears to preclu,e the possibility that a Custi"ication less than o""icer sa"ety coul, be su""icient to Custi"y an intrusion as (ini(al as that in.ol.e, in the present case./ (Id.- at pp. 23&%2$0.) Also- the "act that the ,e"en,ant s "ront ,oor 0as 0ithin the curtilage o" his ho(e- 0hich also enCoys Fourth Amendment protection- ,oes not alter the result. Ehen the "ront ,oor being an area open to 235
the general public- there 0as no .iolation in approaching the ,oor an, inserting the Fey. (Id.- at p. 2$3- "n. 23.) tatutory6;nly Violations) Rele.ant e.i,ence 0ill not be suppresse, unless suppression is re@uire, by the Fourth Amendment to the nited States Constitution- or 0hen a statute .iolate, by la0 en"orce(ent co((an,s suppression by its ter(s. (Cal! Const!, Art! 1, 2#+d,: In re 2ance -# (1&#$) 32 Cal.3r, #23- ##5%##2: )eop"e $# Ti""er& (1&#&) 211 Cal.App.3r, 1$5&1$2&: )eop"e $# 2epei.et (1&&2) 3 Cal.App.3th 120#- 1212%1213.) See (!C! 232- 0hich (aFes it a "elony "or a person to ea.es,rop on a *confidential communication-/ and that the result o" any such ea.es,ropping 0ill not be a,(issible in court. (Su4d! +d,) +ote) Jot all courts are in agree(ent that such a re(e,y is reser.e, e?clusi.ely "or constitutional .iolations. (See ,iscussion in United States $# 2om.era3Camor"in1a (&th Cir. 2000) 205 B.3r, ##2- ##5%##2- an, in the ,issenting opinion- p. #&3.) 8?a(ples o" Statutory Uiolations !nly) 1t is not unconstitutional to (aFe a custo,ial arrest (i.e.- transporting to Cail or court) o" a person arreste, "or a (inor (is,e(eanor (At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista (2001) $32 4.S. 31# 613& 7.8,.2n, $3&9.)- or e.en "or a "ine%only- in"raction. ( )eop"e $# %c/a& (2002) 22 Cal.3th 501- 502: see also United States $# %cFadden (2n, Cir. 2001) 23# B.3r, 1&#- 203.) Cali"ornia s statutory pro.isions re@uire the release o" (is,e(eanor arrestees in (ost circu(stances. (8.g.- see (!C! #)3!), #)3!2, 0!C! 43333, 43)33) Io0e.er- .iolation o" these statutory re@uire(ents is not a constitutional .iolation an,there"ore- should not result in suppression o" any e.i,ence reco.ere, as a result o" such an arrest. ()eop"e $# %c/a&- supraat pp. 502%51&- a .iolation o" 0!C! 212)3!1 (ri,ing a bicycle in the 0rong ,irection): )eop"e $# Gome5 (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $31- $3&- seat belt .iolation (0!C! 232
2131)+d,+1,)- citing At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9istasupra: )eop"e $# ennett (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th &02- &1#.) See also 9ir1inia $# %oore (200#) $$3 4.S. 153 6120 7.8,.2n, $$&9- ,ri.ing on a suspen,e, license. Custo,ial arrest "or a (is,e(eanor that ,i, not occur in the o""icer s presence- in .iolation o" (!C! #32+a,+1,. ()eop"e $# Dona"dson (1&&$) 35 Cal.App.3th $32- $3&: )eop"e $# Trapane (1&&1) 1 Cal.App.3th Supp. 10- 12%13.) A *?noc? and notice/ .iolation) Uiolating the ter(s o" (!C! #44 an,Nor 1)31 (Cali"ornia s statutory *FnocF an, notice/ re@uire(ents) ,oes not necessarily also .iolate the Fourth Amendment. (-i"son $# Ar(ansas (1&&$) $13 4.S. &22 6131 7.8,.2n, &259: )eop"e $# 4a.e""e (1&&5) $0 Cal.App.3th 12#2.) Ehether or not it ,oes ,epen,s upon the circu(stances. (See *Anoc? and +otice-/ belo0.) Gut e.en 0hen such a .iolation is ,eter(ine, to ha.e been ,one contrary to the ,ictates o" the Fourth Amendment- the 8?clusionary Rule has recently been hel, to be an inappropriate re(e,y- at least in (ost cases. (0udson $# %ichi1an (2005) $32 4.S. $#5 615$ 7.8,.2n, $59.) Per 0udson- the suppression o" e.i,ence is only necessary 0here the interests protecte, by the constitutional guarantee that has been .iolate, 0oul, be ser.e, by suppressing the e.i,ence thus obtaine,. +he interests protecte, by the FnocF an, notice rules inclu,e hu(an li"e- because *an unannounce, entry (ay pro.oFe .iolence in suppose, sel"%,e"ense by 23#
the surprise, resi,ent./ Property rights are also protecte, by pro.i,ing resi,ents an opportunity to pre.ent a "orcible entry. An,- *pri.acy an, ,ignity/ are protecte, by gi.ing the occupants an opportunity to collect the(sel.es be"ore ans0ering the ,oor. (I.id.) +he Court also rule, in 0udson that because ci.il suits are (ore rea,ily a.ailable than in 1&13 0ith the e?clusionary rule 0as "irst announce,- an, because la0 en"orce(ent o""icers- being better e,ucate,- traine, an, super.ise,- can be subCecte, to ,epart(ental ,iscipline- suppressing the pro,uct o" a FnocF an, notice .iolation is no longer a necessary re(e,y. (I.id.) +he rule as ,ictate, by 0udson (a search 0arrant case) is applicable as 0ell as in a 0arrantless- yet la0"ul- arrest case- pursuant to (!C! #44. (In re Fran( S# (2005) 132 Cal.App.3th 13$.) Io0e.er- 0udson is not to be interprete, to (ean that the 8?clusionary Rule is to be scrape,. 1ntentionally unla0"ul la0 en"orce(ent actions 0ill still be subCect to the 8?clusionary Rule 0here necessary to ,iscourage "uture illegal police acti.ities. ()eop"e $# Rodri1ue5 (2005) 133 Cal.App.3th 1132: case re(an,e, "or a ,eter(ination 0hether police "abricate, probable cause "or a tra""ic stop- 0hich le, to the ,isco.ery o" an outstan,ing arrest 0arrant- the search inci,ent thereto resulting in reco.ery o" controlle, substances.) Uiolation o" a go!ernment agency regulation (i.e.not a statute or a constitutional principle) also ,oes not necessitate suppression o" the resulting e.i,ence. (United States $# Ani (&th Cir. 1&&#) 13# B.3r, 3&0.) 23&
Possible .iolation o" an 1n,ian Reser.ation statute or rule- not in.ol.ing a constitutional principle- 0ill not result in the suppression o" any e.i,ence. (United States $# ecerra3Garcia (&th Cir. 200$) 3&2 B.3r, 1152- 1123.) OistaFenly collecting bloo, sa(ples "or inclusion into Cali"ornia s DJA ,ata base (See P.C. V 2&5)0hen the ,e"en,ant ,i, not actually ha.e a @uali"ying prior con.iction- is not a Fourth Amendment .iolation- but e.en i" it 0ere- it ,oes not re@uire the suppression o" the (istaFenly collecte, bloo, sa(ples- nor is it groun,s to suppress the resulting (atch o" the ,e"en,ant s DJA 0ith that le"t at a cri(e scene. ()eop"e $# Ro.inson (2010) 32 Cal.3th 1103- 1115%112&.)
Doctrine of 'ne!itable Disco!ery) 8.i,ence sei;e, unla0"ully 0ill be hel, to be a,(issible in those instances 0here- but "or the illegal search- there is a *reasonable possibility/ that the e.i,ence 0oul, ha.e been la0"ully "oun, by other (eans. (%urra& $# United States (1&##) 3#2 4.S. $33- $3& 6101 7.8,.2n, 3229: Ni! $# -i""iams (1&#3) 352 4.S. 332 6 #1 7.8,.2n, 3229: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6-a"(er7 (2005) 133 Cal.App.3th 11#3- 1213% 1212: )eop"e $# Redd (2010) 3# Cal.3th 5&1- 221.) 1ne.itable ,isco.ery does not apply- ho0e.er- (erely because the o""icers ha, probable cause an, coul, ha.e gotten a search 0arrant. (0udson $# %ichi1an (2005) $32 4.S. $#5 615$ 7.8,.2n, $59: )eop"e $# Ro."es (2000) 23 Cal.3th 2#&: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6-a"(er7- supraat p. 121$.) Stoppe, an, physically arreste, "or ,ri.ing on a suspen,e, license (0ith a prior con.iction "or the sa(e)- ,e"en,ant 0as secure, in the bacF seat o" a patrol car. +he subse@uent search o" his .ehicleresulting in the reco.ery o" cocaine an, an illegal "irear( (,e"en,ant being a con.icte, "elon) 0as "oun, to be in .iolation o" the rule o" Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$90here it 0as hel, that once ,e"en,ant is arreste, an, secure,- a *search inci,ent to arrest/ o" the subCect s .ehicle is not la0"ul unless there is so(e reason to belie.e that e.i,ence rele.ant to the cause o" arrest (ay be "oun,. 2$0
(See * earches of Vehicles-/ belo0.) Io0e.er- the e.i,ence 0as hel, to be a,(issible any0ay un,er the *inevitable discovery rule3 in that the )ehicle +as to be i(poun,e, an, subCecte, to an in.entory search: (United +he prosecution has the bur,en o" pro.ing "acts an, circu(stances Custi"ying the ine.itable ,isco.ery ,octrine
States v. !uckes (9th Cir. 2009) %86 1./rd 71/! 7165719.)
b* a (re(onderance of the e)idence. 1ailin. to do so! the rule +ill not be used b* a court to allo+ the admission of e)idence other+ise disco)ered ille.all*. ()eop"e $# E$ans
(2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 23$- 2$$%2$5: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6Chapman7 (2012) 203 Cal.App.3th 1003- 1021% 1022.) 8.i,ence lying un,er the ,ecease, 0oul, ha.e ine.itably been "oun, an, gi.en to the police 0hen the Coroner s in.estigator tooF charge o" the bo,y an, (o.e, it. (()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Chapman7 (2012) 203 Cal.App.3th 1003- 1021%1022: +he Coroner (ay ,eli.er any property or e.i,ence relate, to the in.estigation or prosecution o" a cri(e to the la0 en"orce(ent agency or ,istrict attorney. (9o:t! Code 214"1!3+4,) +he ine.itable ,isco.ery ,octrine 0as hel, to be inapplicable 0here there 0as no e.i,ence that the ,e"en,ant s .ehicle 0as going to be subCecte, to an in.entory search beyon, that 0hich 0as alrea,y ,one- an, 0here the to0 yar, e(ployees testi"ie, to in.entorying ite(s in plain sight only. ()eop"e $# E$ans (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 23$- 2$$%2$5: cocaine hi,,en in the .ehicle s air .ents.) *n in%ured person (ay be searche, 0ithout a 0arrant or probable cause. 1t is reasonable "or a police o""icer to atte(pt to i,enti"y an inCure, person. 1n "act- he has a ,uty to ,o so. Anything the o""icer sees in the process is a,(issible in court. ()eop"e $# Gon5a"es (1&50) 1#2 Cal.App.2n, 225.) E!idence of identity- as 0ith ,e"en,ant s person itsel"- is not subCect to suppression- *regar,less o" the nature o" the .iolation lea,ing to his i,entity./ (United States $# Gudino (&th Cir. 2003) 325 B.3r, &&2.) See also United States $# Garcia3 e"tran (&th Cir. 2003) 3#& B.3r, #53: "ingerprints use, "or i,entity purposes only 2$1
are not subCect to suppression "or a Fourth Amendment .iolation (i.e.- illegal arrest here). Case re(an,e,ho0e.er- "or a ,eter(ination 0hether ,e"en,ant s "ingerprints 0ere sei;e, "or *in!estigatory purposes/ as oppose, to establish i,entity- in 0hich case they are subCect to suppression. 1t is a rule o" la0 that neither a person s body nor his or her identity is subCect to suppression- *e.en i" it is conce,e, that an unla0"ul arrestsearch- or interrogation occurre,./ (Immi1ration and Natura"i5ation Ser$ice $# 2ope53 %endo5a (1&#3) 35# 4.S. 1032- 103&%1030 6#2 7.8,.2n, 22#9.) Bor purposes o" this rule- it (aFes no ,i""erence that the illegal arrestsearch or interrogation 0as *egregious/ in nature: e.g.- the result o" *racial profiling./ (United States $# Gudino- supra.) 'mpeachment E!idence) 8.i,ence illegally sei;e, (ay be intro,uce, "or the purpose of impeaching the ,e"en,ant s testi(ony gi.en in both ,irect e?a(ination (-a"der $# United States (1&$3) 332 4.S 52 6&# 7.8,. $039.) an, cross%e?a(ination- so long as the cross%e?a(ination @uestions are other0ise proper. (United States $# 0a$ens (1&#0) 335 4.S. 520 653 7.8,.2n, $$&9.) Cali"ornia authority prior to passage o" (ro-osition # (+he *Truth in E!idence 'nitiati!e/)- to the e""ect that e.i,ence suppresse, pursuant to a (otion brought un,er authority o" (!C! 1)3#!) is suppresse, "or all purposes (i.e.- )eop"e $# e""eci (1&2&) 23 Cal.3r, #2&- ##2%###.)- 0as abrogate, by (ro-osition #. Jo0- it is clear that suppresse, e.i,ence (ay be use, "or purposes o" i(peach(ent shoul, the ,e"en,ant testi"y an, lie. ()eop"e $# %oore (1&##) 201 Cal.App.3r, #22- ##3%##5.) Also- suppresse, e.i,ence pursuant to (!C! 1)3#!)+d, is a,(issible at the ,e"en,ant s probation re.ocation hearing unless the o""icer s actions 0ere egregious. *(+)he e?clusionary rule ,oes not apply in probation re.ocation hearings- unless the police con,uct at issue shocFs the conscience./ (Citations o(itte,: )eop"e $# 2a5"o (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 1053- 105#%1022.) 2$2
Asset Bor"eiture Procee,ings) 8.i,ence sei;e, illegally (ay still be subCect to asset "or"eiture procee,ings so long as there is a,(issible probable cause supporting the conclusion that the e.i,ence is the pro,uct o" the ,e"en,ant s illegal acti.ity. (United States $# H1FD,61D#77 in U#S# Currenc& (&th Cir. 2010) $&0 B.3r, &32- &3#%&3&.) Standin1) Defined) +he right o" an in,i.i,ual to contest the illegality o" a search an, sei;ure. !nly the person whose rights are being !iolated has *standing/ to challenge an allege, go.ern(ental constitutional .iolation. (Ra(as $# I""inois (1&2#) 33& 4.S. 12#- 13#%13& 6$# 7.8,.2n, 3#2- 3&2%3&#9: %innesota $# Carter (1&&#) $2$ 4.S. #3 6132 7.8,.2n, 3239.) Ehether or not a person has *standing/ to challenge the legality o" a search is a (i?e, @uestion o" "act (i.e.- ,eter(ining the circu(stances) an, la0 (i.e.- ,eter(ining 0hether the "acts Custi"y a "in,ing that the ,e"en,ant has a legiti(ate e?pectation o" pri.acy un,er the la0). (United States $# Sin1"eton (&th Cir. 1&&3) &#2 B.2n, 1333- 1332: United States $# H67,CGG in United States Currenc& (&th Cir. 200&) $$3 B.3r, 2$2- 2$$%2$5.) !ne (ust ha.e a legiti(ate possessory interest in the property sei;e,- or a legiti(ate pri.acy interest in the area searche,- or a personal liberty interest that 0as in"ringe,. (See )eop"e $# Ro&.a" (1&&#) 1& Cal.3th 3#1.) Clai(ing o0nership o" the property being sei;e, ,oes not establish that the ,e"en,ant ha, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in that property. +he *possessory interest/ (ust be a *legitimate/ one: i.e.- e?clu,ing contraban, an, other ite(s not la0"ully in the subCect s possession. (See Ra,"in1s $# /entuc(& (1&#0) 33# 4.S. &#- 10$%105 65$ 7.8,.2n, 5339: United States $# )u""iam (&th Cir. 200$) 30$ B.3r, 2#2- 2#5: see also United States $# H67,CGG in United States Currenc&- supra.- at p. 2$5.) See also )eop"e $# -arren (1&&0) 21& Cal.App.3, 51&523) *(J)o pri.acy right guarantee, by the Fourth Amendment is in"ringe, by the search an, sei;ure o" a Fno0n illicit substance./
2$3
Reasonable Expectation of Pri!acy) +he @uestion really is 0hether the ,e"en,antas oppose, to so(eone else- ha, a *reasonable (or Glegitimate ) expectation of pri!acy/ in the place being searche, or the ite(s being sei;e,. +he "e,eral cases ha.e gotten a0ay "ro( using the ter( *standing/ 0hile (o.ing to0ar,s a ,iscussion o" one s *reasonable/ or *legitimate expectation of pri!acy./ (Ra(as $# I""inoissupra- at p. 133 6$# 7.8,.2n, at p. 3019: United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, 1153- 1152: United States $# Ca&men (&th Cir. 200$) 303 B.3r, 11&5- 11&&% 1200.) Cali"ornia courts ha.e been encourage, to ,o the sa(e. (See )eop"e $# A&a"a (2000) 23 Cal.3th 22$- 2$3- "n. 3: )eop"e $# %a1ee (2011) 1&3 Cal.App.3th 12#- 1#3- "n. 3.) *+he touchstone o" Fourth Amendment analysis is 0hether a person has a Aconstitutionally protecte, reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy. / (Ca"i'ornia $# Cirao"o (1&#5) 325 4.S. 202- 211 6&0 7.8,.2n, 210- 21$9.) *(+)o say that a party lacFs 6F9ourth 6A9mendment stan,ing is to say that his reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy has not been in"ringe,./ (1talics in original: United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc# (&th Cir. 200&) $5# B.3r, 5#3- 5&$: citing United States $# Ta(eta (&th Cir. 1&&1) &23 B.2n, 55$- 55&.) Test) Ehether or not a person has *standing/ to challenge the constitutionality o" a search has been ,escribe, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court in Ra(as $# I""inoissupra- as "ollo0s) *(E)hether the challenge, search an, sei;ure .iolate, the Fourth Amendment rights o" a cri(inal ,e"en,ant 0ho seeFs to e?clu,e the e.i,ence obtaine, ,uring it/ (Id.- at p. 130.)- *0hether the ,ispute, search an, sei;ure has in"ringe, an interest o" the ,e"en,ant 0hich the Fourth Amendment 0as ,esigne, to protect/ (I.id2)- or *0hether the person 0ho clai(s the protection o" the (Fourth, Amendment has a legiti(ate e?pectation o" pri.acy in the in.a,e, place/ (Id! at p. 133.). ()eop"e $# Ste,art (2003) 113 Cal.App.3th 232- 23&.) *6S9ubCecti.e e?pectations o" pri.acy that society is not prepare, to recogni;e as legiti(ate ha.e no 6Fourth Amendment9 protection. ()eop"e $# 2eon (200$) 131 Cal.App.3th &55- &23.) *+he absence o" a right to e?clu,e others "ro( access to a situs is an i(portant "actor (ilitating against a legiti(ate e?pectation o" pri.acy./ (United States $# autista (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $#3$#&: citing Ra,"in1s $# /entuc(& (1&#0) 33# 4.S. &#- 10$ 65$ 7.8,.2n, 533- 5329.)
2$3
+he e?istence o" a *reasonable expectation of pri!acy/ (ust be ,eter(ine, by an analysis o" the *totality of the circumstances./ ()eop"e $# /our& (1&#&) 213 Cal.App.3r, 525- 5#5 In re Rud& F# (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th 1123- 1132.) Aban,on(ent o" property- eli(inating any reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in that property- is an issue o" the ,e"en,ant s apparent intent as ,eter(ine, by an obCecti.e e.aluation o" the circu(stances. +he ,e"en,ant s actual intent is irrele.ant. ()eop"e $# )arson (200#) 33 Cal.3th 332- 332%33#.) +he issue is *0hether the person so relin@uishe, his interest in the property that he no longer retaine, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in it at the ti(e o" the search./ (Id.at p. 335.) +here is no pri.acy right in the (outhpiece o" the PAS ,e.ice- 0hich 0as pro.i,e, by the police an, 0here ,e"en,ant aban,one, any e?pectation o" pri.acy in the sali.a he ,eposite, on the ,e.ice 0hen he "aile, to 0ipe it o"". Ehether ,e"en,ant subCecti.ely e?pecte, that the genetic (aterial containe, in his sali.a 0oul, beco(e Fno0n to the police 0as irrele.ant because he ,eposite, it on a police ,e.ice an, thus (a,e it accessible to the police. +he o""icer 0ho a,(inistere, the PAS test testi"ie, that use, (outhpieces 0ere nor(ally ,iscar,e, in the trash. +hus- any subCecti.e e?pectation ,e"en,ant (ay ha.e ha, that his right to pri.acy 0oul, be preser.e, 0as unreasonable. ()eop"e $# Thomas (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 33#.) A ,e"en,ant has the bur,en o" pro.ing that he ha, stan,ing to contest a 0arrantless search. 1n other 0or,s- he (ust "irst pro.e that he ha, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the areas searche,. A person seeFing to in.oFe the protection o" the Bourth A(en,(ent (ust ,e(onstrate both that he harbore, a subCecti.e (i.e.- in his o0n (in,) e?pectation o" pri.acy an, that the e?pectation 0as obCecti.ely reasonable. An obCecti.ely reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy is one that society is 0illing to recogni;e as reasonable. A(ong the "actors consi,ere, in (aFing this ,eter(ination are 0hether a ,e"en,ant has a possessory interest in the thing sei;e, or place searche,: 0hether he has the right to e?clu,e others "ro( that place: 0hether he has e?hibite, a subCecti.e e?pectation that it 0oul, re(ain "ree "ro( go.ern(ental in.asion: 0hether he 2$$
tooF nor(al precautions to (aintain his pri.acy: an, 0hether he 0as legiti(ately on the pre(ises. ()eop"e $# Nishi (-./-0 -.1 &al2*pp23th 453, 45464789 defendant held to not ha!e an expectation of pri!acy in his tent on public land without a permit, nor the area around his tent20 Prior &alifornia Rule: *Vicarious tanding)/ 8.eryone charge, 0ith a cri(inal o""ense resulting "ro( a search or sei;ure coul, challenge the constitutionality o" that search or sei;ure- 0ithout the necessity o" sho0ing *standing./ (8.g.- )eop"e $# %artin (1&$$) 3$ Cal.2n, 2$$- 251.) +his theory- long since reCecte, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court (see United States $# Sa"$ucci (1&#0) 33# 4.S. #3- &2 65$ 7.8,.2n, 51&9.)- 0as abrogate, by passage o" (ro-osition # (Cal! Const!, Art! 1, 2#+d,) in June- 1&#2. Cali"ornia no0 "ollo0s the "e,eral rule. (In re 2ance -# (1&#$) 32 Cal.3r, #23- ##5%##2: )eop"e $# Ne"son (1&#$) 155 Cal.App.3r, 120&- 1213.) Rules for Determining tanding) $urden of Proof) +he ,e"en,ant bears the bur,en o" sho0ing he or she ha, a reasonable expectation of pri!acy in the place searche, or the thing sei;e,. (Ra(as $# I""inois (1&2#) 33& 4.S. 12#- 131"n. & 6$# 7.8,.2n, 3#2- 3&&%3009: )eop"e $# %c)eters (1&&2) 2 Cal.3th 113#- 1121: )eop"e $# Shepherd (1&&3) 23 Cal.App.3th #2$#2#: )eop"e $# Co,an (1&&3) 31 Cal.App.3th 2&$- 2&#: United States $# Ca&men (&th Cir. 200$) 303 B.3r, 11&5- 11&&%1200: United States $# H67,CGG in United States Currenc& (&th Cir. 200&) $$3 B.3r, 2$2- 2$5: )eop"e $# %a1ee (2011) 1&3 Cal.App.3th 12#1#3.) Io0e.er- the court has the ,iscretion to or,er the prosecution to present its e.i,ence be"ore the ,e"en,ant pro.es his stan,ing. ()eop"e $# Contreras (1&#&) 210 Cal.App.3r, 3$0.) Although the prosecution (ay not taFe *contra,ictory positions in or,er to ,e"eat an asserte, e?pectation o" pri.acy-/ the ,e"en,ant is *not Aentitle, to rely on the go.ern(entDs allegations in the plea,ings- or positions the go.ern(ent has taFen in the case- to establish stan,ing. / (United States $# 2on1 (&th Cir. 2002) 301 B.3r, 10&$- at p. 1100- citing United States $# 4ermeno (&th Cir. 1&&$) 55 B.3r, 10$#- 1052.) (actors to consi,er) 2$5
Ehether the ,e"en,ant has a property or possessory interest in the thing sei;e, or the place searche,: Ehether he has a right to e?clu,e others "ro( that place: Ehether he has e?hibite, a subCecti.e e?pectation that the place 0oul, re(ain "ree "ro( go.ern(ental in.asion: Ehether he tooF nor(al precautions to (aintain his pri.acy: Ehether he 0as legiti(ately on the pre(ises: and Ehether the ,e"en,ant 0as present at the place searche, *for a commercial purpose/ (no stan,ing) or 0as there as an *o!ernight guest/ (stan,ing) 0ith the Fno0le,ge an, per(ission o" an i,enti"iable host. ()eop"e $# Shepherd (1&&3) 23 Cal.App.3th #2$- #2#: United States $# Si"$a et a"# (&th Cir. 2001) 232 B.3r, 10$1: )eop"e $# Ste,art (2003) 113 Cal.App.3th 232- 2$0: In re Rud& F# (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th 1123- 1132.)
;n *ppeal) Ehether or not an in,i.i,ual s e?pectation o" pri.acy 0as obCecti.ely reasonable is re.ie0e, by an appellate court *de no!o./ (United States $# autista (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $#3$##%$#&.) tanding: Examples) Vehicles) +he owner- or a borrower o" .ehicle 0ith the o0ner s per(ission (i.e.- a person in la0"ul possession)- has standing to challenge the search o" the .ehicle. ()eop"e $# 2eonard (1&#2) 1&2 Cal.App.3r, 23$- 23#: )eop"e $# Ne"son (1&#$) 155 Cal.App.3r, 120&: United States $# /o$ac (&th Cir. 1&#5) 2&$ B.2n, 1$0&- 1$10%1$11- o0ner: United States $# )orti""o (&th Cir. 1&#0) 533 B.2n, 13131312- borro0er.) A passenger in a .ehicle that he neither o0ns nor leases lac?s standing to obCect to a search o" areas 0ithin the .ehicle- such as the glo.e co(part(ent- the trunF- or 2$2
un,erneath the seat. (Ra(as $# I""inois (1&2#) 33& 4.S. 12# 6$# 7.8,.2n, 3#29: United States $# )orti""o (&th Cir. 1&#0) 533 B.2n, 1313- 1312: United States $ )u""iam (&th Cir. 200$) 30$ B.3r, 2#2- 2#$%2#5.) $ut- the passenger as 0ell as the dri!er has stan,ing to obCect to the basis "or a .ehicle s initial stop or ,etention. ( rend"in $# Ca"i'ornia (2002) $$1 4.S. 23& 615# 7.8,.2n, 1329: see belo0.): see also )eop"e $# 2ion.er1er (1&#5) 1#$ Cal.App.3r, Supp. 1: United States $# T,i""e& (&th Cir. 2000) 222 B.3r, 10&2- 10&$: United States $# Co"in (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 33&- 332%333: )eop"e $# 2amont (2003) 12$ Cal.App.3th 303.) !ne 0ho steals a car ()eop"e $# Shepherd- supra.) or 0ho is si(ply an occupant o" a stolen car ()eop"e $# Catuto (1&&0) 212 Cal.App.3r, 213: )eop"e $# %e"n&( (1&&2) 3 Cal.App.3th 1$32- 1$33.)- or is caught ,ri.ing a stolen .ehicle ()eop"e $# Carter (200$) 35 Cal.3th 1113- 113&% 1132.) that is later searche,- has no stan,ing to challenge the later search o" that car. De"en,ant ha, no stan,ing to challenge the illegal search o" another person s .ehicle 0hich resulte, in reco.ery o" in"or(ation use, to obtain a search 0arrant "or ,e"en,ant s ho(e. ()eop"e $# %adrid (1&&2) 2 Cal.App.3th 1###1#&5.) A person ,ri.ing a rental .ehicle- 0hen the person is neither an authori;e, ,ri.er un,er the rental contract nor ,ri.ing the .ehicle 0ith the renter s per(ission- ,oes not ha.e stan,ing to challenge the search o" a .ehicle. (United States $# Thomas (&th Cir. 2005) 332 B.3r, 11&1: noting that (erely being an unauthori;e, ,ri.erper the ter(s o" the rental agree(ent- 0ill not ,epri.e a person o" stan,ing. 1n this case- it 0as the ,e"en,ant s "ailure to present any e.i,ence that he 0as ,ri.ing the car 0ith the per(ission o" the person 0ho rente, it that ,epri.e, hi( o" stan,ing to contest the search o" the car.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has recently re.erse, the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court on the issue o" 0hether the passenger is ,etaine, by .irtue o" being in the car 0hen it is initially stoppe,- an, hel, that at least in a pri.ate (otor .ehicle (as oppose, to a ta?i- bus- or other co((on 2$#
carrier)- the passenger in a .ehicle stoppe, "or a possible tra""ic in"raction is in "act ,etaine,- gi.ing hi( the right (i.e.- stan,ing) to challenge the legality o" the tra""ic stop. ( rend"in $# Ca"i'ornia (2002) $$1 4.S. 23& 615# 7.8,.2n, 1329.) +he o0ner o" a .ehicle- but 0ho taFes steps to ,isassociate hi(sel" "ro( the .ehicle by ha.ing so(eone else pay cash "or the car an, then putting the car an, other ,ocu(entation in the other person s na(e (,one because the ,e"en,ant Fne0 the car 0oul, be use, to transport controlle, substances)- ,oes not ha.e stan,ing to challenge an illegal entry into the car "or the purpose o" installing a LPS to tracF the .ehicle. ()eop"e $# To""i$er et a"# (200#) 150 Cal.App.3th 1231- 1235%1231.) Geing *the e?clusi.e ,ri.er/ o" ,e"en,ant s 0i"e s car gi.es the ,e"en,ant stan,ing to challenge the legality o" the installation o" a LPS (i.e.- a search) on that .ehicle. (United States $# *ones (Jan. 23- 2012) $5$ 4.S. >>- >>- "n. 2 6132 S.Ct. &3$: 1#1 7.8,.2n, &119.) Residential Visitors) An o!ernight guest in a resi,ence does ha.e stan,ing to contest an unla0"ul search. (%innesota $# O"son (1&&0) 3&$ 4.S. &1 610& 7.8,.2n, #$9: )eop"e $# 0ami"ton (1&#$) 15# Cal.App.3r, 10$#: Espinosa $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&# B.3r, $2#- $33%$33.) As an *occasional/ guest at his girl"rien, s apart(ent- ,e"en,ant ha, stan,ing to challenge the entry o" his girl"rien, s be,roo( 0here the t0o o" the( staye, together- along 0ith the search o" his gy( bag he Fept un,er the be,. (United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, 1153- 1152%115#.) +he estranged husband- 0hen he regularly .isite, o.ernight 0ith his chil,ren- ha, a Fey an, unrestricte, access- Fept personal papers an, clothing in a be,roo(- an, 0as present at the ti(e o" the search- has stan,ing. ()eop"e $# /our& (1&#&) 213 Cal.App.3r, 525- 5##.) * $abysitter ,uring the ti(e he or she is engage, in babysitting acti.ities has stan,ing. ()eop"e $# %oreno (1&&2) 2 Cal.App.3th $22- $2&- $#2.) 2$&
Si(ple- casual !isitors in a place being searche, do not nor(ally ha.e stan,ing. ()eop"e $# Ne"son (1&#$) 155 Cal.App.3r, 120&: )eop"e $# Oo"e& (1&#$) 15& Cal.App.3r, 1&2: )eop"e $# Co,an (1&&$) 31 Cal.App.3th 2&$- 2&#- #00: )eop"e $# Dimitro! (1&&$) 33 Cal.App.3th 1#: )eop"e $# Rios (2011) 1&3 Cal.App.3th $#3- $&1%$&2.) Geing a "a(ily (e(ber but not li.ing there ,oes not change the result. ()eop"e $# Rios- supraat $&2- "n. 3: citing In re Rud& F# (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th 1123- 113$.) +he temporary occupant o" a house ,oes not ha.e stan,ing to challenge the search o" a be,roo( he ,i, not occupyne.er entere,- an, ha, no per(ission to enter. ()eop"e $# 0ernande5 (1&##) 1&& Cal.App.3r, 11#2- 11##.) Gut see )eop"e $# Ste,art (2003) 113 Cal.App.3th 232) A person 0ho ,oes not stay o.ernight- but 0ho has a Fey an, "ree reign o" the house- co(ing an, going as he pleases,oing his laun,ry- cooFing- an, 0atching the +.U. in the house- an, taFing sho0ers- etc.- 0as hel, to ha.e stan,ing. An o!ernight guest in a resi,ence does ha.e stan,ing to contest an unla0"ul search (%innesota $# O"son (1&&0) 3&$ 4.S. &1 610& 7.8,.2n, #$9.)- e.en i" the guest is a ,rug s(uggler. (United States $# Game53Orduno (&th Cir. 2000) 23$ B.3r, 3$3.) Howe!er- a .isitor 0ho is there "or a li(ite, ti(e (e.g.- 2H hours)- "or an unla0"ul purpose (e.g.- to pacFage contraban,)- 0ithout any prior relationship 0ith the la0"ul occupant- ,oes not ha.e stan,ing. (%innesota $# Carter (1&&#) $2$ 4.S. #3 6132 7.8,.2n, 3239.) De"en,ant s parents- 0here ,e"en,ant con,ucte, his (ariCuana ,ealings "ro( his o0n roo(- (aintaine, stan,ing to challenge the search o" ,e"en,ant s be,roo( 0here they (aintaine, the rights o" access- possession- an, e?clusion o" others. (United States $# H67,CGG in United States Currenc& (&th Cir. 200&) $$3 B.3r, 2$2- 2$5%2$2.) Io0e.er- the ,aughter (,e"en,ant s sisterM)- 0ho no longer li.e, in the house- ,i, not ha.e stan,ing 250
,espite the "act that she ha, a Fey to the house an, store, ite(s there. (Id.- at pp. 2$2%2$#.) Oerely clai(ing to be an o.ernight guest- or to other0ise ha.ing stan,ing to contest the entry an,Nor search o" a resi,ence- is insu""icient. +here (ust be so(e e.i,ence to the e""ect that the person ,i, in "act ha.e a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the resi,ence. (United States $# Re&es3 os:ue (&th Cir. 2010) $&5 B.3r, 1012- 1025%102&.) Ehether or not a .isitor has stan,ing to challenge la0 en"orce(ent s 0arrantless entrance into a resi,ence ,epen,s upon that .isitor s purpose "or being there. Bor instance- i" .isiting the legal resi,ents- at least 0hen the .isitor ,oes so on a regular basis an, is "ree to co(e an, go as he 0ishes 0ithout FnocFing- he liFely has stan,ing. Gut 0hen that sa(e person enters the resi,ence "or the purpose o" ,estroying e.i,ence 0hile being chase, by police- he ,oes not. ()eop"e $# %a1ee (2011) 1&3 Cal.App.3th 12#.) +he Bourth A(en,(ent rights o" ho(eo0ners are i(plicate, by the use o" a surreptitiously plante, listening ,e.ice to (onitor thir,%party con.ersations that occurre, 0ithin their ho(e. (A"derman $# United States (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 15$ 622 7.8,.2n, 1259.) Personal Property) Jo e?pectation o" pri.acy in a gun gi.en to another person ()eop"e $# %c)eters (1&&2) 2 Cal.3th 113#- 1121.)- or an opa@ue bag le"t- unseale,- in another person s car ()eop"e $# Root (1&#$) 122 Cal.App.3r, 223- 22#.)- or a purse le"t in another s .ehicle. ()eop"e $ Shepherd (1&&3) 23 Cal.App.3th #2$- #22- #2&.) +here is no e?pectation o" pri.acy in a stolen co(puter (United States $# -on1 (&th Cir. 2003) 333 B.3r, #31) or one that 0as obtaine, by "rau,. (United States $# Ca&men (&th Cir. 200$) 303 B.3r, 11&5- 1200.) +here is no e?pectation o" pri.acy in a ,u""le bag le"t in an apart(ent laun,ry roo( open to anyone- e.en though place, out o" the 0ay on a high shel". (United States $# Fa& (&th Cir. 200$) 310 B.3r, $#&.)
251
Gut the o0ner o" a gy( bag the ,e"en,ant Fept un,er his girl"rien, s be, in her apart(ent ha, stan,ing to challenge the search o" that gy( bag. (United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, 1153- 1152%115#.) De"en,ant ha, stan,ing to challenge a 0iretap or,er on his cellular telephone purchase, by the ,e"en,ant 0hile using a "ictitious na(e in that there is nothing illegal in the atte(pt to re(ain anony(ous. ()eop"e $# 2eon (200$) 131 Cal.App.3th &55- &23%&22.) A business that o0ns the co(pany s co(puters (ay consent to the search o" a co(puter use, by an e(ployeeat least 0hen the e(ployee is on notice that he has no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the contents o" the co(puter he is using. (United States $# 4ie1"er (&th Cir. 2005) 3$5 B.3r, 113#.) 7ea.ing a cell phone at the scene o" a cri(e negates the suspect s e?pectation o" pri.acy in the contents o" that phone- an, is there"ore aban,one, property ,espite the suspect s subCecti.e 0ish to retrie.e it- 0hich he "ails to act on. *Aban,on(ent . . . is not (eant in the strict property% right sense- but rests instea, on 0hether the person so relin@uishe, his interest in the property that he no longer retaine, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in it at the ti(e o" the search./ ()eop"e $# Da11s (200$) 133 Cal.App.3th 351.) Denying possession or o0nership in a brie"case "oun, in a .ehicle ,e"en,ant 0as ,ri.ing 0ill ,epri.e that ,e"en,ant o" the right to later challenge the legality o" the 0arrantless search o" that brie"case. (United States $# Decoud (2005) 3$5 B.3r, &&5.) +here is no e?pectation o" pri.acy in the outsi,e o" a piece o" (ail sent to the ,e"en,ant. *(G)ecause the in"or(ation is "oreseeably .isible to countless people in the course o" a letter reaching its ,estination- Aan a,,ressee or a,,ressor generally has no e?pectation o" pri.acy as to the outsi,e o" (ail. / ()eop"e $# Re&es (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th 11#311#&%11&2: @uoting United States $# Osune1.u (1&#2 $th Cir.) #22 B.2n, 322- 3#0- "n. 3.)
252
1n Re&es- an e(ployee o" a pri.ate postbo? co(pany spontaneously han,e, o""icers ,e"en,ant s (ail 0hen the o""icers in@uire, as to 0hether ,e"en,ant ha, rente, a bo? at that "acility e.en though the e(ployees ,i,n t *nor(ally/ han, o.er a clients (ail absent a court or,er. De"en,ant 0as ne.er tol, that his (ail 0oul, be Fept pri.ate. A Cail in(ate talFing o.er a Cail telephone- 0here he is 0arne, that his con.ersations 0ere subCect to (onitoringasFing a "rien, to retrie.e 0hat o""icers un,erstoo, to be a gun (although ,e"en,ant only re"erre, to it as *the thing/) "ro( a container (also ,escribe, in .ague- generic ter(s) in the closet o" his girl"rien, s ho(e- ,oes not 0ai.e any e?pectation o" pri.acy ,e"en,ant ha, in the container that 0as later retrie.e, by la0 en"orce(ent an, illegally searche, 0ithout a search 0arrant. (United States $# %on1hur (200&) $## B.3r, &2$- &2#%&#1.) %on1hur ,i""erentiate, these "acts "ro( a si(ilar circu(stance 0here ,e"en,ant tol, la0 en"orce(ent o""icers- clearly an, une@ui.ocally- that a particular container containe, contraban,. +he Court in the case "oun, that such a concession 0ai.e, any e?pectation o" pri.acy ,e"en,ant (ight ha.e ha, in the container- thus allo0ing "or a 0arrantless search o" that container. (United States $# Cardona3 Ri$era (2th Cir. 1&&0) &03 B.2n, 113&.) Aban,oning a cigarette butt onto a public street constitutes a loss o" one s right to pri.acy in that butt- (aFing it a.ailable to la0 en"orce(ent to reco.er an, test "or DJA 0ithout a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Ga""e1o (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 3##- 3&3%3&#.) An 1nternet subscriber has no e?pectation o" pri.acy in the subscriber in"or(ation he supplies to his 1nternet pro.i,er. ()eop"e $# Stipo (2011) 1&$ Cal.App.3th 553- 55#%55&.) Allo0ing another person unrestricte, access to a (utually o0ne, co(puter negates any e?pectation o" pri.acy the "irst person (ight ha.e ha,. A co%o0ner has actual authority to gi.e consent to the police to search. An, i" it turns out that the person is not actually a co%o0ner- the ,octrine o" apparent authority (ay Custi"y the search. 253
(United States $# Stan"e& (&th Cir. 2011) 5$3 B.3r, &35&$0%&$2.) +here is no pri.acy right in the (outhpiece o" the PAS ,e.ice- 0hich 0as pro.i,e, by the police an, 0here ,e"en,ant aban,one, any e?pectation o" pri.acy in the sali.a he ,eposite, on the ,e.ice 0hen he "aile, to 0ipe it o"". Ehether ,e"en,ant subCecti.ely e?pecte, that the genetic (aterial containe, in his sali.a 0oul, beco(e Fno0n to the police 0as irrele.ant because he ,eposite, it on a police ,e.ice an, thus (a,e it accessible to the police. +he o""icer 0ho a,(inistere, the PAS test testi"ie, that use, (outhpieces 0ere nor(ally ,iscar,e, in the trash. +hus- any subCecti.e e?pectation ,e"en,ant (ay ha.e ha, that his right to pri.acy 0oul, be preser.e, 0as unreasonable. ()eop"e $# Thomas (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 33#.) ;utside &ommon *reas) De"en,ant- obser.e, by police o""icers retrie.ing contraban, "ro( a hole in the groun, in the co((on area behin, an apart(ent co(ple?- ,i, not ha.e any reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in that hole. ()eop"e $# Sha, (2002) &2 Cal.App.3th #33.) $usinesses) 1n e.aluating a business- the Supre(e Court has hel, that) *Property use, "or co((ercial purposes is treate, ,i""erently "or Bourth A(en,(ent purposes "ro( resi,ential property./ (%innesota $# Carter (1&&#) $2$ 4.S. #3- &0 6132 7.8,.2n, 3239.) *1n the e(ploy(ent conte?t- 0e ha.e "oun, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy to e?ist in an area Agi.en o.er to 6an e(ployee s9 e?clusi.e use. (Scho,en1erdt $# Genera" D&namics (&th Cir. 1&#2) #23 B.2n, 132#- 133$.) ! Grien s o""ice 0as gi.en o.er to !DGrien s e?clusi.e use an, containe, his personal ,esF an, "iles: . . ./ (United States $# Ta(eta (&th Cir. 1&&1) &23 B.2n, 55$- 521.) Io0e.er: *An e?pectation o" pri.acy in co((ercial pre(ises . . . is ,i""erent "ro(- an, in,ee, less than- a si(ilar e?pectation in an in,i.i,ual s ho(e./ (United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc# (&th Cir. 200&) $5# B.3r, 5#3- 5&$: citing Ne, Yor( $# ur1er (1&#2) 3#2 4.S. 5&1200 6&5 7.8,.2n, 5019.) 253
+he e(ployee o" a li@uor store ha, no stan,ing to challenge the search o" the counter area 0here she ha, no e?pectation o" pri.acy. ()eop"e $# Thompson (1&##) 20$ Cal.App.3r, 1$03.) Jo e?pectation o" pri.acy in ,ocu(ents sei;e, "ro( another s business pre(ises 0here the ,e"en,ant ha, no control o.er the business an, no possessory interest in the ,ocu(ents at the ti(e o" sei;ure. ()eop"e $# -or(man (1&#&) 20& Cal.App.3r, 5#2- 5&5.) Jo stan,ing to challenge the search o" containers le"t by ,e"en,ant at an auto bo,y shop 0here ,e"en,ant 0as a *(ere guest or in.itee./ ()eop"e $# A&a"a (2000) 23 Cal.3th 22$- 2$3.) A hospital e(ployee has no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the hospital s (ailroo(. (United States $# Gon5a"e5 (&th Cir. 2003) 32# B.3r, $33.) A business that o0ns the co(pany s co(puters (ay consent to the search o" a co(puter use, by an e(ployeeat least 0hen the e(ployee is on notice that he has no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the contents o" the co(puter he is using. (United States $# 4ie1"er (&th Cir. 2005) 3$5 B.3r, 113#.) Contrary to a s(all- "a(ily%o0ne, business o.er 0hich an in,i.i,ual e?ercises ,aily (anage(ent an, control (8.g.see United States $# Gon5a"e5 (&th Cir. 200$) 312 B.3r, 1102.)- challenging the legality o" a search in a large business is (uch (ore co(plicate,. Geing the o0ner or (anager o" a business- alone- is not enough. +he ,e"en,ant (ust generally sho0 so(e personal connection to the places being searche, an, the (aterials sei;e,. Bactors to consi,er in e.aluating this personal connection inclu,e- but are not necessarily li(ite, to) Ehether the ite( sei;e, is personal property or other0ise Fept in a pri.ate place separate "ro( other 0orF%relate, (aterial. Ehether the ,e"en,ant ha, custo,y or i((e,iate control o" the ite( 0hen o""icers sei;e, it.
25$
Ehether the ,e"en,ant tooF precautions on his o0n behal" to secure the place searche, or things sei;e, "ro( any inter"erence 0ithout authori;ation. (United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc# (&th Cir. 200&) $5# B.3r, 5#3- 5&#.)
Renters with a tolen &redit &ard) !ne 0ho rents a hotel roo( 0ith a stolen cre,it car, ,oes not ha.e stan,ing to challenge an unla0"ul entry o" the roo( by la0 en"orce(ent. ()eop"e $# Sat5 (1&&#) 51 Cal.App.3th 322.) +he Jinth Circuit has ,e.elope, the rule that use o" a stolen cre,it car, alone is insu""icient to negate the person s e?pectation o" pri.acy in his roo(. +here has to be e.i,ence that the (anage(ent has- or is at least inten,ing- to e.ict the tenant "or that reason be"ore the tenant s e?pectation o" pri.acy in is roo( beco(es unreasonable. (See United States $# Dorais (&th Cir. 2001) 231 B.3r, 1123- 1122%112#.) Despite renting a (otel roo( 0ith a stolen cre,it car,- the ,e"en,ant ,i, not lose his stan,ing to challenge an unla0"ul entry until the (otel s (anager tooF so(e a""ir(ati.e steps to repossess the roo(. (United States $# autista (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $#3.) Also- a ,e"en,ant has not lost his e?pectation o" pri.acy in his hotel roo( (0hich 0as later- a"ter the "act- ,isco.ere, to ha.e been rente, 0ith a stolen cre,it car,) by the hotel locFing hi( out 0hen he 0as locFe, out pursuant to a policy to ,o so a"ter a ,angerous 0eapon (a "irear() is "oun, in the roo( by hotel e(ployees. 7ocFing hi( out- in this case- 0as not ,one 0ith the intent to e.ict hi(. +he "act that he 0as arreste, be"ore his roo( 0as searche, also ,oes not ,i(inish his e?pectation o" pri.acy in the roo(. 7astly- use o" the stolen cre,it car, ,oes not negate the ,e"en,ant s e?pectation o" pri.acy 0hen its use is not Fno0n at the ti(e- an, there"ore ,oes not cause an inten, to e.ict hi( because o" its use. (United States $# Youn1 (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 211- 21$%220.) Another panel o" the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal reache, the opposite result un,er si(ilar circu(stances- "in,ing that a person does not ha.e stan,ing in a hotel roo( rente, 0ith 255
a "rau,ulent cre,it car, an, other "rau,ulent ,ocu(ents. (United States $# Cuna1 (&th Cir. 2003) 3#5 B.3r, ###.) +hese cases (ay perhaps be ,i""erentiate, "ro( autista an, Youn1 because in autista- the hotel (anager 0as still trying to 0orF out so(e (etho, o" pay(ent. An, in Youn1- there 0as no atte(pt by the hotel (anager- 0ho at the ti(e 0as una0are that the cre,it car, use, to rent the roo( 0as stolento e.ict ,e"en,ant. Also- using counter"eit (oney to rent a (otel roo( ,oes not ,epri.e the ,e"en,ant o" stan,ing to challenge the 0arrantless entry o" her (otel roo( unless there is so(e proo" that the ,e"en,ant Fne0 that the (oney she use, 0as counter"eit (i.e.- no intent to ,e"rau,) an, that the (otel (anager has alrea,y atte(pte, to e.ict the ,e"en,ant or seeF the help o" la0 en"orce(ent in such an e.iction. ()eop"e $# %uno5 (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th 125.) Exposure to Public View) !bser.ation o" ,e"en,ant s gro0ing (ariCuana plants "ro( a neighbor s property- 0ithout the neighbor s Fno0le,ge or per(ission- looFing into ,e"en,ant s a,Cacent bacFyar, hel, to be la0"ul. De"en,ant ,i, not ha.e stan,ing to challenge the trespass into the neighbor s yar,- an, ,i, not ha.e a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in 0hat 0as gro0ing in his o0n yar, in that his (ariCuana plants 0ere plainly .isible. ()eop"e $# C"ae&s (2002) &2 Cal.App.3th $$.) *bandoned Property) 7ea.ing all his belongings in a (otel roo(- ,isappearing in the (i,,le o" the night an, 0ithout (aFing arrange(ents to e?ten, his stay- it 0as hel, that ,e"en,ant aban,one, the (otel roo(- his personal belongings in the roo(- an, his .ehicle in the parFing lot. +here being no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in these ite(s ,ue to this aban,on(ent- ,e"en,ant lost his stan,ing to challenge the 0arrantless entry. ()eop"e $# )arson (200#) 33 Cal.3th 332332%33#.) 7ea.ing a cell phone at the scene o" a cri(e negates the suspect s e?pectation o" pri.acy in the contents o" that phone- an, is there"ore aban,one, property ,espite the suspect s subCecti.e 0ish to retrie.e it- 0hich he "ails to act on. *Aban,on(ent . . . is not (eant in the strict property% 252
right sense- but rests instea, on 0hether the person so relin@uishe, his interest in the property that he no longer retaine, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in it at the ti(e o" the search./ ()eop"e $# Da11s (200$) 133 Cal.App.3th 351.) Aban,oning a cigarette butt onto a public street constitutes a loss o" one s right to pri.acy in that butt- (aFing it a.ailable to la0 en"orce(ent to reco.er an, test "or DJA 0ithout a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Ga""e1o (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 3##- 3&3%3&#.) +ricFing a suspect out o" an ite( o" personal property an, then testing it "or DJA is another issue. Gut- as note, in Ga""e1o- at p. 3&5- se.eral courts "ro( other Curis,ictions ha.e "oun, such a tactic to be la0"ul. (See Common,ea"th $# )er(ins (Oass. 200#) ##3 J.8.2n, 230: an, Common,ea"th $# "& (Oass. 2002) #52 J.8.2n, 331: testing cigarette butts an, a so,a can le"t behin, a"ter an inter.ie0 0ith police. Common,ea"th $# E,in1 (Oass 2005) 52 Oass.App.Ct. $31 6#$3 J.8.2n, &&3- 1001: o""ering ,e"en,ant cigarettes an, a stra0 ,uring an interrogation. )eop"e $# 2aGuerre (2005) 2& A.D.3r, #22 6#1$ J.K.S.2n, 2119: obtaining a DJA sa(ple "ro( a piece o" che0ing gu( ,e"en,ant .oluntarily ,iscar,e, ,uring a contri.e, so,a tasting test. State $# Athan (Eash. 2002) 1$# P.3r, 22: DJA obtaine, "ro( ,e"en,ant s sali.a "ro( licFing an en.elope he (aile, to ,etecti.es in a police ruse.) +here is no pri.acy right in the (outhpiece o" the PAS ,e.ice- 0hich 0as pro.i,e, by the police an, 0here ,e"en,ant aban,one, any e?pectation o" pri.acy in the sali.a he ,eposite, on the ,e.ice 0hen he "aile, to 0ipe it o"". Ehether ,e"en,ant subCecti.ely e?pecte, that the genetic (aterial containe, in his sali.a 0oul, beco(e Fno0n to the police 0as irrele.ant because he ,eposite, it on a police ,e.ice an, thus (a,e it accessible to the police. +he o""icer 0ho a,(inistere, the PAS test testi"ie, that use, (outhpieces 0ere nor(ally ,iscar,e, in the trash. +hus- any subCecti.e e?pectation ,e"en,ant (ay ha.e ha, that his right to pri.acy 0oul, be preser.e, 0as unreasonable. ()eop"e $# Thomas (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 33#.) 25#
+he Thomas court "urther hel, that using ,e"en,ant s DJA taFen "ro( the PAS ,e.ice (outhpiece to legiti(ately test ,e"en,ant s bloo,Nalcohol le.el- 0ith his consent- 0as not a coerci.e ruse- an, there"ore la0"ul. (Id.- at p. 333.) +he *Threatened 'llegal Detention)/ Ehat happens 0hen the property is aban,one, as a ,irect result o" a police o""icer s atte(pt to illegally stop an, ,etain a suspectM +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court resol.e, a pre.ious three%0ay split o" authority) +here is no constitutional .iolation in a *threatened unlawful detention./ +he Fourth Amendment ,oes not apply to such a situation until the person is actually illegal ,etaine,: i.e.- 0hen the o""icer actually catches the ,e"en,ant or the ,e"en,ant other0ise sub(its to the o""icer s authority (i.e.: he gi.es up). (Ca"i'ornia $# 0odari D# (1&&1) 3&& 4.S. 521 6113 7.8,.2n, 5&09.) Result) Any e.i,ence aban,one, (e.g.- tosse, or ,roppe,) during a "oot pursuit o" a "leeing suspecte.en 0ithout any reasonable suspicion Custi"ying a ,etention (i.e.- a *threatened unlawful detention/)is a,(issible as aban,one, property (as 0ell as supplying the necessary *reasonable suspicion/ to Custi"y the suspect s ,etention upon being caught). Gut- i" the suspect ,oes not aban,on the contraban, until after he has been caught- an, thus illegally ,etaine,- then it is subCect to suppression as *fruit of the poisonous tree:/ i.e.- the unla0"ul ,etention. Disclaiming tanding) Lenerally- anyone 0ho ,isclai(s o0nership o" the place or ite( being searche, 0ill not nor(ally be hel, to ha.e stan,ing. ()eop"e $# %endo5a (1&#5) 125 Cal.App.3r, 1122: an, )eop"e $# Dasi"$a (1&#&) 202 Cal.App.3r, 33: )eop"e $# Scott (1&&3) 12 Cal.App.3th 30$.) Gut note )eop"e $# A""en (1&&3) 12 Cal.App.3r, 1213: ,isclai(er but one "actor to consi,er 0hen ,eter(ining 0hether ,e"en,ant ha, stan,ing. An, see United States $# Stephens (&th Cir. 2000) 205 B.3r, &130here the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has hel, that e.en ,enial o" stan,ing (i.e.: *That ain)t mine./) concerning sei;e, property 25&
,uring an illegal ,etention 0ill not Feep that property "ro( being suppresse, as the pro,uct o" the unla0"ul ,etention. *lso- ,enial by a ,e"en,ant that he possesse, a gun- allege,ly reco.ere, by police "ro( his 0aistban,- ,oes not ,e"eat the ,e"en,ant s clai( o" stan,ing 0hen he later challenges the search o" his person. ()eop"e $# Dachino (2003) 111 Cal.App.3th 132&.) Reasona."eness: E!aluating for Purposes of earch > eizure) *+he touchstone o" the Fourth Amendment is reasonableness. 6Citation9 +he Fourth Amendment ,oes not proscribe all state%initiate, searches an, sei;ures: it (erely proscribes those 0hich are unreasonable./ (F"orida $# *imeno (1&&1) $00 4.S. 23#- 2$0 6113 7.8,.2n, 2&29: see also ri1ham Cit& $# Stuart (2005) $32 4.S. 3&#- 303 6153 7.8,.2n, 5$09: %ichi1an $# Fisher (200&) $$# 4.S. 3$- >> 6130 S.Ct. $35- $3#: 12$ 7.8,.2n, 3109: )eop"e $# Ro.inson (2010) 32 Cal.3th 1103111&%1120: )eop"e $# Ro.inson (2012) 20# Cal.App.3th 232- 235.) Determining Reasonableness) +he reasonableness o" a search is ,eter(ine, by assessing- on the one han,- the ,egree to 0hich it intru,es upon an in,i.i,ual s pri.acy an,- on the other- the ,egree to 0hich it is nee,e, "or the pro(otion o" legiti(ate go.ern(ental interests. (United States $# /ni1hts (2001) $33 4.S. 112- 11#%11& 61$1 7.8,.2n, 3&2- $0$9: )eop"e $# Ro.inson, 'bid.) See )eop"e $# Smith (200&) 122 Cal.App.3th 13$3- 0here it 0as hel, that a public strip search o" a probationer or parolee (ay in "act be unreasonable. Gut lo0ering a parolee s pants an, pulling bacF the elastic ban o" his un,er0ear only to the e?tent necessary to see the crotch area- 0hile shiel,ing the suspect "ro( public .ie0- is neither a strip search nor unreasonable. +aFing bloo, sa(ples "ro( a con.icte, person in the (istaFen belie" that the $%A and Forensic Identification $ata &ase and $ata &an' Act of 1""# authori;es it- 0hen the ,e"en,ant is in "act a prisoner 0ith a re,uce, e?pectation o" pri.acy- is not unreasonable an, ,oes not re@uire suppression o" the result. ()eop"e $# Ro.inson (2010) 32 Cal.3th 1103- 111&%1120.) ;ld Rule) 8.aluating any Fourth Amendment search an, sei;ure issue in.ol.e, analy;ing the la0 en"orce(ent o""icer s actions both "ro( a *sub%ecti!e/ (i.e.- in the o""icer s o0n (in,) an, *ob%ecti!e/ (as .ie0e, by a reasonable person) .ie0point. 1" a conteste, search or sei;ure 0as not both sub%ecti!ely hel, an, ob%ecti!ely reasonable- the search or sei;ure 0oul, be "oun, to be illegal. (See /at5 $# United States (1&52) 3#& 4.S. 332- 3512 61& 7.8,.2n, $25- $##9.) 220
+ew Rule) ub%ecti!e ,oti!ations are 'rrele!ant) A police o""icer s sub%ecti!e (oti.ations (or e.en his ignorance o" the legality o" the reasons) "or con,ucting a search or sei;ure are irrele.ant. +he only issue is 0hether the Fourth Amendment 0as in "act .iolate,. 1n other 0or,s0as a search or arrest la0"ul accor,ing to so(e statute or constitutional principle- e.en though the o""icer 0as not a0are o" it- or e.en thought- in his o0n (in,- he belie.e, he 0as in .iolation o" the applicable la0 or principleM 1" the ans0er is *yes-/ then (0ith li(ite, e?ceptions- see belo0)- the search or arrest is la0"ul. (-hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9.) *AReasonableness ` is (easure, in obCecti.e ter(s by e?a(ining the totality o" the circu(stances 6citation9- an, A0hether a particular search (eets the reasonableness stan,ar, A*Ais Cu,ge, by balancing its intrusion on the in,i.i,ualDs Fourth Amendment interests against its pro(otion o" legiti(ate go.ern(ental interests. / 6Citations.9/ ()eop"e $# Ro.inson (2010) 32 Cal.3th 1103- 1120 6103 Cal. Rptr. 3, 222- 223 P.3, $$9: see e"" $# -o"'ish (1&2&)- 331 4.S. $20 at p. $$& 6*Courts (ust consi,er the scope o" the particular intrusion- the (anner in 0hich it is con,ucte,- the Custi"ication "or initiating itan, the place in 0hich it is con,ucte,./9 .)/ ()eop"e $# ou"ter (2011) 1&& Cal.App.3th 251.) -hren $# United States- suprain.ol.e, the use o" a *pretext/ to (aFe a tra""ic stop (i.e.- using a tra""ic in"raction 0hen the o""icers real (oti.ation in.ol.e, an issue not supporte, by the necessary reasonable suspicion)- the 4.S. Supre(e Court ,eci,ing such a tactic 0as la0"ul so long as there 0as so(e la0"ul reason Custi"ying the stop. (See *Pretext tops-/ abo.e.) The Rule of -hren) Per -hren- so long as there is so(e la0"ul Custi"ication "or (aFing the stop- the o""icers sub%ecti!e moti!ations are irrele.ant. (I.id: see also United States $# %iranda3 Guerena (&th Cir. 2005) 33$ B.3r, 1233.) Arguably- the sa(e theory applies to a search or sei;ure. So long as the search or sei;ure is la0"ul- it shoul, (atter not 0hether the o""icer- in his or her o0n (in,- belie.e, it to be la0"ul. +he *pretext stop/ theory o" -hren $# United States applies to ci.il parFing .iolations as 0ell as any cri(inal 221
.iolation. (United States $# Choudhr& (&th Cir. 2005) 351 B.3r, 10&2.) Also- a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer s actions- so long as ob%ecti!ely reasonable- (ight still result in the a,(issibility o" illegally sei;e, e.i,ence because o" the *good faith/ e?ception. (United States $# 2eon (1&#3) 35# 4.S. #&2 6#2 7.8,.2n, 5229: see also )eop"e $# 0u"" (1&&$) 33 Cal.App.3th 133#.) (See *<ood (aith-/ belo0.) An, see Ar(ansas $# Su""i$an (2001) $32 4.S. 25& 613& 7.8,.2n, &339) Gecause -hren in.ol.es an interpretation o" the Fourth Amendment- in,i.i,ual states are not entitle, to i(pose a stricter interpretation upon la0 en"orce(ent unless they choose to use their o0n state constitution (i.e.- *'ndependent tate <rounds/) as their authority. +ote) Cali"ornia Courts ability to use *'ndependent tate <rounds/ as a basis "or i(posing stricter rules on la0 en"orce(ent 0as eli(inate, 0ith passage o" (ro-osition # in June- 1&#2- an, its *Truth in E!idence/ pro.isions. (In re 2ance -# (1&#$) 32 Cal.3r, #23.) "imitations) -hren is not 0ithout e?ceptions) Ehen the prete?t use, "or (aFing a stop is to con,uct an *administrati!e search-/ such as inspecting the licensing o" a ta?icab- per local or,inance- or an in.entory .ehicle search- (aFing a tra""ic stop is unla0"ul- an, any pro,ucts o" that stop are subCect to suppression. ()eop"e $# 9a"en5ue"a (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 1202: -hren $# United States, supra, at pp. #11%#12- 13$ 7.8,.2n, at p. &29.) Ehen a stop or search is not a *run6of6the6mine/ case- such as *cases 0here Asearches or sei;ures 60ere9 con,ucte, in an e?traor,inary (annerusually har("ul to an in,i.i,ual s pri.acy or e.en physical interestsPsuch as- "or e?a(plesei;ure by (eans o" ,ea,ly "orce- unannounce, entry into a ho(e- entry into a ho(e 0ithout a 0arrant- or physical penetration o" the bo,y. (Citing -hren $# United Statessupra- at p. #1#.)/ (United States $# I.arra (&th Cir. 2003) 33$ B.3r, 211- 21$.) +he theory o" -hren is li(ite, to those circu(stances 0here a police o""icer is a0are o" "acts that 0oul, support 222
an arrest. *(A)lthough -hren stan,s "or the proposition that a prete?tual sei;ure base, on the illegiti(ate subCecti.e intentions o" an o""icer (ay be per(issible- it ,oes not alter the "act that the prete?t itsel" (ust be a constitutionally su""icient basis "or the sei;ure an, the "acts supporting it (ust be Fno0n at the ti(e it is con,ucte,./ (%oreno $# aca (&th Cir. 200$) 331 B.3r, 533- 530: "in,ing that a belate,ly ,isco.ere, arrest 0arrant an, parole search con,itions ,i, not Custi"y a ,etention an, search.) Contrary to the general rule- an o""icer s (oti.ations "or con,ucting a search do (atter in t0o li(ite, situations: i.e.in *special needs/ an, *administrati!e search/ cases. (United States $# %cCart& (&th Cir. !ct. 13- 2011) >> B.3r, >>- >> 62011 4.S. App. 78T1S 1##239: chil, pornography obser.e, ,uring a la0"ul +SA a,(inistrati.e search (ay la0"ully be use, to establish probable cause to arrest.) An, Euery) Eoul, -hren .ali,ate a tra""ic stop 0hen the o""icer s real (oti.ation is base, upon prohibite, *racial profilingM/ +oM Galancing the constitutional principles in.ol.e, (e.g.Fourteenth Amendment an, Calif! Const! Art I, 1, 1)- e@ual protection an, due process)- an, the state an, "e,eral statutes the o""icer 0oul, be .iolating (1# !S! C! 241, 242E 42 !S!C! 1"#3E (!C! 422!2+a,, 13)1"!4E an, CC )2!1)- a court 0ill not uphol, such a stop. (See also a"u&ut $# Superior Court (1&&5) 12 Cal.3th #25: E@ual Protection: an, Shapiro $# Thompson (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 51# 622 7.8,.2n, 5009: Discri(ination (ay be so arbitrary an, inCurious as to be ,ee(e, a Due Process .iolation. +he Supre(e Court itsel"- in -hrenspeci"ically note, that: *Ee o" course agree 0ith petitioners that the Constitution prohibits selecti.e en"orce(ent o" the la0 base, on consi,erations such as race./ (-hren $# United States, supraat p. #13 613$ 7.8,.2n, at p. &#9.) Discri(ination by la0 en"orce(ent o""icers base, upon a person s race in the pro.i,ing o" both protecti.e an, non% protecti.e ser.ices is a constitutional e@ual protection .iolation. (Ae *a E""iot3)ar( $# %an1"ona (&th Cir. 2010) $&2 B.3r, 1003.) 223
Such *racial profiling/ 0oul, be a Fourteenth Amendment *due process/ .iolation. (I.id.: United States $# I.arra (&th Cir. 2003) 33$ B.3r, 211- 213.) Fourth Amendment !s2 Fi'th Amendment 'ssues) See )eop"e $# )i"ster (2005) 13# Cal.App.3th 13&$- 130$- noting that Fourth Amendment custo,y issues in.ol.e an analysis o" the reasonableness o" an o""icer s actions- as oppose, to a Fifth Amendment custo,y issues 0hen ,iscussing the nee, "or an a,(onish(ent o" one s sel"%incri(ination rights pursuant to %iranda $# Ari5ona (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 335 615 7.8,.2n, 5&390here the issue is 0hat a reasonable person in the suspect s position 0oul, ha.e belie.e,. G)osse ComitatusEH Use o' the %i"itar& .& Ci$i"ian 2a, En'orcement: The *ct) +he so%calle, *Posse &omitatus *ct/ pro.i,es- in part: *609hoe.er- e?cept in cases an, un,er circu(stances e?pressly authori;e, by the Constitution or Act o" Congress- 0ill"ully uses any part o" the Ar(y or the Air Borce as a posse co(itatus or other0ise to e?ecute the la0s shall be "ine, un,er this title or i(prisone, not (ore than t0o yearsor both./ (1# !S!C! 13#)) *Posse/ (eans *to be able-/ or *to ha!e power./ *&omitatus/ (eans *county./ At co((on la0- *Posse &omitatus/ re"erre, to the po0er o" the sheri"" to su((on ai, "ro( e.ery (ale in the county o.er 1$ years o" age an, not in"ir( to assist in preser.ing the peace. (See )eop"e $# autista (2003) 11$ Cal.App.3th 22&233- "n. 2.) So(e states- inclu,ing Cali"ornia- still retain one "or( or another o" this po0er. (See (!C! 1)3: (aFing it an in"raction "or any able%bo,ie, person o.er the age o" 1# to "ail to assist a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer re@uesting such assistance.) Purpose) +he "e,eral Act 0as enacte, to pre.ent the use o" (ilitary personnel to help en"orce ci.ilian la0- thus pre.enting the 4.S. Lo.ern(ent "ro( beco(ing *a go!ernment of force-/ i.e.- run by the (ilitary. ()eop"e $# autista- supra- at p. 233- "n. 2.) 1n 1&#1- Congress a(en,e, the Posse &omitatus *ct to allo0 "or certain (ilitary assistance in "ighting the 0ar on ,rugs. (See 1# !S!C! 311<31#) Io0e.er- these statutes 0ere speci"ically *not 6to9 inclu,e or per(it ,irect participation by a (e(ber o" the Ar(y- Ja.y- Air Borce- or Oarine Corps in a searchsei;urearrest- or other si(ilar acti.ity unless participation in such acti.ity 223
by such (e(ber is other0ise authori;e, by la0./ (1# !S!C! 31)) *6R9egular an, syste(atic assistance by (ilitary in.estigati.e agents to ci.ilian la0 en"orce(ent in the in.estigation o" local ,rug tra""ic/ raises issues as to 0hether the *Posse &omitatus *ct/ has been .iolate,. ()eop"e $# "end (1&#1) 121 Cal.App.3r, 21$- 22#.) &ase "aw) 1n )eop"e $# "end (1&#1) 121 Cal.App.3r, 21$- 22$%22#- it 0as hel, that the Posse &omitatus *ct 0as not .iolate, 0hen an acti.e ,uty EAU8 assiste, local la0 en"orce(ent 0ith arranging the purchase o" cocaine "ro( the ,e"en,ant- ,espite the cooperation o" the Ja.al 1n.estigati.e Ser.ice (J1S) 0hich per(itte, the in.estigation to procee, on the base- pro.i,e, the in.estigator 0ith passes- an, assiste, in appellantDs arrest. Per the Court- the EAU8 acte, on her o0n initiati.e as a pri.ate citi;en. Ooreo.er- she 0as not regularly in.ol.e, in la0 en"orce(ent acti.ities 0ith the (ilitary- an, her use"ulness to ci.il la0 en"orce(ent 0as unrelate, to the "act that she 0as a EAU8. +he court also "oun, that the cooperation by the J1S in per(itting the in.estigation o" appellant to continue on the base ,i, not ,e(onstrate a .iolation o" the actan, there 0as no e.i,ence that the J1S arrange, or participate, in a progra( to ,etect .iolation o" the ci.il narcotics la0s. 1n )eop"e $# autista (2003) 11$ Cal.App.3th 22&- 232%232)- use o" an Ar(y sergeant an, his ,rug%sni""ing ,og that alerte, on the ,e"en,ant s storage locFer in 0hich 100 poun,s o" (ariCuana 0as later "oun,- ,i, not constitute a .iolation o" the *Posse &omitatus *ct/ because the sergeant ,i, not participate in any stage o" the in.estigation an, search other than to point out the location o" the ,e"en,ant s hi,,en ,rugs by s(elling o,ors in a public place. anctions for Violations) 1t is @uestionable 0hether the use o" the Exclusionary Rule is a proper sanction "or a .iolation o" the *Posse &omitatus *ct)/ +he Bourth Circuit in United States $# -a"den (3th Cir. 1&23) 3&0 B.2n, 322- 325%322- "oun, no in,ication o" 0i,esprea, .iolation o" the Act or its policy an, ,ecline, to a,opt an e?clusionary rule. 22$
+he court state, that the statute 0as pre.iously little Fno0n- that there 0as no e.i,ence that the .iolation in this case 0as ,eliberate or intentional- that the policy e?presse, in the Posse &omitatus *ct is "or the bene"it o" the nation as a 0hole- an, not ,esigne, to protect the personal rights o" ,e"en,ants. Joting that a rationale "or a,opting an e?clusionary rule "or Fourth Amendment .iolations is that a.ailable alternati.e re(e,ies ha.e pro.e, ine""ectual- the court e?presse, con"i,ence that the (ilitary 0oul, taFe steps to ensure en"orce(ent o" the act. Io0e.er- the Court note, at page 322: *Shoul, there be e.i,ence o" 0i,esprea, or repeate, .iolations in any "uture case- or ine""ecti.eness o" en"orce(ent by the (ilitary- 0e 0ill consi,er oursel.es "ree to consi,er 0hether a,option o" an e?clusionary rule is re@uire, as a "uture ,eterrent./ (See also United States $# -o"''s ($th Cir. 1&2&) $&3 B.2n, 22#3%#$.)
225
Chapter D
Searches -ith a Search -arrant) De'ined) A *search warrant/ is *an or,er in 0riting- in the na(e o" the peoplesigne, by a (agistrate- ,irecte, to a peace o""icer- co((an,ing hi( or her to search "or a person or persons- a thing or things- or personal property- an, bring it be"ore the (agistrate./ ((!C! 1)23) )re'erence 'or Search -arrants) Jo ,oubt because 0arrants are co((an,e, by the Fourth Amendment- the courts ha.e long sho0n a pre"erence "or using a search 0arrant 0hene.er possible) *1n *ones $# United States 6(1&50)9 352 4.S. 2$2- 220 63 7.8,.2n, 5&220#9 this Court- strongly supporting the pre"erence to be accor,e, searches un,er a 0arrant- in,icate, that in a ,oubt"ul or (arginal case a search un,er a 0arrant (ay be sustainable 0here 0ithout one it 0oul, "all./ (United States $# 9entresca (1&5$) 3#0 4.S. 102- 105 613 7.8,.2n, 5#3- 5#29.) -h& Search -arrants are )re'erred) +here are a nu(ber o" reasons 0hy use o" a search 0arrant to con,uct any search is pre"erable e.en in those instances 0hen one (ight not be legally re@uire,. Bor instance) 1. Presumption of "awfulness) 4se o" a search 0arrant raises a presu(ption in a later (otion to suppress e.i,ence (per (!C! 1)3#!)) that the search 0as lawful. +he ,e"ense has the bur,en o" proo" in atte(pting to rebut this presu(ption. (Theodor $# Superior Court (1&22) # Cal.3r, 22- 101: )eop"e $# /ur"and (1&#0) 2# Cal.3r, 325.) +his (ust be ,one by "iling) ,otion to Euash) Ootion attacFing the su""iciency o" the probable cause in the 0arrant a""i,a.it as it is 0ritten. ((!C! 1)3#!)+a,+1,+&,) Jor(ally- only the 0arrant an, a""i,a.it the(sel.es (ay be consi,ere, by the trial court in ruling on a (otion to @uash. An e?ception (ight be 0hen a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer s testi(ony is necessary to interpret so(e o" the language in the a""i,a.it. (See )eop"e $# Christian (1&22) 22 Cal.App.3r, $$3.) ,otion to Tra!erse) Ootion attacFing the truth o" the in"or(ation containe, in the 0arrant a""i,a.it. Io0e.er- the ,e"en,ant is entitle, to an e.i,entiary hearing (i.e.- re"erre, to as a *Fran(s 222
hearing:/ Fran(s $# De"a,are (1&2#) 33# 4.S. 1$3 6$2 7.8,.2n, 5529.) on this issue only a"ter (aFing a *substantial showing/ that) +he a""i,a.it contains state(ents (or (aFes (aterial o(issions) that are deliberately "alse or 0ere (a,e 0ith a rec?less ,isregar, "or the truth (E,in1 $# Cit& o' Stoc(ton (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, 121#- 1223%122#: ra$o $# Cit& o' Santa %aria (&th Cir. 2011) 55$ B.3r, 1025- 10#2%10##.)(or o(itte, in"or(ation 0hich the (agistrate 0oul, ha.e 0ante, to Fno0): and +he a""i,a.it s re(aining contents are ree.aluate, a"ter the "alse state(ents are e?cise, (or o(itte, (aterial in"or(ation is consi,ere,) to see i"- as correcte,- there is still su""icient e.i,ence to Custi"y a "in,ing o" probable cause. (Fran(s $# De"a,are (1&2#) 33# 4.S. 1$3- 1$$%1$5 6$2 7.8,.2n, 552- 5229: preclu,ing the cross%e?a(ination o" the a""iant until the necessary sho0ing is (a,e. See also )eop"e $# -i"son (1&#5) 1#2 Cal.App.3r, 232- 232: Theodor $# Superior Court (1&22) # Cal.3r, 22- 103: )eop"e $# Coo( (1&2#) 22 Cal.3r, 52- 2#: an, )eop"e $# rad'ord (1&&2) 1$ Cal.3th 122&- 12&2: )eop"e $# 2e,is et a"# (2005) 3& Cal.3th &20- &#&: United States $# Crai1head (&th Cir. 200#) $3& B.3r, 1023- 10#0%10#2: E,in1 $# Cit& o' Stoc(ton (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, 121#- 1223%122#): United States $# )a&ton (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, #$&- #51: )eop"e $# Scott (2011) $2 Cal.3th 3$2- 32$%325.)- or +he a""i,a.it contains in"or(ation that is the ,irect pro,uct o" a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (See )eop"e $# -eiss (1&&&) 20 Cal.3th 1023.) +ote) Gut re(e(ber- the ,e"en,ant (ust ha.e *standing/ to challenge the collection o" the illegal in"or(ation in or,er to contest its inclusion in the 0arrant a""i,a.it. See * tanding-/ abo.e.) See *'ndependent ource Doctrine-/ belo0 A ,e"en,ant 0ho challenges a search 0arrant base, upon an a""i,a.it containing omissions bears the bur,en o" sho0ing that the o(issions 0oul, ha.e been (aterial to the (agistrates ,eter(ination o" probable cause. ()eop"e $# rad'ord (1&&2) 1$ Cal.3th 122&- 12&2.) 22#
Jeglecting to inclu,e an in"or(ant s cri(inal history coul, in.ali,ate a 0arrant- in that the (agistrate s ,ecision 0ill usually re@uire a ,eter(ination o" the in"or(ant s cre,ibility. (United States $# Ree$es (&th Cir. 2000) 210 B.3r, 1031.) !(itting "acts 0hich 0oul, ha.e supported a "in,ing o" probable cause ha, it been inclu,e, is not groun,s to tra.erse a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# 2im (2001) #$ Cal.App.3th 12#&.) 1ntentional or recFless (isstate(ents an,Nor o(issions in a search 0arrant a""i,a.it are (aterial errors 0hene.er a (agistrate 0oul, not ha.e "oun, probable cause absent those errors- an, (ay result in potential ci.il liability "or the a""iant. (Chism $# -ashin1ton State (&th Cir. 2011) 551 B.3r, 3#0: 0here ha, the in"or(ation been reporte, to the (agistrate correctly- it 0oul, ha.e been apparent that other parties ha, use, the plainti""s pre.iously stolen cre,it car, to purchase chil, pornography.) Bor a plainti"" in a ci.il la0suit to sur.i.e a su((ary Cu,g(ent (otion 0here it is allege, that there 0ere (aterial (isstate(ents or o(ission in a search 0arrant- he (ust (aFe a substantial showing that there 0ere (isstate(ents an,Nor o(issions in the 0arrant a""i,a.it 0ere either deliberately or rec?lessly inclu,e, (or- "or an o(ission- e?clu,e,)- an, that but "or the (isstate(ents or o(issionsthe 0arrant not 0oul, ha.e been appro.e, by the (agistrate. Purely negligent or unintentional (istaFes in a search 0arrant a""i,a.it are irrele.ant to the .ali,ity o" the 0arrant. 1n this case- the Court ha, no ,i""iculty "in,ing that the a""iant s (isstate(ents an, o(issions 0ere at the .ery least recFless. (I.id.) +he a""iant s "ailure to ,isclose that the plainti"" s son 0as in Cail at the ti(e o" the issuance o" the 0arrant- an, "or o.er si? (onths prior- an, there"ore not only 0as not present in the ho(e- but 22&
(oreo.er coul, not ha.e been in.ol.e, in a ,escribe, shooting or the storage o" 0eapons use, in it. Plainti""s presente, su""icient e.i,ence to establish a genuine issue as to 0hether a ,etecti.e s o(ission o" this (aterial "act 0as intentional or recFless- as oppose, to (erely negligent. Ia, the o(itte, "acts o" the son s t0o%year sentence an, custo,y status been inclu,e,- it 0as e?tre(ely ,oubt"ul that an issuing Cu,ge 0oul, si(ply ha.e issue, the 0arrant or authori;e, nightti(e ser.ice 0ithout (ore in"or(ation. ( ra$o $# Cit& o' Santa %aria (&th Cir. 2011) 55$ B.3r, 1025- 10#3%10##.) &ourts gi!e the Prosecution the $enefit of the Doubt) Eith the bur,en o" attacFing a search 0arrant upon the ,e"en,ant- an, the necessity o" (aFing a *substantial showing-/ e.en be"ore being allo0e, to hol, an e.i,entiary hearing- it is e?tre(ely ,i""icult "or a ,e"en,ant to success"ully challenge a search con,ucte, pursuant to a search 0arrant. (See )eop"e $# -i"son (1&#5) 1#2 Cal.App.3r, 232.) *(E)here (the) circu(stances are ,etaile,- 0here reason "or cre,iting the source o" the in"or(ation is gi.en- an, 0hen a (agistrate has "oun, probable cause- the courts shoul, not in.ali,ate the 0arrant by interpreting the a""i,a.it in a hypertechnical- rather than a co((on sense- (anner. . . . (R)esolution o" ,oubt"ul or (arginal cases in this area shoul, be largely ,eter(ine, by the pre"erence to be accor,e, to 0arrants./ (United States $# 9entresca (1&5$) 3#0 4.S 102- 10& 613 7.8,.2n, 5#3- 5#&9.) +his Cu,icially (an,ate, pre"erence "or 0arrants has speci"ically been a,opte, by the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6*ohnson7 (1&22) 5 Cal.3r, 203211: )eop"e $# %esa (1&2$) 13 Cal.3r, 355- 35&.) 1n a *,otion to tra!erse/ a search 0arrant a""i,a.it- only intentional or rec?less inaccuracies are groun,s "or sanctions- an, in those cases the sanction is li(ite, to striFing the inaccurate in"or(ation- retesting the 0arrant a""i,a.it "or probable cause a"ter striFing that in"or(ation. 4nintentional or negligent (isstate(ents are le"t in the a""i,a.it. (Fran(s $# De"a,are (1&2#) 33# 4.S. 1$3 6$2 2#0
7.8,.2n, 5529: )eop"e $# -i"son (1&#5) 1#2 Cal.App.3r, 232.) *!(issions or (isstate(ents resulting "ro( negligence or goo, "aith (istaFes 0ill not in.ali,ate an a""i,a.it 0hich on its "ace establishes probable cause./ (E,in1 $# Cit& o' Stoc(ton (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, 121#- 1223.) Oinor- technical errors 0ill not liFely result in any sanction. (See ()eop"e $# Stipo (2011) 1&$ Cal.App.3th 553- 520: listing the 0rong ti(e "or an occurrence- (issing the actual ti(e by 20 (inutes.) !(itting an in"or(ant s entire cri(inal history "ro( a 0arrant a""i,a.it (ay be groun,s to in.ali,ate the 0arrant. Io0e.er- the 0arrant is still .ali, so long as that in"or(ation 0asn t intentionally or recFlessly le"t out- or i" it 0oul,n t ha.e (a,e a ,i""erence to the (agistrate e.en i" he , Fno0n. (Garcia $# Count& o' %erced (&th Cir. 2011) 53& B.3r, 1205- 1211%1212.) 2. Presumption of #nlawfulness) +he absence o" a search 0arrant raises a presu(ption that the search 0as unlawful- 0hich the prosecution is re@uire, to rebut. (%ince& $# Ari5ona (1&2#) 332 4.S. 3#$- 3&0 6$2 7.8,.2n, 2&0- 2&#%2&&9: In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#- 25- o.errule, on other groun,s.) +he prosecution bears the bur,en o" pro.i,ing proo" o" a recogni;e, e?ception to the 0arrant re@uire(ent- Custi"ying a 0arrantless search. (-e"sh $# -isconsin (1&#3) 355 4.S. 23023&%2$0 6#0 7.8,.2n, 232- 232%2339: )eop"e $# *ames (1&22) 1& Cal.3r, &&- 105.) 3. <ood (aith) 8.i,ence sei;e, pursuant to a search 0arrant 0ill not be suppresse, e.en i" the 0arrant 0as ,e"ecti.e so long as the o""icers acte, in reasonable an, obCecti.e goo, "aith in relying upon the 0arrant an, ser.ing it. (United States $# 2eon (1&#3) 35# 4.S. #&2 6#2 7.8,.2n, 5229: %assachusetts $# Sheppard (1&#3) 35# 4.S. &#1 6#2 7.8,.2n, 2329: )eop"e $# Rodri1ues3Fernande5 (1&#5) 1#2 Cal.App.3r, 232: United States $# Cre,s (&th Cir. 2002) $02 B.3r, 1130: %esserschmidt et a"# $# %i""ender (Beb. 22- 2012) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S!Ct! 123)E 1#2 7.8,.2n, 329.) +he *Exclusionary Rule/ is *restricte, to those situations in 0hich its re(e,ial purpose is e""ecti.ely a,.ance,./ (I""inois $# /ru"" (1&#2) 3#0 4.S. 330- 332 6&3 7.8,.2n, 353- 3239.) 2#1
+he goo, "aith reliance upon a state statute allo0ing "or a 0arrantless a,(inistrati.e search 0as Custi"ie, 0here the statute 0as not ob.iously unconstitutional. (I""inois $# /ru""- supra: see also %ichi1an $# DeFi""ippo (1&2&) 333 4.S. 31- 32%3# 651 7.8,.2n, 333- 33&%3$09: goo, "aith reliance on an or,inance that 0as later ,eclare, to be unconstitutional.) Application o" the 8?clusionary Rule is unwarranted 0here it 0oul, not result in appreciable ,eterrence to unla0"ul police con,uct. (Ari5ona $# E$ans (1&&$) $13 4.S. 1 6131 7.8,.2n, 339: An arrest base, upon erroneous court recor,s.) +he 8?clusionary Rule shoul, not be applie, to e.i,ence obtaine, by a police o""icer 0hose reliance on a search 0arrant issue, by a neutral (agistrate 0as obCecti.ely reasonable- e.en though the 0arrant 0as ulti(ately "oun, to be ,e"ecti.e. (United States $# 2eon- supra: see also %assachusetts $# Sheppard- supra.) Si(ilarly- the allege, unconstitutionality o" a statute- the .iolation "or 0hich ser.es as the basis "or a search 0arrantis irrele.ant so long as o""icers reasonably relie, upon the statute s .ali,ity at the ti(e o" the obtaining o" the search 0arrant. (United States $# %ee( (&th Cir. 2003) 355 B.3r, 20$- 213.) An o""icer s reasonable reliance upon the a,.ice o" a prosecutor- although not conclusi.e- is so(e e.i,ence o" goo, "aith. (Di!on $# -a""o,a Count& (&th Cir- 2003) 335 B.3r, 1013- 101&: see also Ste$ens $# Rose (&th Cir. 2002) 2&# B.3r, ##0- ##3.) See also *ohnston $# /oppes (&th Cir. 1&##) #$0 B.2n, $&3- $&5- listing "our rele.ant "actors in e.aluating the o""icer s goo, "aith reliance on a,.ice o" a la0yer) o Ehether the attorney 0as in,epen,ent: o Ehether the a,.ice a,,resse, the constitutionality o" the propose, action: o Ehether the attorney ha, all the rele.ant "acts: and 2#2
o Ehether the a,.ice 0as sought be"ore or a"ter the o""icer s actions. A ,e"ecti.e search 0arrant ,escription (i.e.- lacF o" particularity) (ay be cure, 0here the a""i,a.it supplies the necessary particularity. Io0e.er- the go.ern(ent has the bur,en o" pro.ing that the o""icers 0ho e?ecute, the 0arrant rea, an, 0ere gui,e, by the contents o" the a""i,a.it. (United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc# (&th Cir. 200&) $5# B.3r, 5#3- 205: citing United States $# 2u( (&th Cir. 1&##) #$& B.2n, 552- 522.) *A(A) 0arrant issue, by a (agistrate nor(ally su""ices to establish that a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer has Aacte, in goo, "aith in con,ucting the search. / *(8).i,ence sei;e, 0ill not be e?clu,e, 0here o""icers rely on 0arrants that are later rule, to be in.ali, i" their reliance 0as obCecti.ely reasonable./ (Citations o(itte,: )eop"e $# Stipo (2011) 1&$ Cal.App.3th 553- 523.) A search 0arrant a""i,a.it hel, to be insu""icient ,ue to a lacF o" ,etail in the a""i,a.it- using in"or(ation "ro( three in"or(ants 0hat 0as conclusory onlyan, that corroborate, each other only as to *pe,estrian "acts/ that coul, ha.e been Fno0n to anyone- 0as sa.e, by the *goo, "aith/ rule because a reasonable o""icer coul, ha.e been let to belie.e the 0arrant 0as goo, ,ue to prior cases hol,ing that in"or(ation "ro( unconnecte, in"or(ants (ay be enough to establish probable cause. ()eop"e $# French (2011) 201 Cal.App.3th 1302- 1323%132$.) Exceptions) Io0e.er: *A police o""icer (ay not shi"t all o" the responsibility "or the protection o" an accuse, s Fourth Amendment rights to the (agistrate by e?ecuting a 0arrant no (atter ho0 ,e"icient it (ay be in ,escribing the places to be searche, an, the ite(s to be sei;e,. An o""icer applying "or a 0arrant is re@uire, to e?ercise reasonable pro"essional Cu,g(ent. 6Citations9/ ()eop"e $# rad'ord (1&&2) 1$ Cal.3th 122&- 12&2.) Pursuant to United States $# 2eon- supraat pp. &22%&23 6#2 7.8,.2n, at pp. 5&#%5&&9- an, other cases (see belo0)- the *<ood (aith/ e?ception does not apply 0hen) +he (agistrate issuing the search 0arrant 0as misled by in"or(ation in the a""i,a.it that the a""iant Fne0 0as "alse or 0oul, ha.e Fno0n 0as "alse e?cept "or a recFless 2#3
,isregar, "or the truth. (See United States $# Cre,s (&th Cir. 2002) $02 B.3r, 1130- 113#%113&.) +his probably applies to (aterial o(issions in the 0arrant a""i,a.it as 0ell. (United States $# F"ores (&th Cir. 1&#2) 52& B.2n, 123: United States $# 2e'(o,it5 (&th Cir. 1&#0) 51# B.2n, 1313.) +he issuing (agistrate has *wholly abandoned his %udicial role . . . / to the e?tent that no reasonably 0ell%traine, o""icer 0oul, rely upon the 0arrant. Bor e?a(ple) 1ssuing a 0arrant base, upon a *bare bones/ a""i,a.it: i.e.- one 0ritten in *conclusory-/ as oppose, to *factual-/ language. (See United States $# 0arper ($th Cir. 1&#5) #02 B.2n, 11$: an, United States $# %a11itt ($th Cir.1&#$) 22# B.2n, 102&1035.) Ehere the Cu,ge beco(es a part o" the searching party- personally authori;ing sei;ures ,uring the search. (2o3*i Sa"es, Inc# $# Ne, Yor( (1&2&) 332 4.S. 31& 6502 7.8,.2n, &209.) A Cu,ge 0ho (erely acts as a *rubber stamp/ signer o" 0arrants- appro.ing anything sub(itte, "or issuance. (See United States $# ro,n (2th Cir. 1&#2) #32 B.2n, &&1: an, Rodri1ue5 $# Superior Court (1&##) 1&& Cal.App.3r, 13$3.) A search 0arrant a""i,a.it that is so lac?ing in the indicia of probable cause that o""icial belie" in the e?istence o" probable cause is entirely unreasonable. (See United States $# Cre,s (&th Cir. 2002) $02 B.3r, 1130- 113$%113#: %esserschmidt et a"# $# %i""ender (Beb. 22- 2012) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S!Ct! 123)E 1#2 7.8,.2n, 329.) Howe!er- *the threshol, "or establishing this e?ception is a high one- an, it shoul, be./ (%esserschmidt et a"# $# %i""ender- supra.- at p. >>.) 8.g.) +he *bare bones/ 0arrant- 0ritten in *wholly conclusory statements/ as oppose, to factual allegations. (United States $# %a11itt- supra.: 2#3
United States $# arrin1ton ($th Cir. 1&#5) #05 B.2n, $2&- $32.) Delay o" $2 ,ays bet0een a controlle, buy o" al(ost a poun, o" (ariCuana an, the e?ecution o" a search 0arrant- ,espite the o""icer s e?pert opinion an, goo, "aith belie" that the seller 0oul, still ha.e contraban, in his resi,ence (the sale taFing place in a parFing lot in another city)- 0as hel, to be stale. +he o""icer s belie" 0as not obCecti.ely reasonableun,er the circu(stances. ()eop"e $# 0u""and (2003) 110 Cal.App.3th 1535.) A 0arrant that "aile, to i,enti"y a particular suspect as an allege, *che(ist/ arri.ing "ro( a "oreign country- to pro.i,e any basis "or the tip that a che(ist 0as co(ing to the 4nite, States- or to ,escribe any acti.ity by the suspect that 0as in,icati.e o" setting up a (eth lab- "aile, to (aFe e.en a *colorable argu(ent "or probable cause./ (United States $# 2uon1 (&th Cir. 2005) 320 B.3r, #&#.)
!""icers obtaine, a 0arrant an, searche, ,e"en,ant s ho(e "or a "irear( that 0as use, in a ho(ici,e that ha, occurre, nine (onths earlier. De"en,ant hi(sel" 0as not a suspect in the ho(ici,e. Gut it 0as belie.e, that t0o o" his sons ha, so(e connection to it. +he o""icers ,i, not "in, the "irear( "ro( the ho(ici,e: ho0e.er- they ,i, "in, t0o other "irear(s an, a((unition- 0hich Lrant unla0"ully possesse, because he 0as a con.icte, "elon. Disagreeing 0ith the trial court- the Jinth Circuit hel, that the search 0arrant a""i,a.it ,i, not establish probable cause that the "irear( use, in the ho(ici,e (ight be locate, in ,e"en,ant s ho(e. !ther than a single con.ersation bet0een ,e"en,ant an, one o" his sons- nothing in the a""i,a.it suggeste, any connection bet0een the sought%"or gun an, ,e"en,ant s ho(e. +he Court "urther hel, that the goo,%"aith e?ception ,i, not apply because the o""icers reliance on the 0arrant 0as unreasonable. (United States $# Grant (&th Cir. 2012) 5#2 B.3r, #22- #32%#31.)
+he 0arrant itsel"- as oppose, to the a""i,a.it- is so lac?ing in those specifics re@uired of warrants that it cannot in 2#$
goo, "aith be presu(e, .ali,. (See %assachusetts $# Shepard (1&#3) 35# 4.S. &#1 6#2 7.8,.2n, 2329.) 8.g.) +he o""icer s reliance on the (agistrate s probable cause ,eter(ination is not obCecti.ely reasonable. 1.e.) Shoul, a reasonably 0ell%traine, o""icer ha.e Fno0n that the search 0arrant 0as ,e"ecti.e ,espite the (agistrate s authori;ationM (See )eop"e $# 2im (2001) #$ Cal.App.3th 12#&12&5%12&2.) 1n this regar,- it a,,s to the o""icer s goo, "aith to ha.e his 0arrants re.ie0e, an, appro.e, by a ,eputy ,istrict attorney prior to taFing it to a (agistrate. (See )eop"e $# Camare""a (1&&1) $3 Cal.3r, $&2- 502%502.) Also- *<ood (aith/ is not applicable 0hen the information upon 0hich the 0arrant is base, was gathered in an earlier illegal search. (United States $# 9ase& (&th Cir. 1&#2) #33 B.2n, 2#2: )eop"e $# a(er (1&#5) 1#2 Cal.App.3r, $52: )eop"e $# ro,n (1&#&) 210 Cal.App.3r, #3&.) Io0e.er- it (ust be the ,e"en,ant s o0n Fourth Amendment rights that 0ere .iolate,. ()eop"e $# -eiss (1&&&) 20 Cal.3th 1023- 10#1.) 1n"or(ation gathere, in .iolation o" so(eone else s Fourth Amendment rights- "or 0hich this ,e"en,ant has no stan,ing to challenge- may be use, in a search 0arrant a""i,a.it. ()eop"e $# %adrid (1&&2) 2 Cal.App.3th 1###- 1#&5.) An o""icer s *good faith/ is not groun,s "or ,enying a ,e"en,ant s (otion to suppress base, on a .iolation o" the wiretap statutes (see belo0). ()eop"e $# *ac(son (200$) 12& Cal.App.3th 12&- 1$3%150.)
Exigent &ircumstances) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has in,icate, that it (ight be appropriate to "actor in e?igent circu(stancessuch as necessary ti(e restraints- in ,eter(ining 0hether the *goo, "aith/ e?ception applies. (United States $# -e.er (&th Cir. 1&&0) &23 B.2n, 133#- 1335: United States 2#5
$# Ramos (&th Cir. 1&&1) &23 B.2n, 1335- 13$$- "n. 1#o.errule, on other groun,s.) Gut clai(ing an e?igency as an e?cuse "or applying a goo, "aith e?ception 0ill not be uphel, 0here the o""icers ,on t treat the situation accor,ingly. (United States $# 2uon1 (&th Cir. 2005) 320 B.3r, #&#- &03: clai(ing that the ,angerousness o" a possible (eth lab in a resi,ential area Custi"ie, application o" the goo, "aith e?ception 0as reCecte, 0hen the o""icers 0aite, se.en hours to obtain the 0arrant an, then three (ore hours be"ore e?ecuting it. Examples) *<ood (aith/ applie, to a 0arrant 0here the ,escription o" the property to be sei;e, 0as erroneously le"t out o" the 0arrant a""i,a.it. ()eop"e $# Rodri1ue53Fernande5 (1&&1) 23$ Cal.App.3r, $33: )eop"e $# A"$are5 (1&#&) 20& Cal.App.3r, 550.) Bailure to restrict the ,escription o" the place to be searche, to the ,e"en,ant s roo(- (aFing the 0arrant *o!er6broad-/ 0here that roo( 0as all that 0as in "act searche,- 0as e?cuse, un,er the *good faith/ rule. ()eop"e $# %acA$o& (1&#$) 152 Cal.App.3r, 235- 2$&%253.) A 0arrant that "aile, to i,enti"y a particular suspect as an allege, *che(ist/ arri.ing "ro( a "oreign country- to pro.i,e any basis "or the tip that a che(ist 0as co(ing to the 4nite, States- or to ,escribe any acti.ity by the suspect that 0as in,icati.e o" setting up a (eth lab- "aile, to (aFe e.en a *colorable argu(ent "or probable cause./ (United States $# 2uon1 (&th Cir. 2005) 320 B.3r, #&#.) 3. Rame& 'napplicable) Arrests 0ithin a resi,ence (See )eop"e $# Rame& (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, 253: abo.e.) ,uring the ser.ice o" a search 0arrant (ay be (a,e 0ithout an arrest 0arrant. ()eop"e $# %cCarter (1&#1) 112 Cal.App.3r, #&3- &0#.) $. &onsensual searches (ay al0ays be stoppe, by the subCect 0ith,ra0ing his or her consent: i.e.- the suspect is in control o" the e?tent an, ,uration o" the search. (See )eop"e $# %artine5 (1&5#) 2$& Cal.App.2n, Supp. &33.) 8?ecution o" a 0arrant- ob.iously- ,oes not re@uire the cooperation o" the occupant.
2#2
5. 'nformants 0ho ,o no (ore than pro.i,e probable cause in an a""i,a.it "or a search 0arrant (ay nor(ally be Fept con"i,ential. (?!C! 1342+4,) 2. An o""icer ser.ing a search 0arrant- e.en i" later "oun, to be lacFing in probable cause- is *acting in the performance of his Lor her0 duties/ shoul, a cri(inal o""ense in 0hich this is an ele(ent (e.g.- (!C! 14# (Resisting Arrest), 243+4, (Gattery on a Peace !""icer) occur ,uring the ser.ice o" the 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Gon5a"es (1&&0) $1 Cal.3r, 112&- 1222.) )ro."em: %enta" )atients Detained per -II B G1G7: Sei5ure o' -eapons: Although /&I #132+a, authori;es the *confiscation/ o" "irear(s or other ,ea,ly 0eapons o0ne,- possesse,- or un,er the control o" a ,etaine, or apprehen,e, (ental patient- a search 0arrant (ust be use, in or,er to la0"ully enter the house an,Nor to search "or 0eapons in those cases 0here there are no e?igent circu(stances an, the ,e"en,ant has not gi.en consent. ()eop"e $# S,ei1 (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th 113$ (petition grante,see belo0): reCecting the People s argu(ent that a 0arrantless entry to search "or an, sei;e the ,etainee s "irear(s 0as Custi"ie, un,er la0 en"orce(ent s *co((unity caretaFing/ "unction.) )#C# B 1G86@aA@17A) Search Earrants "or Birear(s an, other Dea,ly Eeapons) +he S,ei1 Court also "oun,- ho0e.er- that a search 0arrant is not per(itte, un,er (!C! 1)24 (see * tatutory <rounds for 'ssuance ((!C! 1)24+a,+1, through +#,)-/ belo0) 0hen the ,e"en,ant is ,etaine, pursuant to /&I )1)3 only. +he Court suggeste, that the 7egislature shoul, "i? the proble( 0ith a legislati.e a(en,(ent to Section 1)24. As a result- the 7egislature a(en,e, (!C! 1)24 e""ecti.e 1N1N10 to a,, ne0 su4di:ision +a,+13,- 0hich no0 lists as a legal groun, "or the issuance o" a search 0arrant the "ollo0ing) *Ehen the property or things to be sei;e, inclu,e a "irear( or any other ,ea,ly 0eapon that is o0ne, by- or in possession o"- or in the custo,y or control o"- a person ,escribe, in /&I #132+a,./ +he petition to the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court on )eop"e $# S,ei1 0as grante,- (aFing this case no longer a.ailable "or citation- an, then ,is(isse, re.ie0 on 10N11N0& 0hen the abo.e a(en,(ent to (!C! 1)24 0as enacte,. Exigent &ircumstances) See also Rup' $# Yan (2000) #$ Cal.App.3th 311at pages 321%322- 0here a 0arrantless sei;ure o" a (ental patient s 2##
"irear(s "ro( his ho(e 0as not challenge,- the Court perhaps in"erre, an *exigent circumstance/ 0hen it note, that) *+he e?ercise o" the police po0er to regulate "irear(s is clearly relate, to the public health- sa"ety an, 0el"are. (Citations.) Respon,ent i,enti"ies the obCect o" the statute as pro.i,ing a (eans 0hereby authorities can con"iscate "irear(s in an e(ergency situation an, (ay Feep "irear(s "ro( (entally unstable persons. +he legislati.e history o" the statute e?pressly recogni;es the urgency an, i(portance o" such an obCecti.e . . . ./ (I.id.) Independent Source Doctrine: Ehere in"or(ation later use, in a search 0arrant has been ,isco.ere, .ia an illegal search or sei;ure- the in,epen,ent source ,octrine allo0s "or the a,(ission o" the e.i,ence reco.ere, ,uring the e?ecution o" that 0arrant that has been ,isco.ere, by (eans 0holly in,epen,ent o" any constitutional .iolation. ()eop"e $# -eiss (1&&&) 20 Cal.3th 1023.) *61t9 teaches us that the interest o" society in ,eterring unla0"ul police con,uct an, the public interest in ha.ing Curies recei.e all probati.e e.i,ence o" a cri(e are properly balance, by putting the police in the sa(e- not a 0orse- position tha6n9 they 0oul, ha.e been in i" no police error or (iscon,uct ha, occurre,. 6Citations.9 Ehen the challenge, e.i,ence has an in,epen,ent sourcee?clusion o" such e.i,ence 0oul, put the police in a 0orse position than they 0oul, ha.e been in absent any error or .iolation. 6Citation.9/ Id.- at pp. 1022%102#.) Ehere a search 0arrant a""i,a.it supporting a search 0arrant contains both in"or(ation obtaine, by unla0"ul con,uct as 0ell as untainte, in"or(ation- a t0o%prong test applies to Custi"y application o" the in,epen,ent source ,octrine. (Id! at pp. 102#%102&- 10#2.) +he a""i,a.it- excised of any illegally obtained information- (ust be su""icient to establish probable cause. +he e.i,ence (ust support a "in,ing that *the police subCecti.ely 0oul, ha.e sought the 0arrant e.en 0ithout the illegal con,uct./
1" the application contains probable cause apart "ro( the i(proper in"or(ation- then the 0arrant is la0"ul an, the in,epen,ent source ,octrine applies- pro.i,e, that the o""icers 0ere not pro(pte, to obtain the 0arrant by 0hat they obser.e, ,uring the initial entry. (See also )eop"e 2#&
$# Ro.inson (2012) 20# Cal.App.3th 232- 231.)
Non3Standard T&pes o' -arrants: Telephonic earch =arrants: +elephonic search 0arrants- 0ith an oral a""i,a.it taFen un,er oath an, recor,e, an, later transcribe,- is statutorily pro.i,e, "or. ((!C! 1)22) Lenerally use, ,uring those hours 0hen the courts are close, an, a (agistrate is other0ise not personally present- although there is no legal i(pe,i(ent to using this proce,ure ,uring court hours. +ypically- in.ol.es a "our%0ay telephone con"erence call set up bet0een the a""iant- the (agistrate- a ,eputy ,istrict attorney- an, a tape recor,er. Such a 0arrant (ay also be obtaine, through the use o" a telephone an, either a "acsi(ile (*"a?/) (achine- a co(puter e% (ail syste(- or a co(puter ser.er- using proce,ures ,escribe, in (!C! 1)22+4,+2,) *nticipatory earch =arrants) 1ssuance o" a 0arrant- con,itione, upon the happening o" a particular e.ent (e.g.- the ,eli.ery o" illegal substances or articles to a particular a,,ress: i.e.- a *triggering condition/)- is legal. (United States $# Gru..s (2005) $32 4.S. &0- &3%&2 6153 7.8,.2n, 1&$9: United States $# Garcia (2n, Cir. 1&#&) ##2 B.2n, 5&&: an, see United States $# 2o& (3r, Cir. 1&&&) 1&1 B.3r, 350- 353: listing cases uphol,ing the concept.) *(+)he "act that the contraban, is not Apresently locate, at the place ,escribe, in the 0arrant is i((aterial- so long as Athere is probable cause to belie.e that it 0ill be there 0hen the search 0arrant is e?ecute,. United States $# 2o,e- $2$ B.2, 11&3- 11&3 (5th Cir. 1&2#)- . . . see United States $# 2&0
Dornho'er- #$& B.2, 11&$- 11&# (3th Cir. 1&##)- . . . ./ (United States $# Garcia- supra.- at p. 202.) +o be constitutional un,er the Fourth Amendment.s re@uire(ent that there be probable cause- two prere@uisites o" probability (ust be satis"ie,) +hat there is a *fair probability/ that contraban, or e.i,ence o" a cri(e 0ill be "oun, in a particular place: and +hat there is probable cause to belie.e the triggering con,ition 0ill in "act occur. (United States $# Gru..s- suprasee also United States $# Rudde"" (&th Cir. 1&&$) 21 B.3r, 331- 333: an, United States $# 0endric(s (&th Cir. 1&#3) 233 B.2n, 5$3- 5$3%5$2: United States $# Go'' (&th Cir. 1&#2) 5#1 B.2n, 123#- an, United States $# -&"ie ($th Cir 1&&0) &1& B.2n, &5&- &23%&2$: * . . . 0hen it is Fno0n that contraban, is on a sure course to its ,estination . . . ./) Cali"ornia authority- @uestionable since the 4nite, States Supre(e Court s ,ecision in United States $# Gru..s- supra- has hel, that: *(A)n anticipatory 0arrant (ay issue on clear showing that the police s right to search at a certain location "or particular e.i,ence o" a cri(e 0ill e?ist 0ithin a reasonable ti(e in the "uture. (Citations)/ )eop"e $# Sousa (1&&3) 1# Cal.App.3th $3&- $$#.) Preparation an, appro.al by a (agistrate o" an anticipatory search 0arrant has the tactical a,.antage o" (aFing the 0arrant e""ecti.e i((e,iately upon the happening o" a *triggering e!ent-/ thus eli(inating the ,elay bet0een such an e.ent an, the e.entual obtaining o" a 0arrant. Tip) State the contingency on the face of the warrant itsel") 8.g.: *+I1S EARRAJ+ 1S 78LA77K 8BB8C+1U8 AJD CAJ G8 S8RU8D ;+"F '( A SA78 !B JARC!+1CS +AZ8S P7AC8 A+ +I8 PR8O1S8S +! G8 S8ARCI8D. (1nitials o" the (agistrate)/ Bailure o" the 0arrant itsel" to clearly speci"y on its "ace the anticipatory nature o" the 0arrant (i.e.- that it is not to be ser.e, until the happening o" a speci"ic e.ent- such as abo.e) may in.ali,ate the 0arrant. (United States $# 0ota" (&th Cir. 1&&#) 133 2&1
B.3r, 1223: United States $# 9esi(uru (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 1115- 1123%1130: United States $# Gru..s (2005) $32 4.S. &0- &&%102 6153 7.8,.2n, 1&$9: concurring opinion.) +he Be,eral Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has in,icate, that i" the 0arrant speci"ically incorporates an attache, a""i,a.it 0hich ,escribes the anticipatory nature o" the 0arrant- this (ight su""ice. Io0e.er- the a""i,a.it (ust then acco(pany the 0arrant to the scene o" the search to be .ali,. (United States $# 0ota"- supra.: United States $# %cGre, (&th Cir. 1&&2) 122 B.3r, #32- #3&% #$0.) !ther "e,eral circuits ha.e uphel, the .ali,ity o" an anticipatory 0arrant 0ithout the con,itions speci"ie, on the 0arrant itsel" i") (1) Clear- e?plicitan, narro0ly ,ra0n con,itions "or the e?ecution o" the 0arrant are containe, in the a""i,a.it: an, (2) +hose con,itions are actually satis"ie, be"ore the 0arrant is e?ecute,. (See United States $# %oetamedi (2n, Cir. 1&&$) 35 B.3r, 22$- 22&: United States $# Re& (5th Cir. 1&&1) &23 B.2n, 12121221: United States $# Dennis (2th Cir. 1&&2) 11$ B.3r, $23- $2&: United States $# Ta1.erin1 (#th Cir. 1&&3) &#$ B.2n, &35- &$0: United States $# 0o1o.oom (10th Cir. 1&2&) 112 B.3r, 10#1- 10#5% 10#2.) #nder &alifornia law- 0hile "ailure to ,escribe the con,itions prece,ent on the "ace o" the 0arrant itsel"- or incorporate the( by re"erence to the a""i,a.it- is not necessarily "atal to the .ali,ity o" the 0arrant- it is better practice to ,o so any0ay. ()eop"e $# Sousa- supraat p. $51.) +ote) 1" only to eli(inate the issuean, because Cali"ornia cases (ay en, up in the Jinth Circuit at so(e point- the better proce,ure is to ,escribe the anticipatory nature o" the 0arrant on the "ace o" the 0arrant itsel". (ederal Rules) Accor,ing to the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal- a copy o" the ,ocu(ent that ,escribes the triggering con,itions (i.e.2&2
the 0arrant itsel"- the a""i,a.it- or any other attach(ents) (ust be presente, to the la0"ul occupants (along 0ith a copy o" the 0arrant) upon the e?ecution o" the 0arrant. Bailing to ,o so 0ill in.ali,ate the anticipatory search 0arrant as a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (United States $# Gru..s (&th Cir. 2003) 322 B.3r, 1022- as a(en,e, at 3#& B.3r, 1305.) See also United States $# 9esi(uru (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 1115- 1123%1123- hol,ing that an *anticipatory warrant-/ the con,itions prece,ent "or 0hich being containe, in the a""i,a.it an, incorporate, into the 0arrant by re"erencere@uires the presence o" both the 0arrant an, a""i,a.it at the scene. 1n that Cali"ornia interprets the Fourth Amendment ,i""erently- the general rule being that it is not re@uire, that a copy o" the 0arrant be sho0n to- or le"t 0ith- the occupants o" the place being searche, (see )eop"e $# Ca"a.rese (2002) 101 Cal.App.3th 2&.)- it is liFely that there also is no re@uire(ent that the con,itions triggering an anticipatory search 0arrant be ,escribe, in any ,ocu(ents gi.en to the occupants. nea? and Pee? =arrants) A *snea? and pee?/ 0arrant is one 0hich authori;es surreptitious entry o" a pre(ises- 0ithout notice- o"ten ,uring the nightti(e- an, pro.i,es that obCects o" the search are not to be sei;e, but (ay only be note,- photographe,- copie, or other0ise recor,e,. +ote) Jo Cali"ornia case has rule, upon the legality o" such a proce,ure. So(e courts- particularly the Be,eral Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal- are critical o" such 0arrants "or "ailure to re@uire notice to the occupants- but ha.e reluctantly uphel, the(. (See United States $# Freitas (&th Cir. 1&#5) #00 B.2n, 13$1: United States $# *ohns (&th Cir. 1&&#) #$1 B.2n, 1131- 1133%113$.) +he "e,eral courts are concerne, that a *snea? and pea?/ 0arrant .iolates Federal 8ules of Criminal (rocedure, 8ule 41. 8ule 41 re@uires that the o""icer e?ecuting the 0arrant either gi.e to the o0ner o" the searche, pre(ises a copy o" the 0arrant an, a receipt "or the property taFen- or lea.e the copy an, receipt on the pre(ises. 1t also re@uires that the in.entory be (a,e in the presence o" the o0ner o" 2&3
the pre(ises *or in the presence o" at least one cre,ible person other than the applicant "or the 0arrant./ Io0e.er- *a .iolation o" 8ule 41 . . . ,oes not lea, to suppression o" e.i,ence unless) (1) it is a A"un,a(ental .iolationPthat is- a .iolation that Ain e""ect- ren,ers the search unconstitutional un,er tra,itional fourth amendment stan,ar,s 6Citation9- (2) Athe search (ight not ha.e occurre, or 0oul, not ha.e been so abrasi.e i" the Rule ha, been "ollo0e, 6Citation9 or (3) Athere is e.i,ence o" intentional an, ,eliberate ,isregar, o" a pro.ision o" the Rule. 6Citation9/ (United States $# *ohns- supra.- at p. 1133.) !ther courts ha.e appro.e, sneaF an, peaF 0arrants so long as delayed notice is gi.en- a"ter appro.al by the (agistrate that there is goo, cause "or the ,elay. (United States $# 9i""e1as (2n, Cir. 1&&0) #&& B.2n, 1323- 1322.) +he Supre(e Court- ho0e.er- although ne.er ,irectly ,iscussing the issue- has inti(ate, that notice (ay be ,elaye, i" to ,o other0ise (ight ,e"eat the purpose o" the 0arrant. (/at5 $# United States (1&52) 3#& 4.S. 332- 3$$- "n. 15 61& 7.8,.2n, $25- $#39: ,iscussing the lacF o" nee, "or *prior notice/ in a 0iretap case.) (!C! 1)24!1) *'D Testing) A search 0arrant re@uiring a cri(inal suspect to sub(it to a bloo, test "or the I1U .irus (ay be issue, by the court a"ter a re@uest by a .icti( an, a hearing sho0ing probable cause to belie.e that the accuse, co((itte, a charge, o""ense- an, probable cause to belie.e that bloo,- se(en- or any other bo,ily "lui, capable o" trans(itting I1U has been trans"erre, "ro( the accuse, to the .icti(. +his pro.ision is "or the bene"it o" the .icti(- an,- per the re@uire(ents o" the section- is not inten,e, to ser.e as an ai, in the prosecution o" any cri(inal suspect. ((!C! 1)24!1+a,) A Cu,ge (ay appro.e a search 0arrant upon "in,ing probable cause to belie.e the ,e"en,ant co((itte, a cri(e an, that the A1DS .irus has been trans"erre, "ro( the accuse, to the .icti( (Su4d! +4,+1,)- or the ,e"en,ant is charge, 0ith one or (ore o" a speci"ie, list o" se? o""enses an, there e?ists a police report alleging an as o" yet uncharge, liste, se? o""ense. (Su4d! +4,+2,) A ,eclaration by the .icti( s (other *on information and belief-/ e.en though not being base, on her personal Fno0le,ge- 0as "oun, to be legally su""icient to support a search 0arrant pursuant 2&3
to this section. Hearsay (ay be use, to support the a""i,a.it re@uire, by this section. (0umphre& $# Appe""ate Di$ision o' the Superior Court (2002) 2& Cal.3th $5&.) Gecause such a 0arrant is concerne, 0ith the public sa"etysuch a 0arrant co(es 0ithin the less stringent re@uire(ent o" a * pecial +eeds/ search. (Id.- a pp. $23%$2$.) (See belo0.) (!C! 1)24!2+4,) Records of (oreign &orporations Pro!iding Electronic &ommunications or Remote &omputing er!ices) Boreign corporations ,oing business in Cali"ornia- pro.i,ing electronic communications or remote computing ser!ices to the general public- (ust respon, to a search 0arrant issue, by a Cali"ornia court an, properly ser.e,- 0hen asFe, "or recor,s re.ealing the identity of customers using the ser.ices- data store, by- or on behal" o"- the custo(er- the customer)s usage o" those ser.icesthe recipient or destination o" co((unications sent to or "ro( those custo(ers- or the content o" those co((unications. *Electronic communications ser!ices/ an, *remote computing ser!ices/ is to be construe, in accor,ance 0ith the "e,eral ?lectronic Communications (ri:acA Act- 1# !S!C! 2131 et se*! 1# !S!C! 2131 re"ers to 1# !S!C! 2)31- sub,i.ision +1), o" 0hich ,e"ines *electronic communication ser!ice/ as a *ser.ice 0hich pro.i,es to users thereo" the ability to sen, or recei.e 0ire or electronic co((unications./ 1# !S!C! 2)31+1,, +1#,: *=ire communication/ inclu,es *any aural trans"er (i.e.- one containing the hu(an .oice) (a,e in 0hole or in part through the use o" "acilities "or the trans(ission o" co((unications by the ai, o" 0ire- cableor other liFe connection bet0een the point o" origin an, the point o" reception (inclu,ing the use o" such connection in a s0itching station) . . . ./ +his inclu,es telephone con.ersations. ( ri11s $# American Air Fi"ter Co#, Inc# ($th Cir. 1&#0) 530 B.2n, 313: United States $# 0arpe" (10th Cir. 1&23) 3&3 B.2n, 335.) A *foreign corporation/ is one that is @uali"ie, to ,o business in Cali"ornia pursuant to Cor-! Code 213)- although base, in another state. 2&$
Per Cor-! Code 213)- "oreign corporations (ust consent to ser.ice o" process as a con,ition o" ,oing business in Cali"ornia. *Properly ser!ed (eans that a search 0arrant has been ,eli.ere, by han,- or in a (anner reasonably allo0ing "or proo" o" ,eli.ery i" ,eli.ere, by 4nite, States (ail- o.ernight ,eli.ery ser.ice- or "acsi(ile to a person or entity liste, in Section 2113 o" the Cor-orations Code./ ((!C! 1)24!2+a,+2,) Cor-! Code 2113 re@uires that an agent- in Cali"orniai,enti"ie, by the corporation as the person responsible "or accepting ser.ice o" process- inclu,ing search 0arrants- be ser.e,. +he "oreign corporation is re@uire, to pro.i,e the in"or(ation re@ueste, 0ithin "i.e ($) business ,ays- 0hich (ay be shortene, or e?ten,e, upon a sho0ing o" goo, cause- an, to authenticate such recor,s- thus (aFing the( a,(issible in court per ?:id! Code 1)21- 1)22. ((!C! 1)24!2+4,) +he section "urther re@uires Cali"ornia corporations to honor out% o"%state search 0arrants as i" issue, 0ithin this state. ((!C! 1)24!2+c,) (!C! 1)24!3+a,) Records of (oreign &orporations Pro!iding Electronic &ommunications or Remote &omputing er!ices) Boreign corporations pro.i,ing electronic communications or remote computing ser!ices (ust ,isclose to a go.ern(ental prosecuting or in.estigating agency- 0hen ser.e, 0ith a search 0arrant issue, by a Cali"ornia court pursuant to (!C! 1)24+a,+1, (i.e.- in (is,e(eanor cases)- recor,s re.ealing the nameaddress- local an, long ,istance telephone toll billing records- telephone number or other subscriber number or identity- an, length of ser!ice o" a subscriber to or custo(er o" that ser.ice- an, the types of ser!ices the subscriber or custo(er utili;e,. (!C! 1)24!3+4,) +he go.ern(ental entity recei.ing subscriber recor,s or in"or(ation un,er this section is not re@uire, to pro.i,e notice to a subscriber or custo(er. (!C! 1)24!3+d,) 4pon a re@uest o" a peace o""icer- the pro.i,er shall taFe all necessary steps to preser.e recor,s an, other e.i,ence in its possession pen,ing the issuance o" a search 0arrant or a re@uest in 0riting an, an a""i,a.it ,eclaring an intent to ser.e the pro.i,er 0ith a search 0arrant. Recor,s shall be retaine, "or 2&5
&0 ,ays upon such re@uest- an, (ay be e?ten,e, "or an a,,itional &0 ,ays upon a rene0e, re@uest by the peace o""icer. Re:uirement o' a JNeutra" and DetachedK %a1istrate: Rule) +he la0"ul issuance o" a search 0arrant re@uires a *neutral and detached/ (agistrate- as re@uire, by the Fourth Amendment. (Coo"id1e $# Ne, 0ampshire (1&21) 303 4.S. 333 62& 7.8,.2n, $539.) !nly bench o""icers 0ho are ,esignate, *(agistrates/ an, authori;e, to issue 0arrants are Cu,ges o" the superior courtsCustices o" the state appellate courts- an, Custices o" the state Supre(e Court. ((!C! #3#) +his necessarily e?clu,es court co((issioners- Cu,ges pro te(- re"erees- an, "e,eral Cu,ges. +ote) +he i,ea behin, this theory is to insure that there is an i(partial arbitrator bet0een an o.er%;ealous la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- seeFing to intru,e upon a person s pri.acy rights- an, the person 0hose pri.acy rights are about to be intru,e, upon- 0ho (ay "airly ,eter(ine 0hether probable cause e?ists su""icient to Custi"y the inten,e, go.ern(ent intrusion. Violations o" this rule ha.e occurre, 0hen) +he state attorney general in charge o" the in.estigation issue, the 0arrant in his capacity as a Custice o" the peace. (Coo"id1e $# Ne, 0ampshire, supra.) +he (agistrate personally participate, in the search. (2o3*i Sa"es, Inc# $# Ne, Yor( (1&2&) 332 4.S. 31& 650 7.8,.2n, 2&09.) +he (agistrate 0as pai, a "ee "or each 0arrant issue,- 0ith no co(pensation "or 0arrants 0hich 0ere not appro.e,. (Conna""& $# Geor1ia (1&22) 32& 4.S. 23$ 6$0 7.8,.2n, 3339.) +he in.estigating ,eputy sheri"" ha, the 0arrant issue, by his "ather- a Cu,ge. (O?Connor $# Superior Court (1&&#) 5$ Cal.App.3th 113) Io0e.erthis 0arrant 0as sa.e, by application o" the *good faith/ rule.) Composition o' a Search -arrant: A search warrant co(es in three parts) The =arrant itsel". 2&2
The *ffida!it to the Search Earrant. The Receipt and 'n!entory (or *Return/). (irst) The warrant itself- signe, by a (agistrate- ,irecting a peace o""icer to search a *particular/ person- place or .ehicle- "or a *particular/ personthing- or list o" property. (!C! 1)23- 1)2") &ontents) +he search warrant (ust inclu,e the "ollo0ing) +he na(e o" e.ery person 0hose a""i,a.it has been taFen. +he statutory groun,s "or issuance. (See (!C! 1)241)24!2 an,Nor 1)24!3.) A ,escription 0ith reasonable particularity o" the personsplaces an, .ehicles to be searche,. A ,escription 0ith reasonable particularity o" the personsthings or property to be sei;e,. A 0arrant that "ails to inclu,e a list o" the things to be sei;e,- at least 0here the list is not in an a""i,a.it or other attach(ent that is incorporate, by re"erence an, 0hich then acco(panies the 0arrant to the scene o" the searchis *facially deficient-/ an, in .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment. (Groh $# Ramire5 (2003) $30 4.S. $$1 61$2 7.8,.2n, 105#9.) Bailure to list the property to be sei;e,- or at the least a re"erence to- an, incorporation o"- a list o" the property- is a Fourth Amendment .iolationan, constitutes a ,e"ect the o""icers 0riting the 0arrant- an,Nor super.ising the search- shoul, ha.e been a0are o". (Ramire5 $# utte3Si"$er o, Count& (&th Cir. 2002) 2&# B.3r, 1022: "in,ing that the a""iant an, super.ising A+B agent did not ha.e @uali"ie, i((unity "ro( ci.il liability in a ci.il suit "or "ailing to list the property to be sei;e, on the "ace o" the 0arrant.) *nd see United States $# Ce"estine (&th Cir. 2003) 323 B.3r, 10&$- ,escribing *the policies that un,erlie the 0arrant re@uire(ent: pro.i,ing the property o0ner assurance o" the la0"ul authority o" 2&#
the e?ecuting o""icerhis nee, to search- an, the li(its o" his po0er to search./ Authori;ation "or a nighttime search (i" necessary: see (!C 1)33). +he signature o" the (agistrate. +he date issue,.
tatutory <rounds for 'ssuance ((!C! 1)24+a,+1, through +11,)) +1,) Ehen the property to be sei;e, 0as stolen or e(be;;le,. (+ote) 1nclu,es (is,e(eanors.) +2,) Ehen the property or things to be sei;e, 0ere use, as the (eans o" co((itting a "elony. +3,) Ehen the property or things to be sei;e, are in the possession o" any person 0ith the intent to use it as a (eans o" co((itting a public o""ense- or in the possession o" another to 0ho( he (ay ha.e ,eli.ere, it "or the purpose o" concealing it or pre.enting the( "ro( being ,isco.ere,. +he ter( *public o""ense/ inclu,es (is,e(eanors. ()eop"e $# Garcia (1&5&) 223 Cal.App.2n, 100103.) +4,) Ehen the property or things to be sei;e, consist o" any ite( or constitute any e.i,ence that ten,s to sho0 a "elony has been co((itte,- or ten,s to sho0 that a particular person has co((itte, a "elony. +),) Ehen the property or things to be sei;e, consists o" e.i,ence 0hich ten,s to sho0 that se?ual e?ploitation o" a chil, (per (!C! 311!3)- or possession o" (atter ,epicting se?ual con,uct o" a person un,er the age o" 1# years (per (!C! 311!11)- has occurre, or is occurring. (See In re Duncan (1&#2) 1#& Cal.App.3r, 133#.) +2,) Ehen there is a 0arrant to arrest a person. +1,) Ehen a pro.i,er o" an electronic co((unication ser.ice or re(ote co(puting ser.ice has recor,s or 2&&
e.i,ence- as speci"ie, in (!C! 1)24!3- sho0ing that property 0as stolen or e(be;;le, constituting a (is,e(eanor- or that property or things are in the possession o" any person 0ith the intent to use the( as a (eans o" co((itting a (is,e(eanor public o""ense- or in the possession o" another to 0ho( he or she (ay ha.e ,eli.ere, the( "or the purpose o" concealing the( or pre.enting their ,isco.ery. +#,) Ehen the property or things to be sei;e, inclu,e an ite( or any e.i,ence that ten,s to sho0 a .iolation o" =a4or Code 3133!)- or ten,s to sho0 that a particular person has .iolate, =!C! 3133!). =!C! 3133!) ,eals 0ith the "ailure to secure the pay(ent o" co(pensation- 0hich is ,e"ine, as *e.ery bene"it or pay(ent con"erre, by this ,i.ision upon an inCure, e(ployee- or in the e.ent o" his or her ,eath- upon his or her ,epen,ents- 0ithout regar, to negligence.3 (L.C. 32 !) +",) Ehen the property or things to be sei;e, inclu,e a "irear( or any other ,ea,ly 0eapon at the scene o"- or at the pre(ises occupie, or un,er the control o" the person arreste, in connection 0ith- a ,o(estic .iolence inci,ent in.ol.ing a threat to hu(an li"e or a physical assault as pro.i,e, in (!C! 1#2)3. +his section ,oes not a""ect 0arrantless sei;ures alrea,y authori;e, un,er the statute. +13,) Ehen the property or things to be sei;e, inclu,e a "irear( or any other ,ea,ly 0eapon that is o0ne, by- or in possession o"- or in the custo,y or control o"- a person ,escribe, in /&I #132+a,. /&I #132+a, lists any person 0ho) Ias been ,etaine, or apprehen,e, "or e?a(ination o" his or her (ental con,ition (e.g.- per /&I )1)3): or 1s a person ,escribe, in /&I #133 (+a, (ental patients recei.ing inpatient treat(ent- or +4, (ental patients a"ter ha.ing co((unicate, a threat to a psychotherapist.) 300
1s a person ,escribe, in /&I #133 (+a, persons a,Cu,icate, to be a ,anger to others or as a (entally ,isor,ere, se? o""en,er- or +4, persons "oun, to be not guilty by reason o" insanity in serious cases- or +c, persons "oun, to be not guilty by reason o" insanity in other cases- or +d, persons "oun, (entally inco(petent to stan, trial- or +e, persons place, un,er conser.atorship- or +f, persons taFen into custo,y as a ,anger to the(sel.es or others- or +5, persons certi"ie, "or intensi.e treat(ent.
+11,) Ehen the property or things to be sei;e, inclu,e a "irear( that is o0ne, by- or in possession o"- or in the custo,y or control o"- a person 0ho is subCect to the prohibitions regar,ing "irear(s pursuant to Fam! Code 23#"- i" a prohibite, "irear( is possesse,- o0ne,- in the custo,y o"- or controlle, by a person against 0ho( a protecti.e or,er has been issue, pursuant to Fam! Code 221#- the person has been la0"ully ser.e, 0ith that or,eran, the person has "aile, to relin@uish the "irear( as re@uire, by la0. +12,) $ search %arrant may be issued for the use of a tracking device %hen the information to be received from the tracking device constitutes evidence that tends to sho% that a felony has been committed or is being committed, or a misdemeanor violation of the FAB CodeC or a misdemeanor violation of the Pub. #e'. Code has been committed or is being committed, or tends to sho% that a particular person has committed or is committing any of these crimes, or %ill assist in locating a person %ho has committed or is committing any of these crimes' Note" )his subdivision is in response to the *'+' +upreme ,ourts determination that the installation and use of a tracking device on a suspects motor vehicle is a search, under the Fou%!h (/end/en!' (+ee United States $# *ones (Jan. 23- 2012) $5$ 4.S. >>- >> 6132 S.Ct. &3$- &$3: 1#1 7.8,.2n, &119.) $ tracking device search %arrant shall be e-ecuted pursuant to the provisions of P.C. 1534(b)' 301
P.C. 1534(b)" )racking .evice (rocedures" +1,) A tracFing ,e.ice search 0arrant issue, pursuant to (en! Code 1)24+a,+12, (see abo.e) shall i,enti"y the person or property to be tracFe, an, shall speci"y a reasonable length o" ti(e- not to e?cee, 30 ,ays "ro( the ,ate the 0arrant is issue,- that the ,e.ice (ay be use,. +he court (ay- "or goo, cause- grant one or (ore e?tensions "or the ti(e that the ,e.ice (ay be use,- 0ith each e?tension lasting "or a reasonable length o" ti(e- not to e?cee, 30 ,ays. +he search 0arrant shall co((an, the o""icer to e?ecute the 0arrant by installing a tracFing ,e.ice or ser.ing a 0arrant on a thir,%party possessor o" the tracFing ,ata. +he o""icer shall per"or( any installation authori;e, by the 0arrant ,uring the ,ayti(e unless the (agistrate- "or goo, cause- e?pressly authori;es installation at another ti(e. 8?ecution o" the 0arrant shall be co(plete, no later than 10 ,ays i((e,iately a"ter the ,ate o" issuance. A 0arrant e?ecute, 0ithin this 10%,ay perio, shall be ,ee(e, to ha.e been ti(ely e?ecute, an, no "urther sho0ing o" ti(eliness nee, be (a,e. A"ter the e?piration o" 10 ,ays- the 0arrant shall be .oi,unless it has been e?ecute,. +2, An o""icer e?ecuting a tracFing ,e.ice search 0arrant shall not be re@uire, to FnocF an, announce his or her presence be"ore e?ecuting the 0arrant. 302
+3, Jo later than 10 calen,ar ,ays a"ter the use o" the tracFing ,e.ice has en,e,- the o""icer e?ecuting the 0arrant shall "ile a return to the 0arrant. +4, Jo later than 10 calen,ar ,ays a"ter the use o" the tracFing ,e.ice has en,e,- the o""icer 0ho e?ecute, the tracFing ,e.ice 0arrant shall ser.e a copy o" the 0arrant on the person 0ho 0as tracFe, or 0hose property 0as tracFe,. 4pon the re@uest o" a go.ern(ent agency- the (agistrate (ay- "or goo, cause- ,elay ser.ice o" a copy o" the 0arrant. +), An o""icer installing a ,e.ice authori;e, by a tracFing ,e.ice search 0arrant (ay install an, use the ,e.ice only 0ithin Cali"ornia. +2, As use, in this section- *trac?ing de!ice/ (eans any electronic or (echanical ,e.ice that per(its the tracFing o" the (o.e(ent o" a person or obCect. +1, As use, in this section- *,ayti(e/ (eans the hours bet0een 5 a.(. an, 10 p.(. accor,ing to local ti(e. (!C! 1)34+c,) 1" a ,uplicate original search 0arrant has been e?ecute,- the peace o""icer 0ho e?ecute, the 0arrant shall enter the e?act ti(e o" its e?ecution on its "ace. (!C! 1)34+d,) A search 0arrant (ay be (a,e returnable be"ore the issuing (agistrate or his or her court. See also (!C! 1)24!2+4, an, 1)24!3+a,- re) Records of (oreign &orporations Pro!iding Electronic &ommunications or Remote &omputing er!ices. Case 7a0) 1t is irrele.ant that a peace o""icer lists an incorrect charge, o""ense- Custi"ying the issuance o" the 0arrant- so long as 303
there is so(e legal groun,s "or the issuance o" the 0arrant un,er so(e statute. (United States $# %ee( (&th Cir. 2003) 355 B.3r, 20$- 213%213: A *statutory .ariance in the a""i,a.it is not "atal to the 0arrant s .ali,ity./) +he "ailure o" the 0arrant to inclu,e a copy o" the court s o""icial seal- i" a .iolation at all (2# !S!C! 12"1)- is (erely a technical .iolation an, 0ill not result in a "in,ing that the 0arrant is legally insu""icient. (United States $# Smith (&th Cir. 200$) 323 B.3r, &&2- 100#.)
econd) The affida!it to the search warrant) Defined) A s0orn state(ent- s0orn to by the a""iant- ,escribing the *probable cause/ to search a particular person- place- or .ehicle "or a particular personthing- or list o" property. ((!C! 1)2)- 1)21) Re"erre, to as the * tatement of Probable &ause/ in Curis,ictions 0here a co(bine, search 0arrant an, a""i,a.it "or( is use,. (See ()eop"e $# 0a"e (200$) 133 Cal.App.3th &32.) *Probable &ause)/ 1n e.aluating the su""iciency o" a 0arrant a""i,a.it: *+he tasF o" the issuing (agistrate is si(ply to (aFe a practical common6sense ,ecision 0hether- gi.en all the circu(stances set "orth in the a""i,a.it be"ore hi(- inclu,ing the A.eracity an, Abasis o" Fno0le,ge o" the persons supplying hearsay in"or(ation- there is a fair probability that contraban, or e.i,ence o" a cri(e 0ill be "oun, in a particular place./ (8(phasis a,,e,: I""inois $# Gates (1&#3) 352 4.S. 213 625 7.8,.2n, $229 see also United States $# 9entresca (1&5$) 3#0 4.S. 102- 10# 613 7.8,.2n, 5#3- 5#&9: United States $# Ad;ani (&th Cir. 2005) 3$2 B.3r, 1130- 113$.) Cali"ornia "ollo0s the Gates *totality of the circumstances/ test. ()eop"e $# Spears (1&&1) 22# Cal.App.3r, 1- 12.) *A1n ,eter(ining 0hether an a""i,a.it is supporte, by probable cause- the (agistrate (ust (aFe a *practical- co((on%sense ,ecision 0hether- gi.en all the circu(stances set "orth in the a""i,a.it . . . there is a "air probability that contraban, or 303
e.i,ence o" a cri(e 0ill be "oun, in a particular place./ 6Citation9 +he su""iciency o" the a""i,a.it (ust be e.aluate, in light o" the totality o" the circu(stances. 6Citation9. / ()eop"e $# Garcia (2003) 111 Cal.App.3th 21$- 221: @uoting Fen,ic( I -est $# Superior Court (1&&5) 33 Cal.App.3th 1222- 122#: )eop"e $# 2ien1 (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 1213- 122#%122&.) *+he purpose o" the e?clusionary rule is . . . to ,eter illegal police con,uct- not ,e"icient police ,ra"ts(anship./ ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Nasmeh7 (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th #$- &2.) Jote that Gates also ,escribes the stan,ar, "or probable cause in a search 0arrant a""i,a.it as a *fair probability/ (pg. 23#) or a *substantial chance/ (pg. 233- "n. 13) that contraban, or e.i,ence o" a cri(e 0ill be "oun, in a particular place- 0hich is arguably a lesser stan,ar, than as ,escribe, in ol,er Cali"ornia cases re@uiring a *substantial probability./ (8.g.: see )eop"e $# Coo( (1&2#) 22 Cal.3r, 52- #3- "n. 5.) *A search 0arrant (ust be supporte, by probable cause. ( !S! Const!, Fourth Amend!E 1)2).) 1n ,eter(ining 0hether probable cause e?ists- the (agistrate consi,ers the totality o" the circu(stances. (I""inois $# Gates (1&#3) 352 4.S. 213- 23#- 103 S.Ct. 2312- 25 7.8,.2, $22.) AProbable cause- unliFe the "act itsel"- (ay be sho0n by e.i,ence that 0oul, not be co(petent at trial. 6Citation.9 Accor,inglyin"or(ation an, belie" alone (ay support the issuance o" search 0arrants- 0hich re@uire probable cause. 6Citations.9 (0umphre& $# Appe""ate Di$ision (2002) 2& Cal.3th $5&$23- 122 Cal.Rptr.2, 53$- $# P.3, 325.)/ ()eop"e $# 9ar1hese (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th 10#3- 1103.) Probable cause (ust be sho0n "or each o" the ite(s liste, in the 0arrant as property to be sei;e,- Custi"ying its sei;ure. ()eop"e $# Fran( (1&#$) 3# Cal.3r, 211- 225%22#.) Probable cause sho0ing a su""icient *nexus/ bet0een the e.i,ence to be sei;e, an, the place to be searche, (ust also be establishe,. ()eop"e $# Garcia (2003) 111 Cal.App.3th 21$- 221.)
30$
Io0e.er- the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has sho0n a reluctance to "in, probable cause 0hen it is base, upon *a lengthy chain of inferences./ (United States $# Gourde (&th Cir. 2003) 3#2 B.3r, 1003: no probable cause to support the issuance o" a search 0arrant 0hen base, upon the ,e"en,ant s Fno0n subscription to a chil, pornography 0ebsite- unli(ite, access to the chil, pornography on the 0ebsite- ,e"en,ant s "ailure to unsubscribe a"ter t0o (onths- an, an e?pert s opinion that the abo.e necessarily (eans that ,e"en,ant 0oul, liFely be in personal possession o" chil, pornography.) +he "act that the person 0hose property (i.e.- a co(puter in this case) is sei;e, an, searche, is not at that ti(e subCect to arrest (i.e.- no probable cause) ,oes not (ean that the sei;ure an, search o" that property is not la0"ul. (United States $# Ad;ani (&th Cir. 2005) 3$2 B.3r, 1130- 1135%1132.) A 0arrant that establishes probable cause to search a .ehicle "or ite(s (issing "ro( a possible ho(ici,e .icti( s resi,ence 0ill necessarily also allo0 "or the sei;ure o" that .ehicle "or later e?a(ination at a police lab- an, to search the .ehicle "or trace e.i,ence relate, to the (issing ite(se.en i" the sei;ure o" the car an, the search "or trace e.i,ence is not speci"ically (entione, in the 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Nasmeh7 (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th #$- &3%&#.) A ,escription o" the a""iant s training an, e?perience- the "act that persons in.ol.e, in ,rug tra""icFing co((only conceal caches o" ,rugs in their resi,ences an, businessesthe "act that one o" the co%conspirator s telephone 0as liste, as being to that resi,ence- an, a ,escription o" coconspirators use o" the ,e"en,ant s resi,ence each ti(e a sale o" ,rugs 0as or,ere,- 0as su""icient to establish probable cause "or a search 0arrant "or that resi,ence. (United States $# Garcia39i""a".a (&th Cir. 200&) $#$ B.3r, 1223- 1232%1233.) A 0arrant a""i,a.it nee, not inclu,e all o" the in"or(ation a.ailable to the police- so long as the o(itte, "acts are not (aterial- nor (ust a police o""icer or,inarily continue the in.estigation seeFing "urther corroboration once the o""icer has probable cause. (E,in1 $# Cit& o' Stoc(ton (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, 121#- 1225%1222.) 305
A signal photograph o" a nu,e (inor ("e(ale chil, 0ho is bet0een # an, 10 years ol,)- by itsel"- is insu""icient to establish probably cause "or a search 0arrant. Gut a secon, such photo- un,er the *totality o" the circu(stances-/ is enough. (United States $# attershe"" (&th Cir. 2005) 3$2 B.3r, 103#.) Howe!er- a single photograph o" a nu,e (inor ("e(ale o" about 1$ to 12 years o" age)- 0hen co(bine, 0ith other suspicious circu(stances (e.g.- 1$ co(puters in house "oun, in co(plete ,isarray- 0ith t0o (inors not belonging to the ,e"en,ant- 0here the ,e"en,ant a ci.ilian- is staying in (ilitary housing)- may enough to Custi"y the issuance o" a search 0arrant. (United States $# /rupa (&th Cir. 2011) 5$# B.3r, 1123- 1122%112&: but see ,issentpp. 11#0%11#$.) 8.i,ence o" a person s abnor(al se?ual interest in si?th gra,e girls- inclu,ing inappropriate touching- ,oes not establish probable cause to belie.e that the person (ight also ha.e chil, pornography at ho(e. (Dou1hert& $# Cit& o' Co$ina (&th Cir. 2011) 5$3 B.3r, #&2.) 1t is irrele.ant that a the"t .icti( is not i,enti"ie, by na(e in a search 0arrant a""i,a.it so long as the the"t o" the .icti( s property is other0ise su""iciently ,escribe,. ()eop"e $# Scott (2011) $2 Cal.3th 3$2- 3#$%3#5.) Ehere e.i,ence o" illegal guns an, a((unition 0as reco.ere, in the e?ecution o" a search 0arrant- the Court "oun, that the (agistrate ha, a substantial basis "or conclu,ing there 0as a "air probability that e.i,ence o" a cri(e 0oul, be "oun, in ,e"en,ant s ho(e. +here 0as probable cause to belie.e ,e"en,ant 0as the presi,ent o" a local chapter o" a (otorcycle gang e.en though he 0as apparently the treasurer only. +he search 0arrant sought club ,ocu(ents not "or their in,ication o" (e(bership in the gang- but because those ,ocu(ents ,etaile, illegal acti.ity. +he 0arrant 0as not an unconstitutional general 0arrant. Any "alsity about his status as the presi,ent 0as i((aterial in that he 0as apparently still an o""icer. (United States $# 9as:ue5 (&th Cir. 2011) 5$3 B.3r, ##0##3%##$.) A search 0arrant a""i,a.it 0as "oun, to be legally insu""icient to establish probable cause 0hen in"or(ation "ro( three separate in"or(ants 0as "oun, to be conclusory 302
only- corroborating each other only as to *pe,estrian "acts/ that coul, ha.e been Fno0n to anyone. 1n"or(ation "or an arrestee 0as base, upon hearsay only. 1n"or(ation "ro( t0o other in"or(ants ,i, not ,escribe "irst%han, in"or(ation- "ailing to ,escribe the "acts an, circu(stances un,erlying the in"or(ants conclusions that ,e"en,ant an, his girl"rien, 0ere ,ealing ,rugs. 1n"or(ation that the girl"rien, ha, a prior cri(inal history ,i, not speci"y the ,etails o" that history. Also- the "act that one o" the in"or(ants ha, supplie, in"or(ation to la0 en"orce(ent be"ore 0as lacFing in ,etail as to the nature o" the prior reports an, ho0 long ago. ()eop"e $# French (2011) 201 Cal.App.3th 1302: 0arrant sa.e, by the o""icer s reasonable goo, "aith.) +he "act that the target o" a resi,ential search 0arrant 0as actually in prison at the ti(e o" the allege, cri(e an, coul, not ha.e participate, in either the co((ission o" the cri(e or in hi,ing the 0eapons use, is a "act that the (agistrate shoul, ha.e Fno0n in ,eter(ining 0hether probable cause e?iste,. ( ra$o $# Cit& o' Santa %aria (&th Cir. 2011) 55$ B.3r, 1025- 10#2%10##.) 4pon a (otion to suppress e.i,ence reco.ere, pursuant to a search 0arrant- the issue is 0hether there 0as a "air probability that e.i,ence relate, to the suspecte, o""ense(s) (ight be "oun, in the place to be searche,. +he "act that that e.i,ence is instea, use, to prosecute a separate o""ense is irrele.ant. (United States $# N1u&en (&th Cir. 2012) 523 B.3r, 12$&: e.i,ence collecte, in a state in.estigation o" ?lection Code .iolations (?lect! Code 1#)43: threats to in"luence .oters) but later use, to prosecute ,e"en,ant on "e,eral charges (1# !S!C! 1)12+4,+3,: obstruction o" Custice "or "ailing to ,isclose the "ull e?tent o" his Fno0le,ge regar,ing the creation an, (ailing o" the letter at issue.) A search 0arrant "or ,e"en,ant s ho(e 0as base, upon the belie" that ,e"en,ant s t0o sons ha, so(e connection 0ith a ho(ici,e an, that the "irear( use, 0oul, be "oun, in ,e"en,ant s ho(e. +he Court "oun, that the 0arrant a""i,a.it "aile, to establish su""icient probable causes to belie.e that either son (ight ha.e taFen the "irear( to ,e"en,ant s ho(e- or e.en that the sons (ight ha.e possesse, the "irear( the(sel.es. +he court "urther hel, that the goo,%"aith e?ception ,i, not apply in this case 30#
because the o""icers reliance on the 0arrant 0as unreasonable. (United States $# Grant (2012) 5#2 B.3r, #22#32%#31.) A search 0arrant- supporte, by probable cause- authori;e, the police to search ,e"en,antDs house an, sei;e gang in,icia o" any sort. Such in,icia coul, logically be "oun, in ,e"en,antDs cell phone- 0hich ha, the capacity to store people s na(es- telephone nu(bers an, other contact in"or(ation- as 0ell as (usicphotographs- art0orF- an, co((unications in the "or( o" e(ails an, (essages. De"en,antDs phone 0as the liFely container o" (any ite(s that 0ere the "unctional e@ui.alent o" those speci"ically liste, in the 0arrant. +he te?t (essages sei;e, ,uring the search o" ,e"en,antDs phone 0ere relate, to a gang%relate, assault that he 0as suspecte, o" co((itting- an, their suppression 0as thus not re@uire, un,er the e?clusionary rule. ()eop"e $# Ran1e" (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 1310131$%1312.) ,inimum &ontents) At a (ini(u(- a 0arrant a""i,a.it shoul, inclu,e the "ollo0ing) +he na(e or na(es o" the a""iant(s). 1t is not necessary that the a""iant be a s0orn peace o""icer. *(+)here see(s no reason 0hy seeFing one (i.e.- a search 0arrant) shoul, be con"ine, to peace o""icers instea, o" uns0orn (e(bers o" la0 en"orce(ent./ ()eop"e $# e"" (1&&5) 3$ Cal.App.3th 1030- 10$3%10$$.) A 0arrant (ay also be supporte, by a""i,a.its "ro( (ore than one person. (See S(e"ton $# Superior Court (1&5&) 1 Cal.3r, 133.) +he statutory groun,s "or issuance. (See (!C! 1)241)24!2 an, 1)24!3.) 1t is irrele.ant that a peace o""icer lists an incorrect charge, o""ense Custi"ying the issuance o" a 0arrantso long as there is so(e legal groun,s "or the issuance o" the 0arrant un,er so(e statute. (United States $# %ee( (&th Cir. 2003) 355 B.3r, 20$- 213% 30&
213: a *statutory .ariance in the a""i,a.it is not "atal to the 0arrant s .ali,ity./) A physical ,escription- 0ith *reasonable particularity-/ o" the personsplaces- things an, .ehicles to be searche,. A 0arrant s ,escription o" the property to be searche, 0ill be re.ie0e, by the appellate courts in a common sense an, realistic "ashion. ()eop"e $# %inder (1&&5) 35 Cal.App.3th 12#3: United States $# 9entresca (1&5$) 3#0 4.S 102- 10& 613 7.8,.2n, 5#3- 5#&9.) See *+he AReasonable Particularity Re@uire(ent-/ belo0. A physical ,escription- 0ith *reasonable particularity-/ o" the personsthings or property to be sei;e,. See *+he AReasonable Particularity Re@uire(ent-/ belo0. A ,etaile, state(ent o" the expertise (i.e.- training an, e?perience) o" the a""iant. A chronological narrati.e an, factual (as oppose, to conclusory) description o" the circu(stances substantiating the o""icer s conclusion that probable cause "or a search e?ists. +his 0oul, inclu,e) o Bacts sho0ing the co((ission o" a cri(e (or cri(es): o Bacts connecting the liste, suspect(s) to the cri(e(s): o Bacts connecting the suspect(s) to the location(s).ehicle(s)- an,Nor person(s) to be searche,: o Bacts connecting the property to be sei;e, to the location(s)- .ehicle(s)- an,Nor person(s) to be searche,: o Bacts ,escribing ho0 the ,escriptions 0ere obtaine,. 310
+he "acts as ,escribe, in the search 0arrant a""i,a.it (aFing up the *probable cause/ "or issuance o" a 0arrant (ust be atteste, to by the a""iant as the truth. Bailing to ,o so may in.ali,ate the 0arrant. See) )eop"e $# 0a"e (200$) 133 Cal.App.3th &32: not a "atal error- being one o" *form/ o.er *substance./ )eop"e $# 2eonard (1&&5) $0 Cal.App.3th #2#: "in,ing it to be one o" *substance/ o.er *form-/ an, "atal to the .ali,ity o" the 0arrant. Police reports- charts- maps- etc.- (ay be use, as e?hibitsattache, an, *incorporate, by re"erence-/ but shoul, not be use, as a substitute "or a state(ent o" probable cause. +he ter( *incorporate by reference/ is a ter( o" art that is not al0ays necessary to use. So long as the 0arrant a""i,a.it (aFes re"erence to any attach(ents- it can be assu(e, that the (agistrate consi,ere, it. (An 1nternet subscriber has no e?pectation o" pri.acy in the subscriber in"or(ation he supplies to his 1nternet pro.i,er. ()eop"e $# Stipo (2011) 1&$ Cal.App.3th 553- 55&%520.) The affiant)s conclusion (i.e.- hisNher opinion) base, upon his or her training an, e?perience- that) Probable cause e?ists "or the search: an, +he ite((s) sought 0ill be "oun, at the location(s) to be searche,. A @uali"ie, o""icerNa""iant can attach special signi"icance to his obser.ations an, set "orth e?pert opinion in an a""i,a.it. ()eop"e $# Car$a;a" (1&##) 202 Cal.App.3r, 3#2- 3&5% 3&#.) *(7)a0 en"orce(ent o""icers (ay ,ra0 upon their e?pertise to interpret the "acts in a 311
search 0arrant application- an, such e?pertise (ay be consi,ere, by the (agistrate as a "actor supporting probable cause./ ()eop"e $# Nicho""s (200#) 1$& Cal.App.3th 203- 211: chil, (olest case.) Justi"ication "or a nighttime search- i" necessary.
+he *Reasonable Particularity/ Re@uire(ent ((!C! 1)2), 1)2"): The persons, places, things and !ehicles to be searched) +he personsplaces- things an, .ehicles to be searche, (ust be ,escribe, 0ith su""icient ,etail so that an o""icer e?ecuting the 0arrant (ay- 0ith reasonable e""ort- ascertain an, i,enti"y the person- place- thing or .ehicle- inten,e,. ()eop"e $# Grossman (1&21) 1& Cal.App.3r, #- 11.) *1t is enough i" the ,escription is such that the o""icer 0ith a search 0arrant can- 0ith reasonable e""ort- ascertain an, i,enti"y the place inten,e,./ (Stee"e $# United States (1&2$) 252 4.S. 3&#- $03 65& 7.8,. 2$29.) *+he test "or ,eter(ining the .ali,ity o" a 0arrant is 6(1)9 0hether the 0arrant ,escribes the place to be searche, 0ith Asu""icient particularity to enable la0 en"orce(ent o""icers to locate an, i,enti"y the pre(ises 0ith reasonable e""ortan, 6(2)9 0hether any reasonable probability e?ists that the o""icers (ay (istaFenly search another pre(ises./ (United States $# ro.st (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, &#2- &&1%&&3@uoting United States $# %ann (&th Cir. 2003) 3#& B.3r, #5&- #25.) 1n ro.st- the a""iant ha, the 0rong street nu(ber an, the physical ,escription (atche, other resi,ences in the area as 0ell. Io0e.er- the o""icers tooF steps to .eri"y that they ha, the right house (e.g.- checFing a ta?Nproperty (ap an, asFing neighbors) be"ore e?ecuting the 0arrant. Also- the resi,ence ha, ,e"en,ant s na(e poste, on it. +he search 0as uphel,. A 0arrant s ,escription o" the property to be searche, 0ill be re.ie0e, by the appellate courts in a common sense an, realistic "ashion. ()eop"e $# %inder (1&&5) 35 Cal.App.3th 12#3: United States $# 9entresca (1&5$) 3#0 4.S 102- 10& 613 7.8,.2n, 5#3- 5#&9.) 312
+he "ollo0ing "actors 0ill be consi,ere, by the court) Ehether probable cause e?ists to sei;e all ite(s o" a particular type ,escribe, in the 0arrant: Ehether the 0arrant sets out obCecti.e stan,ar,s by 0hich e?ecuting o""icers can ,i""erentiate ite(s subCect to sei;ure "ro( those 0hich are not: and Ehether the go.ern(ent 0as able to ,escribe the ite(s (ore particularly in light o" the in"or(ation a.ailable to it at the ti(e the 0arrant 0as issue,. (United States $# Ad;ani (&th Cir. 2005) 3$2 B.3r, 1130- 113#.) Suggeste, Proce,ures) +he a""iant shoul, personally .ie0 the placeetc.- to be searche, in or,er to guarantee the accurateness o" the ,escription in the 0arrant. +oo (uch ,etail- so long as it is accurate- is better than not enough. 4se o" photographs an,Nor ,iagra(s- attache, as e?hibits- (ay be a,.isable. Oore than one person- place or .ehicle (ay be liste, in a single 0arrant so long as there is probable cause ,escribe, in the a""i,a.it "or each. A later Cu,icial "in,ing that the search o" one o" the liste, locations is not supporte, by probable cause 0ill not necessarily a""ect the search o" any o" the other locations 0here the probable cause supporting the search o" the other locations is in itsel" su""icient. ()eop"e $# *ou.ert (1&#3) 130 Cal.App.3r, &35.) *<ood faith/ (ay sa.e a 0arrant 0ith a ,e"ecti.e ,escription. (See )eop"e $# %acA$o& (1&#3) 152 Cal.App.3r, 235- 253%25$.) 313
+he "act that the a""iant hi(sel" is personally "a(iliar 0ith the place to be searche,- an, there"ore coul, reasonably be e?pecte, to "in, it- has been hel,- at least in one case- to be a "actor 0hich 0ill help to o.erco(e errors in the ,escription. ()eop"e $# Amador (2000) 23 Cal.3th 3#2: 0rong street nu(ber an, "aulty physical ,escription not "atal 0hen no other houses in the area coul, liFely be (istaFen "or the place to be searche,- an, the a""iant- 0ho e?ecute, the 0arrant- 0as "a(iliar 0ith the place.) An incorrect a,,ress 0as not "atal to the 0arrant 0hen t0o agents e?ecuting the 0arrant personally Fne0 0hich pre(ises 0ere inten,e, to searche, an, other circu(stances helpe, to i,enti"y the correct house. (United States $# Turner (&th Cir. 1&#$) 220 B.3r, 1$0#1$11.) +he *curtilage/ o" the ho(e is inclu,e, as a part o" the ho(e- 0hether or not speci"ically (entione, in the 0arrant. (United States $# Gorman (&th Cir. 1&&5) 103 B.3r, 222.) Gut- 0hat constitutes a part o" the curtilage (ay be an issue. (See United States $# Cannon (&th Cir. 2001) 253 B.3r, #2$: the ,e"en,ant s storage areas attache, to a secon, resi,ence- rente, to a thir, party- to the rear o" the (ain resi,ence- properly searche, as 0ithin the curtilage o" the (ain resi,ence.) +ote) +he better practice is to speci"ically inclu,e in the ,escription o" the place to be searche, all places aroun, the resi,ence one (ight e?pect to "in, the ite(s being searche, "or- thus eli(inating the issue. Gecause *(a) (agistrate is entitle, to ,ra0 reasonable in"erences about 0here e.i,ence is liFely to be Fept- base, on the nature o" the e.i,ence an, the type o" o""ense (United States $# An1u"o32ope5 (&th Cir. 1&#5) 2&1 B.2n, 13&3- 13&&.)-/ a search o" a narcotics suspect s .ehiclebase, upon no (ore than the a""iant s Fno0le,ge- gaine, through training an, e?perience- that persons 0ho tra""ic in ,rugs o"ten secret (ore narcotics an, other e.i,ence in their .ehicles- (ay be authori;e,. (United States $# Spearman (&th Cir. 1&25) $32 B.2n, 132- 133.) 313
+he sa(e argu(ent can be (a,e "or authori;ing the search o" a narcotics suspect s person- e.en though a0ay "ro( his ho(e. (United States $# E""iott (&th Cir. 2003) 322 B.3r, 210.) +he co(puter o" a roo((ate- the roo((ate hi(sel" not being targete,- 0here there is probable cause to belie.e that the suspect has access to the roo((ate s co(puter- 0as properly liste, in the 0arrant a""i,a.it as an ite( to be searche,. +he critical ele(ent in a search is not 0hether the o0ner o" property to be searche, is a suspect- but rather 0hether there is reasonable cause to belie.e that it contains sei;able e.i,ence. (United States $# Ad;ani (&th Cir. 2005) 3$2 B.3r, 1130.) Letting a search 0arrant "or a resi,ence 0here it is belie.e, that the suspect is at least staying part ti(e- recogni;ing the a person (ay ha.e one ,o(icile but se.eral resi,ences- is proper. (United States $# Cre,s (&th Cir. 2002) $02 B.3r, 1130- 113&: citing %artine5 $# &num (1&#3) 351 4.S. 321- 33& 62$ 7.8,.2n, #2&9.) +he 0rong a,,ress liste, in the 0arrant- cause, by an a,,ress change e""ecte, by local authorities "ro( one to0n to another- ,i, not a""ect the .ali,ity o" the search 0arrant 0hen the o""icers coul, still reasonably ascertain the correct house to be searche,. (United States $# ro.st (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, &#2- &&1%&&3: steps taFen by the o""icers at the scene to .eri"y that they 0ere about to search the right house.) +he *Reasonable Particularity/ Re@uire(ent ((!C! 1)2), 1)2"): The property to be seized) The property to be seized (ust be ,escribe, 0ith su""icient particularity so that an o""icer 0ith no Fno0le,ge o" the "acts un,erlying the 0arrant an, looFing only at the ,escription o" the property on the "ace o" the 0arrant 0oul, be able to recogni;e an, select the ite(s ,escribe, 0hile con,ucting the search. (See )eop"e $# Superior Court 6-i""iams7 (1&2#) 22 Cal.App.3r, 5&- 22: pro.i,ing a co(plete ,iscussion o" cases appro.ing an, ,isappro.ing certain ,escriptions.)
31$
1n ,eter(ining 0hether a 0arrant s ,escription o" the ite(s to be sei;e, is su""iciently speci"ic to be constitutional un,er the Fourth Amendment- a court (ust consi,er three issues) Ehether probable cause e?ists to sei;e all ite(s o" a particular type ,escribe, in the 0arrant: Ehether the 0arrants sets out obCecti.e stan,ar,s by 0hich e?ecuting o""icers can ,i""erentiate ite(s subCect to sei;ure "ro( those 0hich are not: and Ehether the go.ern(ent 0as able to ,escribe the ite(s (ore particularly in light o" the in"or(ation a.ailable to it at the ti(e the 0arrant 0as issue,. (%i""ender $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 2010) 520 B.3r, 1015- 1023.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court- ho0e.erre.erse, the Jinth Circuit s %i""ender $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es ,ecision in %esserschmidt et a"# $# %i""ender (Beb. 222012) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S!Ct! 123)E 1#2 7.8,.2n, 329- hol,ing that o""icers 0ere entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity "ro( ci.il liability 0hen their con,uct- e.en i" illegal,i, not .iolate clearly establishe, statutory or constitutional rights o" 0hich a reasonable person 0oul, ha.e Fno0n. 1n this case- the Court hel, that base, upon a suspect s Fno0n gang a""iliation- his use o" "irear(s- an, his ten,ency to0ar,s .iolencethat it 0as not unreasonable to assu(e that (ore than Cust the gun use, in his cri(e- an, rele.ant gang paraphernalia- (ight be "oun, in the ,e"en,ant s resi,ence 0here the suspect 0as Fno0n to li.e. See also) United States $# Spi"otro (&th Cir. 1&#5) #00 B.2n, &$&- &53: United States $# -on1 (&th Cir. 2003) 333 B.3r, #31.) Io0e.er- *a search 0arrant nee, only be reasonably speci"ic- rather than elaborately ,etaile,. . . . (+)he speci"icity re@uire, ,epen,s on the circu(stances o" the 315
case an, the type o" ite(s in.ol.e,./ (E,in1 $# Cit& o' Stoc(ton (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, 121#- 122#: citing United States $# ro.st (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, &#2- &&3.) *1n ,eter(ining 0hether sei;ure o" particular ite(s e?cee,s the scope o" the 0arrant- courts (are to) e?a(ine 0hether the ite(s are si(ilar to- or the A"unctional e@ui.alent o"ite(s enu(erate, in the 0arrant- as 0ell as containers in 0hich they are reasonably liFely to be "oun,./ ()eop"e $# Ran1e" (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 1310- 1315: uphol,ing the sei;ure an, search o" ,e"en,ant s cellphone (i.e.*s(artphone/) although not (entione, in the 0arrant- but 0here the o""icers 0ere authori;e, to sei;e *gang in,icia./ *Particularity/ re"ers to the re@uire(ent that the 0arrant (ust clearly state 0hat is sought. *$readth/ ,eals 0ith the re@uire(ent that the scope o" the 0arrant be li(ite, by the probable cause on 0hich the 0arrant is base,. (United States $# ro.st (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, &#2- &&3%&&$: citing United States $# To,ne (&th Cir. 1&&3) &&2 B.2n, $32$$3: United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc# (&th Cir. 200&) $5# B.3r, 5#3- 202: %i""ender $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 2010) 520 B.3r, 1015- 1023: certiorari grante,.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court- ho0e.erre.erse, the Jinth Circuit s %i""ender $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es ,ecision in %esserschmidt et a"# $# %i""ender (Beb. 22- 2012) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S!Ct! 123)E 1#2 7.8,.2n, 329- hol,ing that o""icers 0ere entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity "ro( ci.il liability 0hen their con,uct- e.en i" illegal- ,i, not .iolate clearly establishe, statutory or constitutional rights o" 0hich a reasonable person 0oul, ha.e Fno0n. 1n this case- the Court hel, that base, upon a suspect s Fno0n gang a""iliation- his use o" "irear(s- an, his ten,ency to0ar,s .iolencethat it 0as not unreasonable to assu(e that (ore than Cust the gun use, in his cri(e- an, rele.ant gang paraphernalia- (ight be "oun, in the ,e"en,ant s resi,ence 0here the suspect 0as Fno0n to li.e. +he ,escription (ust *place a meaningful restriction on the obCects to be sei;e, . . ./ ()eop"e $# %urra& (1&2#) #& Cal.App.3r, #0&- #32.) 312
Docu(ents or other e.i,ence sho0ing *dominion and control/ (i.e.- *D and & papers/) o.er the place being searche, shoul, be liste, a(ong the ite(s "or 0hich the a""iant 0ishes to search. ()eop"e $# -i""iams (1&&2) 3 Cal.App.3th 1$3$: )eop"e $# Rushin1 (1&#&) 20& Cal.App.3r, 51#: )eop"e $# Nico"aus (1&&1) $3 Cal.3r, $$1- $2$.) *1n,icia ten,ing to establish the i,entity o" persons in control o" the pre(ises-/ has been hel, to be speci"ic enough to (eet the *particularly/ re@uire(ents "or a search 0arrant. (E,in1 $# Cit& o' Stoc(ton (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, 121#- 122&.) 1n an 1nternet se?ual solicitation o" a chil, case- the "ollo0ing ite(s 0ere hel, to be appropriate in a search 0arrant "or the suspect s house an, .ehicle) *(S)e?ually e?plicit (aterial or paraphernalia use, to lo0er the inhibition o" chil,ren- se? toysphotography e@uip(ent- chil, pornography- as 0ell as (aterial relate, to past (olestation such as photographs- a,,ress le,gers inclu,ing na(es o" other pe,ophiles- an, Cournals recor,ing se?ual encounters 0ith chil,ren-/ as 0ell as the ,e"en,ant s co(puter syste(- inclu,ing *co(puter e@uip(entin"or(ation on ,igital an, (agnetic storage ,e.ices- co(puter printouts- co(puter so"t0are an, (anuals- an, ,ocu(entation regar,ing co(puter use./ (United States $# %ee( (&th Cir. 2003) 355 B.3r, 20$- 213%215.) So long as su""iciently ,escribe,- it is not necessary that a 0arrant a""i,a.it contain the actual photographs o" 0hat is allege, to be chil, pornography. (United States $# attershe"" (&th Cir. 2005) 3$2 B.3r, 103#.) Gut 0hat is- an, 0hat is not- *child pornography/ (ight be an issue. As a *starting point/ "or ,eter(ining the e?istence o" *lasci!iousness/ in a photo or photos- a court (ay use the "ollo0ing non% e?clusi.e si? "actor test) 31#
Ehether the "ocal point o" the .isual ,epiction is on the chil, s genitalia or pubic area: Ehether the setting o" the .isual ,epiction is se?ually suggesti.e- i.e.in a place or pose generally associate, 0ith se?ual acti.ity: Ehether the chil, is ,epicte, in an unnatural pose- or in inappropriate attire- consi,ering the age o" the chil,: Ehether the chil, is "ully or partially clothe,- or nu,e: Ehether the .isual ,epiction suggests se?ual coyness or a 0illingness to engage in se?ual acti.ity: Ehether the .isual ,epiction is inten,e, or ,esigne, to elicit a se?ual response in the .ie0er. (United States $# 0i"" (&th Cir. 2005) 3$& B.3r, &55- &20%&23- citing United States $# Dost (S.D. Cal. 1&#5) 535 B.Supp. #2#- #32.)
+hings the a""iant *hopes to find-/ but "or 0hich there is no articulable reason to belie.e 0ill be "oun,- shoul, not be liste,. Io0e.er- property that there is a *fair probability/ 0oul, be "oun,- gi.en the nature o" the o""ense- (ay be liste, ,espite the lacF o" any speci"ic e.i,ence that such an ite( is in "act in the place to be searche,. (See )eop"e $# U""oa (2002) 101 Cal.App.3th 1000: co(puter containing 1nternet correspon,ence in a chil, (olest case.) See %i""ender $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 2010) 520 B.3r, 1015- 1023%1033certiorari grante,: o""icers- 0ith probable cause to search "or an, sei;e a speci"ic "irear( inclu,e, in the 0arrant a re@uest to search "or an, sei;e all types o" "irear(sa((unition- an, gang relate, paraphernalianone o" 0hich- in the Jinth Circuit s 31&
opinion- 0as Custi"ie, by the in"or(ation a.ailable to the o""icers at the ti(e. +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court- ho0e.erre.erse, the Jinth Circuit s %i""ender $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es ,ecision in %esserschmidt et a"# $# %i""ender (Beb. 222012) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S!Ct! 123)E 1#2 7.8,.2n, 329- hol,ing that o""icers 0ere entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity "ro( ci.il liability 0hen their con,uct- e.en i" illegal,i, not .iolate clearly establishe, statutory or constitutional rights o" 0hich a reasonable person 0oul, ha.e Fno0n. 1n this case- the Court hel, that base, upon a suspect s Fno0n gang a""iliation- his use o" "irear(s- an, his ten,ency to0ar,s .iolencethat it 0as not unreasonable to assu(e that (ore than Cust the gun use, in his cri(e- an, rele.ant gang paraphernalia- (ight be "oun, in the ,e"en,ant s resi,ence 0here the suspect 0as Fno0n to li.e. *Telephone calls/ (i.e.- authori;ation to intercept the( 0hile e?ecuting the 0arrant) shoul, be liste, 0here there is probable cause to belie.e the telephone is being use, "or illegal purposes. ()eop"e $# -arner (1&5&) 220 Cal.App.2n, &00&02- booF(aFing case: )eop"e $# Nea"& (1&&1) 22# Cal.App.3r, 332- 3$2- narcotics case.) +he contents o" a telephone call to a narcotics ,ealer s ho(e asFing to buy narcotics- ans0ere, by the police e?ecuting a search 0arrant- are a,(issible as a Cu,icially create, e?ception to the Iearsay Rule. ()eop"e $# %or1an et a"# (200$) 12$ Cal.App.3th &3$.) +he %or1an Court "urther ,eter(ine, that the telephone call 0as *non6testimonial-/ as ,escribe, in Cra,'ord $# -ashin1ton (2003) $31 4.S. 35 61$# 7.8,.2n, 1229- an, thus a,(issible o.er a Si@th Amendment*right to confrontation/ obCection. ()eop"e $# %or1an- supraat pp. &35%&32.) 320
!ther courts ha.e hel, that the contents o" a telephone call are a,(issible as non%hearsay circu(stantial e.i,ence o" the ,e"en,ants ,ope ,ealing. ()eop"e $# Nea"& (1&&1) 22# Cal.App.3r, 332: an, )eop"e $# 9entura (1&&1) 1 Cal.App.3th 1$1$.) Tip) AsFing "or authori;ation to ans0er the telephone "or the purpose o" establishing *dominion and control/ o.er the place being searche, (8.g.: *Hello, is Doper :ohn homeM/) is also a goo, practice. &omputers- inclu,ing ,isFs- etc.- base, upon the a""iant s Fno0le,ge that cri(inals 0ill o"ten chronicle their cri(inal acti.ities on their co(puters- (ay o"ten be inclu,e,. Eith su""icient probable cause connecting a co(puter to cri(inal acti.ity- the co(puter an, all its attach(ents- ,isFsetc.- are subCect to sei;ure an, re(o.al to a lab 0here it (ay be properly an, care"ully inspecte, by e?perts. (United States $# 0a& (&th Cir. 2000) 231 B.3r, 530: see also )eop"e $# U""oa (2002) 101 Cal.App.3th 1000.) See also Guest $# 2eis (5th Cir. 2001) 2$$ B.3r, 32$- 333%332: sei;ure o" the 0hole co(puter syste( 0as not unreasonable so long as there 0as probable cause to conclu,e that e.i,ence o" a cri(e 0oul, be "oun, on the co(puter. An, %ah".er1 $# %ent5er (#th Cir. 1&&2) &5# B.2n, 222: sei;ure o" co(puter e@uip(ent- progra(s an, ,isFs not liste, in the 0arrant uphel,. Sei;ure o" co(puters in a ho(ici,e in.estigation Custi"ie, by probable cause to belie.e that speci"ic ,ocu(entary e.i,ence 0oul, reasonably be "oun, in the ,e"en,ant s co(puter. (United States $# -on1 (&th Cir. 2003) 333 B.3r, #31.) A laptop co(puter- open an, runningproperly sei;e, as potential e.i,ence o" 321
,o(inion an, control o.er the searche, pre(ises- e.en though not speci"ically liste, in the 0arrant. ()eop"e $# a"int (2005) 13# Cal.App.3th 200: see also )eop"e $# 9ar1hese (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th 10#31100%1103.) +he co(puter o" a roo((ate- the roo((ate hi(sel" not being targete,- 0here there is probable cause to belie.e that the suspect has access to the roo((ate s co(puter- 0as properly liste, in the 0arrant a""i,a.it as an ite( to be searche,. +he critical ele(ent in a search is not 0hether the o0ner o" property to be searche, is a suspect- but rather 0hether there is reasonable cause to belie.e that it contains sei;able e.i,ence. (United States $# Ad;ani (&th Cir. 2005) 3$2 B.3r, 1130.) +he sei;ure o" ,e"en,ant s co(puter an, all co(puter relate, ite(s (e.g.- co(pact ,isFs"loppy ,isFs- har, ,ri.es- (e(ory car,sDUDs- .i,eotapes- an, other portable ,igital ,e.ices)- base, upon no (ore than the ,isco.ery o" one printe,%out photo o" chil, pornography- 0as la0"ul in that it 0as reasonable to conclu,e that the picture ha, co(e "ro( his co(puter an, that si(ilar pictures 0ere liFely to be store, in it. (United States $# ro.st (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, &#2- &&3.) Bailure o" the (agistrate s or,er to inclu,e an authori;ation to search ,e"en,ant s co(puter- e.en though in the state(ent o" probable cause the a""iant in,icate, a ,esire to search any possible co(puters "oun, in ,e"en,ant s house- 0as a "atal o(ission. Searching ,e"en,ant s co(puter- there"ore0ent beyon, the scope o" the 0arrant s authori;ation. (United States $# )a&ton (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, #$&- #51%#53.) +he "act that the issuing (agistrate testi"ie, to an intent to allo0 "or the 322
search o" ,e"en,ant s co(puters- an, that the 0arrant inclu,e, authori;ation to search "or certain liste, recor,s 0hich (ight be "oun, in a co(puter- 0as hel, to be irrele.ant. (Id. at pp. #52%#53.) Gut see United States $# Gi.erson (&th Cir. 200#) $22 B.3r, ##2- 0here it 0as hel, that so(e circu(stances (ight lea, searching o""icers to a reasonable conclusion that ,ocu(entary e.i,ence they are seeFing 0oul, be containe, in co(puters "oun, at the locationauthori;ing the search o" those containers ,espite the "ailure o" the 0arrant to list co(puters as things that (ay be searche,. 1t 0as reco((en,e,- ho0e.er- that the co(puter be sei;e, an, a secon, 0arrant be obtaine, authori;ing its search. See )eop"e $# Ran1e" (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 1310- 1315- liFening ,e"en,ant s *s(artphone/ to a co(putergi.en its capability to store photographs- e% (ail a,,resses- an, other personal in"or(ation. See *&omputer earches-/ un,er *Probable &ause 'ssues-/ belo0- an, * earches of &ell Phones, Dis?s, &omputers and ;ther High Tech A&ontainers / un,er * earches of &ontainers-/ belo0. 'nad!ertent changes to the language o" a 0arrant an, a""i,a.it a"ter it is signe, by the Cu,ge create issues that coul, result in suppression o" all- or (aybe a part o"- the e.i,ence sei;e,- ,epen,ing upon the "lagrancy o" the .iolation. (United States $# Sears (&th Cir. 200$) 311 B.3r, 1123: se.erance an, partial suppression hel, to be su""icient sanction 0here the o""icer use, the 0rong attach(ent ,escribing the places to be searche, an, 323
property to be sei;e, 0hich 0as ,i""erent in only a "e0(inor 0ays.) *<eneral =arrants)/ Earrants 0ithout su""icient particularity (i.e.- *general warrants/) are legally insu""icient an, in.ali,. ( urro,s $# Superior Court (1&23) 13 Cal.3r, 23#- 23&%2$0.) *+he purpose o" the Aparticularity re@uire(ent o" the Fourth Amendment is to a.oi, general an, e?ploratory searches by re@uiring a particular ,escription o" the ite(s to be sei;e,. 6Citation9/ ()eop"e $# rad'ord (1&&2) 1$ Cal.3th 122&- 12&5: citing Co""id1e $# Ne, 0ampshire (1&21) 303 4.S 333- 352 62& 7.8,.2n, $53- $#39: an, Stan'ord $# Te!as (1&5$) 32& 4.S. 325- 3#$ 613 7.8,.2n, 3323329.) *Particularity/ is the re@uire(ent that the 0arrant (ust clearly state 0hat is sought. *$readth/ ,eals 0ith the re@uire(ent that the scope o" the 0arrant be li(ite, by the probable cause on 0hich the 0arrant is base,. (United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc# (&th Cir. 200&) $5# B.3r, 5#3202.) +his *particularity/ re@uire(ent ser.es t0o i(portant purposes. 1t) 7i(its the ,iscretion o" the o""icers e?ecuting the 0arrant: and 1n"or(s the property o0ner or resi,ent o" the proper scope o" the search.
(United States $# 9esi(uru (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 1115- 1123%1123: (United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc#- supraat pp. 201% 20$.) A search 0arrant an, a""i,a.it that "ails to *particularly describe/ an, place *meaningful restrictions/ on the property to be sei;e,- .iolates 323
the Fourth Amendment. (United States $# rid1es (&th Cir. 2003) 333 B.3r, 1010.) Describing in the 0arrant itsel" (as oppose, to the a""i,a.it) the suspecte, cri(inal o""ense(s) might be enough to o.erco(e an other0ise *o!erly broad/ ,escription o" the property to be sei;e,- in that it at least puts the searching o""icers on so(e notice as to the li(its o" their ,iscretion. (Id.- at p. 101#.) An e?ception to this rule (i.e.- *o!erly broad/) (ight be 0hen the place being searche, is a business- an, it is allege, an, substantiate, in the a""i,a.it that the business s *entire operation was permeated with fraud./ (Id.- at pp. 101#%101&: United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc# (&th Cir. 200&) $5# B.3r, 5#3- 203- an, "n. 13.) United States $# Smith (&th Cir. 200$) 323 B.3r, &&2- 1003%1005.) 1n Smith- an *extraordinarily broad/ search 0arrant 0as hel, to be Custi"ie, 0here it 0as ,eter(ine, that *the entirety o" the businesses operate, by (,e"en,ants) are cri(inal in nature./ (Id.- at p. 1005.) *(+)he (ore speci"icity the 0arrant ,escribes the ite(s sought- the (ore li(ite, the scope o" the search. Con.ersely- the (ore generic the ,escription- the greater the risF o" a prohibite, general search. (Citation)/ ()eop"e $# a"int (2005) 13# Cal.App.3th 200- 205.) Sei;ure o" *all computer media/ is not too broa,gi.en the ,i""iculty in ,eter(ining 0hat (ight be on such (e,ia prior to a "orensic e?a(ination by e?perts- at least so long as there is an e?planation in the a""i,a.it e?plaining 0hy a 0holesale sei;ure is necessary un,er the circu(stances. (United States $# 0i"" (&th Cir. 2005) 3$& B.3r, &55- &23%&22.) 32$
4se o" language such as: * . . . including, but not limited to . . ./ shoul, not be use,- in that such a ,escription is too generalan, legally insu""icient to Custi"y sei;ure o" any property inten,e, to be inclu,e, un,er the *not limited to/ phrase. (See United States $# Ree$es (&th Cir. 2000) 210 B.3r, 1031- 1035%1032: United States $# rid1es- supraat pp. 1012%101#.) *1n,icia ten,ing to establish the i,entity o" persons in control o" the pre(ises-/ has been hel, to be speci"ic enough. (E,in1 $# Cit& o' Stoc(ton (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, 121#- 122&.) 1te(s liste, in a search 0arrant to be sei;e, that are "oun, to be *o!erbroad/ (ay be se.ere, 0ithout a""ecting the other0ise .ali, portions o" the 0arrant. +his is true 0hether the issue arises in a cri(inal (United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc! (&th Cir. 200&) $5# B.3r, 5#3- 202.) or a ci.il case. (E,in1 $# Cit& o' Stoc(ton (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, 121#- 122#%122&.) upplementing the *ffida!it) +o be legally e""ecti.e- the a""i,a.it (ay be supple(ente, by an e?a(ination- un,er oath- o" the a""iant by the (agistrate. ((!C! 1)22) +he oral e?a(ination- ho0e.er- 0ill not be consi,ere, part o" the probable cause unless re,uce, to 0riting an, signe, by the a""iant. (Charne& $# Superior Court (1&22) 22 Cal.App.3r, ###- #&1.) 1n"or(ation not containe, *0ithin the "our corners o" a 0ritten a""i,a.it gi.en un,er oath/ 0ill not be consi,ere, an, cannot be use, to help establish probable cause. (United States $# 2uon1 (&th Cir. 2005) 320 B.3r, #&#- &03&0$.) Jote that there is so(e "e,eral case authority to the contrary- "ro( other circuits- allo0ing in"or(ation Fno0n to the a""iant an, tol, to the (agistrate to be consi,ere,. (See United States $# Fra5ier (5th Cir. 200$) 323 B.3r, $25- $3$%$35: United States $# 2e11 (3th Cir. 1&&3) 1# B.3r, 230- 233.233: an, see ,issenting opinion in United States $# 2uon1supra.- at pp. &0$%&02.) 325
&ombined *ffida!it with =arrant) So(e authorities a,.ocate the use o" a co(bine, search 0arrant an, a""i,a.it "or( 0ith an attache, ,eclaration o" probable cause. (See )eop"e $# %acA$o& (1&#3) 152 Cal.App.3r, 235: an, the "os *ngeles &ounty earch =arrant ,anual- 12th 8,ition- Chapter 1 an, Appen,i? A.) Io0e.er- care (ust be taFen to insure that the attache, ,eclaration o" probable cause is *incorporated by reference-/ signe,- an, s0orn to by the o""icer- "or the 0arrant to be legally su""icient. ()eop"e $# 2eonard (1&&5) $0 Cal.App.3th #2#: ,e"ecti.e 0arrant sa.e, un,er *<ood (aith/ e?ception. See also (United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc# (&th Cir. 200&) $5# B.3r, 5#3- 5&&%200.) 1ncorporation (ay be (a,e si(ply by using *suitable words of reference./ (Id.- at pp. 5&&%200: citing United States $# To,ne (&th Cir. 1&&3) &&2 B.2n, $32- $3$.) Ehile no speci"ic language is necessary- the Jinth Circuit has uphel, such 0or,ing as: *#pon the sworn complaint made before me there is probable cause to belie!e that the 6gi!en9 crime . . . has been committed./ (United States $# 9esi(uru (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 1115- 1120: see also United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc#- supraat pp. 5&&%200.) +he Jinth Circuit also re@uires that the incorporate, a""i,a.it is either attache, physically to the 0arrant or a least acco(panies the 0arrant 0hile agents e?ecute the search. (United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc#- supraat p. 5&&.) Also- such a "or(at potentially raises issues concerning the nee, to pro.i,e a copy o" the a""i,a.it to the suspect- along 0ith the 0arrant. (See United States $# Gantt (&th Cir. 1&&&) 1&3 B.3r, &#2- 1001- an, "n. 2: a""i,a.it nee,e, to cure a ,e"iciency in the ,escription o" the property to be sei;e,: an, United States $# Smith (&th Cir. 200$) 323 B.3r, &&21005%100#.) ,ultiple *ffiantsJ*ffida!its) +here (ay be (ore than one a""iant an,Nor (ore than one a""i,a.it in support o" a search 0arrant. (S(e"ton $# Superior Court (1&5&) 1 Cal.3r, 133: (!C! 1)21.)
322
taleness) +he in"or(ation containe, in the 0arrant a""i,a.it (ust not be *stale./ ()eop"e $# %esa (1&2$) 13 Cal.3r, 355- 320.) 1n"or(ation that is re(ote in ti(e (ay be ,ee(e, to be too stale an, there"ore unreliable. (A"e!ander $# Superior Court (1&23) & Cal. 3r, 3#2- 3&3.) Delays o" (ore than four wee?s- at least in a narcotics sales case an, absent so(e ne0 e.i,ence ten,ing to sho0 the continue, presence o" the controlle, substances in @uestionare generally consi,ere, insu""icient to ,e(onstrate present probable cause. Bor instance) See 0em"er $# Superior Court (1&2$) 33 Cal.App.3r, 330- 333%333: ,elay o" 33 ,ays bet0een controlle, sale o" heroin an, the o""icer s a""i,a.it "or the search 0arrant is stale.) Delay o" $2 ,ays bet0een a controlle, buy o" al(ost a poun, o" (ariCuana an, the e?ecution o" a search 0arrant- ,espite the o""icer s e?pert opinion that the seller 0oul, still ha.e contraban, in his resi,ence (the sale taFing place in a parFing lot in another city)- 0as hel, to be stale. ()eop"e $# 0u""and (2003) 110 Cal.App.3th 1535.) A ,elay o" t0o (onths an, three 0eeFs (#2 ,ays) bet0een the purchase o" (etha(pheta(ine an, the obtaining o" a search 0arrant "or ,e"en,ant s house 0as too long. Eith the in"or(ation being stale- the 0arrant 0as in.ali, as to hi(. 1t is irrele.ant that ,e"en,ant s purchase o" ,rugs 0as part o" a nine% (onth in.estigation into a ,rug%tra""icFing conspiracy in.ol.ing (ultiple suspects 0hen there 0as no sho0ing that ,e"en,ant hi(sel" 0as in.ol.e, at all ,uring the t0o (onths an, three 0eeFs in @uestion. ()eop"e $# 0irata (200&) 12$ Cal.App.3th 13&&.) Ehile *stale information/ by itsel" 0ill not generally support a "in,ing o" probable cause- 0hen co(bine, 0ith so(e e.i,ence o" a present cri(inal .iolationan ongoing pattern o" cri(inal acti.ity (ay a,, up to su""icient probable cause. ()eop"e $# %i(ese"" (1&&5) 35 Cal.App.3th 1211: so(eti(es calle, an *historical warrant:/ see also )eop"e $# %edina (1&#$) 15$ Cal.App.3r, 11- 20%21.) 32#
A continuing cri(inal enterprise- 0ith no reason to belie.e the ,e"en,ant has (o.e, "ro( her ho(e 0here she 0as Fno0n to ha.e li.e, so(e si? (onths earlier- negate, any staleness issue. ()eop"e $# Gi.son (2001) &0 Cal.App.3th 321- 3#0%3#1.) 8?pert opinion that- un,er the circu(stances- the sought% "or property is liFely still to be "oun, on the pre(ises to be searche, 0ill nor(ally o.erco(e an issue o" staleness. (See United States $# 2ac& (&th Cir. 1&&2) 11& B.3r, 232: 10% (onth ol, in"or(ation concerning the recei.ing o" chil, pornography.) Gut see )eop"e $# 0u""andsupra- 0here the o""icer s e?pert opinion 0as hel, to be insu""icient to o.erco(e a staleness ($2 ,ays) issue in a narcotics sales case. *1" circu(stances 0oul, Custi"y a person o" or,inary pru,ence to conclu,e that an acti.ity ha, continue, to the present ti(e- then the passage o" ti(e 0ill not ren,er the in"or(ation stale./ ()eop"e $# Carrin1ton (200&) 32 Cal.3th 13$- 153: @uoting )eop"e $# 0u""andsupra- at p. 15$2.) 1n Carrin1ton- the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court hel, that it there 0as a *fair probability/ that ,e"en,ant 0oul, still ha.e stolen checFs in her ho(e e.en a"ter t0o (onths 0hen so(e o" the checFs re(aine, outstan,ing- as 0ell as a Fey to the business that she , burglari;e,. ()eop"e $# Carrin1ton- supra.- at pp. 153%153.) 8.i,ence that the ,e"en,ant s cri(inal acti.ities are a continuing o""ense- 0ith no reason to belie.e that the ,e"en,ant Fno0 he 0as being in.estigate,- an, e.ery reason to belie.e that ,e"en,ant 0oul, retain incri(inating e.i,ence- a search 0arrant 0ill not be hel, to be base, upon stale in"or(ation. ()eop"e $# Stipo (2011) 1&$ Cal.App.3th 553- 522%523: a co(puter%hacFing enterprise.) (ingerprints) Jote 0a&es $# F"orida (1&#$) 320 4.S. #11 6#3 7.8,.2n, 20$9- "or the proposition that a 0arrant (ay authori;e the te(porary ,etention- 0ithout probable cause- o" a person "or the purpose o" taFing "ingerprints if)
32&
+here is at least a *reasonable suspicion/ that the suspect co((itte, a cri(inal act: +here is a reasonable basis "or belie.ing that "ingerprints 0ill establish or negate the suspect s connection 0ith that cri(e: and +he proce,ure use, is carrie, out 0ith ,ispatch. *+here is thus support in our cases "or the .ie0 that the Fourth Amendment 0oul, per(it sei;ures "or purposes o" "ingerprinting- i" there is reasonable suspicion that the suspect has co((itte, a cri(inal act- i" there is a reasonable basis "or belie.ing that "ingerprinting 0ill establish or negate the suspect s connection 0ith that cri(e- an, i" the proce,ure is carrie, out 0ith ,ispatch./ (Id!- at p. #12.) +ote) +he Court in 0a&es speci"ically ,ecline, to ,eci,e 0hether this 0oul, inclu,e transporting the subCect to the station "or "ingerprinting. Gecause a non%consensual transportation is generally consi,ere, to be an arrestre@uiring "ull%blo0n *probable cause/ (See *Detentions-/ abo.e)- it is strongly suggeste, that the proce,ure be con,ucte, in the "iel,. See also Da$is $# %ississippi (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 221- 222%22# 622 7.8,.2n, 525- 5#1%5#29: noting that the taFing o" "ingerprints o" a person 0ho is (erely subCect to a te(porary ,etention is la0"ul. *nd +ote 9ir1"e $# Superior Court (2002) 100 Cal.App.3th $22- $23: 0here the Court re"erre, to 0a&es 0ith appro.al. Although the abo.e hol,ing in 0a&es is ,icta- it is *care"ully consi,ere, language/ that shoul, be accor,e, 0eight. (United States $# Dorce"& (D.C. Cir. 2005) 3$3 B.3r, 355- 32$.)
Description of the facts an, circu(stances that co(prise the probable cause) *&onclusory-/ as oppose, to *factual-/ allegations by the a""iant are legally insu""icient. ( arnes $# Te!as (1&5$) 3#0 4.S. 2$3 613 7.8,.2n, #1#9.)
330
+ote) +he a""iant (ust ,escribe the facts and circumstances 0hich co(prise the probable cause- so that a (agistrate (ay in,epen,ently e.aluate the e?istence or none?istence o" su""icient "acts to Custi"y issuance o" the 0arrant. Oerely listing the a""iant s conclusions- 0ithout ,escribing the "acts an, circu(stances that lea, to the a""iant s conclusions- is legally insu""icient. 4sing ter(s such as *pornography/ an, *harmful matter/ 0ithout ,escribing 0hat it is the a""iant belie.es is pornographic- is a conclusory state(ent that (ay in.ali,ate a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# 0a"e (200$) 133 Cal.App.3th &32: 0arrant sa.e, by other language in the a""i,a.it "ro( 0hich the (agistrate coul, in"er the pornographic nature o" the pictures.) *<ood (aith)/ !""icers obtaining a search 0arrant in *good faith/ an, acting in reasonable reliance on an other0ise "acially .ali, 0arrant- issue, by a neutral an, ,etache, (agistrate- 0ill not re@uire suppression o" e.i,ence e.en 0hen the 0arrant is later "oun, to be lacFing in probable cause. (United States $# 2eon (1&#3) 35# 4.S. #&2 6#2 7.8,.2n, 5229.) See *<ood (aith-/ abo.e. #se of Hearsay) 4se o" hearsay in an a""i,a.it- or e.en *double (i.e.- (ultiple le.el) hearsay-/ is oFay *so long as there 6is9 a substantial basis "or cre,iting the hearsay./ (United States $# 9entresca (1&5$) 3#0 4.S 102- 10# 612 7.8,.2n, 5#3- 5##%5#&9@uoting *ones $# United States (1&50) 352 4.S. 2$2- 222 63 7.8,.2n, 5&2- 20#9: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6 in1ham7 (1&2&) &1 Cal.App.3r, 353- 35&.) an,- in "act- is usually una.oi,able. ()eop"e $# %a1ana (1&2&) &$ Cal.App.3r, 3$3- 350- 352.) See also Cit& o' Santa Cru5 $# %unicipa" Court (1&#&) 3& Cal.3r, 23- #2%##: )eop"e $# Smith (1&25) 12 Cal.3r, #3$#$0.) 8ach le.el o" hearsay- ho0e.er- (ust be sho0n in the a""i,a.it to be reliable. (See )eop"e $# Superior Court 6 in1ham7- supra: Ca"i1ari $# Superior Court (1&2&) &# Cal.App.3r, 22$: )eop"e $# 2o$e (1&#$) 15# Cal.App.3r, 103.) %iranda) State(ents taFen in .iolation o" the ,e"en,ant s %iranda rights (%iranda $# Ari5ona (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 335 615 331
7.8,.2n, 5&39.)- so long as not coerce, or in.oluntary- (ay be use, in an a""i,a.it a,,ing to the probable cause. (United States $# )atterson (&th Cir. 1&#2) #12 B.2n, 11##- 11&3: )eop"e $# re,er (2000) #1 Cal.App.3th 332.) Third )art&?s Fourth Amendment 9io"ation) 8.i,ence obtaine, in .iolation o" so(eone else s (i.e.- so(eone other than the present ,e"en,ant s) Fourth Amendment (search and seizure) rights (ay be use, as part o" the probable cause in a search 0arrant a""i,a.itunless the ,e"en,ant can sho0 that he has *standing/ (i.e.- it 0as his reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy that 0as .iolate,) to challenge the use o" the e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# %adrid (1&&2) 2 Cal.App.3th 1###- 1#&5.) * tanding/ ,epen,s upon a sho0ing that it 0as the ,e"en,ant s o0n constitutional rights 0hich 0ere .iolate,. ()eop"e $# Shepherd (1&&3) 23 Cal.App.3th #2$- #2#.) See * tanding-/ abo.e. 1n"or(ation in a search 0arrant a""i,a.it that is the pro,uct o" a .iolation o" the ,e"en,ant s o0n Fourth Amendment rights 0ill be e?cise, "ro( the a""i,a.it. +he re,acte, a""i,a.it 0ill then be reteste, to ,eter(ine 0hether probable cause still e?ists. ()eop"e $# -eiss (1&&&) 20 Cal.3th 1023- 10#1.) Pri!ileged 'nformation) 1n"or(ation that co(es into the han,s o" la0 en"orce(ent that (ay be *pri!ileged information-/ obtaine, 0ithout any *complicity/ on the part o" la0 en"orce(ent- (ay be use, as a part o" the probable cause Custi"ying the issuance o" the search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Na$arro (2005) 13# Cal.App.3th 135: Attorney%Client in"or(ation supplie, by the attorney in .iolation o" ?!C! ")3 et se*!: see also United States $# -hite (2th Cir. 1&&2) &20 B.2n, 32#.) +he issue is one o" a Fifth +an, Fourteenth) Amendment *due process/ .iolation. ()eop"e $# Na$arro- supra.) Geing a *passi!e recipient of pri!ileged information/ sho0s a lacF o" *complicity./ (Id.- at pp. 1$#%152.) 332
+o sho0 that la0 en"orce(ent 0as not Cust a passi.e recipient o" pri.ilege, in"or(ation- the ,e"en,ant (ust pro.e that) +he go.ern(ent (i.e.- la0 en"orce(ent) Fne0 a la0yer%client relationship e?iste, bet0een the ,e"en,ant an, its in"or(ant: +he go.ern(ent ,eliberately intru,e, into that relationship: and +he ,e"en,ant 0as preCu,ice, as a result. (I.id- citing United States $# /enned& (10th Cir. 2000) 22$ B.3r, 11&2- 11&3%11&$.) 7a0 en"orce(ent o""icers gaining access to- an, rea,ingpri.ilege, (aterial (,e"en,ant s notes to his attorney)- a Si@th Amendment .iolation- ,i, not re@uire ,is(issal o" the case or any other sanctions absent e.i,ence that ,e"en,ant 0as so(eho0 ,isa,.antage, by the .iolation. 1n this case- Cail sheri"" s ,eputies looFe, at notes ,e"en,ant ha, 0ritten to his attorney. Io0e.er- there 0as no e.i,ence that any o" the in"or(ation ,isco.ere, by this .iolation 0as passe, onto the prosecutors. Jone o" the ,eputies 0ere 0itnesses in the case. +here being no preCu,ice- ,e"en,ant s (otion to ,is(iss 0as properly ,enie,. ()eop"e $# Er$ine (200&) 32 Cal.3th 23$- 253%222.) Ehen a prosecutor instructs her in.estigator to ea.es,rop on an attorney%client con.ersation in a courtroo( hol,ing cell- such an act is so egregious to 0arrant ,is(issal o" the case. (%orro, $# Superior Court (1&&3) 30 Cal.App.3th 12$2.) Howe!er- la0 en"orce(ent o""icers intentionally ea.es,ropping on an attorney%client con.ersation that taFes place at the o""ices o" the la0 en"orce(ent agency- 0ithout the co(plicity o" a prosecutor- is not so egregious as to re@uire ,is(issal. 8?clusion o" the ,isco.ere, in"or(ationan, any pro,ucts o" that in"or(ation- is su""icient a re(e,y un,er the circu(stances. ()eop"e $# Shrier et a"# (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 300.) +ighttime earches) Justi"ication "or a nightti(e search (ust be establishe, in the 0arrant a""i,a.it by establishing *good cause-/ 333
risFing the possible suppression o" e.i,ence i" it is not. ((!C! 1)33: Tutt"e $# Superior Court (1&#1) 120 Cal.App.3r, 320- 32#.) ee Rodri1ue5 $ Superior Court (1&##) 1&& Cal.App.3r, 13$3- 1320: suggesting that because a night search ,oes not .iolate any constitutional principles- e.i,ence ,isco.ere, ,uring a nightti(e search 0ithout Cu,icial authori;ation shoul, not result in suppression o" any e.i,ence. Gut see ra$o $# Cit& o' Santa %aria (&th Cir. 2011) 55$ B.3r, 1025- 10#$%10#5- 0here the Court "oun, the "ailure to Custi"y the nee, "or a nightti(e search to be the intrusi.e e@ui.alent o" "ailing to co(ply 0ith the *FnocF an, notice/ re@uire(ents. *+ighttime/ "or purposes o" e?ecuting a search 0arrant is between /.I.. p2m2 and 1I.. a2m2 ((!C! 1)33) +he search nee, only be co((ence, be"ore 10)00 p.(. 1t is irrele.ant ho0 long a"ter 10)00 p.(. it taFes to "inish the search. ()eop"e $# 4epeda (1&#0) 102 Cal.App.3r, 1- 2%#.) The test "or ,eter(ining *good cause/ is as "ollo0s) *(+)he a""i,a.it "urnishe, the (agistrate (ust set "orth speci"ic "acts 0hich sho0 a necessity "or ser.ice o" the 0arrant at night rather than bet0een the hours o" 2 a.(. an, 10 p.(. +his (eans that the (agistrate (ust be in"or(e, o" "acts "ro( 0hich it reasonably (ay be conclu,e, that the contraban, to be sei;e, 0ill not be in the place to be searche, ,uring the hours o" 2 a.(. to 10 p.(./ ()eop"e $# -atson (1&22) 2$ Cal.App.3r, $&2- $&#.) +he nee, "or a nightti(e search (ay be sho0n by a ,escription o" *so(e "actual basis "or a pru,ent conclusion that the greater intrusi.eness o" a nightti(e search is Custi"ie, by the e?igencies o" the situation./ ()eop"e $# /im."e (1&##) 33 Cal.3r, 3#0- 3&3.) +ote) Ehile typically this is an issue in the searches o" residences- the statute ((!C! 1)33) is not so restricte,. +here"ore- a search 0arrant authori;ing the search o" a person- .ehicle- or other container may also re@uire a *nighttime endorsement/ i" e?ecute, at night. "ea!ing a &opy at the cene) 1t is not legally re@uire, that a copy o" the a""i,a.it be le"t at the scene (United States $# Ce"estine (&th Cir. 2003) 323 B.3r, 10&$- 1102.)- at least 0hen the place to be 333
searche, an, the property to be sei;e, is su""iciently ,escribe, in the search 0arrant itsel". (United States $# %cGre, (&th Cir. 1&&2) 122 B.3r, #32.) See *"ea!ing a &opy of the =arrant, *ffida!it andJor Receipt and 'n!entory-/ belo0. )#C# B CD6: Victim and =itness &onfidential 'nformation) (!C! "24 re@uires the establish(ent o" proce,ures to protect the con"i,entiality o" *confidential personal information/ o" .icti(s an, 0itnesses. +he section is ,irecte, pri(arily at prosecutors an, the courts- but also contains a pro.ision "or ,ocu(ents "ile, by la0 en"orce(ent 0ith a court in support o" search an, arrest 0arrants: i.e.- an affida!it. *&onfidential personal information/ inclu,es- but is not limited to- a,,resses- telephone nu(bers- ,ri.er s license an, Cali"ornia i,enti"ication car, nu(bers- social security nu(bers- ,ate o" birth- place o" e(ploy(ent- e(ployee i,enti"ication nu(bers- (other s (ai,en na(e- ,e(an, ,eposit account nu(bers- sa.ings or checFing account nu(bers- an, cre,it car, nu(bers. (Su4d! +4,) Third) +he *Receipt and 'n!entory/ (or *Return/)) +his ,ocu(ent is sel"% ,escripti.e. 1t is use, to list the property sei;e, as a result o" the ser.ice o" the search 0arrant. ((!C! 1)3)) +he original is returne, to the Court 0ith the original 0arrant an, a""i,a.it. A copy is le"t 0ith the person "ro( 0ho( property is taFen- or le"t at the place searche,- as a receipt o" "or those ite(s taFen by the searching o""icers. (!C! 1)3) is not to be interprete, as a re@uire(ent to sho0 to the suspect- or to lea.e a copy o" at the scene- the search 0arrant itsel". ()eop"e $# Ca"a.rese (2002) 101 Cal.App.3th 2&.) Sources o' In'ormation Esta."ishin1 )ro.a."e Cause) ;ther Police ;fficers) Suspect in"or(ation or other cri(inal acti.ity in"or(ation recei.e, "ro( other peace o""icers- either .erbally- at pre%shi"t brie"ings- "ro( ,epart(ent%originate, notices- etc.- or 0hen co((unicate, .ia ra,io through the police ,ispatcher- is consi,ere, reliable an, generally establishes probable cause to arrest or search by 33$
itsel". ()eop"e $# 0i"" (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, 231- 251: )eop"e $# Ramire5 (1&&2) $& Cal.App.3th 1$3#.) +his is so(eti(es re"erre, to as ha.ing recei.e, in"or(ation through *official channels-/ 0hich re"ers to 0hen it co(es "ro( any la0 en"orce(ent source. ()eop"e $# 2ara (1&52) 52 Cal.2n, 35$- 321.) 8?a(ples) Police ra,io broa,casts. Pre%shi"t brie"ings. *A.P.G.s/ (i.e.- an **ll6Points $ulletin/) an, si(ilar la0 en"orce(ent generate, (e(os.
$ut) 8.entually- la0 en"orce(ent (ay be re@uire, in court to trace the in"or(ation bacF to its source in or,er to ,ispro.e an accusation that the in"or(ation establishing probable cause 0as *manufactured in the police station:/ i.e.- that it 0as the result o" speculation or other unreliable source. ()eop"e $# Oro5co (1&#1) 113 Cal.App.3r, 33$.) +his is so(eti(es re"erre, to as the *0ar$e&E%adden rule-/ base, upon authority in )eop"e $# 0ar$e& (1&$#) 1$5 Cal.App.2n, $15- an, )eop"e $# %adden (1&20) 2 Cal.3r, 1012- or an *O;eda motion-/ base, upon O;eda $# Superior Court (1&20) 12 Cal.App.3r, &0&.) Io0e.eran e?ception to the *0ar$e&E%adden rule/ is generally "oun, 0hen the respon,ing o""icers "in, the situation at the scene to be consistent 0ith the substance o" the ra,io call. Ehen the source o" the in"or(ation is corroborate, by 0hat is "oun, at the scene- there is no longer any purpose in "urther corroboration by calling as a 0itness the source o" that in"or(ation. (In re Richard G# (200&) 123 Cal.App.3th 12$2- 12$#%1250: ,isagreeing 0ith In re Es(ie" S# (1&&3) 1$ Cal.App.3th 153#- 0hich re@uire, strict co(pliance 0ith 0ar$e&E%adden.) *Ehen the reason "or a rule ceases- so shoul, the rule itsel"./ (Ci:! Code 3)13, &itizen 'nformants) Pri.ate persons (oti.ate, to pro.i,e la0 en"orce(ent 0ith in"or(ation o" cri(inal 0rong,oing purely through a sense o" goo, citi;enship- 0ithout e?pecting any bene"it or re0ar, in return.
335
1n"or(ation "ro( a *citizen informant/ establishes probable cause by itsel"- at least as to "acts 0ithin the in"or(ant s personal Fno0le,ge- absent Fno0n or suspecte, "acts or circu(stances that cast ,oubt upon the reliability o" the in"or(ation pro.i,e,. ()eop"e $# Rame& (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, 253- 25&.) +ote) +his assu(es that the 0itness has the e?pertise necessary to interpret 0hat it is he sees. 8.g.- a 0itness telling la0 en"orce(ent that he has obser.e, a person using a controlle, substances 0oul, ha.e to be able to establish that he has the training or e?perience to recogni;e 0hat the controlle, substance looFs liFe. *1t (ay . . . be state, as a general proposition that pri.ate citi;ens 0ho are 0itnesses to or .icti(s o" a cri(inal act- absent so(e circu(stances that 0oul, cast ,oubt upon their in"or(ation- shoul, be consi,ere, reliable./ ()eop"e $# Rame&- supraat pp. 25#%25&: see also )eop"e $# Duncan (1&23) & Cal.3r, 21#: an, )eop"e $# 0o1an (1&5&) 21 Cal.2n, ###- #&0.) +he .icti( o" a cri(e 0ill usually @uali"y. ()eop"e $# Gri''in (1&52) 2$0 Cal.App.2n, $3$- $$0.) *Ee ha.e ,istinguishe, bet0een those in"or(ants 0ho Aare o"ten cri(inally ,ispose, or i(plicate,- an, supply their *tips/ . . . in secret- an, "or pecuniary or other personal gain an, .icti(s or chance 0itnesses o" cri(e 0ho A.olunteer their in"or(ation "ortuitously- openly- an, through (oti.es o" goo, citi;enship. 6Citation.9 !. an, J. (Cu.enile .icti(s in this case) neither conceale, their i,entity to shiel, the(sel.es "ro( liability "or "alse state(ents nor o""ere, in"or(ation "or any ulterior or pecuniary (oti.e. . . . +he trial court correctly ,ee(e, the chil,ren presu(pti.ely reliable./ (0umphre& $# Appe""ate Di$ision o' the Superior Court (2002) 2& Cal.3th $5&$25.) Gut see Gi""an $s# Cit& o' San %arino (2002) 132 Cal.App.3th 1033- 103$: 0here the allege, .icti( o" a cri(e 0as hel, to be not cre,ible- but then cites the general rule) *+ypically- in"or(ation "ro( a .icti( or a 0itness to a cri(e- *absent so(e circu(stance that 0oul, cast ,oubt upon their in"or(ation-/ is enough to establish probable cause. Such a .icti( or 0itness is generally consi,ere, to be reliable. *1n"or(ation pro.i,e, by a cri(e .icti( or chance 0itness alone can establish probable cause i" the 332
in"or(ation is su""iciently speci"ic to cause a reasonable person to belie.e that a cri(e 0as co((itte, an, that the na(e, suspect 0as the perpetrator. 6Citation.9 AJeither a pre.ious ,e(onstration o" reliability nor subse@uent corroboration is or,inarily necessary 0hen 0itnesses to or .icti(s o" cri(inal acti.ities report their obser.ations in ,etail to the authorities. 6Citation9/ +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal ,isagrees) *1n establishing probable cause- o""icers (ay not solely rely on the clai( o" a citi;en 0itness that 6s9he 0as a .icti( o" a cri(e- but (ust in,epen,ently in.estigate the basis o" the 0itness s Fno0le,ge or inter.ie0 other 0itnesses./ (&itations omitted: 0op(ins $# on$icino (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 2$2- 252.) +he i,entity o" the citi;en in"or(ant nee, not al0ays be ,isclose,but su""icient "acts "or the (agistrate to conclu,e that the in"or(ant ,oes so @uali"y as a citi;en in"or(ant (ust be (a,e a.ailable. ()eop"e $# 2om.era (1&#&) 210 Cal.App.3r, 2&- 32.) So(e in.ol.e(ent 0ith cri(inal acti.ity ,oes not preclu,e one "ro( being classi"ie, as a *citizen informant./ ()eop"e $# Schu""e (1&2$) $1 Cal.App.3r, #0&.) Gut the in"or(ant s moti!ation "or pro.i,ing the in"or(ation (ust be e?a(ine,. 1n"or(ation that initially ca(e to police "ro( an anony(ous in"or(ant 0as ,ee(e, to be reliable 0hen the in"or(ant 0as contacte, an, rea,ily a,(itte, being the source o" the anony(ous in"or(ation. !nce contacte, by la0 en"orce(ent- he pro.i,e, in"or(ation 0ithout hesitation- e?pecting nothing in return. As such- he 0as a *citizen informant/ e.en a"ter changing his story about ho0 he ca(e to Fno0 so(e o" the in"or(ation. 1n"or(ation "ro( a citi;en in"or(antas oppose, to an in"or(ant 0ho is looFing "or so(e re0ar, o" bene"it "or hi(sel"- an, 0hich is pro.i,e, out o" apparent goo, citi;enship- is presu(e, to be reliable. ()eop"e $# Scott (2011) $2 Cal.3th 3$2- 32$%325.) Reliable (*Tested/) 'nformants) 1n"or(ants 0ho pro.i,e in"or(ation 0ith the e?pectation o" so(e "a.or or personal gain "ro( la0 en"orce(ent in return- 0hen heNshe is Fno0n to ha.e pro.i,e, la0 en"orce(ent 0ith truth"ul in"or(ation concerning cri(inal acti.ity in the past. +he presu(ption is- absent so(e reason to ,isbelie.e hi(- that such an in"or(ant is reliable. (See )eop"e $# )re,itt (1&$&) $2 Cal.2n, 330- 333%332: )eop"e $# %et51er (1&21) 22 Cal.App.3r, 33#
33#- 33$: )eop"e $# Dumas (1&23) & Cal.3r, #21: )eop"e $# %cFadin (1&#2) 122 Cal.App.3r, 2$1.) Such an in"or(ant co((only has a cri(inal recor,- pen,ing cri(inal case- an,Nor so(e present in.ol.e(ent in cri(inal acti.ity. +he e?pecte, "a.or or personal gain is so(eti(es re"erre, to as a *benefit./ A *benefit/ is ,e"ine, as *any consi,eration or a,.antage the in"or(ant 0as o""ere,- pro(ise,- or recei.e, in e?change "or the in"or(ation pro.i,e,./ Such a bene"it inclu,esbut is not necessarily li(ite, to) Oonetary pay(ents o" any Fin,- inclu,ing- but not li(ite, to- (oney- roo( an, boar,- or use o" an auto(obile. 7eniency sho0n in arrest or booFing- re@uesting appropriate bail- or contesting the source o" the bail per (!C! 121). 7eniency sho0n in "iling appropriate charges or enhance(ents. Delay in arraign(ent or other court ,ates. Re,uction o" charges- perio, o" custo,y or other con,ition o" probation or sentence- inclu,ing "a.orable input by a prosecutor or la0 en"orce(ent o""icer. Relocation o" the in"or(ant or the in"or(ant s "a(ily. 4se i((unity or transactional i((unity- "or(al or in"or(al. Ba.orable action 0ith other go.ern(ental agencies- ci.il courts- or pri.ate interests (such as e(ployers). ( ource) San Diego District Attorney *&ooperating 'ndi!idual and 'mmunity/ Oanual- 1&&2- Chapter 1- p. 3.) Such a person has a pro.en tracF recor, o" gi.ing reliable in"or(ation in the past. A single prior inci,ent (ay establish reliability (See )eop"e $# Gra& (1&25) 53 Cal.App.3r, 2#2- 2##.)although in such a case- so(e corroboration o" the in"or(ant s in"or(ation (ay be necessary. 33&
Ia.ing gi.en so(e ba, in"or(ation in the past ,oes not necessarily ,is@uali"y an in"or(ant "ro( being labele, *reliable./ ()eop"e $# ar1er (1&23) 30 Cal.App.3r, 552: )eop"e $# %urph& (1&23) 32 Cal.App.3r, #1.) Io0e.er- "acts sho0ing 0hy in this case the in"or(ant is to be belie.e, (ay be necessary- or other corroboration o" hisNher in"or(ation. +ote) 'n practice- la0 en"orce(ent (ost o"ten seeFs to corroborate e.en a reliable in"or(ant s in"or(ation Cust becausebeing (oti.ate, by personal gain- such a person s cre,ibility is al(ost al0ays so(ething that shoul, be substantiate, be"ore acting upon his or her in"or(ation. #nreliable (*#ntested/) 'nformants) A person 0ho pro.i,es in"or(ation 0ith the e?pectation o" recei.ing so(e "a.or or personal gain in return (i.e.- a *benefit/)- but either 0ithout the prior tracF recor, o" ha.ing gi.en truth"ul in"or(ation- has pro.i,e, untruth"ul in"or(ation in the past- or as o" yet- has not been use, be"ore as an in"or(ant. 1n"or(ation "ro( an unteste, or unreliable in"or(ant is not presu(e, to be cre,ible in the absence o" corroborating in"or(ation. Such an in,i.i,ual (ust be corroborate, be"ore heNshe can be use, to establish probable cause. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6*ohnson7 (1&22) 5 Cal.3r, 203- 212: )eop"e $# 2o$e (1&#$) 15# Cal.App.3r, 103.) Io0e.er- it has been hel, that t0o unteste, in"or(ants- acting in,epen,ently- (ay be su""icient to corroborate each other. ()eop"e $# a"ass& (1&23) 30 Cal.App.3r, 513- 521.) Howe!er- a search 0arrant a""i,a.it 0as hel, to be insu""icient to establish probable cause e.en though the a""iant ,epen,e, on three in"or(ants. 1n"or(ation "ro( each o" the in"or(ants 0as "oun, to be conclusory onlyan, corroborate, each other only as to *pe,estrian "acts/ regar,ing ,e"en,ant s resi,ence an, .ehicle. ()eop"e $# French (2011) 201 Cal.App.3th 1302- 1321%1323.) See *&orroboration-/ belo0- un,er **nonymous 'nformants./ 4se o" an in"or(ant as a prosecution 0itness 0ho Fno0ingly pro.i,es perCure, testi(ony (ay- i" (aterial- be a Fifth an, Fourteenth Amendment *,ue process/ .iolation an, result in a re.ersal o" a ,e"en,ant s con.iction. (%a!,e"" $# Roe (&th Cir. 2010) 52# B.3r, 3#5.) 330
*nonymous 'nformants) !ne 0ho pro.i,es in"or(ation to la0 en"orce(ent (o"ten .ia a telephone call) 0hile re"using to i,enti"y hi( or hersel". Gecause it is i(possible to ,eter(ine the (oti.ations or cre,ibility o" an anony(ous in"or(ant- such in"or(ation is not consi,ere, reliable by itsel". (-i"son $# Superior Court (1&$5) 35 Cal.2n, 2&1- 2&3.) Anony(ous in"or(ation ,oes not e.en establish a *reasonable suspicion/ o" cri(inal acti.ity (A"a.ama $# -hite (1&&0) 3&5 4.S. 32$- 331 6110 7.8,.2n, 301- 30&: F"orida $# *#2# (2000) $2& 4.S. 255 6135 7.8,.2n, 2$39: United States $# %ora"es (&th Cir. 2001) 2$2 B.3r, 1020.) unless corroborate, by the circu(stances. ()eop"e $# Ramire5 (1&&5) 31 Cal.App.3th 150#.) Anony(ous in"or(ation "ro( at least t0o separate sources (ight,epen,ing upon the circu(stances- establish probable cause. ()eop"e $# Cou"om.e (2001) #5 Cal.App.3th $2.) &orroboration) *Gecause un.eri"ie, in"or(ation "ro( an unteste, or unreliable in"or(ant is or,inarily unreliable- it ,oes not establish probable cause unless it is Acorroborate, in essential respects by other "acts- sources or circu(stances. 6Citations.9 Bor corroboration to be a,e@uate- it (ust pertain to the allege, cri(inal acti.ity: accuracy o" in"or(ation regar,ing the suspect generally is insu""icient. 6Citation.9 Courts taFe a ,i( .ie0 o" the signi"icance o" Ape,estrian "acts such as a suspect s physical ,escription- his resi,ence an, his .ehicles. 6Citation.9 Io0e.er- the corroboration is su""icient i" police in.estigation has unco.ere, probati.e in,ications o" cri(inal acti.ity along the lines suggeste, by the in"or(ant. 6Citation.9 8.en obser.ations o" see(ingly innocent acti.ity pro.i,e su""icient corroboration i" the anony(ous tip casts the acti.ity in a suspicious light. 6Citations.9/ ()eop"e $# *ohnson (1&&0) 220 Cal.App.3r, 232- 23&: )eop"e $# Got'ried (2003) 102 Cal.App.3th 2$3.) Corroboration co(es in (any "or(s. Bor e?a(ple) 1n a narcotics case- using the in"or(ant- a ,i""erent in"or(ant- or an un,erco.er la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- to atte(pt to (aFe a purchase o" narcotics 0hile un,er strict sur.eillance (i.e.- a *controlled buy/)- is a co((on (etho, o" corroborating the in"or(ant s in"or(ation. 331
Sur.eillance- recor,s checFs- an, other "or(s o" (ore tra,itional in.estigati.e 0orF help to corroborate an in"or(ant s in"or(ation. State(ents "ro( an in"or(ant 0hich are *against the in"or(ant s o0n Apenal interest (i.e.- potentially subCecting the in"or(ant to cri(inal liability)/ (ay be su""icient corroboration. ()eop"e $# %ardian (1&2$) 32 Cal.App.3r, 15- 33: %in1 $# Superior Court (1&20) 13 Cal.App.3r, 205213: United States $# Todhunter (&th Cir. 2002) 2&2 B.3r, ##5- #&0.) Anony(ous in"or(ation corroborate, by accurately pre,icting a suspect s "uture beha.ior (ay itsel" also establish probable cause. (See I""inois $# Gates (1&#3) 352 4.S. 213 625 7.8,.2n, $229.) ee also: **nonymous 'nformation-/ un,er *Detentions-/ abo.e. &onfidential 'nformants) Problem) Ehether classi"ie, as a *&itizen 'nformant-/ a *Tested 'nformant-/ or an *#ntested 'nformant-/ la0 en"orce(ent (ay seeF to Feep the in"or(ant s i,entity con"i,ential. +his is typically necessitate, by the ,anger inherent in the practice o" in"or(ing on cri(inal suspects. Rule) An in"or(ant s i,entity- i" the in"or(ant is use, properly an, 0hen the case is charge, appropriately (i.e.- charging o""enses to 0hich the in"or(ant is not a percipient 0itness- only)- (ay o"ten be Fept con"i,ential. (See ?!C! 1341- 1342+4,- +c, an, +d,) *1t is 0ell settle, that Cali"ornia ,oes not re@uire ,isclosure o" the i,entity o" an in"or(ant 0ho has supplie, probable cause "or the issuance o" a search 0arrant 0here ,isclosure is sought (erely to ai, in attacFing probable cause./ (Theodore $# Superior Court (1&22) # Cal.3r, 22- ##.) Restrictions) 1t is only 0hen the court ,eter(ines that there is a *reasonable possibility/ that the in"or(ant can gi.e e.i,ence on the issue o" guilt 0hich (ight result in ,e"en,ant s e?onerationthat the in"or(ant s i,entity 0ill ha.e to be re.eale,. (0onore $# Superior Court (1&5&) 20 Cal.2n, 152- 15#.) Re!ealing the 'nformant)s 'dentity) 1n practice- an in"or(ant s i,entity 0ill ha.e to be re.eale, only) 332
Ehen he or she 0as an eye0itness to (i.e.- a *percipient witness/)- or an actual participant in- the cri(e or cri(es charge,: or Ehen he or she (ight other0ise be able to pro.i,e e.i,ence "a.orable to the ,e"en,ant. ()eop"e $# Go"ida& (1&53) # Cal.3r, 221- 22#%22&.) Oerely because an in"or(ant 0as a percipient 0itness ,oes not (ean that his i,entity (ust be re.eale,. Gut an in ca(era hearing (ust be hel, in or,er to ,eter(ine 0hether the in"or(ant is a (aterial to ,e"en,ant s innocence. (Da$is $# Superior Court 6)eop"e7 (2010) 1#5 Cal.App.3th 1222- 1225%122#.) Procedure) 1n or,er to a.oi, ha.ing to re.eal an in"or(ant s i,entity- 0e use his or her in"or(ation only to establish probable cause. A search 0arrant is issue, base, upon that probable cause. +hen- the suspect is charge, only 0ith the o""enses re.eale, upon the search an,Nor arrest o" the suspect: (atters to 0hich the in"or(ant is not a 0itness. ,otions to Re!eal the 'dentity of an 'nformant) 1t is the bur,en on the ,e"en,ant to (aFe a su""icient sho0ing that the unna(e, in"or(er ,oes in "act ha.e in"or(ation 0hich 0oul, be (aterial to the ,e"en,ant s innocence. ()rice $# Superior Court (1&20) 1 Cal.3r, #35- #33: Da$is $# Superior Court 6)eop"e7 (2010) 1#5 Cal.App.3th 1222- 1225.) 1n or,er to ,ischarge his bur,en o" pro.ing the in"or(ant is a (aterial 0itness- the ,e"en,ant nee, not sho0 0hat the in"or(ant 0oul, testi"y to- nor e.en that the in"or(er coul, gi.e testi(ony "a.orable to hi(. ()rice $# Superior Court- supra.) Io0e.er- bare speculation or unsupporte, conclusions that the in"or(ant is a *material witness/ are insu""icient to ,ischarge a ,e"en,ant s bur,en. +he ,e"en,ant (ust pro,uce e.i,ence or a 333
,eclaration articulating the theory o" his ,e"ense or ,e(onstrating in 0hat (anner he 0oul, be bene"ite, by ,isclosure o" the in"or(ant s na(e. ()eop"e $# %cCo& (1&20) 13 Cal.App.3r, 5- 12%13: )eop"e $# Thomas (1&20) 12 Cal.App.3r, 11021112%1113.) A ,e"ense attorney s a""i,a.it *on information and belief/ is- as a (atter o" la0- an insu""icient "actual sho0ing- an, is there"ore not su""icient Custi"ication "or ,i.ulging an in"or(ant s i,entity. ()eop"e $# Oppe" (1&&0) 222 Cal.App.3r, 113511$3.) Ehen the in"or(ant *(erely pointe, the "inger o" suspicion at the ,e"en,ant-/ ,isclosure o" the in"or(ant s i,entity is not re@uire,. ()eop"e $# -i"(s (1&2#) 21 Cal.3r, 350- 35&: )eop"e $# %cCo&supraat p. 13.) *2utten.er1er/ ,otions) 4pon a *substantial preliminary showing/ o" the nee, "or ,isco.ery (a,e by the ,e"ense- the court (ay or,er that the prosecution pro.i,e recor,s an, other bacFgroun, in"or(ation concerning a con"i,ential in"or(ant. ()eop"e $# 2utten.er1er (1&&0) $0 Cal.3r, 1.) Io0e.erin or,er to Custi"y an in ca(era hearing on this issue- at 0hich the court (ust re.ie0 the in"or(ant s history an, other rele.ant in"or(ation relate, to cre,ibility- the ,e"en,ant nee, only raise a *reasonable doubt/ concerning the in"or(ant s .eracity. ()eop"e $# Estrada (2003) 10$ Cal.App.3th 2#3.) 1"- a"ter such an in ca(era re.ie0- the court "in,s the necessary *substantial preliminary showing/ o" in"or(ation that ten,s to contra,ict (aterial representations (a,e in the a""i,a.it- or constitutes (aterial o(issions "ro( it- the court shoul, then or,er the ,isclosure o" the ,ocu(ents to the ,e"en,ant. Gase, upon this in"or(ation- a *Fran(s hearing- per Fran(s $# De"a,are (1&2#) 33# 4.S. 333
1$3 6$2 7.8,.2n, 5529- (ay be appropriate. (See abo.e.) +ote) +he purpose is to challenge the reliability o" the in"or(ation obtaine, "ro( a con"i,ential in"or(ant0ithout necessarily re.ealing the in"or(ant s i,entity. 1" the ,e"ense can (eet its bur,en o" sho0ing so(e nee, "or the in"or(ation an, so(e proo" that there is so(ething o" so(e substance in e?istence (beyon, (erely speculating that so(e a,.erse in"or(ation e?ists)- the court shoul, inspect the ,ocu(ents in ca(era- ,eleting any re"erence to the in"or(ant s i,entity be"ore pro.i,ing the in"or(ation to the ,e"ense. ()eop"e $# 2utten.er1er- supra.) +he ,anger is in insuring that the court ,oes not ina,.ertently gi.e a0ay too (uch in"or(ationa""or,ing the ,e"ense the opportunity to "igure out 0ho the in"or(ant is. *n 'nformant worn $efore a ,agistrate9 a *S(e"ton =arrant)/ 1" an in"or(ant can gi.e a *factual/ (as oppose, to a *conclusory/) ,escription o" so(e on%going cri(inal acti.ity- but ,oes not "it 0ithin any o" the prece,ing categories o" reliable in"or(ants- an, his in"or(ation cannot be corroborate,- he (ay ne.ertheless be ,ee(e, reliable i" he personally testi"ies an, s0ears to the truth o" his in"or(ation be"ore the issuing (agistrate. (S(e"ton $# Superior Court (1&5&) 1 Cal.3r, 133.) So(eti(es re"erre, to as a *S(e"ton warrant,/ 0here the (agistrate is allo0e, to obser.e the in"or(ant s ,e(eanor an, appearance- the (agistrate can e.aluate his cre,ibility Cust as 0ith any other 0itness. +he in"or(ant s transcribe, testi(ony (an, the tape o" that testi(ony) be"ore the (agistrate beco(es the search 0arrant a""i,a.it. )#C# B 1111#GE In3Custod& In'ormants: Jeither a Cury nor or a Cu,ge (ay con.ict a ,e"en,ant- "in, a special circu(stance true- nor use a "act in aggra.ation- base, on the uncorroborate, testi(ony o" an in6custody informant. )ro.a."e Cause Issues: 33$
*nonymous information- 0here su""iciently corroborate, by accurately pre,icting a suspect s "uture beha.ior- (ay establish probable cause su""icient to obtain a search 0arrant. (I""inois $# Gates (1&#3) 352 4.S. 213 625 7.8,.2n, $229.) See **nonymous 'nformation-/ un,er *Detentions-/ abo.e. earches of a Residence) tolen Property) Ehen property has been stolen by a ,e"en,ant an, has not yet been reco.ere,- a "air probability e?ists that the property 0ill be "oun, at the ,e"en,ant s ho(e. A (agistrate can reasonably conclu,e that a suspect s resi,ence is a logical place to looF "or speci"ic incri(inating ite(s 0here there e?ists probable cause to belie.e that the ,e"en,ant stole the(. ()eop"e $# Carrin1ton (200&) 32 Cal.3th 13$- 151%153.) The C"e"and =arrant9 +arcotics) Arrest o" a person "or selling narcotics- or in the possession o" narcotics "or purposes o" saleplus an e?perience, narcotics o""icer s e?pert opinion- has been hel, to be probable cause to belie.e he has e.i,ence o" this illegal acti.ity in his home. ()eop"e $# C"e"and (1&&0) 22$ Cal.App.3r, 3##- 3&2%3&3: )eop"e $# Aho (1&#$) 155 Cal.App.3r, &#3- &&1%&&3: )eop"e $# *ohnson (1&21) 21 Cal.App.3r, 23$- 232%235: United States $# )itts (&th Cir. 1&&3) 5 B.3r, 1355- 135&: United States $# Terr& (&th Cir. 1&&0) &11 B.2n, 222.) Probable cause 0as "oun, to belie.e ,e"en,ant 0as a narcotics seller s source o" supply an, that he 0oul, ha.e e.i,ence o" his cri(es in his apart(ent 0here the ,e"en,ant 0as at the scene ,uring- or shortly be"ore- three separate narcotics transactions an, he 0as "ollo0e, to his apart(ent as he use, *countersur!eillance (,ri.ing) techni@ues/ on one occasion. (United States $# Cha$e53 %iranda (&th Cir. 2002) 305 B.3r, &23.) $ut) Ehile such circu(stances pro.i,e the necessary probable cause to satis"y the Fourth Amendment search purposes- they ,o not pro.i,e an e?igent circu(stance e?cusing the lacF o" a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# /och (1&#&) 20& Cal.App.3r, 220- 22#% 2#1.)
335
Also- simple possession o" a controlle, substance0ithout in,ications that the ,e"en,ant is a ,rug ,ealer- 0ill not liFely be su""icient to Custi"y a search 0arrant "or the ,e"en,ant s ho(e- ,espite an e?pert o""icer s opinion to the contrary. ()eop"e $# )resse& (2002) 102 Cal.App.3th 112#.) *nd- Fno0ing that a person is selling contraban, from a business- 0hen the seller is not an e(ployee or o0ner o" the business- does notby itsel"establish probable cause to belie.e that (ore contraban, 0ill be "oun, in the business. ()eop"e $# Garcia (2003) 111 Cal.App.3th 21$.) Trashcan earches) Bresh (ariCuana ste( an, lea" cuttings "oun, in a trashcan in "ront o" a resi,ence establishes probable cause Custi"ying the issuance o" a search 0arrant "or the resi,ence. ()eop"e $# Thuss (2003) 102 Cal.App.3th 221.) &omputer earches) Probable cause supporting the issuance o" a search 0arrant (ay be base, entirely upon circu(stantial e.i,ence together 0ith reasonable in"erences there "ro(. Receipt o" chil, pornography in nu(erous (e.g.- nine) e%(ails "ro( .arious sources (e.g.- t0o) to .arious screen na(es (e.g.- t0o) supports an in"erence o" Fno0ing possession o" that pornography. (United States $# /e""e& (&th Cir. 2002) 3#2 B.3r, 1032.) A properly @uali"ie, e?pert o""icer s opinion- connecting co((on characteristics o" a chil, (olester 0ith Fno0n "acts relate, to a chil, (olest an, the (olester s act o" hi,ing his co(puterestablishes probable cause supporting a search 0arrant "or that co(puter. ()eop"e $# Nicho""s (200#) 1$& Cal.App.3th 203.) Ehere a search 0arrant speci"ies certain ,ocu(ents to be sei;e,an, a co(puter is "oun, un,er circu(stances 0here it is reasonable to belie.e that the co(puter has been use, to generate those ,ocu(ents or other0ise contain the in"or(ation "ro( 0hich the ,ocu(ents ca(e- then the co(puter (ay be sei;e, (an, probably searche,) e.en though not (entione, in the search 0arrant. (United States $# Gi.erson (&th Cir. 200#) $22 B.3r, ##2##5%##&.) +rouble, by the 0holesale sei;ure o" co(puteri;e, in"or(ation o" a pri.ate business Feeping (e,ical in"or(ation- 0here the 332
go.ern(ent case agent peruse, the sei;e, co(puter "iles an, "oun, incri(inating in"or(ation relate, to (any other in,i.i,uals "or 0ho( there 0as no probable cause- "i.e Custices o" an en banc panel o" the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has propose, 0ai.ing the *plain .ie0/ ,octrine in such cases as a con,ition o" issuing such a search 0arrant. (United States $# Comprehensi$e Dru1 Testin1, Inc# (9th Cir. 2010) (&th Cir. 200&) 521 B.3r, 1152- 11785
11802 incor(oratin. the facts as described at %1/ 1./rd 108%.)
A signal photograph o" a nu,e (inor ("e(ale chil, 0ho is bet0een # an, 10 years ol,)- by itsel"- is insu""icient to establish probable cause "or a search 0arrant. Gut a secon, such photo- un,er the *totality o" the circu(stances-/ is enough. (United States $# attershe"" (&th Cir. 2005) 3$2 B.3r, 103#.) Howe!er- a single photograph o" a nu,e (inor ("e(ale o" about 1$ to 12 years o" age)- 0hen co(bine, 0ith other suspicious circu(stances (e.g.- 1$ co(puters in house "oun, in co(plete ,isarray- 0ith t0o (inors not belonging to the ,e"en,ant- 0here the ,e"en,ant a ci.ilian- is staying in (ilitary housing)- may enough to Custi"y the issuance o" a search 0arrant. (United States $# /rupa (&th Cir. 2011) 5$# B.3r, 1123- 1122%112&: but see ,issentpp. 11#0%11#$.) An 1nternet subscriber has no e?pectation o" pri.acy in the subscriber in"or(ation he supplies to his 1nternet pro.i,er. ()eop"e $# Stipo (2011) 1&$ Cal.App.3th 553- 55#%55&.) See )eop"e $# Ran1e" (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 1310- 1315- liFening ,e"en,ant s *s(artphone/ to a co(putergi.en its capability to store photographs- e%(ail a,,resses- an, other personal in"or(ation. See * earches of &ontainers-/ belo0. Use o' a Search -arrant: Rule) +he use o" a search warrant as a prere@uisite to a la0"ul search is a constitutional re@uire(ent- pursuant to the Fourth Amendment. +he Fourth Amendment prohibits all unreasonable searches and seizures- an, it is a car,inal principle that *searches con,ucte, outsi,e the Cu,icial process- 0ithout prior appro.al by Cu,ge or (agistrate- are per se unreasonable un,er the Fourth Amendment PsubCect only to a "e0 speci"ically establishe, an, 0ell%,elineate, 33#
e?ceptions./ (/at5 $# United States (1&52) 3#& 4.S. 332- 3$2 61& 7.8,.2n, $25- $#$9.) *8.i,ence 0hich is obtaine, as a ,irect result o" an illegal search an, sei;ure (ay not be use, to establish probable cause "or a subse@uent search./ (United States $# -an"ess (&th Cir. 1&#&) ##2 B.2n, 12$&- 135$.) +his inclu,es *!erbal e!idence-/ (i.e.- a suspect s a,(issions or con"ession)- as 0ell as physical e.i,ence- 0hen obtaine, as a ,irect pro,uct o" an illegal ,etention- arrest or search. (See United States $# Cre,s (&th Cir. 2002) $02 B.3r, 1130- 113$.) Exceptions) +here are a li(ite, nu(ber o" such *well6delineated exceptions/ to the general rule- ho0e.er. Bor instance) *Exigent &ircumstances/ e?cuse the absence o" a search 0arrantat least up until 0hen the *exigency/ no longer e?ists. ()eop"e $# aci1a"upo (1&&1) 1 Cal.3th 103- 122%123.) *Exigent &ircumstances)/ Any instance 0here the o""icers ha.e no opportunity to obtain a 0arrant 0ithout risFing the loss or ,estruction o" e.i,ence- the "leeing o" suspects- or the ar(ing o" a suspect. (See )eop"e $# Seaton (2001) 25 Cal.3th $&#.) See *Exigent &ircumstances-/ abo.e. *&onsent)/ A *consent/ to search e?cuses the absence o" a search 0arrant- or e.en probable cause. (F"orida $# ostic( (1&&1) $01 4.S. 32& 611$ 7.8,.2n, 3#&9.) Such consent- ho0e.er- (ust be "reely an, .oluntarily obtaine,. ( umper $# North Caro"ina (1&5#) 3&1 4.S. $33- $3# 620 7.8,.2n, 2&2- #029.) See *&onsent-/ belo0. *'ne!itable Disco!ery)/ +he e""ects o" an other0ise illegal 0arrantless search (i.e.suppression o" the resulting e.i,ence) (ay be o""set in those instances 0here the e.i,ence 0oul, ha.e *ine!itably/ been "oun, any0ay through so(e source in,epen,ent o" the illegal search. (Ni! $# -i""iams (1&#3) 352 4.S. 33133&
333 6#1 7.8,.2n, 322- 3#29: )eop"e $# o&er (2005) 3# Cal.3th 312- 332%3$3.) Io0e.er- the *ine!itable disco!ery/ ,octrine ,oes not apply Cust because a search 0arrant coul, ha.e been obtaine, ha, the searching o""icers asFe, "or one. +his argu(ent 0oul, negate the nee, to e.er seeF a 0arrante""ecti.ely repealing the Fourth Amendment. ()eop"e $# Ro."es (1&&#) 53 Cal.App.3th 12#5.) +he "act that the e.i,ence 0oul, ha.e ine.itably been ,isco.ere, any0ay (ust be establishe, by the People by *a prepon,erance o" the e.i,ence./ (United States $# Youn1 (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 211- 221%223: 0here it 0as not sho0n that the hotel 0here its e(ployees ,isco.ere, the ,e"en,ant s "irear( 0oul, not ha.e (erely store, the 0eapon an, return it to ,e"en,antas accor,ing to its policy. 6See also the ,issentpp. 223%22&- arguing that the ine.itable ,isco.ery rule applie,9.) 8.i,ence lying un,er the ,ecease, 0oul, ha.e ine.itably been "oun, an, gi.en to the police 0hen the Coroner s in.estigator tooF charge o" the bo,y an, (o.e, it. (()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Chapman7 (2012) 203 Cal.App.3th 1003- 1021%1022: +he Coroner (ay ,eli.er any property or e.i,ence relate, to the in.estigation or prosecution o" a cri(e to the la0 en"orce(ent agency or ,istrict attorney. (9o:t! Code 214"1!3+4,) * earches of Vehicles)/ Probable cause to belie.e that a la0"ully stoppe, .ehicle contains contraban, Custi"ies a 0arrantless search o" the .ehicle- inclu,ing the trunF- ,espite the absence o" a,,itional e?igent circu(stances. ()eop"e $# Cha$ers (1&#3) 33 Cal.3r, 352: )eop"e $# Superior Court 69a"de57 (1&#3) 3$ Cal.3r, 11: )eop"e $# 9are"a (1&#$) 122 Cal.App.3r, 2$2.) +he search (ay be as broa, as coul, ha.e been authori;e, by a search 0arrant- inclu,ing any close, containers 0ithin the .ehicle. (United States $# Ross (1&#2) 3$5 4.S. 2&# 622 7.8,.2n, $229: Ca"i'ornia $# Ace$edo (1&&1) $00 4.S. $5$ 6113 7.8,.2n, 51&9: )eop"e $# Cha$erssupra.) See * earches of Vehicles-/ belo0. 3$0
* earches of Persons with Probable &ause)/ A person (ay be searche, 0ithout a 0arrant any ti(e the o""icer has *probable cause/ to belie.e the person (ay ha.e contraban, or other sei;able property on hi(. ()eop"e $# Co"eman (1&&1) 22& Cal.App.3r, 321.) See * earches of Persons-/ belo0.
* earches 'ncident to *rrest)/ An arrestee- an, the area 0ithin his i((e,iate reach 0hen arreste, (i.e.- the *lunging area/)- is subCect to a 0arrantless search- so long as ,one conte(poraneously in ti(e an, place 0ith the arrest. (Chime" $# Ca"i'ornia (1&5&) 3&$ 4.S. 2$2 623 7.8,.2n, 5#$9: United States $# Ro.inson (1&23) 313 4.S. 21# 63# 7.8,.2n, 3229: )eop"e $# Sanche5 (1&#$) 123 Cal.App.3r, 333: )eop"e $# Dennis (1&#$) 122 Cal.App.3r, 2#2: )eop"e $# Summers (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 2##.) Ehen arreste, in or at a .ehicle (Ne, Yor( $# e"ton (1&#1) 3$3 4.S. 3$3 65& 7.8,.2n, 25#9: )eop"e $# Sto''"e (1&&2) 1 Cal.App.3th 1521.)- or as a *recent occupant/ o" a .ehicle (Thornton $# United States (2003) $31 4.S. 51$ 61$# 7.8,.2n, &0$9: United States $# Osi'e (&th Cir. 200$) 3&# B.3r, 1133)- the entire passenger area o" the .ehicle (ay nor(ally be searche, 0ithout a 0arrant. Io0e.er- see Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9- se.erely li(iting the ability to con,uct a search inci,ent to arrest in a .ehicle"in,ing e"ton to be inapplicable in the situation 0here the arrestee has alrea,y been re(o.e, "ro( the .ehicle an, secure,- thus negating any reasonable possibility that the arrestee coul, reach "or a 0eapon or ,estroy e.i,ence in the .ehicle. See * earches 'ncident to *rrest-/ un,er * earches of Persons-/ belo0.
**dministrati!eJRegulatory earches)/ *Per!asi!ely/ or H&losely Regulated $usinesses)/ +he courts ha.e in,icate, that a 0arrant is not necessary in 3$1
those cases 0here the place to be searche, is co((ercial property- an, the in,ustry in.ol.e, is one that is so *per!asi!ely regulated/ or *closely regulated/ that 0arrantless inspections are necessary to insure proper- or legal- business practices. (Dono$an $# De,e& (1&#1) 3$2 4S. $&3- $&#%$&& 65& 7.8,.2n, 252- 25#%15&9: Ne, Yor( $# ur1er (1&#2) 3#2 4.S. 5&1- 200 6&5 7.8,.2n, 501- 512% 5139: )eop"e $# )au"son (1&&0) 215 Cal.App.3r, 13#013#3%13#3.) See **dministrati!eJRegulatory earches-/ belo0. &rime cene earches) Lenerally- once any e?igencies no longer Custi"y an i((e,iate entry- entering or re%entering a buil,ing to in.estigate a cri(inal o""ense- or e.en to continue a search alrea,y begun ,ue to e?igent circu(stances that e?iste, upon the initial entry- re@uires a search 0arrant. Bor e?a(ple) Our,er Scene) %ince& $# Ari5ona (1&2#) 332 4.S. 3#$ 6$2 7.8,.2n, 2&09: F"ippo $# -est 9ir1inia (1&&&) $2# 4.S. 11 613$ 7.8,.2n, 159.) Arson Scene) %ichi1an $# T&"er (1&2#) 335 4.S. 3&& 6$5 7.8,.2n, 3#59.) $an? Records) Pursuant to Cali"ornia s Right to Pri.acy Act (9o:.t! Code 1423<14"3)- there are si? (5) la0"ul (etho,s o" obtaining a cri(inal suspect s banF recor,s) Custo(er Authori;ation) (9o:.t! Code 1413)) +he authori;ation (ust be in 0riting. Recor,s sought (ust be .ery speci"ically i,enti"ie,. Oust inclu,e a phrase in"or(ing the custo(er that heNshe has a right to 0ith,ra0 consent. A,(inistrati.e Subpoena or Su((ons (9o:.t! Code 1414)) Re@uires notice to the custo(er an, the banF. Custo(er has ten ,ays to (o.e to @uash the subpoena. Search Earrant (9o:.t! Code 141)))
3$2
+he custo(er 0ill be noti"ie, by the banF unless the search 0arrant contains an or,er that notice be ,elaye,. +he re@uest to ,e"er notice to the custo(er (ust be Custi"ie, in the a""i,a.it on the groun,s that noti"ication 0oul, i(pe,e the in.estigation- an, the court "in,s this to be *good cause./ +he nor(al ten%,ay perio, "or ser.ice an, return o" the 0arrant (ay be e?ten,e, i" the banF cannot reasonably (aFe the recor,s a.ailable 0ithin ten ,ays. A search 0arrant "or banF recor,s 0as hel, to be .ali, in )eop"e $# %e&er (1&#5) 1#3 Cal.App.3r, 11$0.) Ju,icial Subpoena or Subpoena Duces +ecu( (9o:.t! Code 1412)) Jotice (ust be gi.en to the custo(er in (ost situations. Oay be use, in JSB (i.e.- *non6sufficient funds/ cases). (See 9o:.t! Code 1412+c,) Police Re@uest (9o:.t! Code 14#3)) Oay obtain certain types o" "inancial in"or(ation (e.g.,ishonore, checFs an, o.er,ra"ts) upon certi"ication to the "inancial institution- in 0riting- that the checFs 0ere use, "rau,ulently. (9o:.t! Code 14#3+4,) +he section pro.i,es "or a state(ent o" account an, other recor,s "or 30 ,ays be"ore an, a"ter the allege, illegal act.) Such in"or(ation (ay also be pro.i,e, by the banF to a county a,ult protecti.e ser.ices o""ice or to a long%ter( care o(bu,s(an. Oay also recei.e- upon re@uest- in"or(ation as to 0hether a person has an account an, the account nu(ber. (9o:.t! Code 14#3+c,) Uicti(i;e, Binancial 1nstitution turns o.er Recor,s (9o:.t! Code 1413+d,)) Ehen the banF is the .icti( o" a cri(e co((itte, by a custo(er- it (ay la0"ully turn o.er the custo(er s banF recor,s 0ithout the nee, o" a court or,er. ()eop"e $# 3$3
Nos"er (1&#3) 1$1 Cal.App.3r, 12$: )eop"e $# Nece (1&#3) 150 Cal.App.3r, 2#$.) +ote) +he abo.e liste, re@uire(ents an, pro.isions are not e?clusi.e. +he re"erence, 9o:ernment Code sections (ust be consulte,. (See also urro,s $# Superior Court (1&23) 13 Cal.3r, 23#: an, )eop"e $# "air (1&2&) 2$ Cal.3r, 530- regar,ing constitutional li(itations upon the sei;ure o" "inancial recor,s.) ,ortgage (raud Records) (!C! )32f+a,) ,ortgage (raud) 1ntentionally using a (isrepresentation- (isstate(ent- or o(ission- in the (ortgage len,ing process- or "acilitating it s use- 0ith the intent that it be relie, upon by the len,er- or recei.ing the "un,s as a result o" the abo.e- or "iling 0ith the county recor,er any ,ocu(ent in connection 0ith a (ortgage loan transaction Fno0ing it contains a (isrepresentation- (isstate(ent- or o(ission- 0ith a loss o" o.er [300- is a "elony (0obbler). Su4d! +c, contains pro.isions "or a peace o""icer in.estigating (ortgage "rau, to obtain rele.ant real estate recor,s .ia a court or,er- obtaine, upon the o""icer sub(itting an e? parte court application (a,e un,er penalty o" perCury- alleging that there is reasonable cause to belie.e that the recor,s sought are (aterial to an on%going in.estigation. Pro.isions are (a,e "or the sealing o" such application an, other proce,ures "or obtaining the necessary recor,s. Su4d! +5, pro.i,es "or an a""i,a.it "ro( the custo,ian o" recor,s authenticating the recor,s- laying the "oun,ation to (eet any hearsay obCections to a,(ission o" the recor,s into e.i,ence. &redit &ard 'nformation) Charges (a,e by a cre,it car, hol,er cannot be obtaine, e?cept by search 0arrant or other Cu,icial or,er. ()eop"e $# "air (1&2&) 2$ Cal.3r, 530- 5$2.) Exception) Ehen the cre,it car, co(pany is the .icti(. ()eop"e $# Nos"er (1&#3) 1$1 Cal.App.3r, 12$: )eop"e $# Nece (1&#3) 150 Cal.App.3r, 2#$.) Telephone Records) 3$3
#nlisted +umbers) A search 0arrant is necessary in or,er to obtain the na(e an, a,,ress o" the hol,er o" an unlisted telephone number "ro( the telephone co(pany. ()eop"e $# Chapman (1&#3) 35 Cal.3r, &#.) +ote) 4n,er "e,eral constitutional stan,ar,s- obtaining phone recor,s without a 0arrant is not illegal. (Smith $# %ar&"and (1&2&) 332 4.S. 23$ 651 7.8,.2n, 2209.) +here"ore- although sei;ing such recor,s 0ithout a 0arrant is in .iolation o" Cali"ornia la0- ,oing so 0ill not result in the suppression o" the recor,s. ()eop"e $# encomo (1&#$) 121 Cal.App.3r, 100$- 101$: )eop"e $# %artino (1&#$) 155 Cal.App.3r, 222- 2#5- "n. 3.) Telephone &alls ,ade) +elephone co(pany recor,s relating to telephone calls made are also protecte, an, re@uire a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# %c/unes (1&2$) $1 Cal.App.3r, 3#2.) +ote) +elephone toll recor,s are (aintaine, in *billing rounds-/ co.ering appro?i(ately 30 ,ays- but not necessarily correspon,ing 0ith a calen,ar (onth. An a""i,a.it shoul, contain "acts- in"or(ationan, opinion Custi"ying the ti(e perio, "or 0hich toll call recor,s are sought. &ertification for +on6Disclosure) Pursuant to California (u4lic tilities Commission decision num4er "3321- ,ate, July 211&#1- the telephone co(pany (ust noti"y the custo(er o" a search 0arrant issue, "or his telephone recor,s unless there is a *certification for non6disclosure/ containe, on the "ace o" the search 0arrant. Pro.i,es "or a &0%,ay ,elay in notice- 0hich can be e?ten,e, another &0 ,ays. +he *certification of non6disclosure/ is a state(ent that noti"ication 0ill i(pe,e the in.estigation o" the o""ense being in.estigate,. Justi"ication "or the ,elaye, notice (ust be inclu,e, in the 0arrant a""i,a.it. Pen Registers and Trap and Trace) 1nstallation o" a *pen register/ an,Nor a *trap and trace de!ice/ (ay be acco(plishe, by use o" a 3$$
search 0arrant- at least un,er state rules. ()eop"e $# 2ar(in (1&#2) 1&3 Cal.App.3r, 5$0- 5$3.) A *pen register/ is a ,e.ice that recor,s or ,eco,es electronic or other i(pulses that i,enti"y the nu(bers ,iale, or trans(itte, on the telephone line to 0hich such ,e.ice is attache,. A *trap and trace/ ,e.ice is a ,e.ice that captures the inco(ing electronic or other i(pulses that i,enti"y the originating nu(ber o" an instru(ent or ,e.ice "ro( 0hich a 0ire or electronic co((unication 0as trans(itte,. 1# !S!C! 3121 0as a(en,e, as a part o" the *)atriot Act-/ (u4! =! %o! 131<)2- to e?pan, these ,e"initions to inclu,e processes that capture routinga,,ressing- or signaling in"or(ation trans(itte, by an electronic co((unication "acility- thus per(itting the interception o" in"or(ation "ro( co(puters an, cells phones- as 0ell as "ro( lan,% line telephones. A search 0arrant- or an or,er "or the installation o" a pen register or trap an, tracF ,e.ice- (ust be obtaine, "ro( a court o" *general %urisdiction:/ i.e.- "ro( a Superior Court Cu,ge. (ederally- use o" a pen register is not consi,ere, to be a search- an, there"ore ,oes not re@uire a search 0arrant. (Smith $# %ar&"and (1&2&) 332 4.S. 23$- 23$%235 651 7.8,.2n, 220- 22&%2309.) +he sa(e rule is applicable a *mirror port-/ 0hich is si(ilar to a pen register- but 0hich allo0s the go.ern(ent to collect the *to/ an, *"ro(/ a,,resses o" a person s e%(ail (essages- the 1P a,,resses o" the 0ebsites the person .isits- an, notes the total .olu(e o" in"or(ation sent to or "ro( the person s account. (United States $# Forrester (&th Cir. 200#) $12 B.3r, $00.) The Federa" E"ectronic Communication )ri$ac& Act (1# !S!C! 3121<3121) e?pressly authori;es a state in!estigati!e or law enforcement officer to apply "or *an order-/ as oppose, to a search 0arrant- or an e?tension o" an or,er- authori;ing the installation an, use o" either a pen 3$5
register or a *trap6and6trace/ ,e.ice- 0hen a re@uest is (a,e in 0riting- un,er oath- to a court o" *co(petent Curis,iction/ o" the state- an, is other0ise not prohibite, by state la0. 1# !S!C! 2123 re@uires the applicant to state that the in"or(ation liFely to be obtaine, is rele.ant to an ongoing cri(inal in.estigation (as oppose, to the probable cause re@uire, "or a 0arrant). An or,er is goo, "or no (ore than 50 ,ays. 8?tensions- "or up to 50 ,ays- (ay be obtaine, upon (aFing a separate application. +he or,er shall ,irect that it be seale, pen,ing "urther or,er o" the court. 8.en i" the proce,ures ,escribe, in these statutes are .iolate,- suppression o" e.i,ence is not an appropriate re(e,y. (United States $# Forrester (&th Cir. 2002) 3&$ B.3r, 1031- 10$1.) Howe!er- citing pre%(ro-osition # authority ()eop"e $# "air (1&2&) 2$ Cal.3r, 530.)- 0hich reCecte, the rationale o" Smith $# %ar&"andsupra- the Cali"ornia Attorney Leneral is o" the opinion that ,espite the lacF o" legal authority to suppress the resulting e.i,ence (,ue to passage o" (ro-osition # in June- 1&#2)- obtaining pen register or trap an, trace in"or(ation base, upon an e? parte court or,er (as oppose, to a search 0arrant)- being in .iolation o" the Cali"ornia Constitution (Art! I- 13- as 0ell as Art! I- 1)- is *prohibited by state law./ +he "e,eral authori;ing statutes- there"ore- 0hich allo0 "or a court or,er obtaine, by state la0 en"orce(ent o""icers *(u)nless prohibited by tate law/ (1# !S!C! 3122+a,+2,)- ,o not apply to Cali"ornia because such a proce,ure is prohibite, by state la0. (#5 Opinion o' Attorne& Genera" i"" 2oc(&er 1&# (2003).) +he Cali"ornia Attorney Leneral- in this sa(e opinion- also note, that 9o:.t! Code 111#3 si(ilarly ,oes not allo0 "or an **dministrati!e ubpoena/ ,ue to the lacF o" a prior Cu,icial re.ie0 as re@uire, by the Cali"ornia Constitution.
3$2
See also- 5& Ops# Ca"# Att&# Gen# $$ (1&#5)) A Cali"ornia (agistrate (ay authori;e the installation o" a pen register by the issuance o" a search 0arrant. Gecause a search 0arrant- i" use,- is only goo, "or 10 ,ays ((!C! 1)34)- a ne0 0arrant (ust be obtaine, "or each succee,ing 10%,ay perio,. 1n"or(ation recei.e, "ro( a pen register an,Nor a trap an, trace ,e.ice- recor,ing *call ,ata content/ (i.e.- *CDC-/ ,ata about call origination- length- an, ti(e o" call)- are not protecte, by the 0iretap statutes. +here is no e?pectation o" pri.acy in such in"or(ation- per Smith $# %ar&"and (1&2&) 332 4.S. 23$ 651 7.8,.2n, 2209. (United States $# Reed (&th Cir. 200&) $2$ B.3r, &00- &13%&12.) 4se o" a pen register an, trap an, trace ,e.ice- e?cept (aybe 0hen co(bine, 0ith other "or(s o" electronic sur.eillanceis not enough alone to establish the re@uire, *necessity/ to Custi"y the issuance o" a 0iretap 0arrant. (United States $# (&th Cir. 200&) $#$ B.3r, 1223- 122#- citing United States $# Gon5a"e5, Inc!, (&th Cir. 200$) 312 B.3r, 1102- 1113.) (!C! 1)24!2) ;ut6of6 tate Electronic &ommunications 'nformation) +his section authori;es the ser.ice o" a search 0arrant "or in"or(ation relate, to the identity of customers- data store, by- or on behal" o"- the custo(er- the customer)s usage o" those ser.ices- the recipient or destination o" co((unications sent to or "ro( those custo(ers- or the content of those communications- upon a *foreign corporation/ 0hich pro.i,es *electronic communications ser!ices or remote computing ser!ices to the general public./ *Electronic communications ser!ices/ an, *remote computing ser!ices/ is to be construe, in accor,ance 0ith the "e,eral ?lectronic Stored Communications (ri:acA Act- 1# !S!C! 2131 et se*! 1# !S!C! 2131 re"ers to 1# !S!C! 2)31- su4d! +1), o" 0hich ,e"ines *electronic communication ser!ice/ as a *ser.ice 0hich pro.i,es to users thereo" the ability to sen, or recei.e 0ire or electronic co((unications./
3$#
1# !S!C! 2)31+1,, +1#,) *=ire communication/ inclu,es *any aural transfer (i.e.- one containing the hu(an .oice) (a,e in 0hole or in part through the use o" "acilities "or the trans(ission o" co((unications by the ai, o" 0ire- cable- or other liFe connection bet0een the point o" origin an, the point o" reception (inclu,ing the use o" such connection in a s0itching station) . . . ./ +his inclu,es telephone con.ersations. ( ri11s $# American Air Fi"ter Co#, Inc# ($th Cir. 1&#0) 530 B.2n, 313: United States $# 0arpe" (10th Cir. 1&23) 3&3 B.2n, 335.) 8%(ail recor,s o" a business (ay only be obtaine, "ro( an 1nternet Ser.ice Pro.i,er (1SP) .ia a search 0arrant. +he ,e"en,ant enCoye, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in his e(ails .is%a%.is his 1SP. +hus- go.ern(ent agents .iolate, his Fourth Amendment rights by co(pelling the 1SP to turn o.er the e(ails 0ithout "irst obtaining a 0arrant base, on probable cause. Io0e.er- because the agents relie, in goo, "aith on pro.isions o" the Stored Communications Act- the 8?clusionary Rule ,i, not apply. (United States $# -arsha( (5th 2010) 531 B.3r, 255.) A *foreign corporation/ is one that is @uali"ie, to ,o business in Cali"ornia pursuant to Cor-! Code 213)e.en though base, in another state. *Properly ser!ed-/ as re@uire, by the statute- necessitates *(,)eli.ery by han, o" a copy o" any process against a "oreign corporation2 +a, to an* officer of the cor(oration or its .eneral
mana.er in this state! or if the cor(oration is a ban; to a cashier or an assistant cashier!
+4, to an* natural (erson desi.nated b* it as a.ent

for the ser)ice of (rocess! or
+c, if the cor(oration has desi.nated a cor(orate
a.ent! to an* (erson named in the latest certificate of the cor(orate a.ent filed (ursuant to Section 1" " . . .3 (#.C. 1"24.2$a%$&%! referencin. Cor'. Code 211 )
3$&
Per Cor-! Code 213)- "oreign corporations (ust consent to ser.ice o" process as a con,ition o" ,oing business in Cali"ornia. +he "oreign corporation is re@uire, to pro.i,e the in"or(ation re@ueste, 0ithin "i.e ($) business ,ays- 0hich (ay be shortene, or e?ten,e, upon a sho0ing o" goo, cause- an, to authenticate such recor,s- thus (aFing the( a,(issible in court per ?:id! Code 1)21- 1)22. ((!C! 1)24!2+4,) +he section "urther re@uires Cali"ornia corporations to honor out%o"%state search 0arrants as i" issue, 0ithin this state. ((!C! 1)24!2+c,) +hese are proce,ural re@uire(ents "or intro,ucing the resulting recor,s into e.i,ence at trial- an, irrele.ant to the use o" the sa(e recor,s "or probable cause purposes "or a "ollo0%up search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Stipo (2011) 1&$ Cal.App.3th 553- 520%522.) (!C! 1)24!3+a,) Records of (oreign &orporations Pro!iding Electronic &ommunications or Remote &omputing er!ices) Boreign corporations pro.i,ing electronic communications or remote computing ser!ices (ust ,isclose to a go.ern(ental prosecuting or in.estigating agency- 0hen ser.e, 0ith a search 0arrant issue, by a Cali"ornia court pursuant to (!C! 1)24+a,+1, (i.e.- in misdemeanor cases)- recor,s re.ealing the name- addresslocal and long distance telephone toll billing records- telephone number or other subscriber number or identity- an, length of ser!ice o" a subscriber to or custo(er o" that ser.ice- an, the types of ser!ices the subscriber or custo(er utili;e,. (!C! 1)24!3+4,) +he go.ern(ental entity recei.ing subscriber recor,s or in"or(ation un,er this section is not re@uire, to pro.i,e notice to a subscriber or custo(er. (!C! 1)24!3+d,) 4pon a re@uest o" a peace o""icer- the pro.i,er shall taFe all necessary steps to preser.e recor,s an, other e.i,ence in its possession pen,ing the issuance o" a search 0arrant or a re@uest in 0riting an, an a""i,a.it ,eclaring an intent to ser.e the pro.i,er 0ith a search 0arrant. Recor,s shall be retaine, "or &0 ,ays upon such re@uest- an, (ay be e?ten,e, "or an a,,itional &0 ,ays upon a rene0e, re@uest by the peace o""icer. 350
=iretaps and Ea!esdropping) Goth the "e,eral Congress an, Cali"ornia s 7egislature- e?pressing concern o.er the potential "or .iolating pri.acy rights (see A"derman $# United States (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 15$ 622 7.8,.2n, 1259.)- ha.e enacte, statutes controlling the use o" 0iretaps by la0 en"orce(ent. Be,eral rules are containe, in the Omni.us Crime Contro" and Sa'e Streets Act o' 1CDF (Title III, 1# !S!C! 2)13 et se*.). Io0e.erin that Cali"ornia s state statutes are (ore restricti.e (see )eop"e $# *ones (1&23) 30 Cal.App.3r, #$2.)- it is generally accepte, that i" a police o""icer acts in co(pliance 0ith (!C! 22"!)3 et se*!- he or she 0ill also be in co(pliance 0ith the "e,eral re@uire(ents. A"derman $# United States- supra) +he Fourth Amendment rights o" ho(eo0ners are i(plicate, by the use o" a surreptitiously plante, listening ,e.ice to (onitor thir,%party con.ersations that occurre, 0ithin their ho(e. +he Omni.us Crime Contro" and Sa'e Streets Act o' 1CDF authori;es the states to enact their o0n 0iretap la0s only i" the pro.isions o" those la0s are at least as restricti.e as the "e,eral re@uire(ents "or a 0iretap set out in Title III. ()eop"e $# *ac(son (200$) 12& Cal.App.3th 12&- 135%132: )eop"e $# Otto (1&&2) 2 Cal.3th 10##- 10&#.) +he "e,eral District Court ,enie, ,e"en,ant s (otion to suppress e.i,ence obtaine, "ro( a series o" sur.eillance or,ers that authori;e, the interception o" co((unications o.er cellular phones pursuant to the Imni4us Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1"2#- associate, 0ith ,e"en,ant an, his co%conspirators. De"en,ant clai(e, that the sur.eillance or,ers authori;e, the go.ern(ent to trans"or( the cellular phones into ro.ing electronic bugs by using sophisticate, ea.es,ropping technology. +he Jinth Circuit ,isagree,- sustaining the ,istrict court s rulingnoting that i" the go.ern(ent seeFs authori;ation "or the use o" ne0 technology to con.ert cellular phones into ro.ing bugs- it (ust speci"ically re@uest that authority. 1n this case- ho0e.er- the sur.eillance or,ers 0ere inten,e, only to authori;e stan,ar, interception techni@ues an, the go.ern(ent only utili;e, stan,ar, interception techni@ues. (United States $# O"i$a (&th Cir. 2012) 5#5 B.3r, 1105- as a(en,e, at 2012 4.S. App. 78T1S 2$##& 6Dec. 1220129.) 351
(!C! 233) tatement of "egislati!e Purpose) Recogni;ing the a,.ances in science an, technology that ha.e le, to the ,e.elop(ent o" ne0 ,e.ices an, techni@ues "or the purpose o" ea.es,ropping upon pri.ate co((unications an, the resulting in.asion o" pri.acy in.ol.e,- the 7egislature enacte, the "ollo0ing statutes "or the purpose o" protecting the right of pri!acy o" the people o" this state. 1t is not the intent o" the 7egislature- ho0e.er- to place greater restraints on the use o" listening ,e.ices an, techni@ues by la0 en"orce(ent agencies than e?iste, prior to the e""ecti.e ,ate (i.e.- January 2- 1&5#) o" this Chapter. +his section pertaining to 0iretapping an, other electronic ,e.ices is a general pro.ision ,eclaring a broa, legislati.e purpose: section &33 is the s(ecific section dealin. +ith
the classes exem(ted from the t+o (recedin. sections (rohibitin. +ireta((in. and it is onl* the officers named in the latter section +ho are exem(t from the sanctions im(osed b* &31 and &32. (%% -(."al.Atty.Gen. 1%1 (1972))
Goth the California In(asion of #ri(ac) Act and the
*mni+us Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 19&8 (18 U.S.C. 2"1 ,2"22.% (roscribe onl* intentional! as o((osed to inad)ertent! o)erhearin. or interce(tin. of communications. ('eo(le v. *uchanan (1972) 26 Cal.4((./rd 274.)
+he restrictions on ea.es,ropping apply "or the bene"it o" a person outsi,e the state as 0ell- so long as one party to a telephone con.ersation is in Cali"ornia. (.earney v.
Salo)on S)ith *arney/ &nc. (2006) /9 Cal.4th 9%.)
+he Recor,ing o" prisoner telephone con!ersations- e.en to the outsi,e 0orl,- 0oul, "all 0ithin the restrictions o" both the "e,eral an, state 0iretap statutes unless the in(ate is put on notice that his con.ersations (ay be (onitore, an,Nor recor,e,. 4n,er Title III: *(1)t shall not be unla0"ul . . . "or a person acting un,er color o" la0 to intercept a 0ire- oral- or electronic co((unication 0here . . . one of the parties to the co((unication has gi.en prior consent to such interception./ (1talics a,,e,: 1# !S!C! 2)11+2,+c,) Gase, upon this- it has been hel, that 0here a sign has been poste, in,icating that *telephone calls 352
may be monitored and recorded-/ in(ates are on notice- an, his or her *,ecision to engage in con.ersations o.er those phones constitutes i(plie, consent to that (onitoring an, taFes any 0iretap outsi,e the prohibitions o" Title III./ ()eop"e $# /e""& 103 Cal.App.3th #$3- #$#: 0arrantless recor,ing o" ,e"en,ant s telephone con.ersations to parties on the outsi,e appro.e,.) Such 0arning signs also taFe such telephone calls outsi,e the search 0arrant pro.isions o" Cali"ornia s 0iretap statutes ((!C! 22"!)3 et se*!) as 0ell. (Id.- at pp. #$&%#50.) (!C! 231) Eiretapping) +he prohibitions on 0iretaps (aFe illegal the "ollo0ing) +he use o" any (achine- instru(ent- or contri.anceor in any other (anner- to intentionally tap- or (aFe an unauthori;e, connection- 0hether physicallyelectrically- acoustically- in,ucti.ely- or other0ise0ith any telegraph or telephone 0ire- line- cable- or instru(ent- inclu,ing the 0ire- line- cable- or instru(ent o" any internal telephonic co((unication syste(- or Eithout the consent o" all the parties to a co((unication- or in any unauthori;e, (anner- to rea,- atte(pt to rea,- or to learn the contents or (eaning o" any (essage- report- or co((unication 0hile the sa(e is in transit or passing o.er any 0ire- line- or cable- or is being sent "ro(- or recei.e, at any place 0ithin this state: or +he use or atte(pt to use in any (anner or "or any purpose- or to co((unicate in any 0ay- any in"or(ation so obtaine,: or +o ai,- agree 0ith- e(ploy- or conspire 0ith anyone to ,o any o" the abo.e.
Punishment) Uiolation is punishable by a "ine o" [2-$00an,Nor one year in county Cail or 15 (onths- t0o or three years in prison- or by both such "ine an, i(prison(ent. 353
+he "ine increases to [10-000 0ith a prior con.iction "or any o" the o""enses liste, in this Chapter. Uiolation o" 0iretapping statutes (ay also be a Fourth Amendment .iolation i" the illegal 0iretap also .iolates a person s legiti(ate e?pectation o" pri.acy. (United States $# Shr&"oc( (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, &3#- &2#.) Su4d! +4,) Exceptions) +he section does not apply to) Any public utility engage, in the business o" pro.i,ing co((unications ser.ices an, "acilities0hen "or the purpose o" construction- (aintenancecon,uct or operation o" the ser.ices an, "acilities o" the public utility: or +he use o" any instru(ent- e@uip(ent- "acility- or ser.ice "urnishe, an, use, pursuant to the tari""s o" a public utility: or Any telephonic co((unication syste( use, "or co((unication e?clusi.ely 0ithin a state- countycity an, county- or city correctional "acility.
Prisoner Visitors) A phone use, ,uring a physical .isitation by a prisoner an, his or her .isitor ,oes not (eet the re@uire(ents o" a *wire communication-/ not using a line in interstate or "oreign co((erce. 1t is there"ore not subCect to the 0iretap restrictions o" (!C! 231. ()eop"e $# Santos (1&22) 25 Cal.App.3r, 3&2- 302.) Su4d! +c,) +on6*dmissibility) +he section also pro.i,es "or the non%a,(issibility o" any e.i,ence ,eri.e, through a .iolation o" this section- e?cept as proo" o" such .iolation. imilar restrictions are containe, in) (!C! 232) 8lectronic ea.es,ropping- in general. (!C! 232!)) Cellular ra,io telephone co((unications. (!C! 232!2) Cor,less telephone co((unications. 353
(!C! 232!1) Recor,ing co((unications bet0een cellular ra,io telephones an, cor,less telephones- or bet0een these an, a lan,line telephone. +ote) A *controlled telephone call/ (a,e by a .icti( or 0itness to a suspect "or the purpose o" obtaining incri(inating state(ents "ro( the suspect- at la0 en"orce(ent s re@uest (See (!C! 232233)- is not a pri.acy .iolation or an illegal Fourth Amendment search. (See United States $# -hite (1&21) 301 4.S. 23$ 62# 7.8,.2n, 3$39.) See also )eop"e $# Na(ai (2010) 1#3 Cal. App. 3th 3&&$12%$1#) 1ncri(inating online chat 0ith a (inor is not con"i,ential co((unication per (!C! ! 232 that re@uires suppression. (!C! 233!#) Ea!esdropping in Hostage or $arricading ituations) A peace o""icer (ay use an electronic a(pli"ying or recor,ing ,e.ice to ea.es,rop on an,Nor recor,- any oral co((unication 0ithin a particular location in response to the taFing o" a hostage or the barrica,ing o" a location i") 4+1, +he o""icer reasonably ,eter(ines that an e(ergency situation e?ists in.ol.ing the i((e,iate ,anger o" ,eath or serious physical inCury to any person: 4+2, +he o""icer reasonably ,eter(ines that the e(ergency situation re@uires that ea.es,ropping occur i((e,iately: and 4+3, +here are groun,s upon 0hich an or,er coul, be obtaine, pursuant to 1# !S!C! 2)12+2, "or the o""enses speci"ie, in it. +ote) 1# !S!C! 2)12+2, per(its the interception o" 0ire- oral- or electronic co((unications 0hen the interception (ay pro.i,e e.i,ence o" the co((ission o" (ur,er- Fi,napping- ga(bling- robberybribery- e?tortion- or ,ealing in narcotic ,rugs- (ariCuana or other ,angerous ,rugsor other cri(es ,angerous to li"e- li(b- or property- an, is punishable by i(prison(ent "or (ore than one year. 35$
!nly a peace o""icer 0ho has been ,esignate, by either a ,istrict attorney or by the Attorney Leneral (ay (aFe the three ,eter(inations liste, abo.e. A peace o""icer is not re@uire, to FnocF or announce his or her presence be"ore entering or be"ore installing or using any electronic a(pli"ying or recor,ing ,e.ices. An application "or an or,er appro.ing ea.es,ropping (ust be (a,e 0ithin 3# hours after the ea.es,ropping has begun. Co(pliance 0ith (!C! 22"!)3 (setting "orth the re@uire(ents o" a 0iretap application) is re@uire,. A Cu,ge is prohibite, "ro( granting an ea.es,ropping application in anticipation o" an e(ergency situation. A Cu,ge is re@uire, to grant the application in a barrica,e or hostage situation 0here there is probable cause to belie.e that an in,i.i,ual is co((itting- has co((itte,- or is about to co((it an o""ense liste, in 1# !S!C! 2)12+2, (see +ote abo.e) an, only i" the peace o""icer has "ully co(plie, 0ith the re@uire(ents o" this section. Any oral co((unications o.erhear, (ust be recor,e,- an, in such a (anner as to protect the recor,ing "ro( alterations. A *barricading/ occurs 0hen a person re"uses to co(e out "ro( a co.ere, or enclose, position- or 0hen a person is hel, against his or her 0ill an, the captor has not (a,e a ,e(an,. A *hostage situation/ occurs 0hen a person is hel, against his or her 0ill an, the captor has (a,e a ,e(an,. A peace o""icer 0ho (aFes the ,ecision to use an ea.es,ropping ,e.ice is not re@uire, to un,ergo 0iretap training pursuant to (!C! 22"!"4. A peace o""icer is re@uire, to stop using an ea.es,ropping ,e.ice 0hen the barrica,e or hostage situation en,s- or upon the ,enial by a Cu,ge "or an or,er appro.ing ea.es,ropping- 0hiche.er occurs "irst. 355
Jothing in this ne0 section is inten,e, to a""ect the a,(issibility o" e.i,ence. (!C! 22"!)3 through 22"!"# regulate the i(ple(entation o" *wiretaps/ an, the use o" in"or(ation obtaine, thereby- inclu,ing ,eri.ati.e e.i,ence- an, are liste, in ,etail belo0. (See )eop"e $# *ac(son (200$) 12& Cal.App.3th 12&- 133%1$&.) (!C! 22"!)3) Re@uirements for a =iretap ;rder) An application for a wiretap order authori;ing the interception o" a 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication shall) Ge (a,e in 0riting upon the personal oath or a""ir(ation o") +he Attorney LeneralChie" Deputy Attorney LeneralChie" Assistant Attorney Leneral- Cri(inal 7a0 Di.ision- or A District Attorney- or the person ,esignate, to act as District Attorney in the District Attorney s absence. Ge (a,e to) +he presi,ing Cu,ge o" the Superior Courtor Another Cu,ge ,esignate, by the presi,ing Cu,ge- or +he highest Cu,ge liste, on an *ordered list/ o" a,,itional Cu,ges- upon a ,eter(ination that none o" the abo.e Cu,ges are a.ailable. 1nclu,e all o" the "ollo0ing in"or(ation) +he i,entity o" the in.estigati.e or la0 en"orce(ent o""icer (aFing the application352
+he i,entity o" the in.estigati.e or la0 en"orce(ent o""icer authori;ing the applicationBailure to i,enti"y the authori;ing o""icial shoul, not in.ali,ate the subse@uent 0iretap or,er. (See United States $# Ca""um (&th Cir. 200$) 310 B.3r, $21- ,iscussing the correspon,ing "e,eral statute: 1# !S!C! 2)1#+4,+d,.) Gut 0here the "ailure to inclu,e in"or(ation i,enti"ying the Depart(ent o" Justice as authori;ing a 0iretap application (aFes it i(possible "or a Cu,ge to conclu,e "ro( the "ace o" the application that it ha, been in "act so authori;e,. 0ill in.ali,ate the 0arrant. (United States $# Sta''e"dt (&th Cir. 2005) 3$1 B.3r, $2#: an attache, (e(oran,u( purporte,ly i,enti"ying the Depart(ent o" Justice as authori;ing the 0iretap application 0as- ,ue to hu(an error- the 0rong (e(oran,u(.) +he i,entity o" the la0 en"orce(ent agency that is to e?ecute the or,erA state(ent attesting to a re.ie0 o" the application an, the circu(stances in support thereo" by the chie" e?ecuti.e o""icer or his or her ,esignee (0ho (ust be i,enti"ie, by na(e) o" the la0 en"orce(ent agency (aFing the applicationA "ull an, co(plete state(ent o" the "acts an, circu(stances relie, upon by the applicant to Custi"y his or her belie" that an or,er shoul, be issue,- inclu,ing) Details as to the particular o""ense that has been- is being- or is about to be co((itte,35#
+he "act that con.entional in.estigati.e techni@ues ha.e been trie, an, 0ere unsuccess"ul- or 0hy they reasonably appear to be unliFely to succee, or to be too ,angerousA particular ,escription o" the nature an, location o" the "acilities "ro( 0hich- or the place 0here the co((unication is to be intercepte,A particular ,escription o" the type o" co((unication sought to be intercepte,- and +he i,entity- i" Fno0n- o" the person co((itting the o""ense an, 0hose co((unications are to be intercepte,- or i" that person s i,entity is not Fno0n- then the in"or(ation relating to the person s i,entity that is Fno0n to the applicant. Eiretap authority is tie, to speci"ic co((unications "acilities or locations (inclu,ing a speci"ic telephone or cell phone)- an, not in,i.i,ual suspects. So 0hen a pre.iously unFno0n coconspirator is i,enti"ie,- it is not necessary to cease the ea.es,ropping nor (aFe application to the court "or a ne0 or,er. (United States $# Reed (&th Cir. 200&) $2$ B.3r, &00- &10%&12.) A state(ent o" the perio, o" ti(e "or 0hich the interception is re@uire, to be (aintaine,) An, i" the nature o" the interception is such that the authori;ation "or interception shoul, not auto(atically 35&
ter(inate 0hen the ,escribe, type o" co((unication has been "irst obtaine,- a particular ,escription o" the "acts establishing probable cause to belie.e that a,,itional co((unications o" the sa(e type 0ill occur therea"ter- and A "ull an, co(plete state(ent o" the "acts concerning all pre.ious applications Fno0n to the in,i.i,ual authori;ing an, to the in,i.i,ual (aFing the application- to ha.e been (a,e to any Cu,ge o" a state or "e,eral court "or authori;ation to intercept 0ireelectronic pager- or 0ire or electronic co((unication in.ol.ing any o" the sa(e persons- "acilities- or places speci"ie, in the application- an, the action taFen by the Cu,ge on each o" those applications. +his re@uire(ent (ay be satis"ie, by (aFing in@uiry o" the Cali"ornia Attorney Leneral an, the 4nite, States Depart(ent o" Justice an, reporting the results o" these in@uiries in the application. +ote) 4se o" a 0iretap to co(bat a large conspiracy- gi.en the greater threat to society- allo0s "or the use o" greater ,iscretion by the courts to allo0 the go.ern(ent to use 0iretaps. (United States $# %cGuire (&th Cir. 2002) 302 B.3r, 11&2- 11&#.) Bailure to sho0 that all tra,itional in.estigati.e (etho,s ha.e been trie, an, ,eter(ine, to be ina,e@uate 0ill result in a suppression o" any e.i,ence obtaine, "ro( the resulting 0iretaps. (United States $# Gon5a"e5, Inc# (&th Cir. 2005) 332 B.3r, #$3: see 1# !S!C! 2)1#.) Io0e.er- la0 en"orce(ent o""icials nee, not e?haust e.ery concei.able in.estigati.e techni@ue be"ore seeFing a 0iretap or,er. 320
(United States $# 2ococo (&th Cir. 200#) $13 B.3r, #50: see also United States $# Ri$era (&th Cir. 200#) $22 B.3r, #&1: United States $# Reed (&th Cir. 200&) $2$ B.3r, &00- &0#% &10.) *+he necessity "or the 0iretap is e.aluate, in light o" the go.ern(ent s nee, not (erely to collect so(e e.i,ence- but to A,e.elop an e""ecti.e case against those in.ol.e, in the conspiracy. / (Id.- at p. &0&- @uoting United States $# Ri$era- supra- at p. &02- an, United States $# Decoud- infra- at pg. 1002.) +he "act that a pen register coul, ha.e been use,- 0ith its li(ite, .alue in collecting necessary in"or(ation- ,oes not (ean that the necessity "or a 0iretap ha, not been establishe,. *+he necessity "or the 0iretap is e.aluate, in light o" the go.ern(ent s nee, not (erely to collect so(e e.i,encebut to A,e.elop an e""ecti.e case against those in.ol.e, in the conspiracy./ (United States $# Decoud (&th Cir. 2005) 3$5 B.3r, &&5- 1005%1002: the "act that the in"or(ant ha, been sent to prison- an, that a sur.eillance ha, been ,etecte,- helpe, to establish the nee, "or a 0iretap.) 1" the application is "or the e?tension o" an or,er- a state(ent setting "orth the nu(ber o" co((unications intercepte, pursuant to the original or,eran, the results thus "ar obtaine, "ro( the interception- or a reasonable e?planation o" the "ailure to obtain results. An application "or a (o,i"ication o" the original or,er (ay be (a,e 0hen there is *probable cause/ to belie.e that the target o" a 0iretap is using a "acility or ,e.ice that is not subCect to the original or,er.
321
+he (o,i"ie, or,er is only goo, "or that perio, that applie, to the original or,er. +he application (ust pro.i,e all the in"or(ation re@uire, o" the original or,er an, a state(ent o" the results thus "ar obtaine, "ro( the interception- or a reasonable e?planation "or the "ailure to obtain results. +he Cu,ge (ay re@uire the applicant to "urnish a,,itional testi(ony or ,ocu(entary e.i,ence in support o" the application. +he "act that the application 0as (a,e to a *successor %udge/ ,esignate, by the presi,ing Cu,ge to hear applications i" the "irst%na(e, Cu,ge is una.ailable ,i, not .iolate the re@uire(ents un,er this section. ()eop"e $# %uno5 (2001) #2 Cal.App.3th 23&- 232.) A Cu,ge (ust accept a "acsi(ile copy o" the signature that is re@uire, on an application "or a 0iretap or,er. +he original signe, ,ocu(ent is to be seale, an, Fept 0ith the application. (!C! 22"!)1) Definitions) *=ire &ommunication)/ *(A)ny aural trans"er (a,e in 0hole or in part through the use o" "acilities "or the trans(ission o" co((unications by the ai, o" 0ire- cableor other liFe connection bet0een the point o" origin an, the point o" reception (inclu,ing the use o" a liFe connection in a s0itching station)- "urnishe, or operate, by any person engage, in pro.i,ing or operating these "acilities "or the trans(ission o" co((unications./ See also )eop"e $# 9on 9i""as (1&&2) 11 Cal.App.3th 12$- at p. 223- ,e"ining *wire communication/ as *any aural trans"er (a,e in 0hole or in part through the use o" "acilities "or the trans(ission o" co((unications by the ai, o" 0ire- cable- or other liFe connection bet0een the point o" origin an, the point o" reception (inclu,ing the use o" such 322
connection in a s0itching station) "urnishe, or operate, by any person engage, in pro.i,ing or operating such "acilities "or the trans(ission o" interstate or "oreign co((erce . . . ./ A phone use, ,uring a physical .isitation by a prisoner an, his or her .isitor ,oes not (eet the re@uire(ents o" a *wire communication-/ not using a line in interstate or "oreign co((erce. 1t is there"ore not subCect to the 0iretap restrictions o" (!C! 231. ()eop"e $# Santos (1&22) 25 Cal.App.3r, 3&2- 302.) Gut clone, cell phones are inclu,e,. (United States $# Sta$es (2003) 3#3 B.3r, &22.) *Electronic pager communication)/ *(A)ny tone or ,igital ,isplay or tone an, .oice pager co((unication. *Electronic cellular telephone communication)/ *(A)ny cellular or cor,less ra,io telephone co((unication. **ural Transfer)/ *(A) trans"er containing the hu(an .oice at any point bet0een an, inclu,ing the point o" origin an, the point o" reception./ +he au,io portion o" a .i,eotape 0oul, see( to "all 0ithin this ,e"inition. (United States $# Shr&"oc( (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, &3#- &22: *+he .i,eotapes containe, both .i,eo an, au,io portions. +he au,io portions are go.erne, by the "e,eral 0iretap statute1# !S!C! 2)13 et se*!/) (!C! 22"!)2) *uthority to 'ssue a =iretap ;rder) 4pon application (a,e per (!C! 22"!)3 (see abo.e)- a Cu,ge (ay enter an e? parte or,er- as re@ueste, or (o,i"ie,- authori;ing the interception o": Eire8lectronic pager- or 8lectronic co((unication:
Ehen such co((unication is initially intercepte, 0ithin the territorial Curis,iction o" the court in 0hich the Cu,ge is 323
sitting- if the Cu,ge ,eter(ines- on the basis o" the "acts sub(itte, by the applicant- all of the following) +here is probable cause to belie.e that an in,i.i,ual is co((itting- has co((itte,- or is about to co((it- one o" the "ollo0ing o""enses) 1. 1(portation- possession "or saletransportation- (anu"acture- or sale o" controlle, substances in .iolation o" F&S 113)1- 113)1!)- 113)2- 11313!2- 1131#1131#!)- 1131"- 1131"!)- or 1131"!2- 0hen) +he substance contains heroin cocaine- PCP- (etha(pheta(ine- or their analogs: and +he substance e?cee,s ten (10) gallons by li@ui, .olu(e or three (3) poun,s o" soli, substance by 0eight2. Our,er3. Solicitation to co((it (ur,er3. A "elony in.ol.ing a destructi!e de!iceper (!C! 1#113- 1#12)- 1#11)- 1#1431#133- 1#14)- 1#1)3- 1#1))- 1#123 ("or(erly- (!C! 12333- 12333!1- 12333!212333!3- 12333!2- 1233#- 1233"- 12313 or 12312- respecti.ely)$. Aggra.ate, Fi,napping- as speci"ie, in (!C! 23"5. Any "elony .iolation o" (!C! 1#2!22 (gang cri(es)2. A "elony .iolation o" the o""enses in.ol.ing weapons of mass destruction as ,escribe, in (!C! 1141#- relating to 0eapons o" (ass ,estruction- 1141#!)relating to threats to use 0eapons o" (ass ,estruction- or 1141"- relating to restricte, biological agents- or 323
#. An atte(pt or conspiracy to co((it any o" the abo.e%(entione, cri(es: +here is probable cause to belie.e that particular co((unications concerning the illegal acti.ities 0ill be obtaine, through that interceptioninclu,ing- but not li(ite, to- co((unications that (ay be utili;e, "or locating or rescuing a Fi,nap .icti(: +here is probable cause to belie.e that the "acilities "ro( 0hich- or the place 0here the 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic co((unication are to be intercepte,) Are being use,- or are about to be use,- in connection 0ith the co((ission o" the o""ense- or Are lease, to- liste, in the na(e o"- or co((only use, by the person 0hose co((unications are to be intercepte,: and Jor(al in.estigati.e proce,ures ha.e been trie, an, ha.e "aile,- or reasonably appear to be unliFely to succee, i" trie,- or reasonably appear to be too ,angerous. *+he re@uire(ent o" necessity is ,esigne, to ensure that 0iretapping is neither Aroutinely e(ploye, as the initial step in cri(inal in.estigation (United States $# Giordano (1&23) 315 4.S. $0$- $1$- &3 S.Ct. 1#20- 30 7.8,.2, 331) nor Aresorte, to in situations 0here tra,itional in.estigati.e techni@ues 0oul, su""ice to e?pose the cri(e. (United States $# /ahn (1&23) 31$ 4.S. 133- 1$3- "n. 12.)/ ()eop"e $# 2eon (2002) 30 Cal.3th 325- 3#$.)
7(>)t is not necessar* that la+ enforcement officials exhaust e)er* concei)able alternati)e before see;in. a +ireta(.3 (&bid.)
+he necessity re@uire(ent o" 32$

su4di:ision +d, o" this section (an, the si(ilar "e,eral re@uire(ent un,er 1# !S!C! 2)1#+1,+c, W +3,+c,) 0as (et base, upon the trial court s "in,ing that the e.i,ence against the ,e"en,ant 0as purely circu(stantial0itnesses against the ,e"en,ant 0ishe, to re(ain anony(ous@uestioning o" the ,e"en,ant 0as not liFely to pro,uce any a,,itional e.i,ence- an, that the ,e"en,ant 0as liFely to call "rien,s "ro( his Cail cell an, ha.e the( ,estroy e.i,ence i" he ,isco.ere, that he 0as the "ocus o" the ne0 (ur,er in.estigation. ()eop"e $# 4epeda (2001) #2 Cal.App.3th 11#3- 120$.) Si(ilarly- 0here a ,angerous conspiracy is being in.estigate, (e.g.- the *,ontana (reemen/)- 0here in"iltration 0oul, be ,angerous an, ,i""icult- an, in"or(ants 0ere generally uncooperati.e- this re@uire(ent is (et. (United States $# %cGuire (&th Cir. 2002) 302 B.3r, 11&2- 11&2.) Gut see United States $# "ac(mon (&th Cir 2001) 223 B.3r, 1203- citing United States $# Carneiro (1&##) #51 B.2n, 1121- 11#1- "or the proposition that a conspiracy does not loosen the stan,ar, o" proo" on this issue. An, e.en 0hen in"or(ants are use,- a "in,ing that such in"or(ants *coul, not possibly re.eal the "ull nature an, e?tent o" the enterprise an, it s countless- an, at ti(es ,isCointe,- cri(inal tentacles-/ satis"ie, this re@uire(ent. (United States $# Shr&"oc( (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, &3#- &2$%&25: see also United States $# Gome5 (&th Cir. 2003) 3$# B.3r, 1221.) 1t is not necessary that the go.ern(ent pro.e that it pursue, *to the bitter en, . . . e.ery 325
non%electronic ,e.ice./ (Citation). *(+)he a,e@uacy o" the sho0ing concerning other in.estigati.e techni@ues is Ato be teste, in a practical an, co((on sense "ashion 6citation9 that ,oes not Aha(per un,uly the in.estigati.e po0ers o" la0 en"orce(ent agents. / ()eop"e $# 2eon (2007) 40 Cal.4th
/76! /92.)
1t 0as not necessary that in.estigators ha.e atte(pte, to pro.i,e clone, cell phones "or ,e"en,ant s use as a prere@uisite to applying "or a 0iretap 0arrant in that (onitoring clone, cell phones itsel" 0oul, re@uire a 0iretap or,er to be la0"ul. (United States $# Sta$es (2003) 3#3 B.3r, &22.) +he necessity "or a 0iretap is e.aluate, in light o" the go.ern(ent s nee, not (erely to collect so(e e.i,ence- but to ,e.elop an e""ecti.e case against the ,e"en,ants. An *effecti!e case/ (eans *proof beyond a reasonable doubt-/ not (erely to get an in,ict(ent. Ehere the in.estigation o" a ,rug%,istribution conspiracy 0as stalle, at in"or(ation obtaine, "ro( a pen register an, trap an, trace ,e.ice- obtaining a series (i.e.3) o" 0iretaps 0as hel, to be la0"ul. (United States $# Garcia39i""a".a (&th Cir. 200&) $#$ B.3r, 1223- 1222%1233: reCecting ,e"en,ant s argu(ent that by the ti(e a 0iretap "or a "ourth cell phone 0as obtaine,la0 en"orce(ent 0as relying upon an i(per(issible *cascading theory of necessity./) 8?a(ples o" "actors use, to establish a necessity "or a 0iretap (pp. 122#% 1230)) Pen register an, trap an, trace ,e.ice ,oes not re.eal the contents o" the ,e"en,ants con.ersations. Physical sur.eillance 0as i(possible ,ue to (ain ,e"en,ant li.ing in a rural location.
322
De"en,ants use, counter% sur.eillance techni@ues. A trash search 0as i(possible ,ue to (ain ,e"en,ant li.ing in a rural location. Search 0arrants- subpoenasinter.ie0s an, arrests 0oul, ha.e ter(inate, the in.estigation be"ore all the coconspirators 0ere "oun,. Con"i,ential in"or(ants coul, not be ,e.elope,.
+ote) 4se o" pen registers an, trap an, trace ,e.ices- e?cept (aybe 0hen co(bine, 0ith other "or(s o" electronic sur.eillanceis not enough alone to establish necessity "or a 0iretap. (United States $# Garcia3 9i""a".a- supra.- at p. 122#- citing United States $# Gon5a"e5, Inc!, (&th Cir. 200$) 312 B.3r, 1102- 1113.) 1t is 0here the intercepte, co((unications 0ere "irst hear, by "e,eral go.ern(ent agents that ,eter(ines 0hich "e,eral court has Curis,iction "or purposes o" "iling the resulting cri(inal prosecution- at least un,er the "e,eral rules: i.e.1# !S!C! 2)1#+3,. (United States $# 2uon1 (&th Cir. 2005) 321 B.3r, 1102.) (!C! 22"!)3) :udicial <uidelines) +he Ju,icial Council (ay establish gui,elines "or Cu,ges to "ollo0 in granting an or,er authori;ing the interception o" any 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic co((unication. (!C! 22"!)4) &ontents of the =iretap ;rder) An or,er authori;ing the interception o" any 0ireelectronic ,igital pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication shall speci"y all of the following) +he i,entity- i" Fno0n- o" the person 0hose co((unications are to be intercepte,- or i" the i,entity is not Fno0n- then that in"or(ation relating to the person s i,entity Fno0n to the applicant-
32#
+he nature an, location o" the co((unication "acilities as to 0hich- or the place 0here- authority to intercept is grante,A particular ,escription o" the type o" co((unication sought to be intercepte,- an, a state(ent o" the illegal acti.ities to 0hich it relates+he i,entity o" the agency authori;e, to intercept the co((unications an, o" the persons (aFing the application- and +he perio, o" ti(e ,uring 0hich the interception is authori;e, inclu,ing a state(ent as to 0hether or not the interception shall auto(atically ter(inate 0hen the ,escribe, co((unication has been "irst obtaine,.
(!C! 22"!)2) !ral Appro.al in 7ieu o" Court !r,er) 4pon the in"or(al application by the Attorney LeneralChie" Deputy Attorney Leneral- Chie" Assistant Attorney Leneral- Cri(inal Di.ision- or a District Attorney- or a person to act as District Attorney in the District Attorney s absence- the presi,ing Cu,ge o" the Superior Court- or the "irst a.ailable Cu,ge ,esignate, as pro.i,e, in (!C! 22"!)3- (ay grant oral appro.al "or an interception0ithout a court or,er- i" he or she ,eter(ines all of the following) +here are groun,s upon 0hich an or,er coul, be issue, un,er this chapter- and +here is probable cause to belie.e that an e(ergency situation e?ists 0ith respect to the in.estigation o" an o""ense enu(erate, in (!C! 22"!)2- and +here is probable cause to belie.e that a substantial danger to life or limb e?ists Custi"ying the authori;ation "or i((e,iate interception o" a pri.ate 0ire- electronic ,igital pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication be"ore an application "or an or,er coul, 0ith ,ue ,iligence be sub(itte, an, acte, upon. 32&
Appro.al "or an interception un,er this section shall be con,itione, upon "iling 0ith the Cu,ge by (i,night o" the secon, "ull court ,ay a"ter the oral appro.al- a 0ritten application "or an or,er 0hich- i" grante, consistent 0ith this chapter- shall also recite the oral appro.al un,er this sub,i.ision an, be retroacti.e to the ti(e o" the oral appro.al. (!C! 22"!)#) Duration o" a Eiretap !r,er) Jo or,er entere, un,er this chapter shall authori;e the interception o" any 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic cellular telephone- or electronic co((unication "or a perio, longer than) Jecessary to achie.e the obCecti.e o" the authori;ation- nor in any e!ent+hirty (30) ,ays.
+he 30%,ay li(it on a 0iretap begins on the ,ay o" the initial interception- or 10 ,ays a"ter the issuance o" the 0iretap or,er- 0hiche.er co(es "irst. 8?tensions o" an or,er (ay be grante, in accor,ance 0ith (!C! 22"!)3 an, upon the court (aFing the "in,ings re@uire, by (!C! 22"!)2. +he perio, o" e?tension shall be no longer than the authori;ing Cu,ge ,ee(s necessary to achie.e the purposes "or 0hich it 0as grante, an, in no e.ent longer than thirty (30) ,ays. 8.ery or,er an, e?tension thereo" shall contain a pro.ision that the authori;ation to intercept shall) Ge e?ecute, as soon as practicableGe con,ucte, so as to (ini(i;e the interception o" co((unications not other0ise subCect to interception un,er this chapter- and
3#0
+er(inate upon attain(ent o" the authori;e, obCecti.e- or in any e.ent at the ti(e e?piration o" the ter( ,esignate, in the or,er or any e?tensions. Ehere the target o" the 0iretap or,er is ,isco.ere, to be using an alias- an, changes his na(e ,uring the li"e o" the or,er- agents ,i, not "ail to *(ini(i;e/ the interception o" con.ersations not relate, to the in.estigation by continuing to ea.es,rop on the target 0hile he uses the ne0 na(e. (United States $# Fernande5 (&th Cir. 200#) $22 B.3r, 1232.)
1n the e.ent the intercepte, co((unication is in a foreign language- an interpreter o" that "oreign language (ay assist peace o""icers in e?ecuting the authori;ation pro.i,e, in this chapter- pro.i,e, that) +he interpreter has ha, the sa(e training as any other interceptor authori;e, un,er this chapter- and +he interception shall be con,ucte, so as to (ini(i;e the interception o" co((unications not other0ise subCect to interception un,er this chapter.
(!C! 22"!23) Progress Reports) Ehene.er an or,er authori;ing an interception is entere,the or,er shall re@uire reports in 0riting or other0ise to be (a,e to the Cu,ge 0ho issue, the or,er) Sho0ing the nu(ber o" co((unications intercepte, pursuant to the original or,er: and A state(ent setting "orth 0hat progress has been (a,e to0ar,s achie.e(ent o" the authori;e, obCecti.e- or A satis"actory e?planation "or its lacF o" progressan, the nee, "or continue, interception.
+he Cu,ge shall or,er that the interception i((e,iately ter(inate if he or she "in,s that)
Progress has not been (a,e- and 3#1
+he e?planation "or its lacF o" progress is not satis"actory- or Jo nee, e?ists "or continue, interception.
+he reports shall) Ge "ile, 0ith the court at least e.ery ten (10) ,aysor (ore "re@uently i" or,ere, by the court: and Ge (a,e by any reasonable an, reliable (eans- as ,eter(ine, by the Cu,ge.
Ehen a ,e"en,ant (o.e, to suppress e.i,ence on the groun,s the reports re@uire, un,er (!C! 22"!23 0ere ina,e@uate or unti(ely- the State ha, the bur,en to sho0 there 0as no error. Io0e.er- the .iolation ,i, not contra.ene a central purpose o" CaliforniaJs (resleA< Felando<?a:es /ireta- Act of 1"##- (!C! 22"!)3 et se*!, or the purpose o" the pro.ision 0as achie.e, ,espite any error. 4n,er that "ra(e0orF- the trial court ,i, not err in ,enying ,e"en,antsD (otion to suppress 0iretap e.i,ence because the 0iretaps 0ere obtaine, legally an, (ini(i;e,. ()eop"e $# Ro.erts et a"# (2010) 1#3 Cal.App.3th 113&.) (!C! 22"!21) Report to Attorney Leneral) A court or,er authori;ing an interception shall re@uire a report in 0riting or other0ise to be (a,e to the Attorney Leneral- sho0ing) Ehat persons- "acilities- places or any co(bination o" these- are to be intercepte,: and +he action taFen by the Cu,ge on each application.
+he report shall be (a,e at the inter.al that the or,er (ay re@uire- but not less than ten (10) ,ays a"ter the or,er 0as issue,. +he report shall be (a,e by any reasonable an, reliable (eans- as ,eter(ine, by the Attorney Leneral.
3#2
+he Attorney Leneral (ay issue regulations prescribing the collection an, ,isse(ination o" in"or(ation collecte,. +he Attorney Leneral shall- upon the re@uest o" an in,i.i,ual (aFing an application "or an interception or,erpro.i,e any in"or(ation Fno0n as a result o" these reporting re@uire(ents- as re@uire, by (!C! 22"!)3+a,+2,. (!C! 22"!22) Annual Report to the 7egislature- etc.) +he Attorney Leneral shall prepare an, sub(it an annual report to the 7egislature- the Ju,icial Council- an, the Director o" the A,(inistrati.e !""ice o" the 4nite, States Court on interceptions con,ucte, un,er the authority o" this chapter ,uring the prece,ing year. 1n"or(ation "or this report shall be pro.i,e, to the Attorney Leneral by any prosecutorial agency seeFing an or,er pursuant to this chapter. +he report shall inclu,e all o" the "ollo0ing ,ata) +he nu(ber o" or,ers or e?tensions applie, "or+he Fin,s o" or,ers or e?tension applie, "or+he "act that the or,er or e?tension 0as grante, as applie, "or- 0as (o,i"ie,- or 0as ,enie,+he nu(ber o" 0ire- electronic pager- an, electronic cellular telephone ,e.ices that are the subCect o" each or,er grante,+he perio, o" interceptions authori;e, by the or,eran, the nu(ber an, ,uration o" any e?tensions o" the or,er+he o""ense speci"ie, in the or,er or application- or e?tension o" any or,er+he i,entity o" the applying la0 en"orce(ent o""icer an, agency (aFing the application an, the person authori;ing the application-
3#3
+he nature o" the "acilities "ro( 0hich- or the place 0here co((unications 0ere to be intercepte,A general ,escription o" the interceptions (a,e un,er the or,er or e?tension- inclu,ing) +he nu(ber o" persons 0hose co((unications 0ere intercepte,. +he nu(ber o" co((unications intercepte,. +he percentage o" incri(inating co((unications intercepte,. +he percentage o" other co((unications intercepte,- and +he appro?i(ate nature- a(ount- an, costs o" the (anpo0er an, other resources use, in the interceptions-
+he nu(ber o" arrests resulting "ro( interceptions (a,e un,er the or,er or e?tension- an, the o""enses "or 0hich arrests 0ere (a,e+he nu(ber o" trials resulting "ro( the interceptions+he nu(ber o" (otions to suppress (a,e 0ith respect to the interceptions- an, the nu(ber grante, or ,enie,+he nu(ber o" con.ictions resulting "ro( the interceptions an, the o""enses "or 0hich the con.ictions 0ere obtaine,- an, a general assess(ent o" the i(portance o" the interceptions8?cept 0ith regar, to the initial report re@uire, by this section- the in"or(ation re@uire, by the prece,ing "i.e ($) paragraphs (e?clu,ing the i((e,iately prece,ing paragraph about the nu(ber o" con.ictions) 0ith respect to or,ers or e?tensions obtaine, in a prece,ing calen,ar year-
3#3
+he ,ate o" the or,er "or ser.ice o" in.entory (a,e pursuant to (!C! 22"!2#- con"ir(ation o" co(pliance 0ith the or,eran, the nu(ber o" notices sent. !ther ,ata that the 7egislature- the Ju,icial Councilor the Director o" the A,(inistrati.e !""ice shall re@uire.
+he annual report shall inclu,e a su((ary analysis o" the abo.e. +he Attorney Leneral (ay issue regulations prescribing the content an, "or( o" the reports re@uire, to be "ile, by a prosecutorial agency. +he Attorney Leneral s annual report shall be "ile, no later than April o" each year. +he Attorney Leneral shall- upon the re@uest o" an in,i.i,ual (aFing an application "or an interception or,erpro.i,e any in"or(ation Fno0n as a result o" these reporting re@uire(ents that 0oul, enable the in,i.i,ual (aFing an application to co(ply 0ith the re@uire(ents o" (!C! 22"!)3+a,+2,. (!C! 22"!24) Recor,ing- Sealing an, Retaining 1ntercepte, Co((unications) +he contents o" any 0ire or electronic co((unication intercepte, by any (eans authori;e, by this chapter shalli" possible- be recor,e, on any recor,ing (e,ia. +he recor,ing o" the contents o" any 0ire or electronic cellular telephone co((unication shall be ,one in a 0ay that) Eill protect the recor,ing "ro( e,iting or other alterations- and Eill ensure that the au,iotape recor,ing can be i((e,iately .eri"ie, as to its authenticity an, originality- and Any alteration can be i((e,iately ,etecte,.
3#$
+he (onitoring or recor,ing ,e.ice use, shall be o" a typean, shall be installe,- to preclu,e any interruption or (onitoring o" the interception by any unauthori;e, (eans. 1((e,iately upon the e?piration o" the perio, o" the or,eror e?tensions thereo"- the recor,ings shall be (a,e a.ailable to the Cu,ge issuing the or,er. +he recor,ing shall be seale, un,er the ,irection o" the Cu,ge. +he presence o" the seal- or a satis"actory e?planation "or the absence o" the seal- shall be a prere@uisite "or the use or ,isclosure o" the contents o" any 0ire or electronic cellular telephone co((unication or e.i,ence ,eri.e, there"ro( un,er (!C! 22"!1#- belo0. See United States $# %cGuire (&th Cir. 2002) 302 B.3r, 11&2- 1201%120$- 0here the BG1 in a "e,eral 0iretap pro.i,e, satis"actory reasons "or ,elaying the sealing 0here they ha, the court s per(issionthe Cu,ge 0as in another ,istrict- an, they tooF steps to protect the recor,ings pen,ing the sealing. 1n"or(ation recei.e, "ro( a pen register an,Nor a trap an, trace ,e.ice- recor,ing *call ,ata content/ (i.e.- *CDC-/ ,ata about call origination- length- an, ti(e o" call)- are not protecte, by the 0iretap statutes. +here is no e?pectation o" pri.acy in such in"or(ation- per Smith $# %ar&"and (1&2&) 332 4.S. 23$ 651 7.8,.2n, 2209. (United States $# Reed (&th Cir. 200&) $2$ B.3r, &00- &13%&12.) Custo,y o" the recor,ings shall be 0here the Cu,ge or,ers. Recor,ings shall be retaine, "or a (ini(u( o" ten (10) years- an, shall be ,estroye, therea"ter only upon an or,er o" the issuing or ,enying Cu,ge. Duplicate recor,ings (ay be (a,e "or use or ,isclosure pursuant to (!C! 22"!14 an, 22"!12 (belo0) "or in.estigations. +he sealing or,er (ay be oral or 0ritten- an, the physical sealing o" the tapes nee, not be ,one in the Cu,ge s presence. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6-est.roo(7 (1&&3) 1$ Cal.App.3th 31- 32%$1: ,iscussing "or(er (!C! 22"!14no0 22"!24.) 3#5
(!C! 22"!22) Application an, !r,ers to be Seale,) +he application an, or,ers (a,e pursuant to this chapter shall be) Seale, by the Cu,ge. Zept 0here the Cu,ge or,ers. Disclose, only upon a sho0ing o" good cause be"ore a Cu,ge. (ay be (a,e to the ,e"en,ant an, at trial. Retaine, "or ten (10) years- an, therea"ter ,estroye, only upon or,er o" the issuing or ,enying Cu,ge.
(!C! 22"!2#) Jotice to Parties to 1ntercepte, Co((unications) Eithin a reasonable ti(e- but no later than ninety (&0) ,ays) A"ter ter(ination o" the perio, o" an or,er or e?tensions thereo": or A"ter "iling o" an application "or an or,er o" appro.al un,er (!C! 22"!)2 0hich has been ,enie,:
+he issuing Cu,ge shall issue an or,er that shall re@uire the re@uesting agency to ser.e) Persons na(e, in the or,er or application- and !ther Fno0n parties to intercepte, co((unications:
An in.entory 0hich shall inclu,e notice o" all o" the "ollo0ing) +he "act o" the entry o" the or,er- and +he ,ate o" the entry an, the perio, o" authori;e, interception- and +he "act that ,uring the perio, 0ire- electronic ,igital pager- or electronic co((unication- cellular 3#2
telephone co((unications 0ere or 0ere not intercepte,. 4pon the "iling o" a (otion- the Cu,ge may- in his or her ,iscretion- (aFe a.ailable to the person or his or her counsel "or inspection the portions o" the intercepte, co((unications- applications an, or,ers that the Cu,ge ,eter(ines to be in the interest o" Custice. !n an e? parte sho0ing o" good cause to a Cu,ge- the ser.ing o" the in.entory re@uire, by this section (ay be postpone,. +he perio, o" postpone(ent shall be no longer than the authori;ing Cu,ge ,ee(s necessary to achie.e the purposes "or 0hich it 0as grante,. (!C! 22"!13) Disco.ery Prere@uisite to 4se in 8.i,ence) A cri(inal ,e"en,ant shall be noti"ie, that he or she 0as i,enti"ie, as the result o" an interception- such notice being be"ore a plea o" guilty or at least ten (10) ,ays be"ore trialhearing or procee,ing in the case other than an arraign(ent or gran, Cury procee,ing. +he ,e"en,ant is also entitle, to a copy o" all recor,e, interceptions- a copy o" the court or,eran, acco(panying application an, (onitoring logs- at least ten (10) ,ays be"ore trialhearing or procee,ing in the case other than a gran, Cury procee,ing. As a prere@uisite to a,(issibility into e.i,ence or other ,isclosure in any trialhearing- or other procee,ing- e?cept a gran, Cury procee,ing- o" the contents o" any intercepte, 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication- or any e.i,ence ,eri.e, there "ro(- each party shall be "urnishe, not less than ten (10) ,ays be"ore such trialhearing- or procee,ing- 0ith) A transcript o" the contents o" the interception- and A copy o" all recor,e, interceptions- and A copy o" the court or,er- acco(panying application- an, (onitoring logs. 3##
+he ten (10) ,ay perio, (ay be 0ai.e, by the Cu,ge i" he or she "in,s that it 0as not possible to "urnish the party 0ith the abo.e in"or(ation ten ,ays be"ore trialhearing or procee,ing- an, that the party 0ill not be preCu,ice, by the ,elay in recei.ing that in"or(ation. +he court (ay issue an or,er li(iting ,isclosure to the parties upon a sho0ing o" goo, cause. +he trial court ,enie, ,isco.ery o" the unre,acte, supporting 0iretap a""i,a.its that 0ere seale, pursuant to )eop"e $# 0o..s (1&&3) 2 Cal.3th &3#an, then re"use, to suppress the 0iretap e.i,ence. +he Appellate Court "oun, that the pri.ileges an, proce,ures o" ?!C! 1343<1342 (!""icial 1n"or(ation Pri.ilege) applies to 0iretap a""i,a.its. De"en,ants "aile, to ,e(onstrate that the trial court abuse, its ,iscretion by ruling that ,e"en,ants rights 0ere a,e@uately protecte, 0ith respect to their re@uests "or ,isclosure o" pri.ilege, ,ocu(entation- an, to their challenges to the su""iciency o" the 0iretap authori;ation or,ers in this case. ()eop"e $# Ace$edo (2012) 20& Cal.App.3th 1030- 1032%10$0.) (!C! 22"!12) Ootions to Suppress) *ny person in any trialhearing or procee,ing (ay (o.e to suppress) So(e or all o" the contents o" any intercepte, 0ireelectronic pager- or electronic co((unication- or Any e.i,ence ,eri.e, there "ro(:
!nly on the basis that the contents or e.i,ence 0ere obtaine, in .iolation o") +he Fourth Amendment- or +he ter(s o" this Chapter. +his Chapter ha.ing been enacte, subse@uent (1&&$%1&&5) to the passage o" 3#&
(ro-osition # (1&#2)- an, by a t0oNthir,s .ote o" the 7egislature- (aFes e""ecti.e this statutory e?clusionary rule. ()eop"e $# 2eon (200$) 131 Cal.App.3th &55- &22%&2#.) A suppression (otion shall be (a,e- ,eter(ine,- an, subCect to re.ie0 in accor,ance 0ith the proce,ures set "orth in (!C! 1)3#!). As such- in or,er to 0arrant an e.i,entiary hearing an, the cross%e?a(ining o" the a""iant to a 0iretap search 0arrant- the ,e"en,ant (ust "irst (eet the re@uire(ents o" Fran(s $# De"a,are (1&2#) 33# 4.S. 1$3 6$2 7.8,.2n, 5529. 1.e.- ,e"en,ant (ust "irst (aFe a substantial preli(inary sho0ing that a "alse state(ent 0as ,eliberately or recFlessly inclu,e, in the a""i,a.it sub(itte, in support o" the 0iretap application- an, that such "alse state(ent 0as (aterial to the court s "in,ing o" necessity. (United States $# Shr&"oc( (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, &3#- &25%&22.) *8.i,ence obtaine, "ro( an unla0"ul 0iretap (ay only be suppresse, i" the 0iretap .iolate, the 4nite, States Constitution or a proce,ure inten,e, to play a central role in the legislati.e sche(e an, the purpose o" that proce,ure 0as not achie.e, in so(e other (anner./ ()eop"e $# *ac(son (200$) 12& Cal.App.3th 12&- 13#%1$3: "in,ing also that Cali"ornia s +ruth in 8.i,ence pro.isions (i.e.(ro-osition #) ,o not pre.ent the suppression o" e.i,ence obtaine, in .iolation o" the 0iretap statutes. Pp. 1$2%1$3.) Case la0) An o""icer s *good faith/ is not groun,s "or ,enying a ,e"en,ant s (otion to suppress base, on a .iolation o" the 0iretap statutes. ()eop"e $# *ac(son- supra- at pp. 1$3%150.) Bailure to raise a search issue or one ,ealing 0ith co(pliance 0ith the statutory re@uire(ents o" a 0iretap 0ai.e (i.e.- *"or"eit/) that issue "or purposes o" appeal. ()eop"e $# Da$is (200#) 15# Cal.App.3th 512- 52$%532.) (!C! 22"!14) Disclosure to !ther 7a0 8n"orce(ent Agencies) 3&0
+he Attorney Leneral- any Deputy Attorney LeneralDistrict Attorney- Deputy District Attorney- or any peace o""icer- 0ho by any (eans authori;e, by this Chapter has obtaine, Fno0le,ge o" the contents o" any 0ire- electronic ,igital pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication- or e.i,ence ,eri.e, there"ro(- may ,isclose the contents to) Anyone re"erre, to in this section (abo.e)Any in.estigati.e or la0 en"orce(ent o""icer ,e"ine, in 1# !S!C! 2)13+1,- or Any Cu,ge or (agistrate:
+o the e?tent ,isclosure is) Per(itte, per (!C! 22"!#2- and Appropriate to the proper per"or(ance o" the o""icial ,uties o" the in,i.i,ual (aFing or recei.ing the ,isclosure.
Jo other ,isclosure- e?cept to a gran, Cury- o" intercepte, in"or(ation is per(itte, prior to a public court hearing by any person regar,less o" ho0 the person (ay ha.e co(e into possession thereo". (!C! 21"!12) 4se o" 1ntercepte, 1n"or(ation) +he Attorney Leneral- any Deputy Attorney LeneralDistrict Attorney- Deputy District Attorney- or any peace o""icer or "e,eral la0 en"orce(ent o""icer: Eho- by (eans authori;e, by this Chapter- has obtaine, Fno0le,ge o" the contents o" any 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic cellular co((unication- or e.i,ence ,eri.e, there "ro(: Oay use the contents or e.i,ence to the e?tent the use) 1s appropriate to the proper per"or(ance o" his or her o""icial ,uties: and 3&1
1s per(itte, by (!C! 22"!#2.
(!C! 22"!1#) Disclosure o" 1ntercepte, 1n"or(ation in +esti(ony) Any person 0ho has recei.e, by any (eans authori;e, by this Chapter any in"or(ation concerning a 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication- or e.i,ence ,eri.e, there"ro(- intercepte, in accor,ance 0ith the pro.isions o" this Chapter: ,ay- per (!C! 22"!#2- ,isclose the contents o" that co((unication or ,eri.ati.e e.i,ence: Ehile gi.ing testi(ony un,er oath or a""ir(ation in any cri(inal court procee,ing or in any gran, Cury procee,ing. (!C! 22"!#3) Pri.ilege, Co((unications) Jo other0ise pri.ilege, co((unication intercepte, in accor,ance 0ith this Chapter shall lose its pri.ilege, character. +ote) See ?:id! Code, "33 et se*! "or the statutory pri.ileges. Ehen a peace o""icer or "e,eral la0 en"orce(ent o""icer0hile engage, in the intercepting o" 0ire- electronic pageror electronic co((unication pursuant to this Chapterintercepts a pri.ilege, co((unication: Ie or she shall i((e,iately cease the interception "or at least t0o (2) (inutes. A"ter t0o (2) (inutes- interception (ay be resu(e, "or up to thirty (30) secon,s ,uring 0hich ti(e the o""icer shall ,eter(ine i" the nature o" the co((unication is still pri.ilege,. 1" still pri.ilege,- the o""icer shall again cease interception "or at least t0o (2) (inutes. A"ter t0o (2) (inutes- the o""icer (ay again resu(e interception "or up to thirty (30) secon,s to re,eter(ine the nature o" the co((unication. 3&2
+he o""icer shall continue to go online an, o""line in this (anner until the ti(e that the co((unication is no longer pri.ilege, or the co((unication en,s.
+he recor,ing ,e.ice shall be (etere, so as to authenticate upon re.ie0 that interruptions occurre, as set "or in this section. See )eop"e $# Re&es (200&) 122 Cal.App.3th 521- 5#1%5#2noting the (ini(i;ation re@uire(ents un,er 1# !S!C! 2)1#+), an, ,iscussing the *standing/ o" one o" the ,e"en,ants to raise the issue e.en though it 0as not her phone that 0as tappe,- an, United States $# %cGuire (&th Cir. 2002) 302 B.3r, 11&2- 11&&%1203- ,iscussing the *minimization/ o" intercepte, "a? co((unications un,er the "e,eral statutes. Ehat is re@uire, in the 0ay o" *(ini(i;ation/ ,epen,s upon the circu(stances. +he (ini(i;ation re@uire(ent is lessene, 0hen there is uncertainty as to the scope o" the conspiracy- or 0hen co% conspirators are talFing. ()eop"e $# Re&essupra.) (!C! 22"!#2: 1nterception o" Co((unications Relating to Cri(es ;ther Than +hose Speci"ie, in the Authori;ation !r,er) Bor cri(es liste, in (!C! 22"!)2+a,- or liste, in (!C! 221!)+c, as a *!iolent felony)/ 1" a peace o""icer or "e,eral la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- 0hile engage, in the intercepting o" 0ireelectronic ,igital pager- or electronic co((unication pursuant to this Chapter: 1ntercepts 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic co((unication relating to cri(es other than those speci"ie, in the or,er o" authori;ation- but 0hich are liste, in (!C! 22"!)2+a,- or liste, in (!C! 221!)+c, as a *!iolent felony)/ +he contents thereo"- an, e.i,ence ,eri.e, there"ro(- (ay be ,isclose, or use, as pro.i,e, in (!C! 22"!14 an, 22"!12: and 3&3
+he contents thereo"- an, e.i,ence ,eri.e, there"ro(- (ay be use, un,er (!C! 22"!1# 0hen authori;e, by a Cu,ge i" the Cu,ge "in,s- upon subse@uent application- that the contents 0ere other0ise intercepte, in accor,ance 0ith the pro.isions o" this Chapter.
+he *subse@uent application/ shall be (a,e as soon as practicable. See 1# !S!C! 2)11+), "or "e,eral rules relati.e to the ,isclosure o" intercepte, co((unications in.ol.ing o""ense other than those speci"ie, in a "e,eral Cu,ge s authori;ation or appro.al. Bor other than (!C! 22"!)2+a, cri(es or (!C! 221!)+c, .iolent "elonies) 1" a peace o""icer or "e,eral la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- 0hile engage, in the intercepting o" 0ireelectronic pager- or electronic co((unication pursuant to this Chapter: 1ntercepts 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic co((unication relating to cri(es other than those speci"ie, in the or,er o" authori;ation and 0hich are not liste, in (!C! 22"!)2+a, or (!C! 221!)+c,) +he contents thereo"- an, e.i,ence ,eri.e, there"ro(- (ay not be ,isclose, or use, as pro.i,e, in (!C! 22"!14 an, 22"!12Except to pre.ent the co((ission o" a public o""ense. +he contents thereo"- an, e.i,ence ,eri.e, there"ro(- (ay not be use, un,er (!C! 22"!1#- except 0here) +he e.i,ence 0as obtaine, through an in,epen,ent source- or +he e.i,ence 0oul, ha.e been ine.itably ,isco.ere, any0ay- and 3&3
+he use is authori;e, by a Cu,ge 0ho "in,s that the contents 0ere intercepte, in accor,ance 0ith the pro.isions o" this Chapter. Right to +otice and &opy) +he use o" the contents o" an intercepte, 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication relating to cri(es other than those speci"ie, in the or,er o" authori;ation to obtain a search or arrest 0arrant entitles the person(s) na(e, in the 0arrant to) +otice o" the intercepte, 0ire- electronic ,igital pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication: and * copy o" the contents thereo" that 0ere use, to obtain the 0arrant.
Section 22"!#2+a, e?ten,s the *plain !iew/ ,octrine to in"or(ation co((unicate, by so(eone other than the person i,enti"ie, in the 0iretap or,er about a cri(e other than the one 0hich Custi"ie, the tap. ()eop"e $# *ac(son (200$) 12& Cal.App.3th 12&- 13$.) (!C! 22"!#4) Cri(inal Punish(ent "or Uiolations) Any .iolation o" this Chapter is punishable by) A "ine not e?cee,ing t0o thousan, "i.e hun,re, ,ollars ([2-$00.00)- or 1(prison(ent in the county Cail not e?cee,ing one year- or 1(prison(ent in the state prison "or 15 (onths- 2 or 3 years (see (!C! 1#)- or Goth the abo.e "ine and the county Cail or state prison i(prison(ent.
(!C! 22"!#2) Ci.il Re(e,ies "or 4nauthori;e, 1nterceptions) Any person 0hose 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication is intercepte,- ,isclose,3&$
or use, in .iolation o" this Chapter shall ha.e the "ollo0ing ci.il re(e,ies) A ci.il cause o" action against any person 0ho intercepts- ,iscloses- or uses- or procures any other person to intercept- ,isclose- or use the co((unications. Ge entitle, to reco.erin that action- all o" the "ollo0ing) o Actual ,a(ages- but not less than li@ui,ate, ,a(ages co(pute, at the rate o" one hun,re, ,ollars ([100.00) a ,ay "or each ,ay o" .iolation- or one thousan, ([1-000.00)0hiche.er is greater: and o Puniti.e ,a(ages: and o Reasonable attorney s "ees an, other litigation costs reasonably incurre,. A goo, "aith reliance on a court or,er is a co(plete ,e"ense to any ci.il or cri(inal action brought un,er this Chapteror un,er Chapter 1.$ ((!C! 233 et se*!: 8a.es,ropping)or any other la0. (!C! 22"!##) 8""ects o" !ther Statutes) Jothing in (!C! 231 (Eiretapping)- 232!) (1ntercepting or Recei.ing Cellular Ra,io +elephone Co((unications)232!2 (1ntercepting or recei.ing Cor,less +elephone Co((unications)- or 232!1 (Recor,ing Co((unications Uia Cellular Ra,io- Cor,less- or 7an,line +elephone Eithout Consent o" All Parties) shall be construe, as) Prohibiting any peace o""icer or "e,eral la0 en"orce(ent o""icer "ro( intercepting o" any 0ireelectronic ,igital pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication pursuant to an or,er issue, in accor,ance 0ith the pro.isions o" this Chapter- or Ren,ering ina,(issible in any cri(inal procee,ing in any court or be"ore any gran, Cury any e.i,ence 3&5
obtaine, by (eans o" an or,er issue, in accor,ance 0ith the pro.isions o" this Chapter. Jothing in (!C! 231 (Erong"ul ,isclosure o" +elegraphic or +elephonic Co((unication) shall be construe, as prohibiting the ,isclosure o" the contents o" any 0ireelectronic pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication obtaine, by any (eans authori;e, by this Chapter. Jothing in this Chapter shall apply to any con,uct authori;e, by (!C! 233 (8?ceptions "or 7a0 8n"orce(ent: 8a.es,ropping). (!C! 22"!#") Co.ert Resi,ential 8ntries Prohibite,) Jo or,er issue, pursuant to this Chapter shall either ,irectly or in,irectly authori;e entry into or upon the pre(ises o" a resi,ential ,0elling- hotel roo(- or (otel roo(- "or installation or re(o.al o" any interception ,e.ice or "or any other purpose. Jot0ithstan,ing that this entry is other0ise prohibite, by any other section or co,e- this Chapter expressly prohibits co.ert entry o" a resi,ential ,0elling- hotel roo(- or (otel roo( to "acilitate an or,er to intercept a 0ire- electronic ,igital pager- or electronic co((unication. (!C! 22"!"3) !r,er "or Cooperation o" Public 4tilities7an,lor,s- Custo,ians an, !thers) An or,er authori;ing the interception o" 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic cellular telephone co((unication shall ,irect- upon re@uest o" the applicant- that) A public utility engage, in the business o" pro.i,ing co((unications ser.ices an, "acilitiesor A lan,lor,- or A custo,ian- or Any other person:
Burnish the applicant "orth0ith all in"or(ation- "acilitiesan, technical assistance necessary to acco(plish the interception unobtrusi.ely an, 0ith a (ini(u( o" 3&2
inter"erence 0ith the ser.ices the person or entity is pro.i,ing the person 0hose co((unications are to be intercepte,. Any such person or entity "urnishing "acilities or technical assistance shall be "ully co(pensate, by the applicant "or the reasonable costs o" "urnishing the "acilities an, technical assistance. (!C! 22"!"1) Ci.il or Cri(inal 7iability: Reliance 4pon Court !r,er) A goo, "aith reliance on a court or,er issue, in accor,ance 0ith this Chapter by any public utility- lan,lor,- custo,ianor any other person "urnishing in"or(ation- "acilitiesan, technical assistance as ,irecte, by the or,er: 1s a co(plete ,e"ense to any ci.il or cri(inal action brought un,er this Chapter- or Chapter 1.$ ((!C! 233 et se*!)- or any other la0. (!C! 22"!"2) Authority to Con"or( Procee,ings an, !r,er to Constitutional Re@uire(ents) Jot0ithstan,ing any other pro.ision o" la0- any court to 0hich an application is (a,e in accor,ance 0ith this Chapter may taFe any e.i,ence- (aFe any "in,ing- or issue any or,er re@uire, to con"or( the procee,ings or the issuance o" any or,er o" authori;ation or appro.al to the pro.isions o") +he Constitution o" the 4nite, States- or Any la0 o" the 4nite, States- or +his Chapter.
(!C! 22"!"4) +raining an, Certi"ication o" 7a0 8n"orce(ent !""icers) +he Co((ission on *Peace !""icer Stan,ar,s an, +raining/ (*P!S+/)- in consultation 0ith the Attorney Leneral- shall establish a course o" training in the legalpractical- an, technical aspects o" the interception o" pri.ate 0ire- electronic pager- or electronic co((unication an, relate, in.estigati.e techni@ues2 3&#
+he Attorney Leneral shall set (ini(u( stan,ar,s "or certi"ication an, perio,ic recerti"icationa o" the "ollo0ing persons as eligible to apply "or or,ers authori;ing the interception o" pri.ate 0ire- electronic ,igital pagers- or electronic co((unication- to con,uct the interceptions- an, to use the co((unications or e.i,ence ,eri.e, "ro( the( in o""icial procee,ings) 1n.estigati.e or la0 en"orce(ent o""icers: and !ther persons- 0hen necessary- to pro.i,e linguistic interpretation 0ho are ,esignate, by the Attorney Leneral- Chie" Deputy Attorney Leneral- or Chie" Assistant Attorney Leneral- Cri(inal 7a0 Di.isionor the District Attorney or the ,istrict attorneyDs ,esignee- an, are super.ise, by an in.estigati.e or la0 en"orce(ent o""icer.
P!S+ (ay charge a reasonable enroll(ent "ee "or those stu,ents 0ho are e(ploye, by an agency not eligible "or rei(burse(ent by the Co((ission to o""set the costs o" the training. +he Attorney Leneral (ay charge a reasonable "ee to o""set the costs o" certi"ication. a+ote) Recerti"ication has been set "or e.ery "i.e ($) years. (!C! 22"!"2: Se.erability) 1" any pro.ision o" this Chapter- or the application thereo" to any person or circu(stances- is hel, in.ali,- the re(ain,er o" the Chapter- an, the application o" its pro.isions to other persons or circu(stances- shall not be a""ecte, thereby. (!C! 22"!"#: Auto(atic Repeal) +his Chapter shall re(ain in e""ect only until January 1201$- an, as o" that ,ate is repeale,.
(!C! 232: 8a.es,ropping- Co(pare,) 3&&

Separate "ro(- an, in a,,ition to- the restrictions on 0iretapping- is the issue o" *ea!esdropping on the *confidential communications/ o" others (e""ecti.e 11N#N52). See 'eo(le v. !atekin (1989) 212 Cal.4((./rd 116%9
4lthou.h #.C. &31 and &32! +hich (rohibit +ireta((in. and ea)esdro((in.! res(ecti)el*! en)ision and describe the use of same or similar e=ui(ment to interce(t communications! the manner in +hich such e=ui(ment is used is clearl* distin.uished and mutuall* exclusi)e9 7Wiretapping3 is interce(tin. communications b* an unauthori@ed connection to the transmission line +hereas 7eavesdropping3 is interce(tion of communications b* the use of e=ui(ment +hich is not connected to an* transmission line.
2imitations on the Use o' Search -arrants: +ewsroom earches) (!C! 1)24+5, pro.i,es that: *Jo 0arrant shall issue "or any ite( ,escribe, in section 1313 o" the ?:idence Code./ ?:id! Code 1313 is the so%calle, *newsman)s pri!ilege/ section an, lists *unpublished information/ such as *notes- outtaFesphotographs- tapes or other ,ata o" 0hate.er sort not itsel" ,isse(inate, to the public/ as pri.ilege,. +here"ore- such ite(s (ay not be the subCect o" a search 0arrant. +his is not a "e,eral constitutional re@uire(ent. Such searches are legal e?cept as prohibite, by state la0. (4urcher $# The Stan'ord Dai"& (1&2#) 335 4.S. $32 6$5 7.8,.2n, $2$9.) +his ,oes not protect "ro( search 0arrants other e.i,entiary ite(s an, contraban,- as liste, in (!C! 1)24+a,+1, through +12,- 0here there is probable cause to belie.e the ite( sought is in a ne0sroo(.
earches of, and on, 'ndian Tribal Property) Search Earrants) 300
+he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal initially rule, that use o" a search 0arrant to sei;e *uni@uely tribal property on tribal land/ is a .iolation o" 1n,ian so.ereignty- in a ci.il suit "ile, pursuant to 42 !S!C! 1"#3- an, there"ore illegal. ( ishop )aiute Tri.e $# Count& o' In&o (&th Cir. 2002) 22$ B.3r, #&3.) +he Court reasone, that sei;ure o" 1n,ian casino e(ployee recor,s in a 0el"are "rau, case 0as not authori;e, by (u4lic =a> 2#3 (1# !S!C! 1122+a,)- 0hich ga.e selecte, states (inclu,ing Cali"ornia) Curis,iction o.er cri(inal o""enses co((itte, by or against in,i.i,ual 1n,ians. Io0e.er- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court .acate, the ,ecision in this case "in,ing that an 1n,ian tribe is not a *person-/ as re@uire, by 42 !S!C! 1"#3- an, thus coul, not legally "ile a ci.il suit alleging a .iolation o" their ci.il rights un,er authority o" this section. +he case 0as re(an,e, it bacF "or a ,eter(ination 0hether there is so(e other legal basis "or 1n,ian tribes to challenge the e?ecution o" a search 0arrant on tribal property. (In&o Count& $# )aiute3Shone Indians (2003) $3# 4.S. 201 61$$ 7.8,.2n, &339.) Applicability o" the Fourth Amendment) As "or 1n,ian reser.ations outsi,e o" Cali"ornia (i.e.Ari;ona in this case)- it has been hel, that the Fourth Amendment does not ,irectly go.ern the con,uct o" tribal go.ern(ents. Rather- the *Indian Ci$i" Ri1hts Act/ (i.e.*ICRA/) applies instea,. Io0e.er- because the IC8A contains a pro.ision regulating tribal la0 en"orce(ent 0ith language i,entical to that containe, in the Fourth Amendment (see 2) !S!C! 1332+2,)- the sa(e legal reasoning as use, in en"orcing the Fourth Amendment applies to 1n,ian tribes as 0ell. (United States $# ecerra3 Garcia (&th Cir. 200$) 3&2 B.3r, 1152.) Cali"ornia 1n,ian la0- ho0e.erin.ol.es the so% calle, *(u4lic =a> 2#3-/ 0hich calls "or ,i""erent stan,ar,s. Arguably- there"ore- Fourth Amendment stan,ar,s (in principle- i" not in the letter o" the la0) are applicable. Gut- see belo0. 301
+his sa(e reasoning 0as use, to "in, a search by Cali"ornia 1n,ian tribal o""icers (A(a,or County) to be illegal an, subCect to an 8?clusionary Rule. Although the Fourth Amendment ,i, not apply to the 1n,ian la0 en"orce(ent o""icers- 2) !S!C! 1332+2, an, the Fourteenth Amendment.s ,ue process clause (an,ate, the suppression o" e.i,ence 0hich 0as the pro,uct o" an unla0"ul search o" a .ehicle on an 1n,ian reser.ation. ()eop"e $# Ramire5 (2002) 13# Cal.App.3th 1353.) Juris,ictional 1ssues) +he states ha.e e?clusi.e cri(inal Curis,iction o.er cri(es co((itte, on 1n,ian lan, bet0een non%1n,ians- as 0ell as .icti(less cri(es co((itte, by non%1n,ians. (See United States $# %c ratne& (1##2) 103 4.S. 521 625 7.8,. #5&9: O"iphant $# Su:uamish Indian Tri.e (1&2#) 33$ 4.S. 1&1 6$$ 7.8,.2n, 20&9: see also )eop"e $# Ramire5- supra.- at p. 132$- "n. &.) Cali"ornia has assu(e, e?clusi.e Curis,iction o.er other cri(es co((itte, by or against 1n,ians on 1n,ian lan,. ()eop"e $# Ramire5- supra.- at p. 132$- "n. &: 1# !S!C! 1122.) earch of #nauthorized &ell Phone Reco!ered at &D&R) (!C! 4)12: CDCR (Cali"ornia Depart(ent o" Corrections an, Rehabilitation) shall not access ,ata or co((unications that ha.e been capture, using a.ailable technology "ro( the unauthori;e, use o" a 0ireless co((unication ,e.ice e?cept a"ter obtaining a search 0arrant. Retention of the Documents) A seale, a""i,a.it (per )eop"e $# 0o..s (1&&3) 2 Cal.3th &3#.) (ay be retaine, by a la0 en"orce(ent agency only upon a "i.e%part sho0ing) (1) +he ,isclosure 0oul, i(pair "urther in.estigation o" cri(inal con,uct- or en,anger the sa"ety o" a con"i,ential in"or(ant or the in"or(ant s "a(ily: (2) Security proce,ures at the court clerF s o""ice are ina,e@uate to protect the a""i,a.it against ,isclosure: (3) +he security proce,ures at the la0 en"orce(ent agency are su""icient to protect the a""i,a.it against ,isclosure: 302
(3) +he la0 en"orce(ent agency has proce,ures to ensure the a""i,a.it is retaine, "or 10 years (per(anently in capital cases) a"ter the "inal ,isposition o" the case- pen,ing "urther or,er o" the court (see 9o:.t! Code 2#1)2+K,): and ($) +he (agistrate has (a,e a su""icient recor, o" the ,ocu(ents re.ie0e,- inclu,ing the seale, (aterials- to per(it i,enti"ication o" the original seale, a""i,a.it or to per(it reconstruction o" the a""i,a.it. ()eop"e $# Ga""and (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 3$3: also "in,ing that the loss o" the a""i,a.it ,i, not in.ali,ate the 0arrant 0hen *other e.i,ence (ay be presente, to establish the "act that an a""i,a.it 0as presente,- as 0ell as its contents./) %echanics o' )reparation) #se a Deputy District *ttorney to at least re.ie0 an, appro.e the 0arrant an, a""i,a.it *for legal sufficiency-/ i" not to assist in the actual preparation. Asi,e "ro( the bene"its o" ha.ing so(eone else proo"rea, the 0arrant an, a""i,a.it- this also a,,s to the *good faith/ argu(ent shoul, the 0arrant later be "oun, to be lacFing in probable cause. (See )eop"e $# Camare""a (1&&1) $3 Cal.3r, $&2- 502%502.) &ollect all reports- necessary physical ,escriptions o" the place to be searche, an, the property to be sei;e,- e?hibits- etc.- prior to beginning the preparation. OaFe sure all exhibits are labeled and attached to the 0arrant a""i,a.itan, are *incorporated by reference/ in the a""i,a.it. Zeep the 0arrant an, a""i,a.it separate. +he suspect(s) shoul, later be allo0e, to rea, the 0arrant 0ith a copy being le"t at the place searche,- although this is not re@uire, by state la0. +he a""i,a.it is not sho0n to the suspect(s) nor le"t at the scene. ()eop"e $# Ca"a.rese (2002) 101 Cal.App.3th 2&.) Be,eral rules- as interprete, by the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal- are to the contrary- (an,ating that a copy o" the 0arrant be sho0n to- an, le"t 0ith- the subCect 0hose property is being searche, in all cases. (See Ramire5 $# utte Si"$er o, Count& (&th Cir. 2002) 2&# B.3r, 1022: an, Federal 8ules of Criminal (rocedure, 8ule 41+d,) 303
(See *"ea!ing a &opy of the =arrant, *ffida!it, andJor Receipt and 'n!entory-/ belo0) 7ea.e a copy o" the *Receipt and 'n!entory/ at the scene. ((!C! 1)3)) +he (agistrate 0ill asF the a""iant(s) to s0ear to the truth o" the a""i,a.it. +he (agistrate 0ill sign the a""i,a.it and the 0arrant. Ser$ice and Return) A search 0arrant is ,irecte, to *any peace officer/ "or ser.ice. ((!C! 1)2") See *=ho ,ay er!e-/ belo0. +ecessity to er!e) A search 0arrant is not an in.itation that o""icers can choose to accept or reCect. 1t is an or,er o" the court base, on probable cause 0hich (ust be e?ecute,. ()eop"e $# Fisher (2002) &5 Cal.App.3th 1132: search 0arrant "or (ariCuana e?ecute, ,espite ,e"en,ant s presentation o" proo" at the scene that he 0as legally entitle, to possess (ariCuana pursuant to F&S 11322!)- Cali"ornia s *Compassionate Use Act:/ (ro-osition 21).) Io0e.er- it is e?pecte, that o""icers 0ill e?ercise so(e ,iscretion in a.oi,ing the taFing o" e?cessi.e- cu(ulati.e property- an, unnecessary ,estructi.e beha.ior- in e?ecuting a search 0arrant. (San *ose Charter o' the 0e""s An1e"s %otorc&c"e C"u. $# Cit& o' San *ose (&th Cir. 200$) 302 B.3r, &52.) +ight er!ice) Search 0arrants (ust be ser.e, bet0een 1I.. a2m2 and /.I.. p2m2- absent an en,orse(ent by the (agistrate "or night ser.ice. ((!C! 1)33) *+ight ser!ice/ (ust be supporte, by *good cause-/ i.e.- so(e articulable reason 0hy ser.ice cannot 0ait until (orning. (See *+ighttime earches-/ abo.e.) +ote) Although typically- night ser.ice beco(es an issue 0hen e?ecuting a search 0arrant at a resi,ence- the statute ,oes not li(it the necessity "or a night ser.ice en,orse(ent to resi,ences. Ehen a search 0arrant speci"ies a person- !ehicle or any other container to be searche,- e?ecution o" such a 0arrant at night probably also (ust be Custi"ie, in the a""i,a.it an, appro.e, by the (agistrate. 303
8?ecuting a search 0arrant *at night/ 0ithout authori;ation- at least i" no one is ho(e- 0ill not result in the suppression o" any e.i,ence. (Tid,e"" $# Superior Court (1&21) 12 Cal.App.3r, 2#02#2.) 'n6&ounty er!ice) A Cu,ge can issue a 0arrant to be ser.e, any0here in the county in 0hich he or she is sitting. ()eop"e $# Smead (1&#$) 12$ Cal.App.3r, 1101.) ;ut6of6&ounty er!ice) Search 0arrants (ay be issue, "oran, ser.e,out%o"%county so long as it relates to an o""ense that can be prosecute, in the issuing (agistrate s county. ()eop"e $# Ruster (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, 5&0: )eop"e $# F"emin1 (1&#1) 2& Cal.3r, 5&#- 202: )eop"e $# Ease"& (1&#3) 33 Cal.3r, #$#- #5&%#20: )eop"e $# Rui5 (1&&0) 212 Cal.App.3r, $23.) +he issuing (agistrate (ust (erely ha.e probable cause to belie.e that the case is triable in his or her county. ()eop"e $# Ease"&supra.) (!C! 1)24+K, pro.i,es statutory authority "or a (agistrate to issue a search 0arrant to be e?ecute, in a ,i""erent county 0here the allege, o""ense(s) inclu,e a .iolation o" (!C! )33!) (1,enti"y +he"t)- an, the .icti( resi,es in the issuing (agistrate s county. 8.en though the issuing (agistrate is later ,eter(ine, to not ha.e Curis,iction o.er a cri(e "or 0hich he issues a 0arrant (i.e.- it is later ,isco.ere, that the allege, cri(e is not triable in the (agistrate s county)- *good faith/ (ay sa.e the i(properly issue, out%o"%county 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Rui5, supra: )eop"e $# Ga"$an (1&&2) $ Cal.App.3th #55: )eop"e $# Dant5"er (1&##) 205 Cal.App.3r, 2#&.) ;ut6of6 tate &rimes) A Cali"ornia Cu,ge (ay issue a search 0arrant "or a location 0ithin his or her county to search "or e.i,ence locate, 0ithin the county rele.ant to a cri(e co((itte, in another state. ()eop"e $# /ra't (2000) 23 Cal.3th &2#.) 1t is not a legal re@uire(ent that la0 en"orce(ent authorities in the "oreign state ha.e re@ueste,- or e.en be a0are o"- the search 0arrant. (I.id.) =ho ,ay er!e) !nly a *peace officer/ (0ith e?ceptions as note, belo0)as liste, on the "ace o" the 0arrant (i.e.- *any peace officer/)- (ay la0"ully ser.e a search 0arrant- although the peace o""icer (ay be assiste, by others. ((!C! 1)2"- 1)33) 30$
Ehile the a""iant nee, not necessarily be a s0orn peace o""icer ()eop"e $# e"" (1&&5) 3$ Cal.App.3th 1030- 10$3%10$$.)- the person e?ecuting the 0arrant (ust be. Exceptions) +here are so(e e?ceptions to the general rule that the person ser.ing a search 0arrant (ust be a peace o""icer) (!C! #33!13: Persons liste, belo0 0ho are not *peace officers/ (ay e?ercise the po0er to ser.e 0arrants as speci"ie, in (!C! 1)23 W 1)33- an, #33!11 ,uring the course an, 0ithin the scope o" their e(ploy(ent- i" they recei.e a course in the e?ercise o" that po0er pursuant to (!C! #32. Su4d! +a,+1,: Persons e(ploye, as in.estigators o" an au,itor%controller or ,irector o" "inance o" any county- or persons e(ploye, by a city an, county 0ho con,uct in.estigations un,er the super.ision o" the controller o" the city an, county- 0ho are regularly e(ploye, an, pai, in that capacitypro.i,e, that the pri(ary ,uty o" these persons shall be to engage in in.estigations relate, to the the"t o" "un,s or the (isappropriation o" "un,s or resources- or in.estigations relate, to the ,uties o" the au,itor%controller or "inance ,irector as set "orth in 9o:.t! Code 22##3 et se*!- 22"33 et se*!22"13 et se*!- an, 22"#3 et se*. Su4d! +a,+2,) Persons e(ploye, by the Depart(ent o" Justice as in.estigati.e au,itors- pro.i,e, that the pri(ary ,uty o" these persons shall be to in.estigate "inancial cri(es. 1n.estigati.e au,itors shall only ser.e 0arrants "or the pro,uction o" ,ocu(entary e.i,ence hel, by "inancial institutions- 1nternet ser.ice pro.i,ers- teleco((unications co(paniesan, thir, parties 0ho are not reasonably suspecte, o" engaging or ha.ing engage, in cri(inal acti.ity relate, to the ,ocu(entary e.i,ence "or 0hich the 0arrant is re@ueste,. 0!C! 21133!4+a,+1,) A *,esignate, local transportation o""icer-/ "or the purpose o" sei;ing an, causing the re(o.al o" a .ehicle operate, as a ta?icab or other passenger .ehicle "or hire upon establishing in an a""i,a.it reasonable cause to belie.e that sai, .ehicle is being operate, in .iolation o" 305
licensing re@uire(ents a,opte, by a local authority un,er 0!C! 21133+4,. A *designated local transportation officer/ (eans any local public o""icer e(ploye, by a local authority to in.estigate an, en"orce local ta?icab an, .ehicle "or hire la0s an, regulations. Be,eral cri(inal in.estigator an, "e,eral la0 en"orce(ent o""icers are not Cali"ornia peace o""icers. (See (!C! #33!#+a,) 1t is per(issible "or a burglary .icti( to acco(pany the searching o""icers an, point out ite(s stolen "ro( hi(. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6%e&ers7 (1&2&) 2$ Cal.3r, 52: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6%oore7 (1&#0) 103 Cal.App.3r, 1001.) 1t is also la0"ul to use a police ,og traine, to ,etect narcotics. (See )eop"e $# Russe"" (1&#2) 1&$ Cal.App.3r, 1#5.) Io0e.er- (e(bers o" the news media- or any other thir, party not necessary to the e?ecution o" the 0arrant- (ust not be allo0e, to enter a suspect s pri.ate resi,ence. +o allo0 such persons to acco(pany the searching o""icers is a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (-i"son $# 2a&ne (1&&&) $25 4.S. 503- 513 6133 7.8,.2n, #1#- #309: 0an"on $# er1er (1&&&) $25 4.S. #0# 6133 7.8,.2n, &2#9.) Gut e.en though (e(bers o" the ne0s (e,ia is presentsuppression is not calle, "or 0here they ,o not ,isco.er or ,e.elop any o" the e.i,ence later use, at trial. Ehere,espite being le, on tours through the cri(e scene- the (e,ia ,i, not e?pan, the scope o" the search beyon, a search 0arrant s ,ictates nor assist the police- or touch(o.e- han,le or taint the a,(itte, e.i,ence in any 0ay- the Fourth Amendment ,oes not re@uire the suppression o" any e.i,ence. (United States $# Duenas (&th Cir. 2012) 5&1 B.3r, 1020- 102&%10#3.) Anoc? and +otice) <eneral Rule) Any ti(e a police o""icer (aFes entry into the resi,ence o" another to arrest ((!C! #44)- 0ith or 0ithout an arrest 0arrant- or to ser!e a search warrant ((!C! 1)31)- he (ust "irst) ZnocF. 302
1,enti"y hi(sel" as a police o""icer. State his purpose (e.g.- ser.ing an arrest 0arrant). De(an, 8ntry. ()eop"e $# Schad (1&21) 21 Cal.App.3r, 201- 202: )eop"e $# %urph& (200$) 32 Cal.3th 3&0- 3&$.) +ote) (!C! #44 is not li(ite, to la0 en"orce(ent o""icers- i(posing these re@uire(ents on a pri!ate person as 0ell- *if the offense is a felony./ ZnocF an, notice re@uire(ents apply to entries for *in!estigati!e purposes/ as 0ell- although not co(ing 0ithin the pro.isions o" (!C! #44 or 1)31. ()eop"e $# %i""er (1&&&) 5& Cal.App.3th 1&0- 201.) ZnocF an, notice re@uire(ents also apply to entries (a,e "or purposes o" con,ucting a Fourth Eai.er search. ()eop"e $# Constancio (1&23) 32 Cal.App.3r, $33- $32: )eop"e $# 2i"ientha" (1&2#) 22 Cal.3r, #&1- &00: )eop"e $# %a&s (1&&#) 52 Cal.App.3th &5&- &23- "n. 3: an, see )eop"e $# %urph& (200$) 32 Cal.3th 3&0.) +he "e,eral e@ui.alent- (ost o"ten re"erre, to as *?noc? and announce-/ is containe, in 1# !S!C! 313".
)#C# B 1G<1: *+he o""icer (ay breaF open any outer or inner ,oor or 0in,o0 o" a house- or any part o" a house or anything therein- to e?ecute the 0arrant- i"- a"ter notice o" his authority an, purpose- he is re"use, a,(ittance./ Purpose) +he primary purpose o" the rule is to a!oid !iolent confrontations by gi.ing the occupants the ti(e an, opportunity to peaceably open the ,oor an, a,(it the o""icers. ()eop"e $# )eterson (1&23) & Cal.3r, 212- 223: Du(e $# Superior Court (1&5&) 1 Cal.3r, 313- 321.) +here are other purposes- as 0ell) *+he purposes an, policies un,erlying section #44 are "our"ol,) (1) the protection o" the pri.acy o" the in,i.i,ual in his ho(e 6citations9: (2) the protection o" innocent persons 0ho (ay also be present on the pre(ises 0here an arrest is (a,e 6citation9: (3) the pre.ention o" situations 0hich are con,uci.e to .iolent con"rontations bet0een the occupant an, in,i.i,uals 0ho enter his ho(e 0ithout proper notice 6citations9: an, (3) the protection o" police 30#
0ho (ight be inCure, by a startle, an, "ear"ul househol,er./ ()eop"e $# /in1 (1&21) $ Cal.3r, 3$#- 353"n. 3: )eop"e $# %urph& (200$) 32 Cal.3th 3&0- 3&5.) Ehen co(pliance ,oes not ser.e to satis"y the purposes behin, the FnocF an, notice re@uire(ents- "ailing to co(ply 0ith those re@uire(ents may not be a .iolation o" the Constitution. (%artin $# Cit& o' Oceanside (&th Cir. 2003) 350 B.3r, 102#- 10#3%10#3: noting that) *+he prophylactic purpose o" the rule is not ser.e, 0here the occupants o" the ho(e Fno0 that it is the police FnocFing at the ,oor an, si(ply lea.e the area an, choose not to ans0er./) Problem) Does this not also gi.e the occupants an opportunity to ,estroy e.i,ence- ar( the(sel.es- an,Nor escapeM FesX Gut- the 7egislature an, the courts- in balancing the interests- ha.e ,eter(ine, that 0arning the occupants that it is la0 en"orce(ent that is (aFing entry- an, allo0ing ti(e "or the( to open the ,oor peaceably- is the sa"er alternati.e in (ost cases. (Du(e $# Superior Court- supra.) Exceptions) $usinesses) +he rule ,oes not apply to the entry o" a business that is open to the public. ()eop"e $# 2o$ett (1&2#) #2 Cal.App.3r, $22- $32.) 1nner ,oors o" a business are also not protecte,- at least a"ter the o0ners ha.e been contacte, an, in"or(e, as to 0hat the o""icers are ,oing. ()eop"e $# )ompa (1&#&) 212 Cal.App.3r, 130#- 1312.) An e?ception (ight be so(eone s locFe, inner o""ice 0here a higher e?pectation o" pri.acy is being e?hibite,. ()eop"e $# 2ee (1&#5) 1#5 Cal.App.3r, 233- 2$0.) 'nner Doors of a Residence) +he (aCority rule is that the FnocF an, notice rules ,o not apply to inner doors o" a resi,ence- 0hether or not the inner ,oor is close,. ()eop"e $# 2i$ermore (1&23) 30 Cal.App.3r, 1023: )eop"e $# 0o,ard (1&&3) 1# Cal.App.3th 1$33: )eop"e $# A1ui"ar (1&&5) 3# Cal.App.3th 532: )eop"e $# %a&s (1&&#) 52 Cal.App.3th &5&.) 30&
Gut see )eop"e $# -e.. (1&23) 35 Cal.App.3r, 350e?pressing the (inority opinion that- so long as close,- the rule does apply to inner ,oors. Refusal) 1" the occupants ,o not allo0 the o""icers to enter- the police (ay (aFe a forcible entry. 'mplied Refusal) *Refusal/ nee, not necessarily be express. Eaiting a reasonable ti(e 0ith no response 0ill Custi"y a "orce, entry. A"ter a reasonable ti(e- the o""icers (ay assu(e they are being ,enie, entry an, (aFe a "orcible entry. ()eop"e $# Ga""o (1&#1) 122 Cal.App.3r, #2#- #3#.) Jote that a re"use, entry is not one o" the liste, statutory prere@uisites un,er (!C! #44. +here"orea re"usal is not an ele(ent necessary to pro.e co(pliance 0ith a 0arrantless entry ,one "or the purpose o" a""ecting an arrest. ()eop"e $# Schme" (1&2$) $3 Cal.App.3r, 35- $0%$1.) 1n Schme"- ho0e.er- the o""icers an, the occupants 0ere staring at each other through a screen ,oor. Eaiting "or a re"usal- per the court- 0oul, ha.e been "ruitless. +he purpose o" FnocF an, notice ha, been (et 0hen the occupants Fne0 the o""icers 0ere there an, 0ere ,e(an,ing entry. Io0 long constitutes a *reasonable time/ to 0ait ,epen,s upon the circu(stances- ()eop"e $# Tru;i""o (1&&0) 212 Cal.App.3r, 121&- 1225.)- taFing into consi,eration the si;e o" the house- the ti(e o" ,ay- any percei.e, e?igencies- etc. Rule of Thumb) Bor (ost ho(es- (ost courts are satis"ie, 0ith appro?i(ately 30 secon,s. Bi.e secon,s is ,e"initely not long enough. (United States $# Gran$i""e (&th Cir. 2000) 222 B.3r, 1213.) Bi"teen to t0enty secon,s 0as not enough to satis"y the statute- un,er the circu(stances o" )eop"e $# 0oa1 (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 11&#- but 0as not so aggra.ate, as to be a constitutional .iolation. (See belo0) 310
Gut t0enty to thirty secon,s 0as "oun, to be enough 0hen entering a s(all apart(ent (#00 s@uare "eet) in the early e.ening- Fno0ing three persons 0ere ho(e an, ha.ing so(e reason to "ear that ,e"en,ant (ight be ,angerous. (United States $# Cha$e53%iranda (&th Cir. 2002) 305 B.3r, &23.) Oost recently- the 4.S. Supre(e Court uphel, a 1$ to 20 secon, 0ait- noting that the (ore i(portant "actor is the nature o" the e?igency- as oppose, to the si;e o" the resi,ence. Ehere the o""icers are concerne, 0ith the ,estruction o" a controlle, substance- 0hich can be acco(plishe, in a (atter o" secon,s- o""icers nee, not 0ait as long as they (ight ha.e to un,er circu(stances 0here physical property is the subCect o" the search- or the ti(e it taFes a person to co(e to the ,oor is o" (ore concern. (United States $# an(s (2003) $30 4.S. 31 61$2 7.8,.2n, 3339.) +he Court also hel, that the "act that property (ust be ,a(age, (e.g.- the ,oor) to gain entry ,oes not re@uire a correspon,ing heightene, e?igency to Custi"y a "orce, entry. (Id.- at p. 32 61$2 7.8,.2n, at p. 3$$9: citing United States $ Ramire5 (1&&#) $23 4.S. 5$- 20%21 6130 7.8,.2n, 1&19.) !""icers 0ere "oun, to ha.e 0aite, long enough 0hen 2$ to 3$ secon,s passe, be"ore entering the garage- an, another 30 secon, passe, be"ore entering the house- in a narcotics%relate, case- e.en though the entry 0as at 2)00 a.(. ()eop"e $# %artine5 (200$) 132 Cal.App.3th 233- 233%23$.) Exigent &ircumstances) 1" the o""icers hear noises or see (o.e(ent "ro( insi,e in,icating that suspects are escapinge.i,ence is being ,estroye,- or the occupants are ar(ing the(sel.es- or any other circu(stance 0hich reasonably in,icates to the o""icers that 0aiting "or an occupant to open the ,oor 0oul, be a "utile act- 0ill co(pro(ise the collection o" e.i,ence- or unnecessarily risF the sa"ety o" the o""icers or others- then an i((e,iate "orcible entry (ay be (a,e. ()eop"e $# %addo! (1&$5) 35 Cal.2n, 301- 305: hearing retreating "ootsteps insi,e.)
311
See also )eop"e $# Tri.."e (1&21) 3 Cal.3r, #25- at p. #33) Bailing to co(ply 0ith the *FnocF an, notice/ rules is e?cuse,- *i" the speci"ic "acts Fno0n to the o""icer be"ore his entry are su""icient to support his goo, "aith belie" that co(pliance 0ill increase his peril- "rustrate the arrest- or per(it the ,estruction o" e.i,ence./ Exigent circumstances 0ill be "oun, un,er any one o" three types o" circu(stances) Ehen o""icers ha.e a *reasonable suspicion/ that FnocFing an, announcing their presenceun,er the particular circu(stances- it 0oul,) Ge ,angerous: Butile: or 1nhibit the e""ecti.e in.estigation o" the cri(e- such as by allo0ing the ,estruction o" e.i,ence. (United States $# )eterson (&th Cir. 2003) 3$3 B.3r, 103$- 103#: citing Richards $# -isconsin (1&&2) $20 4.S. 3#$- 3&3 6132 7.8,.2n, 513- 5239.) 1t nee, only be sho0n that the o""icer ha, an articulable *reasonable suspicion/ Custi"ying such an e?igent circu(stance to e?cuse co(pliance 0ith FnocF an, notice. (Richards $# -isconsin- supra: 0udson $# %ichi1an (2005) $32 4.S. $#5- $&$%$&5 615$ 7.8,.2n, $59.) See also United States $# an(s (2003) $30 4.S. 31- 33 61$2 7.8,.2n, 333- 3$59) *Gut in a case liFe this- 0here the o""icers FnocFe, an, announce, their presence- an, "orcibly entere, a"ter a reasonable suspicion o" e?igency ha, ripene,- their entry satis"ie, (1# !S!C! 313") as 0ell as the Fourth Amendment- e.en 0ithout re"usal o" a,(ittance./ (1talics a,,e,) Cali"ornia subscribes to the rule in an(s. ()eop"e $# %urph& (200$) 32 Cal.3th 3&0: !""icers (a,e entry 0ithout co(plying 0ith FnocF an, notice a"ter *loudly/ arresting so(eone outsi,e- causing the o""icers to belie.e that the occupants 0oul, liFely ,estroy narcotics Fno0n to be insi,e. See also )eop"e $# F"ores (1&#2) 12# Cal.App.3r, $12$21.) 312
(or example) Iearing retreating "ootsteps insi,e. ()eop"e $# %addo! (1&$5) 35 Cal.2n, 301.) An occupant is hear, screa(ing. ()eop"e $# 0a"" (1&21) 3 Cal.3r, &22.) An occupant opene, the ,oor be"ore the o""icers 0ere prepare, to FnocF- note, the police uni"or(san, sla((e, the ,oor shut. (United States $# )eterson (&th Cir. 2003) 3$3 B.3r, 103$.) !ccupants see the o""icers approaching- a"ter 0hich one o" the occupants is seen atte(pting to Cu(p "ro( a 0in,o0 an, soun,s o" a toilet "lushing 0ere hear,. ()eop"e $# 2ope5 (1&5&) 25& Cal.App.2n, 351- 35&.) !""icers hear a ,oor sla((ing an, rapi, "ootsteps insi,e. ()eop"e $# -atson (1&2&) #& Cal.App.3r, 325- 3#0.) An o""icer s(elle, ether an, obser.e, occupants running. ()eop"e $# Ste1man (1&#$) 153 Cal.App.3r, &35- &35.) !""icers see one suspect atte(pting to ,ispose o" narcotics an, ,e"en,ant sla((e, the ,oor on the o""icers. ()eop"e $# Ne,e"" (1&5&) 222 Cal.App.2n, 53#- 533.) Ehen i((e,iate entry is necessary to checF the 0el"are o" an occupant. ()eop"e $# %i""er (1&&&) 5& Cal.App.3th 1&0.) Io0e.er- a *generalized fear/ that occupants o" a resi,ence (ay be ar(e,- that suspects (ay be "leeing- or that e.i,ence is being ,estroye,- absent articulable reasons "or so belie.ing- is probably insu""icient to Custi"y a "in,ing o" *exigent circumstances./ At the .ery least- it is not su""icient cause to Custi"y the issuance o" a *no ?noc?/ 0arrant. (Richards $# -isconsin- supra: see *+o Anoc? earch =arrants-/ belo0.) 313
Although prior Fno0le,ge o" "irear(s being in the house- by itsel"- ,oes not e?cuse the "ailure to co(ply 0ith FnocF an, notice (United States $# %arts (#th Cir. 1&&3) &#5 B.2n, 1215.)- *the presence o" a "irear( couple, 0ith e.i,ence that a suspect is 0illing an, able to use the 0eapon 0ill o"ten Custi"y non%co(pliance 0ith the FnocF an, announce re@uire(ent./ (United States $# &num (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $23- $#1%$#2: ,e"en,ant Fno0n to ans0er the ,oor 0ith a pistol in han,- an, acte, strangely 6in the nu,e9 0hen he ,i, so.) 4pon seeing an altercation taFing place through the Fitchen 0in,o0- an, being ignore, 0hen announcing their presence at the screen ,oor- the uni"or(e, o""icers 0ere Custi"ie, in (aFing an i((e,iate entry 0here a secon, announce(ent 0as (a,e- @uelling the ,isturbance! ri1ham Cit& $# Stuart (2005) $32 4.S. 3&# 6153 7.8,.2n, 5$09: it *ser.(ing) no purpose to re@uire the( to stan, ,u(bly at the ,oor a0aiting a response 0hile those 0ithin bra0le, on- obli.ious to their presence./ (at p. 302.) Doctrine of ubstantial &ompliance) +he courts ,o not generally re@uire la0 en"orce(ent o""icers to per"or( an i,le act. (CC 3)32: *,axims of :urisprudence/) *Substantial co(pliance (eans Aactual co(pliance in respect to the substance essential to e.ery reasonable obCecti.e o" the statute- as ,istinguishe, "ro( A(ere technical i(per"ections o" "or(. 6Citation.9 +he essential in@uiry is 0hether un,er the circu(stances the polices un,erlying the FnocF%notice re@uire(ents 0ere ser.e,. 6Citation.9/ (1talics in original: )eop"e $# Ur5iceanu (200$) 132 Cal.App.3th 232- 2&1: citing )eop"e $ 0oa1 (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 11&#- 120#.) +here"ore- it is not necessary to FnocF or i,enti"y one s sel" i" the occupant is stan,ing right there staring at the police uni"or(. ()eop"e $# Uh"er (1&#&) 20# Cal.App.3r, 25525&%221.) *Ehere a cri(inal o""ense has Cust taFen place 0ithin a roo(- the occupants (ay reasonably be e?pecte, to Fno0 the purpose o" a police .isit an, an e?press state(ent (ay not be necessary. ()eop"e $# 0a"" (1&21) 3 Cal.3r, &&2&&2: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6=uinn7 (1&2#) #3 313
Cal.App.3r, 50&: )eop"e $# 2a,rence (1&22) 2$ Cal.App.3r, 213: )eop"e $# 2ee (1&21) 20 Cal.App.3r, &#2.) 1t is not necessary to e?plain 0hy a,(ittance is sought 0hen the o""icers intentions are reasonably apparent. ()eop"e $# 0i"" (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, 231- 2$#.) ZnocFing an, announcing their presence at a ,oor 0hich 0as partially open- an, then entering 0ithout ,e(an,ing entry or stating their purpose- 0as "oun, to be *substantial compliance/ 0hen entry is (a,e to checF the 0el"are o" occupants 0ho (ight nee, assistance. ()eop"e $# %i""er (1&&&) 5& Cal.App.3th 1&0.) *Substantial co(pliance is so(eti(es "oun, e.en though o""icers ha.e "aile, to state their purpose be"ore entering. . . Io0e.erco(pliance ,oes re@uire- at the .ery least- that police o""icers i,enti"y the(sel.es prior to entry./ ()eop"e $# /eo1h (1&2$) 35 Cal. App. 3, &1&- &22: i,enti"ying the(sel.es while entering "oun, to be insu""icient.) Bailing to physically FnocF at the ,oor 0as e?cuse, 0here announce(ent 0as (a,e at the "ront o" the house o.er a public a,,ress syste( "or 30 secon,s to a (inute- an, then repeate, at the rear ,oor- 0here entry 0as (a,e- 0here a (etha(pheta(ine lab 0as suspecte, an, there 0ere in,ications that the occupants 0ere in the process o" cooFing the (eth at that ti(e. (United States $# Com.s (&th Cir. 200$) 312 B.3r, 1020.) 4pon seeing an altercation taFing place through the Fitchen 0in,o0- an, being ignore, 0hen announcing their presence at the screen ,oor- the uni"or(e, o""icers 0ere Custi"ie, in (aFing an i((e,iate entry 0here a secon, announce(ent 0as (a,e- @uelling the ,isturbance! ri1ham Cit& $# Stuart (2005) $32 4.S. 3&# 6153 7.8,.2n, 5$09: it *ser.(ing) no purpose to re@uire the( to stan, ,u(bly at the ,oor a0aiting a response 0hile those 0ithin bra0le, on- obli.ious to their presence./ (at p. 302.) *+o6Anoc?/ earch =arrants) !btaining Cu,icial authori;ation in the search 0arrant itsel": Custi"ication "or ignoring the FnocF an, notice re@uire(ents being in the 0arrant a""i,a.it. Cali"ornia authority has yet to e?pressly recogni;e *+o6 Anoc? earch =arrants:/ i.e.- prior Cu,icial authori;ation 31$
in the 0arrant allo0ing "or an i((e,iate entry 0ithout co(plying 0ith the FnocFNnotice re@uire(ents. (See )ars"e& $# Superior Court (1&23) & Cal.3r, &33- &3&%&3&: "in,ing the( in .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment.) Io0e.er- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court has since rule, that no%FnocF 0arrants are not unconstitutional- an, that they (ay be authori;e, by a (agistrate on a case%by%case basis. (Richards $# -isconsin (1&&2) $20 4.S. 3#$ 6132 7.8,.2n, 51$9: see also United States $# an(s (2003) (2003) $30 4.S. 31- 35 61$2 7.8,.2n, 333- 3$2.) Io0e.er- a blan?et no%FnocF authori;ation- Cust because a search 0arrant is "or a speci"ic type o" case (e.g.- narcotics cases)- is unconstitutional. (Richards $# -isconsin- supra.) Gecause )ars"e& base, its ,ecision on Cali"ornia s interpretation o" the Fourth Amendment- an, because passage o" (ro-osition # in 1&#2Cali"ornia s *Truth in E!idence/ initiati.e- in e""ect negate, Cali"ornia s stricter search an, sei;ure rules- Richards an, an(s shoul, be interprete, as o.erruling the rule o" )ars"e&- e.en though neither case e?pressly re"ers to )ars"e&. *+o6?noc?/ warrants are Custi"ie, 0hen police o""icers ha.e a *reasonable suspicion/ that FnocFing an, announcing their presence be"ore entering 0oul, *be ,angerous or "utile- or . . . inhibit the e""ecti.e in.estigation o" the cri(e./ (Richards $# -isconsin, supraat p. 3&3 6132 7.8,.2n, at p. 523.) +he "act that property (ight be ,a(age, or ,estroye, ,uring the entry ,oes not re@uire a higher ,egree o" e?igency in or,er to Custi"y the no%FnocF authori;ation. (United States $# Ramire5 (1&&#) $23 4.S. 5$ 6130 7.8,.2n, 1&1: United States $# an(s- supraat p. 32 61$2 7.8,.2n, at p. 3$$9: United States $# &num (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $23- $#0.) +ote) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal talFs in ter(s o" a *no6?noc? warrant/ in a case 0here the o""icers ha, the ,oor sla((e, in their "ace at the "ront porch. (United States $# )eterson (&th Cir. 2003) 3$3 B.3r, 103$.) 315
)eterson- ho0e.er- is (ore o" an *exigent circumstance/ situation- 0hich ,e.elope, at the "ront ,oor- an, ,i, not in.ol.e an atte(pt to get a *no6?noc?/ authori;ation "ro( the (agistrate prior to the actual e?ecution o" the 0arrant. Entry by Ruse) !ne 0ay to a.oi, the proble(s inherent in co(plying 0ith the FnocF an, notice statutes is to use a ruse to gain entry. As long as the o""icer has probable cause Custi"ying an entry be"orehan,- the use o" a ruse is la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Ree$es (1&53) 51 Cal.2n, 25#- 223.) Howe!er- the entry (ust be supporte, by *probable cause/ to be legal. Absent probable cause (an,- absent e?igent circu(stances- a search 0arrant)- it is illegal to use a ruse to (aFe entry- or e.en to tricF the suspect into opening his ,oor- such a tricF constituting a .iolation o" the ,e"en,ant s right to pri.acy. ()eop"e $# 0udson (1&53) 22$ Cal.App.2n, $$3: )eop"e $# %i""er (1&52) 23# Cal.App.2n, 231: United States $# osse (&th Cir. 1&&0) #&# B.2n, 113.) 1t is e@ually illegal to tricF a suspect out o" his ho(e- unless such the ruse is supporte, by probable cause to belie.e the suspect is engage, in illegal acti.ity. ()eop"e $# Re&es (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 2.) Also- o""icers (ust re(e(ber that either a 0arrant- or probable cause an, e?igent circu(stances- 0ill liFely be re@uire, un,er the rule o" )eop"e $# Rame& (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, 253- 225: )a&ton $# Ne, Yor( (1&#0) 33$ 4.S. $23 653 7.8,.2n, 53&9. (See abo.e) Ehen ar(e, 0ith a search 0arrant- o""icers (ay use a ruse to in,uce the occupants to open the ,oor. +his is not a .iolation o" the FnocF an, notice re@uire(ents. ()eop"e $# Rudin (1&2#) 22 Cal.App.3r, 13&: )eop"e $# %cCarter (1&#1) 112 Cal.App.3r, #&3- &05.) *lso- it is not illegal to use an un,erco.er agent ,uring a cri(inal in.estigation 0ho (aFes entry upon the occupant s in.itation- ,espite the lacF o" probable cause. Such a situation ,oes not in.ol.e a nee, to a.oi, a .iolent con"rontation. (0o''a $# United States (1&55) 3#$ 4.S. 2&3 612 7.8,.2n, 3239.)
312
+he Fourth AmendmentJs protections ,o not e?ten, to in"or(ation that a person .oluntarily e?poses to a go.ern(ent agent- inclu,ing an un,erco.er agent. A ,e"en,ant generally has no pri.acy interest in that 0hich he .oluntarily re.eals to a go.ern(ent agent. +here"ore- a go.ern(ent agent (ay (aFe an au,io recor,ing o" a suspect s state(ents e.en in the suspect s o0n ho(e- an, those au,io recor,ings- (a,e 0ith the consent o" the go.ern(ent agent- ,o not re@uire a 0arrant. (United States $# -ahchum,ah (&th Cir. Jo.. 22- 2012) >> B.3r, >>- >> 62012 4.S. App. 78T1S 232&59: an in.estigation in.ol.ing the illegal sale o" eagle "eathers un,er the &ald and 9olden ?a5le (rotection Act an, the =aceA Act.) tanding: *n *bsent Tenant) 1" the subCect to be arreste,- or the o0ner o" a ho(e 0hich is to be searche,- is not ho(e at the ti(e o" the e?ecution o" the entry- 0hether or not he or she has *standing/ to contest a "ailure to co(ply 0ith the (!C! #44 or 1)31 FnocF an, notice re@uire(ents is subCect to a split o" opinion. (See 0art $# Superior Court (1&21) 21 Cal.App.3r, 3&5- $00%$03.) 1n ,iscussing the FnocF an, notice re@uire(ents pursuant to (!C! 1)31 (ser.ing a search 0arrant)- it has been ,eter(ine, by at least one appellate court that the ,e"en,ant ,i, not nee, to be ho(e to assert standing to challenge a FnocF an, notice .iolation- in that ,e"en,ant still ha, a pri.acy interest in his resi,ence- an, an interest in protecting his "ianc]e 0ho 0as ho(e at the ti(e. ()eop"e $# 0oa1 (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 11&#.) 0art $# Superior Court- supraat pp. $00%$03- an, "e,eral authority (United States $ Si"$a (&th Cir. 2001) 232 B.3r, 10$1- 10$#%10$&.)- are all to the contrary. Howe!er- entering the house to arrest a subCect 0ithout probable cause (or *reasonable grounds-/ see belo0) to belie.e the suspect is e.en ho(e is a Fourth Amendment .iolation in itsel". (0art $# Superior Court- supraat p. $02: *Section #44 by its o0n ter(s pro.i,es that the entry can only be (a,e i" the person to be arreste, is actually present or i" the arrestor has reasonable groun,s to belie.e he is present./ See also )eop"e $# *aco.s (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, 322- 32#%32&: an, United States $# Gorman (2002) 313 B.3r, 110$: interpreting *reasonable grounds/ or *a reason to belie!e/ to be the e@ui.alent o" *probable cause./ Gut 31#
also see )eop"e $# Do,ne& (2011) 1&# Cal.App.3th 5$25$2%552- "in,ing that less than probable cause is re@uire,. anctions for Violations) Ehen e?ecuting an other0ise la0"ully issue, search 0arrant on a resi,ence- a FnocF an, notice .iolatione.en i" a .iolation o" state an, "e,eral statutes an, the Fourth Amendment- ,oes not trigger the 8?clusionary Rule. (0udson $# %ichi1an (2005) $32 4.S. $#5 615$ 7.8,.2n, $59.) Per 0udson- the suppression o" e.i,ence is only necessary 0here the interests protecte, by the constitutional guarantee that has been .iolate, 0oul, be ser.e, by suppressing the e.i,ence thus obtaine,. +he interests protecte, by the FnocF an, notice rules inclu,e hu(an li"ebecause *an unannounce, entry (ay pro.oFe .iolence in suppose, sel"%,e"ense by the surprise, resi,ent./ Property rights are also protecte, by pro.i,ing resi,ents an opportunity to pre.ent a "orcible entry. An,- *pri.acy an, ,ignity/ are protecte, by gi.ing the occupants an opportunity to collect the(sel.es be"ore ans0ering the ,oor. (I.id.) +he Court also rule, in 0udson that because ci.il suits are (ore rea,ily a.ailable than in 1&13 0ith the e?clusionary rule 0as "irst announce,- an, because la0 en"orce(ent o""icers- being better e,ucate,- traine, an, super.ise,- can be subCecte, to ,epart(ental ,iscipline- suppressing the pro,uct o" a FnocF an, notice .iolation is no longer a necessary re(e,y. (I.id.) +he "act that a *no%FnocF/ 0arrant coul, ha.e been obtaine, ,oes not re@uire a ,i""erent "in,ing. Also- the use o" a battering ra( on the ,oor- rubber bullets to FnocF out 0in,o0s- an, *"lash bang/ ,e.ices (one o" 0hich seriously inCure, ,e"en,ant) to ,istract the occupants- e.en though possibly unreasonable un,er the circu(stances- but 0here there is no *causal ne?us/ bet0een the entry an, the reco.ery o" e.i,ence in the ho(e- ,oes not re@uire suppression o" the e.i,ence. (United States $# An(en& (&th Cir. 2002) $02 B.3r, #2&- #3$%#3#: a one to 1H secon, ,elay bet0een FnocFing an, entering.) +he rule as ,ictate, by 0udson (a search 0arrant case) is applicable as 0ell as in a 0arrantless- yet la0"ul- arrest case- pursuant to (!C! #44. (In re Fran( S# (2005) 132 Cal.App.3th 13$.) 31&
Io0e.er- 0udson is not to be interprete, to (ean that the 8?clusionary Rule is to be scrappe,. 1ntentionally unla0"ul la0 en"orce(ent actions 0ill still be subCect to the 8?clusionary Rule 0here necessary to ,iscourage "uture illegal police acti.ities. ()eop"e $# Rodri1ue5 (2005) 133 Cal.App.3th 1132: case re(an,e, "or a ,eter(ination 0hether police "abricate, probable cause "or a tra""ic stop0hich le, to the ,isco.ery o" an outstan,ing arrest 0arrantthe search inci,ent thereto resulting in reco.ery o" controlle, substances.) +ot +ecessarily a Fourth Amendment Violation) An, in any casea FnocF an, notice .iolation- .iolating the ter(s o" (!C! #44 an,Nor (!C! 1)31- ,oes not necessarily also .iolate the Fourth Amendment. (-i"son $# Ar(ansas (1&&$) $13 4.S. &22 6131 7.8,.2n, &259: )eop"e $# 4a.e""e (1&&5) $0 Cal.App.3th 12#2.) Ehere the line is bet0een a constitutional FnocF an, notice .iolation an, a si(ple statutory FnocF an, notice .iolation has not yet been speci"ically ,eter(ine, by either any Cali"ornia or 4nite, States Supre(e Court ,ecisions- an, (ust a0ait "uture cases "or clari"ication. Gut it is help"ul to looF "or circu(stances rele.ant to the purposes o" the FnocF an, notice re@uire(ents- such as the lessening o" the liFelihoo, o" a .iolent con"rontation. Bor instance) *Iere- the potential "or .iolence an, peril to the o""icers 0oul, ha.e been increased ha, the o""icers announce, their presence at the ,oor. +he o""icers coul, not see ,e"en,antDs han,s an, 0hether he (ight ha.e a 0eapon or syringe that coul, be use, against the(. !""icer Jor.all li(ite, the potential "or .iolence by entering to a place 0here he coul, put his han,s on ,e"en,ant be"ore 0aFing hi(./ ()eop"e $# 4a.e""e- supraat p. 12#2- 0here the o""icer s unannounce, entry 0as (a,e upon seeing the ,e"en,ant asleep.) An, note )eop"e $# 0oa1 (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 11&#0here it 0as hel, that a 1$%to%20 secon, 0ait 0as not enough to satis"y the statute- but that it 0as only a *technical !iolation-/ not i(plicating the Constitution or re@uiring the suppression o" any e.i,ence. +he "e,eral statutory *?noc? and announce/ re@uire(entspursuant to 1# !S!C! 313"- ha.e been hel, to be Cu,ge, 320
by the sa(e stan,ar,s as is an allege, Fourth Amendment .iolation "or entering 0ithout a proper announce(ent. (United States $ &num (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $23- $2&.) eizing 'tems not "isted in the =arrant) +hose ite(s liste, in the 0arrant (ay be sei;e,- along 0ith any other ite(s reasonably i,enti"ie, as contraband or e!idence of a crime- obser.e, in plain sight ,uring the search. (S(e"ton $# Superior Court (1&5&) 1 Cal.3r, 133- 1$2.) *Ehere an o""icer has a .ali, 0arrant to search "or one ite( but (erely a suspicion- not a(ounting to probable cause- concerning a secon, ite(- that secon, ite( is not i((uni;e, "ro( sei;ure i" "oun, ,uring a la0"ul search "or the "irst ite(./ ()eop"e $# rad'ord (1&&2) 1$ Cal.3th 122&- 12&3: citing 0orton $# Ca"i'ornia (1&&0) 3&5 4.S. 12#- 13#%13& 6110 7.8,.2n, 1121239.)- an, noting that prior Supre(e Court cases re@uire, *probable cause/ to belie.e that the *secon, ite(/ constitutes e.i,ence o" a cri(e. ()eop"e $# rad'ord, supraat p. 12&0.) Sei;ing the *secon, ite(/ is base, upon an application o" the *plain !iew doctrine-/ allo0ing "or sei;ure o" ite(s obser.e, in plain sight "ro( a position the ,isco.ering o""icer has a legal right to be. Io0e.er: *(t)he o""icers la0"ully (ust be in a position "ro( 0hich they can .ie0 a particular area: it (ust be i((e,iately apparent to the( that the ite(s they are obser.ing (ay be e.i,ence o" a cri(e- contraban,- or other0ise subCect to la0"ul sei;urean, the o""icers (ust ha.e a la0"ul right o" access to the obCect. (Citation)/ ()eop"e $# rad'ord- supra- at p. 12&$.) 1te(s obser.e, ,uring the la0"ul e?ecution o" a search 0arrant 0hich are i,enti"iable as contraban, or e.i,ence o" another cri(e are subCect to sei;ure ,espite not being liste, in the 0arrant itsel". ()eop"e $# Ga""e1os (2002) &5 Cal.App.3th 512.) *1te(s in plain .ie0- but not ,escribe, in the 0arrant- (ay be sei;e, 0hen their incri(inating character is i((e,iately apparent. 6Citation.9 +he incri(inating character o" e.i,ence in plain .ie0 is not i((e,iately apparent i" Aso(e "urther search o" the obCect is re@uire,./ ()eop"e $# 2enart (2003) 32 Cal.3th 1102- 11&: citing %innesota $# Dic(erson (1&&3) $0# 4.S. 355- 32$ 6123 7.8,.2n, 3339.)
-he ma.istrate,s failure to initial that (art of a search +arrant listin. the defendant,s residence! +here she did initial those (arts of the +arrant describin. defendant,s (erson and his )ehicle! held
321
to be a 7minor technical error rather than e)idence of a constitutional deficienc* in the contents of the search +arrant.3 -he search of the residence! based u(on the search +arrant! +as u(held +here all the circumstances (includin. the ma.istrate,s testimon* at a su((ression hearin.) indicated that there +as (robable cause to search the residence and that the ma.istrate had intended to a((ro)e the search of the residence. (United States v. urd (9th Cir. 2007) 499 1./rd 96/.)
+ote) Ehen e.i,ence o" a ,i""erent cri(e is ,isco.ere, ,uring a la0"ul 0arrant search- the better proce,ure is to "all bacF an, obtain a secon, search 0arrant "or the ne0 o""ense- thus speci"ically allo0ing "or the search "or (ore e.i,ence relate, to the ne0ly ,isco.ere, cri(e (see )eop"e $# Carrin1ton (200&) 32 Cal.3th 13$- 150- 153%15#.) an, eli(inating so(e ,i""icult legal issues later in the ine.itable suppression hearings. (See )eop"e $# A".ritton (1&#2) 13# Cal.App.3r, 2&.) 1n )eop"e $# Carrin1ton- supra.- o""icers "ro( agency ^2 acco(panie, o""icers "ro( agency ^1 0ho 0ere e?ecuting a la0"ul search 0arrant in their o0n case. +he o""icers "ro( agency ^2 0ere there "or the purpose o" (aFing *plain sight/ obser.ations o" e.i,ence relate, to their agency s o0n in.estigation. 4pon (aFing such obser.ations- this in"or(ation 0as use, to obtain a secon, 0arrant ,irecte, speci"ically at agency ^2 s in.estigation. +his proce,ure 0as appro.e, by the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court. *8.en assu(ing the o""icers ("ro( the agency ^2) . . . hope, to "in, e.i,ence o" other o""enses- their subCecti.e state o" (in, 0oul, not ren,er their con,uct unla0"ul. . . . +he e?istence o" an ulterior (oti.ation ,oes not in.ali,ate an o""icer s legal Custi"ication to con,uct a search./ (Id.- at p. 15#: citing -hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9.) +his case- citing -hren $# United States "or the proposition that an o""icer s *sub%ecti!e moti!ations/ are irrele.ant- looFing only at 0hether the o""icers- "ro( an *ob%ecti!e/ stan,point- 0ere la0"ully acting- in e""ect o.errules )eop"e $# A".ritton- supra. A".ritton stoo, "or the theory that it is illegal to use one 0arrant to looF "or e.i,ence relate, to a ,i""erent cri(e- e.en i" such e.i,ence is "oun, in plain sight. 322
Searching a co(puter "or ,rug relate, ,ocu(ents- an, ,isco.ering chil, pornography- ,oes not authori;e the o""icer to begin searching "or (ore chil, pornography 0ithout "irst obtaining a secon, search 0arrant "or the pornography. (United States $# Care& (10th Cir. 1&&&) 122 B.3r, 125#- 1223: (United States $# Gi.erson (&th Cir. 200#) $22 B.3r, ##2- #&0.) As e.i,ence o" *dominion and control/ o.er a resi,ence- the sei;ure o" a co(puter not speci"ically liste, in the 0arrant shoul, be uphel,. ()eop"e $# 9ar1hese (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th 10#31100%1103: )eop"e $# a"int (2005) 13# Cal.App.3th 200.) Gut see United States $# )a&ton (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, #$&- #51%#53- 0here it 0as hel, that "ailure to inclu,e the (agistrate s authori;ation to search ,e"en,ant s co(putere.en though in the state(ent o" probable cause the a""iant in,icate, a ,esire to search any possible co(puters "oun, in ,e"en,ant s house- 0as a "atal o(ission. Searching ,e"en,ant s co(puter- there"ore- 0ent beyon, the scope o" the 0arrant s authori;ation. +he "act that the issuing (agistrate testi"ie, to an intent to allo0 "or the search o" ,e"en,ant s co(puters- an, that the 0arrant inclu,e, authori;ation to search "or certain liste, recor,s 0hich (ight be "oun, in a co(puter- 0as hel, to be irrele.ant. (Id. at pp. #52%#53.) +he 0holesale sei;ure o" (ore recor,s (a 7fe+ do@en boxes3) than
+as authori@ed b* the search +arrant! so lon. as not used! should not result in su((ression of the records that +ere authori@ed b* the +arrant. (United States v. Ta)ura (&th Cir. 1&#2) 5&3 B.2n,
$&1.) So ho0 ,oes the Jinth Circuit suggest that such a situation be han,le,M At pp. $&$%$&5- an, "n. 3) *1n the co(parati.ely rare instances 0here ,ocu(ents are so inter(ingle, that they cannot "easibly be sorte, on site- 0e suggest that the Lo.ern(ent an, la0 en"orce(ent o""icials generally can a.oi, .iolating fourth amendment rights by sealing an, hol,ing the ,ocu(ents pen,ing appro.al by a (agistrate o" a "urther searchin accor,ance 0ith the proce,ures set "orth in the American =a> InstituteJs Bodel Code of (re<Arrai5nment (rocedure (Section SS 223!)). 1" the nee, "or transporting the ,ocu(ents is 323
Fno0n to the o""icers prior to the search- they (ay apply "or speci"ic authori;ation "or large%scale re(o.al o" (aterial- 0hich shoul, be grante, by the (agistrate issuing the 0arrant only 0here on%site sorting is in"easible an, no other practical alternati.e e?ists. (Citation) +he essential sa"eguar, re@uire, is that 0holesale re(o.al (ust be (onitore, by the Cu,g(ent o" a neutral- ,etache, (agistrate ("n. o(itte,)./ Sei;ure o" (assi.e a(ounts o" con"i,ential com(uteri@ed medical
information +here it is im(ossible to tell +hat is included in the +arrant (for +hich (robable cause has alread* been found b* a ma.istrate)! such as +hen the in"or(ation is co((ingle, in other
co(puter recor,s- creates a ,i""icult situation. Bi.e Custices o" an en banc panel o" the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal (aFes the "ollo0ing non%bin,ing suggestions "or insuring that the pri.acy rights o" others "or 0ho( there is no probable cause is not co(pro(ise,9 1. Oagistrates shoul, insist that the go.ern(ent 0ai.e reliance upon the plain .ie0 ,octrine in ,igital e.i,ence cases. 2. Segregation an, re,action (ust be either ,one by speciali;e, personnel or an in,epen,ent thir, party. 1" the segregation is to be ,one by go.ern(ent co(puter personnel- it (ust agree in the 0arrant application that the co(puter personnel 0ill not ,isclose to the in.estigators any in"or(ation other than that 0hich is the target o" the 0arrant. 3. Earrants an, subpoenas (ust ,isclose the actual risFs o" ,estruction o" in"or(ation as 0ell as prior e""orts to sei;e that in"or(ation in other Cu,icial "ora. 3. +he go.ern(ent s search protocol (ust be ,esigne, to unco.er only the in"or(ation "or 0hich it has probable cause- an, only that in"or(ation (ay be e?a(ine, by the case agents. $. +he go.ern(ent (ust ,estroy or- i" the recipient (ay la0"ully possess it- return non%responsi.e ,ata- Feeping the issuing (agistrate in"or(e, about 0hen it has ,one so an, 0hat it has Fept.
323
(United States v. "o)(rehensive Drug Testing/ &nc. (9th Cir. 2010) 521 B.3r, 1152- 112#%11#0: incorporating the "acts as ,escribe, at $13 B.3r,
108%.) -he Court in "o)(rehensive Drug Testing/ &nc. also noted the a)ailabilit* of Federal 8ule of
Criminal (rocedure 41+5,- as oppose, to a *(otion to suppress-/ 0here an uncharge, thir, party is seeFing the return o" ite(s sei;e, "ro( hi( unla0"ully. (Id. at pp. 1122%1123.) 7astly- the Court ,isappro.e, o" the Lo.ern(ent s use o" a subpoena to seeF ,ocu(ents alrea,y obtaine, unla0"ully- uphol,ing the trial Cu,ge s *@uashal/ o" the Lo.ern(ent s subpoena un,er authority o" Federal 8ule of Criminal (rocedure 11+c,. (Id. at pp. 1123%112$.) *nswering the Telephone) 1n so(e cases (e.g.- booF(aFing- narcoticsetc.)- ans0ering the suspect s telephone ,uring ser.ice o" the 0arrant (ay lea, to .aluable corroborati.e e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# -arner (1&5&) 220 Cal.App.2n, &00- &02: )eop"e $# Sando$a" (1&55) 5$ Cal.2n, 303- 30#: )eop"e $# Nea"& (1&&1) 22# Cal.App.3r, 332- 3$2.) A stan,ar, paragraph in the a""i,a.it Custi"ying the e?pectation o" recei.ing incri(inating e.i,ence "ro( callers- an, inclusion in the 0arrant authori;ation to ans0er the phone- is a,.isable- although "ailure to ,o so shoul, not preclu,e ans0ering the phone. (See )eop"e $# 9an$a"(en.ur1h (1&#3) 13$ Cal.App.3r, 153- 152.) +ote) Justi"ication "or ans0ering the telephone ,uring e?ecution o" a 0arrant (ay also be pre(ise, upon the nee, to corroborate the occupant s possessory interest o.er the place being searche,- as a "or( o" oral *dominion and control/ e.i,ence. +he contents o" a telephone call to a narcotics ,ealer s ho(e asFing to buy narcotics- ans0ere, by the police e?ecuting a search 0arrant- are a,(issible as a Cu,icially create, e?ception to the Iearsay Rule. ()eop"e $# %or1an et a"# (200$) 12$ Cal.App.3th &3$.) !ther courts ha.e hel, that the contents o" a telephone call are a,(issible as non%hearsay circu(stantial e.i,ence o" 32$
the ,e"en,ants ,ope ,ealing. ()eop"e $# Nea"&- supra: an, )eop"e $# 9entura (1&&1) 1 Cal.App.3th 1$1$.) +he %or1an Court "urther ,eter(ine, that the telephone call 0as *non6testimonial-/ as ,escribe, in Cra,'ord $# -ashin1ton (2003) $31 4.S. 35 61$# 7.8,.2n, 1229- an, thus a,(issible o.er a Si@th Amendment- *right to confrontation/ obCection. ()eop"e $# %or1an- supraat pp. &35%&32.) Searching pursuant to the suspect s consent- unless speci"ically inclu,e, in the consent- ,oes not gi.e the searching o""icers the right to ans0er the telephone. ()eop"e $# 0ar,ood (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, 350- 35$.) Gut- 0ith probable cause to belie.e that a robbery suspect (ight be calling- an, the e?igent circu(stance o" not being able to obtain a search 0arrant 0ithout losing the opportunity to recei.e the e?pecte, call "ro( the suspect- thus co(pro(ising the o""icers ability to @uicFly locate an, apprehen, hi(- ans0ering the telephone 0ithout per(ission is la0"ul. ()eop"e $# 2edesma (2005) 3& Cal.3th 531- 203.) Time "imitations) +he 0arrant (ust be ser.e, an, returne, 0ithin ten (10) calendar days o" issuance or it is ,ee(e, to be *.oi,./ A 0arrant 0hich is e?ecute, 0ithin the ten%,ay perio, shall be ,ee(e, to ha.e been ti(ely e?ecute, an, no "urther sho0ing o" ti(eliness nee, be (a,e. ((!C! 1)34+a,) Io0e.er- at least 0here the e?ecution o" the 0arrant is begun 0ithin the statutory ti(e perio,- an, absent any sho0ing o" ba, "aith- "ailure to co(plete the e?ecution o" the 0arrant 0ithin the 10%,ay perio, is not a constitutional .iolation an, 0ill not result in the suppression o" any e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Nasmeh7 (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th #$- &#%100: citing United States $# Ger.er (11th Cir.199/) 994 1.2d 1%%6! 1%60.) Io0e.er- the Court in Nasmeh speci"ically ,ecline, to ,iscuss the i(plications o" .iolating (!C! 1)34 in that ,e"en,ant ha, "aile, to raise the issue at the trial court le.el. ("n. $.) +he ,ay the 0arrant is signe, by the (agistrate is *day zero-/ 0ith *day one/ being the ne?t ,ay. Satur,ay- Sun,ay an, holi,ays are included in the calculation. ()eop"e $# C"a&ton (1&&3) 1# Cal.App.3th 330- 333%33$.) 325
A"ter ser.ice o" the 0arrant- the o""icer *must forthwith/ return the e?ecute, 0arrant to the (agistrate 0ith the *receipt and in!entory/ (re"erre, to as the *return/ by so(e Curis,ictions). ((!C! 1)31) 8.en i" (!C! 1)31 is .iolate, by a return a"ter the 10%,ay perio,- this ,e"ect ,oes not re@uire suppression o" the e.i,ence unless the ,e"en,ant can sho0 that he 0as preCu,ice, by the ,elay. ()eop"e $# Couch (1&2&) &2 Cal.App.3r, 322: )eop"e $# /ir( (1&2&) && Cal.App.3r, #&&3: )eop"e $# 0ead (1&&3) 30 Cal.App.3th &$3: ,elay o" one yearX) +he *return pac?age/ consists o" the "ollo0ing) +he original 0arrant. +he original a""i,a.it. An in.entory (or *return/ "or() o" all the ite(s sei;e,- upon 0hich the o""icer 0ho e?ecute, the 0arrant s0ears that the in.entory is a true list o" e.erything sei;e, ,uring the e?ecution o" the 0arrant- inclu,ing ite(s sei;e, but 0hich 0ere not liste, in the 0arrant.
+he physical e.i,ence sei;e, is to be retaine, (i.e.*impounded/) by the o""icer pen,ing use o" the e.i,ence in court or other court or,ere, ,isposition. ((!C! 1)32) ;ne &ontinuous earch) 1" o""icers co(plete the e?ecution o" a 0arrantan, lea.e the scene- a secon, search 0arrant (ust be obtaine, in or,er to return an, rene0 the search. Io0e.erso long as at least one o""icer re(ains on the scene- reasonable breaFs to acco(plish other police acti.ity (e.g.- transporting the suspect to Cail)- ,o not necessarily (ean that a rene0e, search re@uires a ne0 0arrant. ()eop"e $# *ames (1&&0) 21& Cal.App.3r, 313.) Io0e.er- the Courts ten, to be a bit "le?ible on this rule. 1n United States $# /ap"an (&th Cir. 1&&0) #&$ B.2n, 51#- a"ter ,e"en,ant s arrest- his o""ice 0as searche, by BG1 agents 0ith a search 0arrant authori;ing the sei;ure o" certain "iles. 7ea.ing the scene 0ith the "iles thus obtaine,- the agents later ,isco.ere, that they ha, not recei.e, all the "iles that 0ere authori;e, by the 0arrant. +0o hours an, ten (inutes a"ter the initial e?ecution o" the 0arrant- agents returne, an, sei;e, the re(aining "iles. +he Court note, that the issue 0as 0hether the secon, search 0as 322
really no (ore than a continuation o" the "irst. +he Court ,eci,e, that it 0as- citing the "act that the "iles sei;e, on the secon, trip 0ere liste, in the 0arrant. "ea!ing a &opy of the =arrant, *ffida!it andJor Receipt and 'n!entory) +here is no state statutory nor constitutional rule re@uiring that searching o""icers sho0 the suspects the 0arrant- the a""i,a.it to the 0arrant- or a copy o" either- or that a copy o" either be le"t at the scene a"ter the search. ()eop"e $# Ca"a.rese (2002) 101 Cal.App.3th 2&.) !nly a copy o" the *receipt and in!entory/ (or *return/) (ust be le"t 0ith the occupants or at the scene. ((!C! 1)3)) +ote) Fed# Ru"es o' Crimina" )rocedure, Ru"e 61@dA- applying only to the e?ecution o" a "e,eral search 0arrant- re@uires that the occupant be gi.en a copy o" the 0arrant an, a receipt "or property taFen in the search- or that these ,ocu(ents be le"t at the scene. The +inth &ircuit)s ;pinion) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal is o" the belie" that "ailure to pro.i,e to an occupant a copy o" a 0arrant- properly ,escribing the place to be searche, an, the property to be sei;e,- (ay be a Fourth Amendment .iolation (See Ramire5 $# utte Si"$er o, Count& (&th Cir. 2002) 2&# B.3r, 1022.)- thus creating so(e potential "e,eral ci.il liability "or state o""icers 0ho choose to "ollo0 the state rule. Io0e.er- the Jinth Circuit has also note, that only a *fundamental/ .iolation o" 8ule 41+d, 0ill (an,ate suppression o" e.i,ence. Ehere the agent 0as not a0are o" this rule- an, other0ise insure, that ,e"en,ant 0as a0are o" 0hy they 0ere in his ho(e an, 0hat they 0ere looFing "orsuppression o" e.i,ence 0as not a proper re(e,y. (United States $# -i""iamson (&th Cir. 2005) 33& B.3r, 112$: ,iscussing the ,i""erence bet0een *intentionally-/ but not *deliberately-/ "ailing to pro.i,e ,e"en,ant 0ith a copy o" the 0arrant prior to searching his house.) +ote) +here"ore- ,espite not being re@uire, by state la0- it is probably good practice "or a state la0 en"orce(ent o""icer to sho0 the occupants a copy o" the search 0arrant (but not the a""i,a.it)- or- i" no one is ho(e- lea.e a copy o" the search 0arrant at the scene. +here is no har( in ,oing this- an, brings the state e?ecution o" a search 0arrant in co(pliance 0ith the "e,eral rules.
32#
*nd see United States $# Ce"estine (&th Cir. 2003) 323 B.3r, 10&$- 110$%110#- ,escribing *the policies that un,erlie the 0arrant re@uire(ent) pro.i,ing the property o0ner assurance o" the la0"ul authority o" the e?ecuting o""icerhis nee, to search- an, the li(its o" his po0er to search./ Io0e.er- 0here the occupant tells the searching o""icers that he ,oes not un,erstan, 8nglish- an, the o""icers taFe i((e,iate steps to "in, a Spanish%speaFing interpreter- the Fourth Amendment is not .iolate, 0hen the o""icers co((ence the search be"ore the occupant can be rea,- in his o0n language- the contents o" the 0arrant. (United States $# %artine53Garcia (&th Cir. 200$) 3&2 B.3r, 120$.) See United States $# 9esi(uru (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 1115- 1123%1123.)- re@uiring that the 0arrant ,escribe the place to be searche, an, property to be sei;e, 0ith *particularity-/ thus ser.ing t0o i(portant purposes. 1t) 7i(its the ,iscretion o" the o""icers e?ecuting the 0arrant: and Gy sho0ing it to the property o0ner or resi,ent- it gi.es notice o" the proper scope o" the search. 1n or,er to acco(plish these purposes- the 0arrant (ust there"ore be brought to the scene o" the search an, sho0n to the occupants. (I.id.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has recently rule, that the Jinth Circuit s belie" that a copy o" the search 0arrant (ust be gi.en to the occupants o" the place being searche, at the initiation o" the search (see United States $# -i""iamson (&th Cir. 2005) 33& B.3r, 112$- abo.e)- is si(ply 0rong. (United States $# Gru..s (2005) $32 4.S. &0- &#%&& 6153 7.8,.2n, 1&$9.) Gut see the concurring opinion in Gru..s (p. 101)noting that it has yet to be ,eci,e, 0hether there is a constitutional re@uire(ent to sho0 the property o0ner a copy o" the 0arrant i" he ,e(an,s to see it. 1n United States $# 0ector (&th Cir. 2002) 323 B.3r, 11$011$3- the Jinth Circuit note, that it is not clear 0hether Gru..s o.errules their cases to the contrary- but "oun, that 32&
un,er authority o" 0udson $# %ichi1an (2005) $32 4.S. $#5 615$ 7.8,.2n, $59 (ruling that suppression o" e.i,ence is not an appropriate re(e,y "or a constitutional .iolation that 0as not the *unattenuate, but%"or cause/ o" obtaining the ,ispute, e.i,ence)- suppressing e.i,ence is not re@uire, 0here la0 en"orce(ent s (istaFe 0as nothing (ore than a "ailure to present a person 0ith a copy o" the search 0arrant. Gut then in United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc# (&th Cir. 200&) $5# B.3r, 5#3- 201- the Jinth Circuit "inally conce,e, that Gru..s o.errules any prior cases that (ight ha.e pre.iously hel, that the occupant (ust be gi.en a copy o" the 0arrant a""i,a.it. Destruction of Property) !""icers are e?pecte, to use so(e ,iscretion in the e?ecution o" a 0arrant to a.oi, the taFing o" unnecessarily e?cessi.e (i.e.- *cu(ulati.e/) property an, engaging in unnecessarily ,estructi.e beha.ior. (San *ose Charter o' the 0e""s An1e"s %otorc&c"e C"u. $# Cit& o' San *ose (&th Cir. 200$) 302 B.3r, &52: ,a(aging property in the taFing o" *trucFloa,s/ o" *in,icia o" a""iliation/ property- plus the shooting o" se.eral ,ogs 0ithout ha.ing consi,ere, alternati.e (etho,s o" controlling the ,ogs.) Io0e.er- the "act that property (ight be ,a(age, or ,estroye, ,uring the entry ,oes not re@uire a higher ,egree o" e?igency in or,er to Custi"y the no%FnocF authori;ation 0hen applying "or a search 0arrant. (United States $# Ramire5 (1&&#) $23 4.S. 5$ 6130 7.8,.2n, 1&1: United States $# an(s- supraat p. 32 61$2 7.8,.2n, at p. 3$$9: United States $# &num (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $23- $#0.) ealing the =arrant *ffida!it: i.e.- the *0o..s =arrant:/ All or part o" the 0arrant a""i,a.it (ay be or,ere, seale, by the court i" necessary to protect the i,entity o" the in"or(ant. ()eop"e $# 0o..s (1&&3) 2 Cal.3th &3#: see also )eop"e $# Sanche5 (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, 553- 52#: ()eop"e $# Ga""and (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 3$3- 353%35$.) +o Right to Public *ccess) +here are t0o categories o" ,ocu(ents that are not co.ere, by the co((on la0 right to public access to recor,s o" Cu,icial procee,ings an, recor,s: (1) gran, Cury transcripts: an, (2) 0arrant (aterials in the (i,st o" a pre% in,ict(ent in.estigation. (Times %irror Co# $# United States (&th Cir. 1&#&) #23 B.2n, 1210- 121&.)
330
+he sa(e is not true "or post6in!estigation 0arrant (aterials. (United States $# The usiness o' the Custer att"e'ie"d %useum (&th Cir. 2011) 5$# B.3r, 11##: see *Post6'n!estigation Disposition of =arrant *pplication and upporting *ffida!its-/ belo0. How *ccomplished) +his is ,one by obtaining the signature o" a Cu,ge on a separate a""i,a.it (,escribing the nee, "or sealing) an, or,erre@uesting the sealing o" a search 0arrant a""i,a.it. +he 0arrant itsel" (ust contain a correspon,ing or,er by the court sealing the 0arrant a""i,a.it- or a portion thereo") 8.g.) *L!!D CA4S8 appearing there"ore- 1+ 1S I8R8GK !RD8R8D that the attache, a""i,a.it (an, attach(ents thereto) be seale, pen,ing "urther or,er o" the court. 1+ 1S S! !RD8R8D./ (Date, an, signe, by the (agistrate) =hen =arrants ,ay be ealed) Search 0arrant a""i,a.its are co((only seale, 0hen necessary to protect the i,entity o" a con"i,ential in"or(ant either because his or her sa"ety coul, be Ceopar,i;e,- an,Nor because he or she is being use, in other in.estigations that (ight be co(pro(ise, i" it is Fno0n 0ho he or she is. (United States $# Napier (&th Cir. 2005) 335 B.3r, 1133.) Howe!er- ,espite the lacF o" any case authority- there is no reason 0hy sealing an a""i,a.it (ust necessarily be restricte, to protecting con"i,ential in"or(ants. Ehile this proce,ure shoul, not be use, unless actually necessarythere (ay be other legiti(ate reasons "or re@uiring an a""i,a.it to be seale,. (e.g.: to a.oi, ne0s (e,ia publicity co(pro(ising an in.estigation%in%progress.) +here is as o" yet no case authority on the issue as to 0hether this- or any other purpose other than to protect in"or(ant con"i,entiality- Custi"ies the sealing o" a 0arrant a""i,a.it. +he Custi"ication behin, the 0o..s ,ecision ha, a lot to ,o 0ith the i(portance o" encouraging the use o"- an, protecting the con"i,entiality o" the i,entities o"in"or(ants. ()eop"e $# 0o..s, supraat p. &$#- citing %cCra& $# I""inois (1&52) 3#5 4.S. 300- 30#%30& 61# 7.8,.2n, 52- 5&9.) 331
*Ee there"ore conclu,e that- taFen together- the in"or(ant s pri.ilege (?!C! 1341)- the long% stan,ing rule e?ten,ing co.erage o" that pri.ilege to information "urnishe, by the in"or(ant 0hich- i" ,isclose,- (ight re.eal his or her i,entity- an, the co,i"ie, rule that ,isclosure o" an in"or(ant s i,entity is not re@uire, to establish the legality o" a search pursuant to a 0arrant is .ali, on its "ace (?!C! 1342+4,) co(pel a conclusion that all or any part o" a search 0arrant a""i,a.it (ay be seale, i" necessary to i(ple(ent the pri.ilege an, protect the i,entity o" a con"i,ential in"or(ant./ ()eop"e $# 0o..s, supraat p. &21.) Ehile a cri(inal ,e"en,ant s ,ue process rights (to be treate, "airly) at trial are substantial- they *are less elaborate an, ,e(an,ing/ in a (otion to suppress. +he purpose o" a trial is to "in, the truth. +he purpose o" a suppression (otion is *to a.oi, the truth./ *+he .ery purpose o" a (otion to suppress is to escape the inculpatory thrust o" e.i,ence in han,- . . . ./ (United States $# Napiersupra- at p. 1132: @uoting %cCra& $# I""inoissupra.- at p. 302.) &riticism of Procedure) +he practice o" sealing 0arrant a""i,a.its is not 0ithout its critics- in that a ,e"en,ant s Si@th Amendment right to con"ront his accusers is arguably co(pro(ise,. +he 0o..s sealing 0as uphel, in )eop"e $# Thei"en (1&&#) 53 Cal.App.3th 325- but critici;e, by the author o" the opinion 0ho "elt that "e,eral authority (-a""er $# Geor1ia (1&#3) 352 4.S. 3& 6#1 7.8,.2n, 319.) re@uire, the prosecution to ,e(onstrate an *o!erriding interest/ liFely to be preCu,ice, be"ore allo0ing the sealing o" an a""i,a.it. &ourt Procedures) Ehen testing the .ali,ity o" a seale, 0arrant a""i,a.it- the "ollo0ing court proce,ures shoul, be "ollo0e, (See )eop"e $# %artine5 (200$) 132 Cal.App.3th 233.)) +he ,e"ense (ust "ile a properly notice, (otion seeFing to @uash an,Nor tra!erse the search 0arrant.
332
+he trial court shoul, con,uct an in ca(era hearing pursuant to ?!C! "1)+4, an, )eop"e $# 2utten.er1er (1&&0) $0 Cal.3r, 1- 20%21. +he prosecution an, police o""icer (ay be present. De"en,ant an, hisNher counsel 0ill be e?clu,e,although ,e"ense counsel shoul, be allo0e, to sub(it @uestions "or the (agistrate to asF any 0itnesses present at the in ca(era hearing. Bailure to con,uct an in ca(era hearing- re.ie0ing the seale, portions o" the a""i,a.it to ,eter(ine 0hether there are any litigable issues- is an abuse o" ,iscretion. (See )eop"e $# Ga""and (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 3$3- 322- citing )eop"e $# Ga""and (2003) 115 Cal.App.3th 3#&- at pp. 3&2%3&3.)
+he trial court shoul, ,eter(ine 0hether su""icient groun,s e?ist "or (aintaining the con"i,entiality o" the in"or(ant s i,entity. +he trial court then ,eter(ines 0hether the entirety o" the a""i,a.it or any portion thereo" is properly seale,: i.e.0hether the e?tent o" the sealing is necessary to a.oi, re.ealing the in"or(ant s i,entity. 1n a tra!ersal (otion) +he trial court (ust scrutini;e the a""i,a.it an, other (aterials the (agistrate ,eter(ines are necessary "or a "air ,eter(ination o" the issue- such as police reports an, in"or(ation regar,ing the in"or(ant. +he trial court shoul, consi,er e?a(ining the a""iant- the in"or(ant- or any other 0itness 0hose testi(ony it ,ee(s necessary. 1" the a""i,a.it is "oun, to ha.e been properly seale,- the court (ust then ,eter(ine- base, upon the general allegations (a,e by ,e"en,ant in hisNher (otion- an, in consi,ering the public an, seale, portions o" the a""i,a.it- 0hether there are any intentional or recFless (isstate(ents or o(issions 333
in the a""i,a.it- as 0ith any such (otion. (See Fran(s $# De"a,are (1&2#) 33# 4S 1$3- 1$$%1$5 6$2 7.8,.2n, 552- 5229.) 1" it is ,eter(ine, that ,e"en,ant s allegations are not supporte, by the in"or(ation be"ore the court,e"en,ant s (otion shoul, be ,enie,. 1" it is ,eter(ine, that there is a *reasonable probability/ that ,e"en,ant 0oul, pre.ail on the (otion to tra.erse- the District Attorney (ust be a""or,e, the option o") Consenting to ,isclosure o" the seale, (aterials an, procee,ing 0ith the (otion to tra.erse a"ter "ull ,isclosure to the ,e"ense: or Su""ering the granting o" ,e"en,ant s (otion to tra.erse. 8?a(ples) +he a""iant s "ailure to ,isclose that the plainti"" s son 0as in Cail at the ti(e o" the issuance o" the 0arrant- an, "or o.er si? (onths prior- an, there"ore not only 0as not present in the ho(e- but (oreo.er coul, not ha.e been in.ol.e, in a ,escribe, shooting or the storage o" 0eapons use, in it. Plainti""s presente, su""icient e.i,ence to establish a genuine issue as to 0hether a ,etecti.e s o(ission o" this (aterial "act 0as intentional or recFless- as oppose, to (erely negligent. Ia, the o(itte, "acts o" the son s t0o%year sentence an, custo,y status been inclu,e,- it 0as e?tre(ely ,oubt"ul that an issuing Cu,ge 0oul, si(ply ha.e issue, the 0arrant or authori;e, nightti(e ser.ice 0ithout (ore in"or(ation. ( ra$o $# Cit& o' Santa %aria (&th Cir. 2011) 55$ B.3r, 1025- 10#3%10##.) 1n a (otion to @uash)
333
1" the a""i,a.it is "oun, to ha.e been properly seale,- the trial court shoul,) Deter(ine 0hether the a""i,a.it (public an, seale, portions) establishes probable cause (i.e.0hether there 0as a *fair probability/) that contraban, or e.i,ence 0oul, be "oun, in the place searche, pursuant to the 0arrant) 1" yes- ,e"en,ant s (otion shoul, be ,enie,. 1" the court ,eter(inesconsi,ering the public an, seale, portions- that there is a *reasonable probability/ the ,e"en,ant 0oul, pre.ail- then again- the District Attorney (ust be gi.en the option o") Consenting to ,isclosure o" the seale, (aterials an, procee,ing 0ith the (otion to @uash a"ter "ull ,isclosure to the ,e"ense: or Su""ering a granting o" ,e"en,ant s (otion to @uash. ()eop"e $# 0o..s- supraat pp. &21%&2$.) Retention of the Documents) A seale, a""i,a.it shoul, generally be retaine, by the court- but (ay be retaine, by a la0 en"orce(ent agency upon a "i.e%part sho0ing) (1) +he ,isclosure 0oul, i(pair "urther in.estigation o" cri(inal con,uct- or en,anger the sa"ety o" a con"i,ential in"or(ant or the in"or(ant s "a(ily: (2) Security proce,ures at the court clerF s o""ice are ina,e@uate to protect the a""i,a.it against ,isclosure: 33$
(3) +he security proce,ures at the la0 en"orce(ent agency are su""icient to protect the a""i,a.it against ,isclosure: (3) +he la0 en"orce(ent agency has proce,ures to ensure the a""i,a.it is retaine, "or 10 years (per(anently in capital cases) a"ter the "inal ,isposition o" the case- pen,ing "urther or,er o" the court (see 9o:.t! Code 2#1)2+K,+1#,): and ($) +he (agistrate has (a,e a su""icient recor, o" the ,ocu(ents re.ie0e,- inclu,ing the seale, (aterials- to per(it i,enti"ication o" the original seale, a""i,a.it or to per(it reconstruction o" the a""i,a.it. ()eop"e $# Ga""and (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 3$3- 35#: also "in,ing that the loss o" the a""i,a.it ,i, not in.ali,ate the 0arrant 0hen *other e.i,ence (ay be presente, to establish the "act that an a""i,a.it 0as presente,- as 0ell as its contents./) =iretap &ase) +he trial court ,enie, ,isco.ery o" the unre,acte, supporting 0iretap a""i,a.its that 0ere seale, pursuant to )eop"e $# 0o..s (1&&3) 2 Cal.3th &3#- in a 0iretap case- an, then re"use, to suppress the 0iretap e.i,ence. +he Appellate Court "oun, that the pri.ileges an, proce,ures o" ?!C! 1343<1342 (!""icial 1n"or(ation Pri.ilege) applies to 0iretap a""i,a.its. De"en,ants "aile, to ,e(onstrate that the trial court abuse, its ,iscretion by ruling that ,e"en,ants rights 0ere a,e@uately protecte, 0ith respect to their re@uests "or ,isclosure o" pri.ilege, ,ocu(entation- an, to their challenges to the su""iciency o" the 0iretap authori;ation or,ers in this case. ()eop"e $# Ace$edo (2012) 20& Cal.App.3th 1030- 1032%10$0.) Post6'n!estigation Disposition of =arrant *pplication and upporting *ffida!its) +he public has a @uali"ie, co((on la0 right o" access to 0arrant (aterials a"ter an in.estigation has been ter(inate,. +he concerns about suspects ,estroying e.i,ence- coor,inating their stories be"ore testi"ying- or "leeing the Curis,iction are no longer present once an in.estigation has been ter(inate,. Absent a co(pelling reason or "actual basis "or li(iting an, restricting the use o" such ,ocu(ents- a court (ay not ,o so. (United States $# The usiness o' the Custer att"e'ie"d %useum (&th Cir. 2011) 5$# B.3r, 11##.)
335
Return o' )ropert&) Property sei;e, by search 0arrant (ay only be release, by court order) (!C! 1)32: All property taFen by 0arrant is to be retaine, by the o""icer *sub%ect to the order of the court./ (!C! 1)43: +he (agistrate has the authority to release property sei;e, by 0arrant. Stolen or e(be;;le, property in cases 0here a co(plaint has been "ile, shoul, be release, by a (agistrate a"ter notice to anyone clai(ing an interest in the property. ((!C! 143#, 1413, 1413+c,) !ther0ise- property (ay be returne, to the la0"ul o0ner by the sei;ing la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- but only a"ter notice is gi.en to the person "ro( 0ho( the property 0as sei;e,. ((!C! 1413+4,) 1"- a"ter ter(ination o" any relate, prosecution- or i" no case has been "ile,- an, the o0ner "ails to clai( the property an, no one else has clai(e, it- it *may/ be ,eli.ere, to the county "or ,isposal pursuant to the proce,ures set out in (!C! 1411. +ote) Special pro.isions "or the ,isposition o" firearms +(!C! 1232#) an, money ((!C! 1423 et se*!) 1t is not legally necessary "or o""icers e?ecuting a search 0arrant to gi.e a person "ro( 0ho( property has been sei;e, any notice o" the applicable statutes or the (eans by 0hich that person (ay seeF the return o" his or her property. (Cit& o' -est Co$ina $s# )er(ins (1&&&) $2$ 4.S. 233 6132 7.8,.2n, 5359: re.ersing a Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal opinion to the contrary.) Be,erally- Federal 8ule of Criminal (rocedure 41+5, pro.i,es a (echanis( by 0hich any person (ay seeF to reco.er property sei;e, by "e,eral agents. +he rule states that i" a (otion to return property is grante,- *the court (ust return the property to the (o.ant./ Ehere the subCect property has been lost or ,estroye,- 8ule 41+5, is silent as to 0hat alternati.e relie"- i" any- the (o.ant (ay seeF. +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has hel, that e.en 0hen it results in a 0rong 0ithout a re(e,y- the "e,eral courts are 0ithout 332
Curis,iction to a0ar, (oney ,a(ages against the go.ern(ent. 8@uitable consi,erations stan,ing alone cannot 0ai.e the go.ern(ent s i((unity "ro( suit. (Ordone5 $# United States (&th Cir. 2012) 5#0 B.3r, 113$.) $urden of Proof when the Return of Property is &ontested) *AEhen a (otion "or return o" property is (a,e be"ore an in,ict(ent is "ile, (but a cri(inal in.estigation is pen,ing)- the (o.ant bears the bur,en o" pro.ing both that the sei;ure 0as illegal an, that he or she is entitle, to la0"ul possession o" the property. United States $# %artinson, #0& B.2, 1353- 135& (&th Cir.1&#2) (citations o(itte,). AIo0e.er- 0hen the property in @uestion is no longer nee,e, "or e.i,entiary purposes- either because trial is co(plete- the ,e"en,ant has plea,e, guilty- or . . . the go.ern(ent has aban,one, its in.estigation- the bur,en o" proo" changes. +he person "ro( 0ho( the property is sei;e, is presu(e, to ha.e a right to its return- an, the go.ern(ent has the bur,en o" ,e(onstrating that it has a legiti(ate reason to retain the property. Id2 ("ootnotes an, citations o(itte,). +he Ago.ern(ent (ust Custi"y its continue, possession o" the property by ,e(onstrating that it is contraban, or subCect to "or"eiture. Id./ (United States $# 0arre"" (&th Cir. 200#) $30 B.3r, 10$1- 10$2.) E!tensions) Search 0arrants (ust be ser.e, 0ithin ten (10) calendar days o" issuance. ((!C! 1)34) +he sole e?ception pro.i,e, "or by statute is "or banF recor,s. 1" a banF cannot reasonably retrie.e the re@ueste, recor,s 0ithin ten ,ays- the a""iant (ay re@uest "or so(e ti(e perio, longer than ten ,ays. (9o:.t! Code 141)) So long as ser.e, 0ithin the 10%,ay li(it- no "urther e.i,ence o" ti(eliness nee, be sho0n. (Ca$e $# Superior Court) 1&5#) 252 Cal.App.2n, $12.) 1"- ,uring the 10%,ay perio,- it beco(es apparent that the 0arrant cannotor 0ill not- be ser.e,- the o""icer (ay ,o either o" the "ollo0ing) Sub(it a ne0 0arrant an, a""i,a.it- 0ith an a,,e, e?planation in the a""i,a.it "or 0hy the 0arrant 0as not e?ecute, on ti(e an, listing any "acts rele.ant to a possible change in probable cause or 0hy it is belie.e, the property to be sei;e, 0ill still be in the place, to be searche,: or 33#
+aFe the original 0arrant- 0ith a supple(ental a""i,a.it incorporating by re"erence the entire original a""i,a.it- bacF to the issuing (agistrate to *re!alidate and reissue/ the sa(e 0arrant ()eop"e $# Sanche5 (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3th 553.) upon a sho0ing that the probable cause has not beco(e stale. ()eop"e $# rocard (1&#$) 120 Cal.App.3r, 23&%232.)
Specia" %asters) Rule) Per (!C! 1)24+c,- search 0arrants "or ,ocu(entary e.i,ence in the possession o"- or un,er the control o"- a . . . "awyerDoctorPsychotherapist- or &lergyman. . . 0ho is not hi( or hersel" reasonably suspecte, o" engaging or ha.ing engage, in cri(inal acti.ity relate, to the documentary e!idence "or 0hich a 0arrant is re@ueste,- are in.ali, unless certain statutory re@uire(ents relating to obtaining the assistance o" a *special master/ are "irst (et. (See Deu(me;ian $# Superior Court (1&#0) 103 Cal.App.3r, 2$3.) =hen not applicable) +his special (aster syste( is speci"ically not a.ailable "or e.i,ence co(ing 0ithin the so%calle, *newsman)s pri!ilege-/ as ,escribe, in ?!C! 1313. ((!C! 1)24+5,) A special (aster is not necessary i" the attorney- etc.- is hi( or hersel" reasonably suspecte, o" the cri(inal acti.ity about 0hich the ,ocu(entary e.i,ence is sought. ()eop"e $# "as:ue5 (1&#$) 15$ Cal.App.3r, 30#.) Io0e.erthis ,oes not preclu,e an attorney- etc.- "ro( obtaining an or,er "ro( the court sealing the sei;e, "iles pen,ing an in ca(era ,eter(ination o" the applicability o" any pri.ilege. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6 auman I Rose7 (1&&$) 32 Cal.App.3th 12$2.) +he search o" a Deputy District Attorney s (DDA) ho(e0hen the DDA 0as the target o" the cri(inal in.estigation,i, not re@uire a special (aster- 0hile the search o" the 33&
DDA s o""ice- 0here there (ight be con"i,ential (aterial belonging to the District Attorney (as oppose, to the DDA hi(sel") did re@uire the ser.ices o" a special (aster. ()eop"e e! re"# 2oc(&er $# Superior Court (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 3#2.) A *special master/ (ust "irst be appointe, by the court- 0ho (ust then acco(pany the o""icers ser.ing the 0arrant. A *special master/ is an attorney license, to practice la0- in goo, stan,ing- in Cali"ornia- to be selecte, "ro( a list o" @uali"ie, attorneys (aintaine, by the State Gar "or the purpose o" con,ucting such searches. ((!C! 1)24+d,) *Documentary e!idence/ inclu,es- but is not li(ite, to- 0ritings,ocu(ents- blueprints- ,ra0ings- photographs- co(puter printouts(icro"il(s- ?%rays- "iles- ,iagra(s- le,gers- booFs- tapes- au,io an, .i,eo recor,ings- "il(s or papers o" any type or ,escription. ((!C! 1)24+f,) Procedure) +he special (aster (ust in"or( the person in possession o" the speci"ic ite(s being sought an, allo0 the party in possession o" the ,ocu(ents to .oluntarily pro.i,e the ite(s re@ueste,. 1"- in the Cu,g(ent o" the special (aster- the party "ails to pro.i,e the ite(s re@ueste,- the special (aster shall con,uct the search "or the ite(s in the areas ,esignate, in the search 0arrant. Potentially pri.ilege, ,ocu(ents (ust be seale,. +he ,ocu(ents seale, by the special (aster cannot be) 4nseale, an,Nor turne, o.er to the in.estigating agency (or to the prosecutor) 0ithout notice being gi.en to the person "ro( 0ho( they 0ere sei;e, (i.e.- the attorney- physicianpsychotherapist- or clergy(an): nor Returne, to the person "ro( 0ho( they 0ere sei;e, 0ithout notice to the person e?ecuting the 0arrant (oralternati.ely- to the in.estigating agency or the prosecutor). (Gordon $# Superior Court (1&&2) $$ Cal.App.3th 1$35.) The &ourt Hearing) 1" the party in,icates that the ite(s sei;e, shoul, not be ,isclose, (e.g.- ,ue to *pri!ilege/ issues)- the special (aster (ust seal the( an, ,eli.er the( to the court "or a hearing on the issue.
330
+he court 0ill re.ie0 the (aterial in ca(era i" a pri.ilege (e.g.attorney%client- or 0orF pro,uct- etc.- pri.ilege) is clai(e,. ()SC Geotherma" Ser$ices Co# $# Superior Court (1&&3) 2$ Cal.App.3th 15&2- 1211%1212: Gei"im $# Superior Court (1&&1) 233 Cal.App.3r, 155- 121.) +he Court has a ,uty to hear an, ,eter(ine the applicability o" a clai( o" pri.ilege- but lacFs the statutory or inherent po0er to re@uire the parties to bear the cost o" a special (aster s ser.ices. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 62a''7 (2001) 2$ Cal.3th 203.) A special (aster may not release e.en an in.entory o" the ite(s sei;e, to a police o""icer a"ter a pri.ilege is in.oFe,. (%a1i"" $# Superior Court (2001) #5 Cal.App.3th 51.) +he hearing 0ill resol.e issues relate, to) Suppression issues pursuant to (!C! 1)3#!) (i.e.- a *motion to suppress e!idence./) Clai(s o" *pri!ilege-/ pursuant to ?!C! "33 et se*!
+he hearing (ust be hel, in Superior Court 0ithin three (3) days o" the ser.ice o" the 0arrant- or as soon as possible i" three ,ays is i(practicable. Although the statute is silent on the issue- it has been hel, that the special (aster shoul, ,eter(ine 0hether a hearing is re@uire, an, gi.e notice to the parties concerning 0hen an, 0here such hearing is to be hel,. (Gordon $# Superior Court- (1&&2) $$ Cal.App.3th 1$35.) ;ther er!ice &onditions) 8?ecution o" the search 0arrant (ust be ,one ,uring business hours i" possible. ((!C! 1)24+c,+3,) +he search 0arrant (ust be ser.e, on the person 0ho appears to ha.e possession or control o" the ,ocu(ents sought. 1" no such person can be "oun,- the special (aster is responsible "or sealing an, returning to the court any ite(s that appear to be pri.ilege,. ((!C! 1)24+c,+3,) Police o""icers (ay acco(pany the special (aster ,uring the search- but shall not participate in the search nor shall they 331
e?a(ine any o" the ite(s being sei;e, e?cept upon agree(ent o" the party upon 0ho( the 0arrant has been ser.e,. ((!C! 1)24+e,) Other -arrants: 'nspection =arrants) 8n"orce(ent o" so(e co,es- such as building- firehealth- safety- health- plumbing- electrical- labor or zoning codes- re@uire the perio,ic inspections o" so(e buil,ings. (See Da,son $# Cit& o' Seatt"e (&th Cir. 2005) 33$ B.3r, 10$3.) Cali"ornia has enacte, a regulatory sche(e "or 0hat are re"erre, to as *inspection warrants-/ "or obtaining search 0arrants "or regulatory inspections *re@uire, or authori;e, by state or local or regulation relating to buil,ing- "ire (etc.)-/ co,e co(pliance. (CC( 1#22!)3 et se*!) Consent to search is to be re@ueste, "irst. (CC( 1#22!)1) 1" consent is re"use,- a 0arrant is nee,e,- but (ay be obtaine, on less than the tra,itional probable cause. (See Sa",asser %anu'acturin1 Co# $# Occupationa" Sa'et& I 0eath Appea"s oard (1&#&) 213 Cal.App.3r, 52$.) A 0arrant (ay be obtaine, upon a sho0ing that the area is blighte,- non%,iscri(inatory searches are con,ucte, on a regular basis- an,Nor areas are picFe, at ran,o( "or inspection. *&ause/ nee,e, to obtain a 0arrant- 0hen consent is re"use,- is *,ee(e, to e?ist i" either reasonable legislati.e or a,(inistrati.e stan,ar,s "or con,ucting a routine or area inspection are satis"ie, 0ith respect to the particular place,0elling- structurepre(ises- or .ehicle- or there is reason to belie.e that a con,ition o" noncon"or(ity e?ists 0ith respect to the particular place- ,0elling- structurepre(ises- or .ehicle./ (CC( 1#22!)2) 8?a(ples) Residences. (Camara $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (1&52) 3#2 4.S. $23 61# 7.8,.2n, &309.) &ommercial *reas. (See $# Cit& o' Seatt"e (1&52) 3#2 4.S. $31 61# 7.8,.2n, &339.) 332
Reasonable "orce (ay be use, to insure e.eryone s sa"etyinclu,ing the te(porary ,etention o" a resi,ent s occupants i" necessary un,er the circu(stances. (Da,son $# Cit& o' Seatt"e (&th Cir. 2005) 33$ B.3r, 10$3- 105$%1020.) Rendition (or Extradition)) Article I0, 2, Clause 2 of the nited States Constitution states that) *A person charge, in any state 0ith treason- "elony- or other cri(e- 0ho shall "lee "ro( Custice- an, be "oun, in another stateshall on ,e(an, o" the e?ecuti.e authority o" the state "ro( 0hich he "le,- be ,eli.ere, up to be re(o.e, to the state ha.ing Curis,iction o" the cri(e./ +he ter( *rendition-/ literally translate, as *to surrender-/ re"ers to 0hat is (ore co((only Fno0n as *extradition./ The implementing statute- 1# !S!C! 31#2- pro.i,es in substance that- on a proper ,e(an, o" the e?ecuti.e o" one state upon the e?ecuti.e o" another- it is the ,uty o" the latter to ha.e the "ugiti.e arreste, an, ,eli.ere, to the agent o" the ,e(an,ing state. +he "e,eral statute an, constitutional pro.isions pro.i,e the basis "or the interstate e?tra,ition o" "ugiti.es. +he *asylum/ state has a ,uty to release to the *demanding/ state one 0ho has allege,ly .iolate, the la0s o" the later. 1t is "or the ,e(an,ing state alone- an, not the asylu( state- to ,eter(ine the o""en,ing party s innocence or guilt. (In re Go"den (1&22) 5$ Cal.app.3r, 2#&- 2&5.) 4pon receipt o" the ,e"en,ant in the *demanding state-/ his return to the *asylum state/ prior to a ,eter(ination o" guilt 0ill result in ,is(issal o" the charges in the ,e(an,ing state- un,er the ter(s o" the Interstate A1reement on Detainers. (A"a.ama $ o5eman (2001) $33 4.S. 135 61$0 7.8,.2n, 1##9.) 'nternational extraditions are the subCect o" treaties bet0een the 4nite, States an, other in,i.i,ual countries. Extradition) All "i"ty states ha.e supple(ente, the "e,eral pro.isions through the a,option o" the * niform Criminal ?@tradition Act./
333
Cali"ornia a,opte, the Act in 1&32. (See (!C! 1)4# et se*!) (!C! 1)4#!1: the Lo.ernor s Duty) *SubCect to the pro.isions o" this chapter- the Constitution o" the 4nite, States- an, the la0s o" the 4nite, States- it is the ,uty o" the Lo.ernor o" this State to ha.e arreste, an, ,eli.ere, up to the e?ecuti.e authority o" any other State any person charge, in that State 0ith treason- "elony- or other cri(e0ho has "le, "ro( Custice an, is "oun, in this State./ 4n,er the niform Act for Iut<of<State (ro4ationer or (arolee Su-er:ision ((!C! 1111) et se*!)- a parole, prisoner or probationer (ay be arreste, an, brought bacF "ro( another state- on re.ocation o" his parole or probation0ithout in.oFing the (ore ,i""icult e?tra,ition proce,ure. 1" the ,e"en,ant has a case pen,ing in this state- he (ay be hel, here until he is trie, an, ,ischarge, or con.icte, an, has ser.e, his sentence. ((!C! 1))1!1). Procedure) (!C! 1)4#!2) +he ,e(an, (ust be in 0riting an, acco(panie, by) A copy- certi"ie, as authentic by the e?ecuti.e- o" an in,ict(entin"or(ation- or a""i,a.it be"ore a (agistrate in the ,e(an,ing state- charging the co((ission o" a cri(e un,er the la0s o" that state: and A copy o" any 0arrant issue, thereon: or A copy o" a Cu,g(ent o" con.iction or sentence i(pose,- 0ith a state(ent that the person clai(e, has escape, or .iolate, his bail- probation or parole. (!C! 1)4#!3) +he go.ernor o" the asylu( state (ay then call upon the Attorney Leneral or any District Attorney to in.estigate the ,e(an, an, report on 0hether the person shoul, be surren,ere,. 333
1t is not suppose, to be an issue in the asylu( state 0hether or not the ,e"en,ant is guilty. +he only issue to be resol.e, by the asylu( state is 0hether the ,e"en,ant in custo,y is the sa(e person ,e(an,e, by the other state. ((!C! 1))3!1. 1))3!2) Io0e.er- ,espite the "act that the niform Act is 0or,e, in (an,atory ter(s- it has been hel, that 0hile a court (ay "orce the go.ernor to (aFe a ,ecision- courts do not ha.e the po0er to (aFe a go.ernor (aFe a specific ,ecision: i.e.- the go.ernor cannot be "orce, to honor another state s re@uest "or e?tra,ition. (South Da(ota $# ro,n (1&2#) 20 Cal.3r, 25$.) A 30%year ,elay in e?tra,iting a Cali"ornia resi,ent- nor the ,e"en,ant s ill health- ,o not Custi"y an e?ception to the e?tra,ition re@uire(ents. (In re -a"ton (2002) && Cal.App.3th &33.) (!C! 1)41 et se*!) Ehen the ,ecision is (a,e to surren,er the ,e"en,ant- a *<o!ernor)s =arrant of Extradition/ is issue, 0hich authori;es the arrest an, ,eli.ery o" an accuse, to the agent o" the ,e(an,ing state. (!C! 1)))!2) A person (ay be re@uire, to gi.e a prior 0ai.er o" e?tra,ition as a con,ition o" his or her release "ro( custo,y- or as a part o" a plea bargain- on the original charge 0hich later beco(es the subCect o" the e?tra,ition "ro( the asylu( state. (!.erruling a prior court ,ecision to the contraryIn re /"oc( (1&#2) 133 Cal.App.3r, 225.) A probationer 0ho "lees Cali"ornia (ay be or,ere, to pay the costs o" his e?tra,ition bacF to Cali"ornia. ()eop"e $# -ashin1ton (2002) 100 Cal.App.3th $&0.) 'gnoring Extradition Treaties) Prosecution o" a ,e"en,ant is not preclu,e, (erely because a ,e"en,ant is ab,ucte, abroa, "or the purpose o" prosecution- e.en i" ,one in .iolation o" an e?tra,ition 33$
treaty- such as 0hen 4.S. la0 en"orce(ent agents "orcibly ab,uct a "oreign national in Oe?ico an, bring hi( to the 4nite, States "or prosecution. (A"$are53%achain (1&&2) $03 4.S. 5$$ 611& 7.8,.2n, 3319: see also /er $# I""inois (1##5) 11& 4.S. 335 630 7.8,. 3219: )eop"e $# Sa"cido (200#) 33 Cal.3th &3- 11&%125.) Un"a,'u" F"i1ht to A$oid )rosecution (*UFA)/)) 1# !S!C! 1313: The Fu5iti:e Felon Act) cope) +his "e,eral statute pro.i,es cri(inal penalties "or unla0"ul "light to a.oi, prosecution- con"ine(ent- gi.ing o" testi(ony- or to a.oi, ser.ice o" process. ([$-000 "ine an,Nor $ years in prison.) The primary purpose o" the statute is to gi.e the "e,eral go.ern(ent the Curis,iction to assist in the location an, apprehension o" "ugiti.es "ro( state Custice- through the use o" a *UFA) =arrant./ Procedure) A "e,eral co(plaint "or unla0"ul "light to a.oi, prosecution is appropriate 0here there is probable cause to belie.e that the "ugiti.e has "le, an, that his "light 0as "or the purpose o" a.oi,ing prosecution an, that he has (o.e, or tra.ele, in interstate or "oreign co((erce. +he (ere absence "ro( the state 0ithout e.i,ence o" an intent to a.oi, prosecution is not su""icient. (In re /in1 (1&20) 3 Cal.3r, 225- 235- "n. #.) Although not legally re@uire,- state prosecution shoul, ha.e been co((ence, by co(plaint- 0arrant- in,ict(entor in"or(ation- prior to issuance o" the "e,eral co(plaint. Io0e.er- it is not necessary that the "light itsel" occur prior to the initiation o" the prosecution. (2upino $# United States (#th Cir. 1&$&) 25# B.2n, 2&&.) Certi"ie, copies o" the charging ,ocu(ents shoul, be ,eli.ere, to the 4nites States Attorney s !""ice.
FA( speci"ically applies as 0ell to parental ?idnapping an, interstate or international "light to a.oi, prosecution "or that cri(e. 335
+he Depart(ent o" Justice has establishe, gui,elines "or issuing 0arrants in these cases 0hich re@uire in,epen,ent an, cre,ible in"or(ation that the Fi,nappe, chil, is in a con,ition o" abuse or neglect. FA( also co.ers "light "or the purpose o" a!oiding custody or confinement2 Applies to in(ates o" Cails an, prisons as 0ell as those on con,itional liberty: i.e.- probation or parole. 8.i,ence shoul, be a.ailable in,icating that a probationer or parolee Fne0 or belie.e, that his con,itional liberty 0as about to be re.oFe, or 0as at least in Ceopar,y. A co(plaint (ay also be authori;e, 0here a 0itness has "le, the state to a!oid gi!ing testimony in a cri(inal procee,ing 0hich in.ol.es a "elony. +he cri(inal procee,ings (ust actually ha.e been initiate, in state court. (Dur.in $# United States (D.C. Cir. 1&$3) 221 B.2n, $20.) +here shoul, be substantial e.i,ence to in,icate that the intent 0as to "lee in or,er to a.oi, the gi.ing o" testi(ony. FA( prohibits interstate "light *to a!oid ser!ice of- or conte(pt procee,ings "or allege, ,isobe,ience o"- lawful process- re@uiring atten,ance an, the gi.ing o" testi(ony or the pro,uction o" ,ocu(entary e.i,ence be"ore an agency o" a state e(po0ere, by the la0 o" such state to con,uct in.estigations o" allege, cri(inal acti.ities./ FA( ,oes not superse,e- nor is it inten,e, to pro.i,e an alternati.e "or- state extradition procee,ings. +ote) +he federal complaint charging unla0"ul "light 0ill generally be dismissed once a "ugiti.e has been apprehen,e, an, turne, o.er to state authorities to a0ait interstate e?tra,ition.
332
Chapter L
-arrant"ess Searches) Genera" Ru"e: Although the use o" a search 0arrant 0hen con,ucting any search is the general rule (see belo0)- un,er the ter(s o" the Fourth Amendment- the search o" a person- !ehicle an, (possibly) container 0ithout a 0arrant (ay o"ten be Custi"ie, un,er one or (ore o" three legal theories) 'ncident to *rrest =ith Probable &ause plus Exigent &ircumstances =ith &onsent +ote) 8ach o" these theories is separately ,iscusse, in the "ollo0ing chapters. Searches o" a house (or residence) pose ,i""erent proble(s relating to the necessity o" a 0arrant. (See * earches of Residences-/ belo0) E!ceptions to the Search -arrant Re:uirement: Asi,e "ro( the three legal theories note, abo.e- there are at least nine other Custi"ications "or the search an,Nor sei;ure o" e.i,ence 0ithout the nee, "or a search 0arrant- as ,iscusse, belo0) Plain ight ;bser!ations Plain Hearing Plain mell pecial +eeds earches Exigent &ircumstances &losely Regulated $usinesses or *cti!ities chool earches *irport earches ,inimal 'ntrusion
)"ain Si1ht O.ser$ations) A *plain sight/ obser.ation (or *plain smell/ or *plain hearing/) is not a search- an, thus does not i(plicate the Fourth Amendment. Rule) A plain sight obser.ation o" contraban, or other e.i,ence (a,e while the officer is in a place or a position he or she has a lawful right to be ,oes not in.ol.e any constitutional issues. ()eop"e $# "oc( (1&21) 5 Cal.3r, 23&- 233: North $# Superior Court (1&22) # Cal.3r, 301- 305.) 33#
+o earch) +here is no search 0hen an o""icer *obser.e(s) cri(inal acti.ity 0ith the naFe, eye "ro( a .antage point accessible to the general public./ (United States $# Garcia (&th Cir. 1&&3) &&2 B.2n, 1223- 122&: )eop"e $# Orti5 (1&&3) 32 Cal.App.3th 2#5- 2&1.) :ustification for eizure) Ehen a peace o""icer la0"ully ,isco.ers an ite( he reasonably belie.es is potential e.i,ence o" a particular cri(eobser.e, in *plain sight-/ an, its sei;ure appears necessary "or its preser.ation- he (ay sei;e the ite( 0ithout a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Cur"e& (1&20) 12 Cal.App.3r, 232.) Bi.e re@uire(ents are liste, by the court) +he o""icer (ust ha.e reasonable cause to belie.e a particular cri(e has been co((itte,. +his re@uire(ent is co(pelle, by the Constitution in or,er to a.oi, the ,anger o" e?ploratory searches an, sei;ures. +he e.i,ence (ust not ha.e been ,isco.ere, as the result o" any in.asion- intrusion- or illegal entry other than purely "or(al trespass. +he e.i,ence (ust be in plain sight or rea,ily accessible to routine inspection 0ithout ru((age or pry. 1" the e.i,ence is ,isco.erable only as a result o" in@uisiti.e or e?ploratory action then 0hat is in.ol.e, is a search- an, the rules "or search apply. +he o""icer (ust ha.e reasonable cause to belie.e the e.i,ence ten,s to sho0 the co((ission o" the cri(e or ten,s to sho0 that a particular person co((itte, the cri(e. +he sei;ure (ust be necessary to preser.e potential e.i,ence- an, the ,egree o" in.asion o" other interests a""ecte, by the sei;ure (ust be in proportion to the seriousness o" the cri(e.
+o Expectation of Pri!acy) +here is no expectation of pri!acy in anything .oluntarily e?pose, to public .ie0. ()eop"e $# enedict (1&5&) 2 Cal.App.3th 300.) *Ehat a person Fno0ingly e?poses to the public- e.en in his o0n ho(e or o""ice- is not a subCect o" Fourth Amendment protection./ (/at5 $# United States (1&52) 3#& 4.S. 332- 3$1 61& 7.8,.2n, $25- $#2.) *+hus a (an s ho(e is- "or (ost purposes- a place 0here he e?pects pri.acy- but obCects- acti.ities- or state(ents that 33&
he e?poses to the Aplain .ie0 o" outsi,ers are not Aprotecte, because no intention to Feep the( to hi(sel" has been e?hibite,. . . . (C)on.ersations in the open 0oul, not be protecte, against being o.erhear,- "or the e?pectation o" pri.acy un,er the circu(stances 0oul, be unreasonable./ (Id#- at p. 351 61& 7.8,.2n, at p. $##9: concurring opinion.) Examples) An o""icer stan,ing in the co((on areas o" an apart(ent co(ple?obser.ing contraban, though a person s unco.ere, 0in,o0s- is not illegal. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Rei""&7 (1&2$) $3 Cal.App.3r, 30- $0.) $ut- trespassing at the si,e o" a house 0here the public is not i(plie,ly in.ite,- at least 0hen in.estigating a (inor o""ense (i.e.- lou, (usic) an, no atte(pt is "irst (a,e to contact the resi,ent by FnocFing at the "ront ,oor- (aFes the o""icers obser.ations into the ,e"en,ant s unco.ere, 0in,o0s illegal. ()eop"e $# Camacho (2000) 23 Cal.3th #23.) Gut see the ,issent in Camacho- at pp. #33%#33listing a consi,erable nu(ber o" "e,eral circuit court ,ecisions 6not bin,ing upon the state courts9 0hich ha.e rule, to the contrary in si(ilar circu(stances. EalFing aroun, to the bacF o" the ,e"en,ant s house to FnocF- 0hile looFing "or an ar(e, parolee%at%large- 0as hel, to be la0"ul- ,i""erentiating the rule o" Camacho on the "acts an, the relati.e seriousness o" the cri(es in.ol.e,. +he "act that the o""icer 0as *trespassing/ hel, not to be signi"icant 0hen consi,ering the *reasonableness/ o" the o""icer s actions. ()eop"e $# %anderscheid (2002) && Cal.App.3th 3$$.) EalFing all the 0ay aroun, a house in an atte(pt to locate an occupant 0as la0"ul- an, the plain sight obser.ations (a,e 0hile ,oing so 0ere there"ore a,(issible. (United States $# 0ammett (&th Cir. 2001) 235 B.3r, 10$3.) 4se o" night .ision goggles to obser.e areas 0ithin the curtilage o" ,e"en,ants resi,ence 0as irrele.ant. ()eop"e $# 2ien1 (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 1213- 1222%122#.) 3$0
!bser.ing ,e"en,ant retrie.ing contraban, "ro( a hole in the groun, behin, an apart(ent co(ple?- this obser.ation being (a,e "ro( another person s pri.ate property 0ith that person s per(ission- is a la0"ul plain sight obser.ation. ()eop"e $# Sha, (2002) &2 Cal.App.3th #33.) +he use o" binoculars to enhance 0hat the o""icer can alrea,y see,epen,ing upon the ,egree o" e?pectation o" pri.acy in.ol.e, un,er the circu(stances- is nor(ally la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Arno (1&2&) &0 Cal.App.3r, $0$.) +he use o" a "lashlight to looF into a structure- 0hen the o""icers are in a place they ha.e a la0"ul right to be- is not a search. (United States $# Dunn (1&#2) 3#0 4.S. 2&3- 2&#- 303 6&3 7.8,.2n, 325- 333- 335%3329: . ()eop"e $# Cha$e5 (200#) 151 Cal.App.3th 13&3- 1$01: United States $# ara;as3A$a"os (&th Cir. 2003) 3$& B.3r, 1203- 1213- but see ,issenting opinion- at pp. 1220%1221.) 4se o" night .ision goggles to obser.e areas 0ithin plain sight an, the curtilage o" ,e"en,ants resi,ence is la0"ul. ()eop"e $# 2ien1 (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 1213- 1222%122#.) Si(ilarly- obser.ation o" a (ariCuana patch 0hile "lying at an altitu,e o" so(e 1-$00 to 2-000 "eet- .isible to the naFe, eye (an, then enhance, through the use o" binoculars)- ,i, not .iolate the ,e"en,ant s pri.acy rights. ( ur(ho"der $# Superior Court (1&2&) &5 Cal.App.3r, 321: see also )eop"e $# St Amour (1&#0) 103 Cal.App.3r, ##5- obser.ations (a,e "ro( 1-000 to 1-$00 "eet- again enhance, through the use o" binoculars- hel, to be la0"ul.) !r,ering a person to li"t his sunglasses e?posing his eyes is not a search. ()eop"e $# -ee("& (1&&$) 32 Cal.App.3th 1253: ,ilate, pupils obser.e,.) +he sur.eillance an, photographing o" ,e"en,ant in public 0as not a Fourth Amendment .iolation ,espite the "act that ,e"en,ant s i,entity an, location 0here he 0as e?pecte, to appear 0ere ,eter(ine, through the use o" a 0itness telephone hotline progra( 0hich guarantee, anony(ity to its callers. ()eop"e $# %aur& (2003) 30 Cal.3th 332- 3#2%303.) !bser.ation o" chil, pornography on the ,e"en,ant s co(puterbeing la0"ully searche, as authori;e, by a ho(ici,e 0arrant- 0as in *plain sight-/ an, a,(issible in a later pornography prosecution. (United States $# -on1 (&th Cir. 2003) 333 B.3r, #31.) 3$1
The *Plain ight ;bser!ation/ !s2 the Right To Enter a Residence) Ehen obser.ing contraban, 0ithin a resi,ence "ro( the outsi,e- a 0arrantless entry into those pre(ises to sei;e the contraban, 0oul, not be Custi"ie, absent e?igent circu(stances. (0orton $# Ca"i'ornia (1&&0 3&5 4.S. 12#132- "n. 2 6110 7.8,.2n, 112- 1239: United States $# %urph& (&th Cir. 200#) $15 B.3r, 1112- 1121.) A search 0arrant authori;ing the entry o" the resi,ence (ust "irst be obtaine,. Io0e.er- e?igent circu(stances 0oul, be present i" the o""icer reasonably belie.es that the occupants o" the resi,ence ha.e ,isco.ere, that the police are a0are o" contraban, in the resi,ence. (0orton $# Ca"i'orniasupra.) Plain View in &omputerized 'nformation earch =arrant &ases) +rouble, by the 0holesale sei;ure o" co(puteri;e, in"or(ation o" a pri.ate business Feeping (e,ical in"or(ation- 0here the go.ern(ent case agent peruse, the sei;e, co(puter "iles an, "oun, incri(inating in"or(ation relate, to (any other in,i.i,uals "or 0ho( there 0as no probable cause- the Jinth Circuit Court o" appeal has propose, 0ai.ing the *plain .ie0/ ,octrine in such cases as a con,ition o" issuing such a search 0arrant. (United States $# Comprehensi$e Dru1 Testin1, Inc# (9th Cir. 2010) 521 B.3r, 1152- incorporating the "acts as ,escribe, at $13 B.3rd 108%.) *)"ain 0earin1)/ 1t has also been hel, that an o""ense occurring 0ithin a police o""icer s sense of hearing is 0ithin his presence- an, can supply probable cause. ()eop"e $# rad"e& (1&$2) 1$2 Cal.App.2n, $22.) +he cri(e o" (aFing annoying or harassing telephone calls- per (!C! 2)3@- is ,one in the listener s presence. ()eop"e $# "oom (2010) 1#$ Cal.App.3th 13&5: harassing phone calls to a police ,ispatcher.) *)"ain Sme"")/ 1t has been argue, that there shoul, be no logical ,istinction bet0een so(ething apparent to the senses of sight and hearing an, the sa(e thing apparent to the sense of smell. ()eop"e $# oc( 2eun1 Che, (1&$5) 132 Cal.App.2n, 300.) Rule) *1" the presence o" o,ors is testi"ie, to be"ore a (agistrate an, he "in,s the a""iant @uali"ie, to Fno0 the o,oran, it is one su""iciently ,istincti.e to i,enti"y a "orbi,,en substance- this Court has ne.er hel, such a basis insu""icient to Custi"y issuance o" a search 0arrant. 1n,ee,- it (ight .ery 0ell be "oun, to be e.i,ence o" (ost persuasi.e character./ (*ohnson $# United States (1&3#) 333 4.S. 10- 13 6&2 7.8,. 335- 3309.) 3$2
+his- ho0e.er- ,oes not relie.e the o""icer o" the necessity o" obtaining a search 0arrant be"ore looFing "oran, sei;ing- the source o" the o,or- absent e?igent circu(stances e?cusing the lacF o" a 0arrant. (Id! at p. 13 6&2 7.8,. at pp. 330%3319.) Also- 0hile seizure o" a pacFage "ro( 0hich the o,or o" (ariCuana is e(anating (ay be la0"ul- a 0arrantless search o" that pacFage absent e?igent circu(stances is not la0"ul. (Ro.e& $# Superior Court 6)eop"e7 (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 1.) Petition "or re.ie0 0as grante, by the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court in this case (Jan. 1#- 2012)- 0ith the ,ecision being ,epublishe,- (aFing Ro.e& no longer a.ailable "or citation. Examples) +he o,or o" opiu( co(ing "ro( an apart(ent supplie, su""icient probable cause to Custi"y an entry- arrest an, search o" the apart(ent. ()eop"e $# oc( 2eun1 Che,- supra-) !,or o" (ariCuana s(oFe ,uring a tra""ic stop Custi"ie, the search o" a .ehicle. ()eop"e $# 2o$e;o& (1&20) 12 Cal.App.3r, ##3- ##2.) +he *strong o,or o" "resh (ariCuana/ on ,e"en,ant s person 0as hel, to be probable cause to belie.e ,e"en,ant 0as in possession o" the (ariCuana. ()eop"e $# Ga"e (1&23) & Cal.3r, 2##- 2&3- "n. 3.) +he o,or o" (ariCuana e(anating "ro( t0o trucFs at a pri.ate airstrip- un,er circu(stances consistent 0ith s(uggling operations0as "oun, to constitute probable cause to belie.e the trucFs containe, (ariCuana. (United States $# *ohns (1&#$) 35& 4.S. 32# 6#3 7.8,.2n, #&09.) +he o,or o" beer note, ,uring a tra""ic stop supplie, probable cause to search the car "or alcohol. ()eop"e $# %o"ina (1&&3) 2$ Cal.App.3th 103#.) Exceptions) +he courts in so(e Curis,ictions "eel that the o,or alone- 0ithout other suspicious circu(stances- may not be su""icient to establish probable cause. (See )eop"e $# Ta&"or (Oich. 1&&2) $53 J.E.2n, 23: o,or o" (ariCuana ,i, not Custi"y the 0arrantless search o" a .ehicle.)
3$3
8ntering a resi,ence 0ith probable cause to belie.e only that the non%booFable o""ense o" possession o" less than an ounce o" (ariCuana is occurring (F&S 113)1+4,)- is closer to the -e"sh $ -isconsin (1&#3) 355 4.S. 230 6#0 7.8,.2n, 2329 situation (a ci.il o""ense only)- an, a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment 0hen entry is (a,e 0ithout consent or a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# 0ua (200#) 1$# Cal.App.3th 1022: )eop"e $# Torres et a"! (2012) 20$ Cal.App.3th &#&- &&3%&&#.) +he Torres Court also reCecte, as *speculation/ the People s argu(ent that there being "our people in the ,e"en,ants hotel roo( in,icte, that a *(ariCuana% s(oFing party/ 0as occurring- 0hich *probably/ in.ol.e, a booFable a(ount o" (ariCuana. ()eop"e $# Torres et a"!supraat p. &&5.) *nd +ote) +he courts uni"or(ly ha.e hel, that the odor of ether (a bypro,uct o" the (anu"acturing process "or so(e ,angerous ,rugs)- e(anating "ro( a particular location (e.g.- a house or garage)- is not probable cause to search "or ,rugs. Io0e.er it is an e?igent circu(stance- gi.en the potential .olatility o" ether- to Custi"y an i((e,iate 0arrantless entry 0hile escorting the "ire ,epart(ent to *neutralize/ the ,angerous situation. ()eop"e $# %essina (1&#$) 15$ Cal.App.3r, &31: )eop"e $# Osuna (1&#2) 1#2 Cal.App.3r, #3$.) So long as (1) the police ha.e reasonable groun,s to belie.e that there is an e(ergency at han, an, an i((e,iate nee, "or their assistance "or the protection o" li"e or property- (2) their assistance is not pri(arily (oti.ate, by the intent to arrest a person or sei;e e.i,ence- an, (3) there is so(e reasonable basis- *approximating probable cause-/ to associate the e(ergency 0ith the area or place to be entere,- then the *emergency doctrine/ 0ill allo0 "or a 0arrantless entry to neutrali;e the e(ergency. (United States $# Cer$antes (&th Cir. 2000) 21& B.3r, ##2.) An, then- any plain sight obser.ations (a,e 0hile la0"ully in the house neutrali;ing the ,anger can pro.i,e the necessary probable cause to secure the house- arrest the occupants- an, obtain a search 0arrant "or the rest o" the house. ()eop"e $# 0i"" (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, 231.)
3$3
+he o,or o" ether plus other circu(stances 0hich corroborate the suspecte, presence o" an illicit substance will nor(ally establish probable cause. ()eop"e $# Ste1man (1&#$) 153 Cal.App.3r, &35: )eop"e $# )atterson (1&2&) &3 Cal.App.3r, 3$5: )eop"e $# Torres (1&#1) 121 Cal.App.3r, Supp. &.) E!i1ent Circumstances) +he presence o" exigent circumstances 0ill e?cuse the lacF o" a 0arrant. *Exigent &ircumstances/ are present- as a general rule0hene.er there is no reasonable opportunity "or the police o""icers to stop an, taFe the ti(e to get a search 0arrant. (See United States $# 9entresca (1&5$) 3#0 4.S. 102- 102 613 7.8,.2n, 5#3- 5##9.) Defined) *An e?igent circu(stance is Aan e(ergency situation re@uiring s0i"t action to pre.ent i((inent ,anger to li"e or serious ,a(age to property- or to "orestall the i((inent escape o" a suspect or ,estruction o" e.i,ence. / ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Chapman7 (2012) 203 Cal.App.3th 1003- 1012: @uoting )eop"e $# Rame& (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, 253225.) Rule) *689?igent circu(stances are present 0hen a reasonable person 60oul,9 belie.e that entry . . . 0as necessary to pre.ent physical har( to the o""icers or other persons- the ,estruction o" rele.ant e.i,ence- the escape o" the suspect- or so(e other conse@uence i(properly "rustrating legiti(ate la0 en"orce(ent e""orts./ (United States $# A"aima"o (&th Cir2002) 313 B.3r, 11##- 11&2%11&3- @uoting ai"e& $# Ne,"and (&th Cir. 2001) 253 B.3r, 1022- 1033: United States $# roo(s (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, 112#- 1133- "n. $- W 113$.) Per the &alifornia upreme &ourt) *Ee ha.e ,e"ine, Ae?igent circu(stances to inclu,e Aan e(ergency situation re@uiring s0i"t action to pre.ent i((inent ,anger to li"e or serious ,a(age to property . . . . ()eop"e $# Rame& (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, 253- 225 . . . ) +he action (ust be Apro(pte, by the (oti.e o" preser.ing li"e or property an, 6(ust9 reasonably appear to the actor to be necessary "or that purpose. ()eop"e $# Ro.erts (1&$5) 32 Cal.2n, 323- 322 . . . )/ ()eop"e $# Duncan (1&#5) 32 Cal.3r, &1- &2.) *A689?igent circu(stances (eans an e(ergency situation re@uiring s0i"t action to pre.ent i((inent ,anger to li"e or serious ,a(age to property- or to "orestall the i((inent escape o" a suspect or ,estruction o" e.i,ence./ ()eop"e $# )anah (200$) 3$ Cal.3th 3&$- 35$.)
3$$
8?a(ples) +o pre.ent the destruction of e!idence. ()eop"e $# 0u.er (1&5$) 232 Cal.App.2n, 553: )eop"e $# ennett (1&&#) 12 Cal.3th 3233#3%3#$: )eop"e $# Seaton (2001) 25 Cal.3th $&#: United States $# O;eda (&th Cir. 2002) 225- 3#5- 3##: ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Chapman7 (2012) 203 Cal.App.3th 1003- 1011.) +he 0arrantless entry an, te(porary sei;ure o" a ho(e 0hile police obtain a search 0arrant is reasonable 0here there e?ists: (a) probable cause to belie.e the ho(e contains e.i,ence- (b) goo, cause to belie.e the occupants unless restraine, 0ill ,estroy the e.i,ence- (c) the (etho, use, is less restricti.e to the occupants than ,etaining the(an, (,) a reasonable perio, o" ti(e is use, to obtain a 0arrant. (In re E"i5a.eth G# (2001) ## Cal.App.3th 3&5.) Eith *probable cause/ to belie.e that contraban, is containe, in a particular resi,ence- an, a *reasonable belief/ that i" the house is not i((e,iately secure, the e.i,ence 0ill be ,estroye,- o""icers (ay enter to secure the house pen,ing the obtaining o" a search 0arrant or a consent to ,o a co(plete search. (United States $# A"aima"o (&th Cir- 2002) 313 B.3r, 11##.) See * ecuring the Premises Pending the ;btaining of a earch =arrant-/ belo0. +o checF "or other suspects- "or the officers) safety. (United States $# O;eda- supra: ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Chapman7 (2012) 203 Cal.App.3th 1003- 1011) See *Protecti!e weeps-/ belo0. (resh or Hot Pursuit o" a cri(inal suspect. (-arden, %ar&"and )enitentiar& $# 0a&den (1&52) 3#2 4.S. 2&3 61# 7.8,.2n, 2#29: United States $# Santana (1&25) 322 4.S. 3# 63& 7.8,.2n, 3009: )eop"e $# Escudero (1&2&) 23 Cal.3r, #00- #0#%#11: )eop"e $# Spain (1&#3) 1$3 Cal.App.3th #3$.) Gut see Sims $# Stanton (&th Cir. Jan. 15- 2013) >> B.3r, >> 62013 4.S. App. 78T1S 10$29.)- un,er *Residential earches-/ belo0.
3$5
earch for additional suspects. ()eop"e $# "oc( (1&21) 5 Cal.3r, 23&.) Protection of life and property. ()eop"e $# Ammons (1&#0) 103 Cal.App.3r, 20.) A reasonable belie" in the e?istence o" an imminent threat to life or the welfare of a person 0ithin the ho(e- probable cause to belie.e a person reported missing is therein- or a reasonable belie" a person 0ithin is in need of aid- are all 0ell recogni;e, as e?igent circu(stances 0hich Custi"y an i((e,iate- 0arrantless entry. ()eop"e $# Coddin1ton (2000) 23 Cal.3th $2&: -e"sh $# -isconsin (1&#3) 355 4.S. 230- 2$0 6#0 7.8,.2n, 232- 2339.) +he presence o" a ,rug lab- as e.i,ence by the o,or o" ether- gi.en the e?plosi.e nature o" the che(icals use,Custi"ies an i((e,iate 0arrantless entry to neutrali;e the ,anger. ()eop"e $# Duncan (1&#5) 32 Ca.3r, &1: )eop"e $# Ste1man (1&#$) 153 Cal.App.3r, &35- &33: )eop"e $# %essina (1&#$) 15$ Cal.App.3r, &32.) See *Plain mell-/ abo.e. +ote) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal consi,ers the 0arrantless entry o" a resi,ence in such ,rug lab cases as Custi"ie, by the so%calle, *emergency doctrine-/ 0hich- per the court- is so(ething ,i""erent than *exigent circumstances./ (United States $# Cer$antes (&th Cir. 2000) 21& B.3r, ##2.) Gase, upon probable cause to belie.e a ,o(estic .iolence inci,ent ha, occurre, an, that the "e(ale .icti(- Fno0n to be in a hotel roo(- (ight nee, the o""icer s assistance: a 0arrantless entry 0as uphel,. (United States $# roo(s (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, 112#.) A 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence 0hen necessary to *preser!e the peace/ in the e?ecution o" a restraining or,erallo0ing the ,e"en,ant s ,aughter to retrie.e certain property- 0as hel, to be la0"ul. Reasonable "orce 0as also properly use, 0hen necessary to e""ecti.ely preser.e the peace. (0enderson $# Cit& o' Simi 9a""e& (&th Cir. 2002) 30$ B.3r, 10$2.) 3$2
+o checF on the 0el"are o" persons reasonably belie.e, to nee, la0 en"orce(ent s assistance. (%artin $# Cit& o' Oceanside (&th Cir. 2003) 350 B.3r, 102#.) +o checF "or a (issing eight%year%ol, girl 0here there 0as cause to belie.e that a (ale resi,ent in the apart(ent searche, ha, ha, contact 0ith her earlier in the ,ay an, 0as no0 hi,ingre"using to open the ,oor. ()eop"e $# )anah (200$) 3$ Cal.3th 3&$- 353%355. +he "act that later e.i,ence in,icate, that the .icti( (ight no longer be ali.e ,i, not negate the e?igency Custi"ying a secon, 0arrantless entry upon ,isco.ery o" e.i,ence i(plicating ,e"en,ant an, in,icating that the .icti(- 0ho (ight still be ali.e ,espite ,e"en,ant s state(ents to the contrary- ha, been in his apart(ent. (Id.- at pp. 352%35#.) +o pre.ent the escape of suspects- or 0hen suspects arm themsel!es. (See )eop"e $# %i""er (1&&&) 5& Cal.App.3th 1&0- 200.) 8.g.) A possible tra""icFer in narcotics- ,ucFing bacF into his resi,ence upon the approach o" peace o""icers- 0hile atte(pting to shut the ,oor an, close the blin,s- is an e?igent circu(stance Custi"ying an i((e,iate- 0arrantless entry. United States $# Are""ano3Ochoa (&th Cir. 2005) 351 B.3r, 1132: gun "oun, on the "loor ne?t to the "ront ,oora"ter the "act.) Specia" Needs Searches) An e?ception to the search 0arrant re@uire(ent- as 0ell as the nee, to e.en sho0 any *indi!idualized suspicion-/ is 0hen a search is "oun, to ser.e *special needs/ beyon, the nee, "or nor(al la0 en"orce(ent. Test) +he legality o" a 0arrantless search un,er the *special needs/ e?ception is ,eter(ine, by balancing (1) the nee, to search against (2) the constitutional intrusi.eness o" the search. (0enderson $# Cit& o' Semi 9a""e& (&th Cir. 2002) 30$ B.3r, 10$2- 10$&: citing Fer1uson $# Cit& o' Char"eston (2001) $32 4.S. 52- 2# 613& 7.8,.2n, 20$9.) Suspicionless searches (ay be uphel, i" they are con,ucte, "or i(portant *non6law enforcement purposes/ in conte?ts 0here a,herence to the 0arrant an, probable cause re@uire(ent 0oul, be i(practicable. (Friedman $# oucher (&th Cir. 200&) $#0 B.3r, #32- #$3: "in,ing that a "orce, e?traction o" a DJA sa(ple "ro( ,e"en,ant s (outh by (eans o" a buccal s0ab "or inclusion in Je.a,a s col, case ,ata banF 0as not Custi"ie, by the Special Jee,s e?ception to the search 0arrant re@uire(ent.) 3$#
See )eop"e $# %ai(hio (2011) $1 Cal.3th 1023- 0here the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court- in re.ersing the lo0er court- hel, that a ga(e 0ar,enun,er authority o" Fish & 9ame 1332- 0ho reasonably belie.es that a person has recently been "ishing or hunting- but lacFs reasonable suspicion that the person has .iolate, an applicable "ish or ga(e statute or regulation- (ay stop a .ehicle in 0hich the person is ri,ing to ,e(an, the person ,isplay all "ish or ga(e the person has caught or taFen. As an a,(inistrati.especial nee,s search- the stan,ar, Fourth Amendment probable cause re@uire(ents are irrele.ant. Examples) Random testing of student athletes (9ernonia Schoo" District 6L* $# Acton (1&&$) $1$ 4.S. 535 6132 7.8,.2n, $539.) an, those in.ol.e, in e?tracurricular acti.ities. ( oard o' Education o' Independent Schoo" District No# C8 o' )otta,atomie Count& $# Ear"s (2002) $35 4.S. #22 61$3 7.8,.2n, 23$9.) uspicionless drug testing of teachers and administrators because o" the uni@ue role that teachers play in the li.es o" school chil,renthe in loco parentis obligations i(pose, upon the(- an, the "act that by statute (in +ennessee)- teachers 0ere charge, 0ith securing or,er such that they 0ere *on the A"rontline o" school securityinclu,ing ,rug inter,iction./ (/no! Count& Educ# Ass?n $# /no! Count& d# O' Educ# (5th Cir. 1&&#) 1$# B.3r, 351- 32$.) Random metal detector searches of students- 0ithout any in,i.i,uali;e, suspicion- to help in Feeping 0eapons o"" ca(puses. (In re 2atasha -# (1&&#) 50 Cal.App.3th 1$23.) earch of a student)s computer base, upon in"or(ation that the gra,uate stu,ent 0as *hacFing into/ the school s e%(ail ser.er an, ha, the capability o" *threaten(ing) the integrity o" ca(pus co(puter or co((unication syste(s./ (United States $# 0ec(en(amp (&th Cir. 2002) 3#2 B.3r, 1132.) Drug testing "or 4nite, States Custo(s Ser.ice e(ployees- in certain positions. (Treasur& Emp"o&ees $# 9on Raa. (1&#&) 3#& 4S. 5$5 6103 7.8,.2n, 5#$9.) earches of employee bac?pac?s to pre.ent in.entory loss. (United States $# Gon5a"e5 (&th Cir. 2002) 300 B.3r, 103#.)
3$&
Pre6departure airport screening procedures- inclu,ing the use o" a magnetometer- at airports- as an *administrati!e search/ to insure that ,angerous 0eapons 0ill not be carrie, onto an airplane an, to ,eter potential hiCacFers "ro( atte(pting to boar,. ()eop"e $# 0&de (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, 1$#: United States $# Au(ai (&th Cir. 2002) 3&2 B.3r, &$$.) Drug and alcohol testing "or rail0ay e(ployees in.ol.e, in train acci,ents. (S(inner $# Rai",a& 2a.or E!ecuti$es? Assn# (1&#&) 3#& 4.S. 502 6103 7.8,.2n, 53&9.) *dministrati!e inspections o" certain *closely regulated/ businesses. (Ne, Yor( $# ur1er (1&#2) 3#2 4.S. 5&1 6&5 7.8,.2n, 5019.) *dministrati!e inspection o" "ire%,a(age, pre(ises to ,eter(ine the cause o" a "ire. (%ichi1an $# T&"er (1&2#) 335 4.S. 3&& 6$5 7.8,.2n, 3#59.) *dministrati!e inspections to ensure co(pliance 0ith city housing co,e. (Camara $# %unicipa" Court o' Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (1&52) 3#2 4.S. $23 61# 7.8,.2n, &309.) $order Patrol &hec?points. (United States $# %artine53Fuerte (1&25) 32# 4.S. $33 63& 7.8,.2n, 11159.) obriety &hec?points. (%ichi1an Dept# o' State )o"ice $# Sit5 (1&&0) 3&5 4.S. 333 6110 7.8,.2n, 3129.) 8ntry into a resi,ence 0hen necessary to enforce a court ordersuch as a temporary restraining order relate, to ,o(estic .iolence. (0enderson $# Cit& o' Simi 9a""e& (&th Cir. 2002) 30$ B.3r, 10$2.) Fourth =ai!er searches o" parolees an, so(e probationers. (In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#- 22- o.errule, on other groun,s: citing Gri''in $# -isconsin (1&#2) 3#3 4.S. #5#- #23 6&2 7.8,.2n, 20&212.) * search warrant issued pursuant to )#C# B 1G86#1- "or I1U testing in speci"ie, circu(stances- authori;e, "or purposes o" public sa"ety- has been re"erre, to as a *special needs/%type search- an, there"ore subCect to less stringent re@uire(ents than nor(ally applicable. (0umphre& $# Appe""ate Di$ision o' the Superior Court (2002) 2& Cal.3th $5&- $23%$2$.) 350
+he taFing o" biological samples "ro( prison in(atesparolees an, probationers "or the purpose o" co(pleting a "e,eral D+* database- (ight @uali"y as a *special needs/ search. (United States $# /incade (&th Cir. 2003) 32& B.3r, #13- #23%#32.) earch of luggage in a subway facility) 1(ple(ente, in response to terrorist attacFs on sub0ays in other cities- a progra( 0as ,esigne, to ,eter terrorists "ro( carrying conceale, e?plosi.es onto the Je0 KorF s sub0ay. +he city progra( establishe, ,aily inspection checFpoints at selecte, sub0ay "acilities 0here o""icers searche, bags that (et si;e criteria "or containing e?plosi.es. Sub0ay ri,ers 0ishing to a.oi, a search 0ere re@uire, to lea.e the station. 1n a bench trial- the ,istrict court "oun, that the progra( co(porte, 0ith the Fourth Amendment un,er the *special needs doctrine./ !n appeal- the court a""ir(e,- "in,ing that the progra( 0as reasonable an, there"ore constitutional. 1n particular- the court "oun, that pre.enting a terrorist attacF on the sub0ay 0as a special nee,- 0hich 0as 0eighty in light o" recent terrorist attacFs on sub0ay syste(s in other cities. 1n a,,ition- the court "oun, that the ,ispute, progra( 0as a reasonably e""ecti.e ,eterrent. Although the searches intru,e, on a "ull pri.acy interest- the court "urther "oun, that such intrusion 0as (ini(al- particularly as inspections in.ol.e, only certain si;e containers an, ri,ers coul, ,ecline inspection by lea.ing the station. (%ac-ade $# /e""& (2n, Cir. 2005) 350 B.3r, 250.) The search of a high school student)s poc?ets base, upon a stan,ar, policy that all stu,ents 0ho lea.e an, return to the ca(pus ,uring the school ,ay are subCect to search- ,one to pre.ent the intro,uction o" ,rugs an, 0eapons onto the ca(pus.- at least 0here the search is .ery non%intrusi.e (i.e.- the stu,ent is not touche,). (In re Sean A# (2010) 1&1 Cal.App.3th 1#2.) Enforcement of (ish and <ame Regulations) A ga(e 0ar,enun,er authority o" Fish & 9ame 1332- 0ho reasonably belie.es that a person has recently been "ishing or hunting- but lacFs reasonable suspicion that the person has .iolate, an applicable "ish or ga(e statute or regulation- (ay stop a .ehicle in 0hich the person is ri,ing to ,e(an, the person ,isplay all "ish or ga(e the person has caught or taFen. As an a,(inistrati.e- special nee,s search- the stan,ar, Fourth Amendment probable cause re@uire(ents are irrele.ant. ()eop"e $# %ai(hio (2011) $1 Cal.3th 1023.) 351
Depri!ing Parents of the "iberty 'nterest in the &are, &ustody and &ontrol of their &hild due to ,edical +ecessity) Ehere ,octors reco((en,e, i((e,iate (e,ical care (spinal tap an, in"usion o" antibiotics) to ,eter(ine an, treat possible (eningitis in a $%0eeF% ol, in"ant- a pre%hearing taFing o" the chil, "ro( an uncooperati.e parent- an, te(porary ,etention o" that irate parentis probably la0"ul as a *special nee,s/ taFing. (%ue""er $# Au(er (&th Cir. 2012) 200 B.3r, 11#0- 11#$%11&0: a,opting the "actual ,escription as pro.i,e, at (&th Cir. 200&) $25 B.3r, &2&- &#2%&#5: an, "in,ing that the o""icerNci.il ,e"en,ant 0as entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity in that the issue is an unsettle, one.)
Exceptions to the Exceptions: i.e.- 0here la0 en"orce(ent is pri(arily pursuing its general cri(e control purposes) A high0ay checFpoint progra( set up "or purposes o" ,rug inter,iction. (Cit& o' Indianapo"is $# Edmond (2000) 613# 7.8,.2n, 3339.) See *D#' (an, other regulatory *special needs/) &hec?points-/ un,er *Detentions-/ abo.e. A state hospital progra( to test pregnant 0o(en "or ,rug use 0hen the results are (a,e a.ailable to la0 en"orce(ent. (Fer1uson $# Cit& o' Char"eston (2001) $32 4.S. 52 613& 7.8,.2n, 20$9.) +he *special needs/ doctrine is inapplicable 0here the arrest an, search at issue in a case 0ere clearly "or la0 en"orce(ent purposes. (Fer1uson $# Cit& o' Char"estonsupra- at p. #3- "n. 20 613& 7.8,.2n, 20$9: *1n none o" our pre.ious special nee,s cases ha.e 0e uphel, the collection o" e.i,ence "or cri(inal la0 en"orce(ent purposes:/ an, Cit& o' Indianapo"is $# Edmond- supraat p. 121 613# 7.8,.2n, 3339: obser.ing that the *special nee,s/ ,octrine has ne.er been applie, 0here the purpose o" the search 0as *to ,etect e.i,ence o" or,inary cri(inal 0rong,oing./9.) Examples where the H pecial +eedN fails to outweigh a person)s right to pri!acy) +he preemployment drug and alcohol screening re@uirement "or a part ti(e *page/ 0ho 0oul, be responsible "or putting booFs bacF on library shel.es an,- on occasion- sta"" the ,esF in the youth ser.ices area. (2anier $# Cit& o' -ood.urn (&th Cir. 200#) $1# B.3r, 1132.) 352
A urinalysis drug test re@uire(ent "or candidates for public office 0as hel, to .iolate the Fourth Amendment. (Chand"er $# %i""er (1&&2) $20 4.S. 30$ 6132 7.8,.2n, $139.) Drug testing as a con,ition o" place(ent or e(ploy(ent "or Custo(s e(ployees 0ho 0ere re@uire, to han,le classi"ie, (aterial only 0as reCecte, as being too broa, (Nationa" Treasur& Emp"o&ees Union $# 9on Raa. (1&#&) 3#& 4.S. 5$5 6103 7.8,.2n, 5#$9.) A state hospital)s drug testing policy- ,e.elope, in conCunction 0ith the police- "or testing unwed mothers "or ,rug abuse- "oun, to be unconstitutional- at least 0ithout in"or(ing the (others o" the purposes "or the test. (Fer1uson $# Char"eston (2001) $32 4.S. 52 613& 7.8,.2n, 20$9.) A "orce,- 0arrantless e?traction o" a DJA sa(ple "ro( ,e"en,ant s (outh by (eans o" a buccal s0ab "or inclusion in Je.a,a s col, case ,ata banF 0as not Custi"ie, by the *special nee,s/ e?ception to the search 0arrant re@uire(ent. (Friedman $# oucher (&th Cir. 200&) $#0 B.3r, #32- #$3.) A city ,i, not .iolate an e(ployee s (a police o""icer) Fourth Amendment rights an, right to pri.acy un,er the Federal Stored Communications Act (1# !S!C! 2131 et se*!) by obtaining an, re.ie0ing transcripts o" the e(ployee s te?t (essages sent .ia a city pager 0here there 0ere reasonable groun,s "or suspecting that the search 0as necessary "or a non%in.estigatory 0orF%relate, purpose because the search 0as ,one in or,er to ,eter(ine 0hether the character li(it on the cityDs contract 0as su""icient to (eet the cityDs nee,s. Also- the city an, a police ,epart(ent ha, a legiti(ate interest in ensuring that e(ployees 0ere not being "orce, to pay out o" their o0n pocFets "or 0orF%relate, e?pensesor on the other han,- that the city 0as not paying "or e?tensi.e personal co((unications. +he search 0as per(issible in its scope because re.ie0ing the transcripts 0as reasonable because it 0as an e""icient an, e?pe,ient 0ay to ,eter(ine 0hether the e(ployeeDs o.erages 0ere the result o" 0orF%relate, (essaging or personal use. (Ontario $# =uan (2010) 130 S.Ct. 251&: 122 7.8,.2n, 215.) Declining to rule on the application o" an e(ployee s pri.acy rights in the 0orFplace- as they relate to the use o" high%tech ,e.ices- the Court assu(e, "or the saFe o" argu(ent- 0ithout ,eci,ing- that the plainti""Nrespon,ent ha, a right to pri.acy in the contents o" te?t (essages (a,e 353
.ia an e(ployer%issue, pager. Io0e.er- the *special needs/ o" the 0orFplace allo0 "or this intrusion into plainti""Nrespon,ent s pri.acy rights 0hen con,ucte, "or a *nonin.estigatory- 0orF%relate, purpose./ (Id.- at pp. 252&%2530: i.e.- to ,eter(ine 0hether the allotte, nu(ber o" (essages 0as insu""icient- re@uiring e(ployees to pay "or o""ice%relate, (essages- or 0hether e(ployees 0ere using the pagers "or non%0orF relate, purposes.) Jote that Greene $# Camreta (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, 1011: 0here the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal rule, that inter.ie0ing a chil, .icti( on a school ca(pus 0ithout the parents consent re@uire, a search 0arrant or other court or,er- or e?igent circu(stances- as a Fourth Amendment sei;urean, ,i, not (eet the re@uire(ents o" a *special nee,s/ sei;ure- 0as o.errule, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court in Camreta $# Greene (Oay 25- 2011) >> 4.S. >> 6131 S.Ct. 2020: 12& 7.8,.2n, 111#9. +he Jinth Circuit s ,ecisionho0e.er- 0as (erely .acate,- lea.ing the issue un,eci,e,. See P.C. 11174.3(a), setting out a statutory
procedures police officers are to use in interviewing child victims while at school.
C"ose"& Re1u"ated usinesses or Acti$ities: *Per!asi!ely/ or H&losely Regulated $usinesses)/ +he courts ha.e in,icate, that a 0arrant is not necessary in those cases 0here the place to be searche, is co((ercial property- an, the in,ustry in.ol.e, is one that is so *per!asi!ely regulated/ or *closely regulated/ that 0arrantless inspections are necessary to insure proper- or legal- business practices. (Dono$an $# De,e& (1&#1) 3$2 4S. $&3- $&#%$&& 65& 7.8,.2n, 252- 25#% 15&9: Ne, Yor( $# ur1er (1&#2) 3#2 4.S. 5&1- 200 6&5 7.8,.2n, 501512%5139: )eop"e $# )au"son (1&&0) 215 Cal.App.3r, 13#0- 13#3%13#3.) +o @uali"y as a closely or per.asi.ely regulate, business 0hich (ay be subCect to 0arrantless- a,(inistrati.e searches- three criteria (ust be (et) +here (ust be a substantial go.ern(ental interest un,erlying the regulatory sche(e authori;ing the inspection. +he 0arrantless inspections (ust be necessary to "urther the regulatory sche(e.
353
+he statute s inspection progra(- in ter(s o" the certainty an, regularity o" its application- (ust pro.i,e a constitutionally a,e@uate substitute "or a 0arrant: i.e.) 1t (ust a,.ise the o0ner o" the co((ercial pre(ises that the search is being (a,e pursuant to the la0 an, has a properly ,e"ine, scope: and 1t (ust li(it the ,iscretion o" the inspecting o""icers. (Ne, Yor( $# ur1er, supraat pp. 202%202 6&5 7.8,.2n, at pp. 513%51$: )eop"e $# )au"son- supra- at p. 13#$.)
*&losely regulated/ businesses (Co"onade Caterin1 Corp# $# United States (1&20) 3&2 4.S. 22- 23- 22 62$ 7.8,.2n, 50- 53%5$9.): or *Per!asi!ely regulated/ businesses (United States $# is,e"" (1&22) 305 4.S. 311- 315 6#1 7.8,.2n, #2- &29.) (Ne, Yor( $# ur1er- supraat p. 200 6&5 7.8,.2n, at pp. 512%5139.) 8?a(ple) Co((ercial trucFing is a per.asi.ely regulate, in,ustryallo0ing "or 0arrantless searches. (United States $# De"1ado (&th Cir. 200#) $3$ B.3r, 11&$- 1200%1203: base, upon Oissouri statutes allo0ing "or such searches.) Also- "or a *co((ercial .ehicle o""icer-/ 0ho ha, li(ite, la0 en"orce(ent po0ers- to contact a regular state Iigh0ay Patrol o""icer to con,uct a search- ,i, not re@uire any reasonable suspicion an, ,i, not pre.ent the regular o""icer "ro( @uestioning ,e"en,ant about issues unrelate, to co((ercial .ehicle regulations. (Id.- at pp. 1203%120$.) A county Cail- inclu,ing locFers locate, outsi,e the .isitor center but (aintaine, by the Cail personnel- particularly 0ith signs 0arning .isitors that they 0ere subCect to searchis the e@ui.alent to a closely regulate, business allo0ing "or a 0arrantless a,(inistrati.e search o" a .isitor an, the property he ,eposits in the locFers. ()eop"e $# ou"ter (2011) 1&& Cal.App.3th 251.) 35$
1n so(e instances- licenses to ,o business inclu,e a consent to search (22 !S!C! 1342)- an, (ay i(pose sanctions "or re"using to gi.e such consent- but ,o notby its ter(s- per(it a "orcible entry. (Co"onnade Caterin1 Corp# $# United States- supra) 1nspections un,er the "e,eral retail li@uor occupational ta? sta(p act.) See also United States $# is,e"" (1&22) 305 4.S. 311 632 7.8,.2n, #29: 0arrantless search o" a gun ,ealer s place o" business un,er authority o" the 9un Control Act (1# !S!C! "21 et se*!)- uphel,. )eop"e $# 2ee (1&#5) 1#5 Cal.App.3r, 233- 23&- "in,ing a 0arrantless entry into the pri.ate areas o" a business ("or the purpose o" an arrestin this case)- ,oes not a""ect the applicability o" a regulatory sche(e authori;ing 0arrantless inspections o" the pri.ate areas o" so(e regulate, businessesunless the search is being con,ucte, "or the purpose o" seeFing contraban, or e.i,ence o" cri(e un,er the guise o" an a,(inistrati.e 0arrant. (Dono$an $# De,e& (1&#1) 3$2 4.S. $&3- $&#- "n. 5 65& 7.8,.2n, 25225#9.) 4se o" an a,(inistrati.e- or *inspection/ 0arrant- issue, by a court "or the purpose o" regulating buil,ing- "ire- sa"ety- plu(bingelectrical- health- labor or ;oning co,es- ,oes not Custi"y an entry by police to (aFe an arrest gi.en the lesser proo" stan,ar,s nee,e, to obtain an a,(inistrati.e 0arrant. 1" an entry is e""ecte, "or the purpose o" arresting the occupantan arrest 0arrant 0ill ha.e to be obtaine,. (A"e!ander $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (1&&3) 2& B.3r, 13$$.) A hotel or si(ilar business (e.g.- (otels- roo(ing houses- etc.) ,oes not @uali"y as *closely regulate, business./ ()ate" $# Cit& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 2012) 5#5 B.3r, 10#$- 10&0.) ;ther &alifornia or #nited tates RegulatoryJ*dministrati!e earches) 9ehic"e Code) 0!C! 133)3) Gloo, or breath test "or D.4.1. arrestees. (Schmer.er $# Ca"i'ornia (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 2$2 615 7.8,.2n, &#09.) 0!C! 323+4,) Auto ,is(antlers. 355
0!C! 2#3)) Cali"ornia Iigh0ay Patrol an, auto the"t ,etecti.es searching "or stolen parts at .arious businesses ,ealing in .ehicles. ()eop"e $# -oo"se& (1&2&) &0 Cal.App.3r, &&3: )eop"e $# Ca"$ert (1&&3) 1# Cal.App.3th 1#20: )eop"e $# )otter (200$) 12# Cal.App.3th 511.) See * earches of Vehicles-/ belo0. )ena" Code) (!C! 111e) 1nspection o" a "irear( to ,eter(ine 0hether it is loa,e, "or purposes o" (!C! 111c W 111d (Birear(s in state buil,ings an, go.ern(ental resi,ences.) (!C! 12331+a,) 1nspection o" a "irear( in a public place. (!C! 1232#!)) Sei;ure o" "irear(s an, other ,ea,ly 0eapons at ,o(estic .iolence scenes. Fish and Game Code) +here is case la0 that re"ers to the regulation o" hunting an, "ishing as ha.ing rela?e, search an, sei;ure stan,ar,s ,ue to the "act that they are *highly regulated/ acti.ities- an, that re@uiring 0arrants 0oul, (aFe it i(possible to e""ecti.ely i(ple(ent hunting an, "ishing la0s. Gut the case la0 is .ery sparse) )eop"e $# 0ar.or 0ut Restaurant (1&#3) 132 Cal.App.3r, 11$1: uphol,ing the 0arrantless inspection o" a restaurant un,er the theory that *fishing/ is a *highly regulated business./ etchard $# Dept# o' Fish and Game (1&#3) 1$# Cal.App.3r, 1103- uphel, the routine an, 0arrantless inspections o" plainti""Ds agricultural rangelan, upon 0hich ,eer hunting 0as o"ten ,one. Gut the court note, that the rela?e, stan,ar,s 0ere ,ue to the "act that the areas entere, 0ere *open fields/ an, the intrusion into the plainti""Ds pri.acy rights 0as (ini(al. +he court also note, that a hunter has gi.en up a certain a(ount o" his or her pri.acy rights) *Iunters are re@uire, to be license,. Gy choosing to engage in this highly regulate, acti.ity- there is a "un,a(ental pre(ise that there is an i(plie, consent to e""ecti.e super.ision an, inspection as ,irecte, by statute./ (p. 1110.) 352
)eop"e $# )ere5 (1&&5) $1 Cal.App.3th 115#- uphel, a high0ay checFpoint use, to i(ple(ent hunting regulations. See also F&9 #311) Allo0ing the 0arrantless inspection o" the recor,s o" a 0holesale "ish ,ealer license, un,er F&9 #343+a,. Financia" Code) Fin! Code 21232) 1nspection o" pa0ne, property. (See Sanders $# Cit& o' San Die1o (1&&5) &3 B.3r, 1323- 1322: GIG *e,e"r& Inc# $# Cit& o' Oa("and (&th Cir. 1&&3) &#& B.2n, 10&3- 10&&%1101- an, "n. 3.) United States Code) 14 !S!C! #"+a,) +he Coast Luar, has statutory authority to search .essels- gi.ing the( plenary authority to stop .essels "or ,ocu(ent an, sa"ety inspections. ()eop"e $# En1 (2002) &3 Cal.App.3th 11#3: ,rugs ,isco.ere,: see *$order earches-/ belo0.) 4" !S!C! 44"31) +ransportation Security A,(inistration (+SA) screening o" luggage boun, "or airline "lights. (See (United States $# %cCart& (&th Cir. 2011) 2011 4.S. App. 78T1S 1##23: chil, pornography obser.e, ,uring a la0"ul +SA a,(inistrati.e search (ay la0"ully be use, to establish probable cause to arrest.) Schoo" Searches: See *,inors-/ un,er *Detentions-/ abo.e- an, * tudents-/ un,er * earches of Persons-/ * earches with "ess Than Probable &ause-/ belo0. Airport Searches: Airport screenings o" passengers an, their baggage constitute a,(inistrati.e searches an, are subCect to the li(itations o" the Fourth Amendment. (United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 1&23) 3#2 B.2n, #&3- #&$ &0#.) Airport screenings (ust be reasonable to be la0"ul. (United States $# %ar:ue5 (&th Cir. 200$) 310 B.3r, 512.) 35#
*Reasonableness/ is ,eter(ine, by balancing the right to be "ree o" intrusion 0ith society s interest in sa"e air tra.el. (United States $# )u"ido3 a:ueri5o (&th Cir. 1&#5) #00 B.2n, #&&- &01.) Airport searches are reasonable 0hen) +hey are no (ore e?tensi.e or intensi.e than necessary- in light o" current technology- to ,etect 0eapons or e?plosi.es: +hey are con"ine, in goo, "aith to that purpose: and Passengers are gi.en the opportunity to a.oi, the search by electing not to "ly. (United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 1&23) 3#2 B.2n, #&3- &13: Tor.et $# United Air"ines, Inc# (&th Cir. 2002) 2&# B.3r, 10#2- 10#&: United States $# %ar:ue5- supra.- at p. 515: United States $# Au(ai (&th Cir. 2002) 3&2 B.3r, &$$.) A secon,- (ore intense- yet ran,o( screening o" passengers as a part o" airline boar,ing security proce,ures- is constitutional. (United States $# %ar:ue5- supra.) !nce ha.ing gone through the initial screening- a person loses his right to re.oFe his *implied consent/ to being searche, an, (ust sub(it his person (United States $# Au(ai (&th Cir. 2002) 3&2 B.3r, &$$.) an, his carryon luggage (Tor.et $# United Air"ines, Inc#- supra.) to a secon,ary screening- so long as the selection o" those subCect to such secon,ary screenings is ,one obCecti.ely. 8.g.) Randomly. (Tor.et $# United Air"ines, Inc#- supra: carryon luggage searche, e.en though it ha, alrea,y gone through an ?%ray e?a(ination 0ithout inci,ent.) Gecause ,e"en,ant ha, atte(pte, to boar, a "light without !alid identification. Per +SA (+ransportation Security A,(inistration) rules- anyone atte(pting to boar, a co((ercial airplane 0ithout a go.ern(ent issue,- picture i,enti"ication- 0ill be subCect to a secon,ary screening. (United States $# Au(ai- supra: ,e"en,ant selecte, "or *wanding/ o" his person e.en though he ha, alrea,y 0alFe, through the (agneto(eter 0ithout setting o"" an alar(.) Per Tor.et an, Au(ai- the "irst- initial screening- 0hether by ?%ray o" one s carryon luggage- or o" the ,e"en,ant s person ha.ing 0alFe, through a (agneto(eter- is ,ee(e, *inconclusi!e/ e.en though *it doesn)t affirmati!ely re!eal anything suspicious-/ or 0hen it fails to *rule out e!ery 35&
possibility of dangerous contents-/ thus Custi"ying the nee, "or a secon,ary screening. So long as such secon,ary screenings are a,(inistere, *ob%ecti!ely-/ they are la0"ul. A search o" luggage boun, "or an airline "light (ay be searche, (i.e.*screene,/) by +ransportation Security Ser.ices (+SA) o""icers 0ithout a 0arrant or probable cause as an a,(inistrati.e search- looFing "or e?plosi.es or other sa"ety ha;ar,s. Such a search (ay not be use, as a ruse to con,uct an e?ploratory search "or cri(inal e.i,ence. Io0e.ere.i,ence o" cri(inal acti.ity obser.e, in plain sight ,uring such an a,(inistrati.e search (ay be use, as probable cause "or a cri(inal in.estigation. (United States $# %cCart& (&th Cir. 2011) 2011 4.S. App. 78T1S 1##23: chil, pornography obser.e, ,uring a la0"ul +SA a,(inistrati.e search (ay la0"ully be use, to establish probable cause to arrest.) +ote) United States $# Au(ai (&th Cir. 2002) 3&2 B.3r, &$$- "oun, that *implied consent/ is not a proper theory "or uphol,ing airport searches. Rather- a 0arrantless- suspicionless search o" a passenger- a"ter the passenger has passe, through the (agneto(eter (or has put his carry%on luggage on the con.eyor belt "or ?%raying) is la0"ul as an *a,(inistrati.e search./ The %inima" Intrusion E!ception: +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has recogni;e,- at least by in"erencethat in those instances 0here there is a *minimal intrusion/ into a ,e"en,ant s pri.acy rightssuppression o" the resulting e.i,ence (ay not be re@uire,. *Ehen "ace, 0ith special la0 en"orce(ent nee,s- ,i(inishe, e?pectations o" pri.acy- minimal intrusions- or the liFe- 6it9 has "oun, that certain general- or in,i.i,ualcircu(stances (ay ren,er a 0arrantless search or sei;ure reasonable./ (1talics a,,e,: I""inois $# %cArthur (2001) $31 4.S. 325- 330 613# 7.8,.2n, #3#9.) *(A)lthough a 0arrant (ay be an essential ingre,ient o" reasonableness (uch o" the ti(e- "or less intrusi.e searches it is not/ (United States $# Concepcion (2th Cir. 1&&1) &32 B.2n, 11201122: the issue being 0hether turning a Fey in a ,oor locF 0as a search- but such a (ini(al intrusion that a search 0arrant 0as not necessary.) Eithout obtaining a 0arrant- the police searche, the ,e"en,ant s cell phone "or its phone nu(ber. +he police later use, the nu(ber to subpoena the phone s call history "ro( the telephone co(pany. 8.en though there 0as no urgent nee, to search the cell phone "or its phone nu(ber- the Se.enth Circuit pointe, out *that bit o" 320
in"or(ation (ight be so tri.ial that its sei;ure 0oul, not in"ringe the Fourth Amendment./ (United States $# F"ores32ope5 (2th Cir. 2012) 520 B.3r, #03- #05%#02.) Cali"ornia s Birst District Court o" Appeal (Di.. $) has "oun, this theory to be a 0hole separate e?ception to the search 0arrant re@uire(ent- calling it the *Oini(al 1ntrusion 8?ception./ ()eop"e $# Ro.inson (2012) 20# Cal.App.3th 232- 235%2$$: *+he (ini(al intrusion e?ception to the 0arrant re@uire(ent rests on the conclusion that in a .ery narro0 class o" Asearches the pri.acy interests i(plicate, are Aso s(all that the o""icers ,o not nee, probable cause: "or the search to be reasonable./ (Id.- at p. 232.) Joting that searches o" the person- at least absent an o""icer%sa"ety issuean, searches o" a resi,ence- (ay be outsi,e the scope o" the (ini(al intrusion theory. (Id.- at p. 23&.) *Although the 4nite, States Supre(e Court has not clearly articulate, the para(eters o" the e?ception- "e,eral authorities pro.i,e su""icient support "or conclu,ing that in appropriate circu(stances- the (ini(al intrusion e?ception to the 0arrant re@uire(ent (ay be applie, to uphol, 0arrantless searches base, on less than probable cause. Ooreo.er- although the high court s ,ecisions in the area ha.e pri(arily been Custi"ie, by o""icer sa"ety concerns (Citations)- nothing in the high court s Curispru,ence appears to preclu,e the possibility that a Custi"ication less than o""icer sa"ety coul, be su""icient to Custi"y an intrusion as (ini(al as that in.ol.e, in the present case./ (Id.- at pp. 23&%2$0.) Also- the "act that the ,e"en,ant s "ront ,oor 0as 0ithin the curtilage o" his ho(e- 0hich also enCoys Fourth Amendment protection- ,oes not alter the result. Ehen the "ront ,oor being an area open to the general public- there 0as no .iolation in approaching the ,oor an, inserting the Fey. (Id.- at p. 2$3- "n. 23.)
321
Chapter F
Searches o' )ersons) )ri$ac& Ri1hts: !" all the areas 0here a person has a legiti(ate *reasonable expectation of pri!acy/ protecting the person "ro( go.ern(ental intrusions- noneperhaps- is greater than that person s o0n bo,y. (See -inston $# 2ee (1&#$) 320 4.S. 2$3- 2$& 6#3 7.8,.2n, 5529: *4 com(elled sur.ical intrusion into an
indi)idualAs bod* for e)idence . . . im(licates ex(ectations of (ri)ac* and securit* of such ma.nitude that the intrusion ma* be 'unreasonable2, e)en if li;el* to (roduce e)idence of a crime./)
+ote) Io0e.er- gi.en the relati.e *mobility/ o" one s person- 0ith su""icient cause- a 0arrantless search o" a person (ay generally be Custi"ie,. (See belo0) Ru"e: Ehere la0"ul- 0arrantless searches o" a person are Custi"iable un,er one or (ore o" the "ollo0ing legal theories) earches 'ncident to *rrest earches with Probable &ause earches with "ess Than Probable &ause
Searches Incident to Arrest) A 0arrantless search o" a person an, the area 0ithin hisNher i((e,iate reach inci,ent to that person s custo,ial arrest- with or without any probable cause to belie.e there is any contraban, or e.i,ence subCect to sei;ure on the person- is la0"ul- an, is Custi"ie, by the nee, to Feep contraban, an, 0eapons out o" Cail- to preser.e any possible e.i,ence- an, to protect the o""icer. (Chime" $# Ca"i'ornia (1&5&) 3&$ 4.S. 2$2 623 7.8,.2n, 5#$9: Ne, Yor( $# e"ton (1&#1) 3$3 4.S. 3$3 65& 7.8,.2n, 25#9: )eop"e $# Dia5 (2011) $1 Cal.3th #3.) "egal :ustification) *+he rule allo0ing conte(poraneous searches (inci,ent to arrest) is Custi"ie,- "or e?a(ple- by the nee, to sei;e 0eapons an, other things 0hich (ight be use, to assault an o""icer or e""ect an escape- as 0ell as by the nee, to pre.ent the ,estruction o" e.i,ence o" the cri(ePthings 0hich (ight easily happen 0here the 0eapon or e.i,ence is on the accuse, s person or un,er his i((e,iate control./ (United States $# 9entresca (1&5$) 3#0 4.S. 102- 102 613 7.8,.2n, 5#3- 5##9.) A 0arrantless *search incident to arrest/ (ay be (a,e o" an arrestee an, the area 0ithin her i((e,iate reach e.en though the arrestee has been han,cu""e, an, can no longer lunge "or 0eapons or e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# Re1e (200$) 130 Cal.App.3th 1$#3: but see belo0.) 322
See also the concurring- (inority opinion in )eop"e $# Summers (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 2##: "or an e?cellent ,escription o" the legal reasoning behin, searches inci,ent to arrestan, 0hy (at least as the argu(ent 0ent at that ti(e prior to the ,ecision in Ari5ona $# Gant- infra.) it is irrele.ant that the person arreste, ha, alrea,y been (o.e, "ro( the i((e,iate location 0here the arrest is "irst (a,e. Such a search has tra,itionally been Custi"ie, by the nee, to search *"or 0eapons- instru(ents o" escape- an, e.i,ence o" cri(e/ upon per"or(ing a custo,ial arrest. ()eop"e $# Dia5 (2011) $1 Cal.3th #3.) "egal :ustification #nder Debate) +he Jinth Circuit Court notes in United States $# -ea$er (&th Cir. 2005) 333 B.3r, 1103- at page 1102- that searches inci,ent to arrest ha.e gone 0ell beyon, the *rational underpinnings/ o" the Supre(e Court s original appro.al o" such searches in Ne, Yor( $# e"ton- supra. Oore speci"ically- the Court notes ho0 *o""icer sa"ety an, preser.ation o" e.i,ence/ (see Chime" $# Ca"i'orniasupra.) are no longer a (aCor concern 0hen the arrestee is han,cu""e, an, put into a nearby patrol car. An, they @uote Supre(e Court Justice ! Conner 0ho is note, to ha.e sai, that*lo0er court ,ecisions see( no0 to treat the ability to search a .ehicle inci,ent to the arrest o" a recent occupant as a police entitle(ent rather than as an e?ception Custi"ie, by the t0in rationales o" Chime" . . . 6+his is9 a ,irect conse@uence o" e"ton?s shaFy "oun,ation./ (Concurring opinion in Thornton $# United States (2003) $31 4.S. 51$- 523 61$# 7.8,.2n, &0$9.) Jote that the 4.S. Supre(e Court ,eci,e, in Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9- that a 0arrantless search o" a .ehicle inci,ent to arrest is la0"ul only 0hen the arrestee is unsecure, an, 0ithin reaching ,istance o" the passenger co(part(ent at the ti(e o" the search. +he theory o" Gant is not restricte, to .ehicle searches. +he sa(e theory- se.erely restricting the search inci,ent to arrest theory- is applicable as 0ell to an arrest 0ithin one s resi,ence. ()eop"e $# 2ea" (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th 10$1.) See *Searches o' 9ehic"es-/ *'ncident to *rrest-/ belo0. 323
+hen- in United States $# %addo! (&th Cir. 2010) 513 B.3r, 1035- at pages 103#%103&- the court "oun, that a search o" a (etal .ial on the ,e"en,ant s Fey chain 0as unla0"ul 0here- although un,er ,e"en,ant s control 0hen he 0as physically arreste,- it 0as no longer 0ithin reach an, 0as beyon, ,e"en,ant s ability to conceal or ,estroy e.i,ence by the ti(e it 0as searche, because ,e"en,ant ha, been han,cu""e, an, put into a patrol car. Io0e.er- 0ith the (etal .ial in %addo! being taFen "ro( ,e"en,ant s han, as he 0as being arreste,- an argu(ent can be (a,e that pursuant to the subse@uent Cali"ornia Supre(e Court ,ecision o" )eop"e $# Dia5 (2011) $1 Cal.3th #3- 0here it 0as hel, that containers *immediately associated with the person/ are still subCect to a search inci,ent to arrest- e.en though the suspect has been arreste, an, secure,- an, e.en i" the container is not searche, until later. (See belo0.) Transportation Re@uirement) &ustodial *rrest Re@uirement) Anyone 0ho is arreste, an, is to be transporte, to Cail- the police station- a ,eto?i"ication centerho(e- etc. (i.e.- a *custodial arrest/)- (ay be "ully searche, prior to the transportation. (United States $# Ro.inson (1&23) 313 4.S. 21# 63# 7.8,.2n, 3229.) Ro.inson in.ol.e, an arrest "or ,ri.ing on a re.oFe, license 0here the arrestee 0as transporte, to the police station. 1n the ,ecision- the Court re"erre, to it as a *full custodial arrest/ 0hich- in turn- 0as *,e"ine, at (sic) one 0here an o""icer A0oul, arrest a subCect an, subse@uently transport hi( to a police "acility "or booFing- . . . ./ (pg. 223- "n. 2.) !ther than this brie" co((ent (abo.e)- an, in noting that Robinson ha, been subCecte, to a *full custodial arrest-/ the issue o" 0hether or not an actual transportation o" the arrestee 0as a legal prere@uisite to a *search incident to that arrest/ 0as not ,iscusse,. +here is no such thing as a *search incident to citation-/ because o" the lacF o" a physical transportation o" the subCect "ro( the scene o" the arrest. (/no,"es $# Io,a (1&&#) $2$ 4.S. 113 6132 7.8,.2n, 3&29.)
323
1n /no,"es- the Court note, that the o""icer- un,er 1o0a la0- ha, the option o" physically arresting or only citing the ,ri.er "or a spee,ing .iolation. +he o""icer chose to ,o the later. +here"oreno transportation o" the ,e"en,ant 0as conte(plate,. +he Supre(e Court- in ,iscussing the ,i""erences bet0een a cite and release situation (albeit "or an in"raction) 0hen co(pare, to a *custodial arrest/ 0here the subCect is transporte, to a police stationnote, the "ollo0ing signi"icant "actor) *Ee ha.e recogni;e, that . . . o""icer sa"ety . . . is Aboth legiti(ate an, 0eighty6Citations9. +he threat to o""icer sa"ety "ro( issuing a tra""ic citation- ho0e.er- is a goo, ,eal less than in the case o" a custo,ial arrest. 1n Ro.inson- 0e state, that a custo,ial arrest in.ol.es A,anger to an o""icer because o" Athe e?ten,e, e?posure which follows the ta?ing of a suspect into custody and transporting him to the police station. (1talics a,,e,) 313 4.S.- at 233%23$ . . . . Ee recogni;e, that A6t9he ,anger to the police o""icer "lo0s "ro( the "act o" the arrestan, its atten,ant pro?i(ity- stressan, uncertainty- an, not "ro( the groun,s "or arrest. Id.- at 233- n. $ . . . . A routine tra""ic stop- on the other han,- is a relati.ely brie" encounter an, Ais (ore analogous to a so%calle, *Terr& sto(3 . . . than to a formal
arrest., "Citations& (B<here there is no formal arrest ... a (erson mi.ht +ell be less hostile to the (olice and less li;el* to ta;e cons(icuous! immediate ste(s to destro* incriminatin. e)idenceB). (8arenthesis in ori.inal2 (.s. 4875488.)
Jote also that the California (enal Code ,ictates that (is,e(eanor%relate, la0s apply e@ually to in"ractions. ((!C! 1"!1) Although there has to be a transportation o" the suspect in or,er to Custi"y a search inci,ent to arrest- the physical arrest does not need to be "or an offense for which custody (as oppose, to a citation) is mandatory. (Gusta'son $# F"orida (1&23) 313 4.S. 250 63# 7.8,.2n, 3$59.) 32$
1n Gusta'son- ,e"en,ant 0as la0"ully arreste, "or ,ri.ing 0ithout a .ali, license in his possession an, searche, inci,ent to that arrest. +he o""icer ha, planne, to transport the ,e"en,ant to the police station prior to the search: a la0"ul proce,ure un,er Blori,a la0. +he search 0as uphel, as a la0"ul search inci,ent to this *lawful custodial arrest./ At page 25$- the Gusta'son Court notes that) *+hough the o""icer here 0as not re@uire, to taFe the petitioner into custo,y by police regulations as he 0as in Ro.inson- an, there ,i, not e?ist a ,epart(ental policy establishing the con,itions un,er 0hich a "ull%scale bo,y search shoul, be con,ucte,- 0e ,o not "in, these ,i""erences ,eter(inati.e o" the constitutional issue. 6Citation9 1t is su""icient that the o""icer ha, probable cause to arrest the petitioner an, that he la0"ully e""ectuate, the arrestan, place, the petitioner in custo,y./ +his co((ent- 0hich is not "urther e?plaine,- see(s to recogni;e a ,i""erence bet0een a *full custodial arrest/ (as it is re"erre, to in Ro.inson) and the mere
citation and release at the scene. 4lso! in footnote / ((.. 266)! a.ain inferrin. a difference bet+een citin. and releasin. at the scene and the ta;in. of the sus(ect into 7custody3 for trans(ortation! the Court notes that9 7S(ith (the
o""icer) testi"ie, that he 0rote about eight to 10 tra""ic citations per 0eeF- an, that about three or "our out o" e.ery 10 persons he arreste, "or the o""ense o" ,ri.ing 0ithout a license 0ere taFen into custo,y to the police station. S(ith in,icate, that an o""en,er is (ore liFely to be taFen into custo,y i" he ,oes not resi,e in the city o" 8au Lallie. BinallyS(ith testi"ie, that a"ter (aFing a custo,ial arresthe al0ays searches the arrestee be"ore placing hi( into the patrol car./ * misdemeanor cite an, release at the scene o" the contact (i.e.- a *non6custodial arrest/)- absent probable cause to belie.e the arrestee has e.i,ence or contraban, on hi(0oul, not be subCect to a search inci,ent to arrest "or the si(ple reason he is not to be transporte,: i.e.- it is not a 325
*custodial arrest./ (See )eop"e $# risendine (1&2$) 13 Cal.3r, $2#: United States $# %oto (&th Cir. 1&&3) &#2 B.2n, 13#3.) risendine "oun, a search inci,ent to arrest to be illegal 0here the person 0as to be cite, at the scene an, release, "or a (is,e(eanor "ire co,e (i.e.- an illegal ca(p"ire) .iolation. Although risendine 0as base, upon a pre%Proposition # interpretation o" the Cali"ornia Constitution- the Court ,i, note at page $3#- "n. 1$) *Ee also accept the (4nite, States Supre(e Court s) .ie0 (in Ro.inson an, Gusta'son) that transportation in a police .ehicle per se Custi"ies a li(ite, 0eapons search- regar,less o" the liFelihoo, that a particular arrestee is ar(e,./ Although the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court in risendine li(ite, searches inci,ent to a *custodial arrest/ to looFing "or 0eapons- interpreting the (ore restricti.e Cali"ornia Constitution- it still precon,itione, such a search upon the transportation o" the arrestee. 1n United States $# %oto- supra.- the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal "oun, the ,e"en,ants custo,ial arrest "or an in"raction- 0here they 0ere transporte, to the police station- to be contrary to the pro.isions o" (!C! #)3!) (an,ating the release o" the subCect on his 0ritten pro(ise to appear absent an e?ception to the rule- as pro.i,e, "or in the statute. Assu(ing 0ithout ,iscussing the issue that a cite an, release is not a custo,ial arrest- the Court here "oun, the *search incident to arrest/ to be a Fourth Amendment .iolation. %oto is @uestionable authority in light o" (ore recent pronounce(ents "ro( both the 4nite, States an, Cali"ornia Supre(e Courts (See At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista (2001) $32 4.S. 31# 613& 7.8,.2n, $3&9: 9ir1inia $# %oore (200#) $$3 4.S. 153 6120 7.8,.2n, $$&9: )eop"e $# %c/a& (2002) 22 Cal.3th 501- 502: an, see also United States $# %cFadden (2n, Cir. 2001) 23# B.3r, 1&#203: )eop"e $# Gome5 (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $31.) ha.e rule, that 322
transporting an, e.en booFing a person "or a "ine%only o""ense- e.en i" contrary to state la0- is not a Fourth Amendment .iolation an, thus ,oes not subCect the resulting e.i,ence to suppression. Io0e.er- the Court s assu(ption is still .ali, that a *custodial arrest-/ in.ol.ing the transportation o" the arrestee to a police station- is a necessary prere@uisite to a la0"ul *search incident to arrest./ Transporting an arrested minor (e.en i" "or only a *status offense/ such as a cur"e0 .iolation or truancy)- 0hether the (inor is to be transporte, ho(e (In re Demetrius A# (1&#&) 20# Cal.App.3r, 123$: pro0ling.)- or to a police station (In re Char"es C# (1&&&) 25 Cal.App.3th 320: cur"e0.)- Custi"ies a search inci,ent to arrest. (See also In re 0um.erto O# (2000) #0 Cal.App.3th 232: truancy.) 1n 0um.erto O#- the Cu.enile 0as taFen into custo,y "or a truancy .iolation. Io0e.er- it 0as note, in the ,ecision that *the o""icers planne, to cu"" ,e"en,ant s han,s behin, his bacF- put hi( in the patrol caran, transport hi( to school./ (pg. 230.) ?ducation Code 4#224 an, 4#22) re@uire that the (inor be transporte, to his parents or to school (a(ong other choices). (pg. 231- "n. 2.) *+he li(ite, nature o" a section 4#224 arrest re=uires that the
minor be trans(orted to school! as the officers here (lanned to do.3 ((.. 244.) earchin. the bac;(ac; he +as carr*in. incident to this custodial arrest! +as u(held.
1n In re Demetrius A#- supra- 0ithout ,iscussing the issue o" the necessity "or a transportation- it 0as note, that the (inor 0as arreste, "or pro0ling an, 0as going to be transporte, ho(e. A search inci,ent to such a custo,ial arrest 0as la0"ul. 1n In re Char"es C#- supra- the (inor 0as *ta?en into temporary custody/ (i.e.- *arrested-/ see pg. 32$- "n. 3.) an, transporte, to the police station 0here he 0as searche, *incident to the arrest./ +he search 0as uphel,- hol,ing that it 0as irrele.ant that the search 0as not con,ucte, until a"ter the transportation. Eithout "urther ,iscussing the issue- the Court ,i, note that citing (albeit "or an in"raction) at the scene an, releasing the subCect does not Custi"y a search inci,ent to such a citation. (pg. 323- "n. 2- citing /no,"es $# Io,a (1&&#) $2$ 4.S. 113 6132 7.8,.2n, 3&29.) 32#
&ontemporaneous in Time and Place) <eneral Rule) +he *search incident to arrest/ theory is- as a general rule- only applicable i" the search is con,ucte, *contemporaneous in time and place)/ 1.e.- the search (ust be con,ucte, at the ti(e an, location o" the arrest. Searching a"ter transportation to another location cannot be Custi"ie, un,er this theory- absent so(e practical necessity "or (o.ing the person "irst. (See )eop"e $# In1ham (1&&2) $ Cal.App.3th 325.) *(+he) ACusti"ications ("or allo0ing a search inci,ent to arrest) are absent 0here a search is re(ote in ti(e or place "ro( the arrest. !nce an accuse, is un,er arrest an, in custo,y- then a search (a,e at another place- 0ithout a 0arrant- is si(ply not inci,ent to the arrest. / (United States $# 9entresca (1&5$) 3#0 4.S. 102- 102 613 7.8,.2n, 5#3- 5##9: @uoting )reston $# United States (1&53) 325 4.S. 353- 352 611 7.8,.2n, 222- 2#0%2#19.) See also United States $# %c2au1h"in (&th Cir. 1&&&) 120 B.3r, ##&- 0here the search 0as con,ucte, "i.e (inutes a"ter the arrest0here the o""icer "irst ,ro.e the ,e"en,ant "ro( the scene. *+he rele.ant ,istinction turns not upon the (o(ent o" arrest .ersus the (o(ent o" the search but upon 0hether the arrest an, search are so separate, in ti(e or by inter.ening acts that the latter cannot be sai, to ha.e been inci,ent to the "or(er./ (Id.- at p. &#3- @uoting United States $# A.du"3Sa.oor (D.C. Cir. 1&&5) #$ B.3r, 553- 55#: see also United States $# 0udson (&th Cir. 1&&5) 100 B.3r, 130&: search three (inutes a"ter the arrest .ali, as a search inci,ent to arrest.) Also- 0here there is pree?isting probable cause to arrest- it is irrele.ant 0hether the search occurs be"ore or a"ter the "or(al act o" arrest. (In re 2ennies 0# (200$) 125 Cal.App.3th 1232- 123&% 1230: United States $# Smith (&th Cir. 200$) 3#& B.3r, &33.) *4n officer +ith (robable cause to arrest can search
incident to the arrest before ma;in. the arrest. (!a,lings v. .entucky (1980) 448 U. . 98! 111! . . . 6% #.$d.2nd 6//2 'eo(le v. Ada)s (198%) 17% Cal.4((./rd 8%%! 861 . . .) ('eo(le v. +i)on (199/) 17 Cal.4((.4th %24! %/8! . . . ) -he fact that a defendant is not formall* arrested until after the search does not in)alidate the search if (robable cause to arrest existed (rior to the search and the search +as substantiall* contem(oraneous +ith the arrest. (!a,lings v. .entucky! supra! 448 U. . at (. 111! . . . 2 'eo(le v. Ada)s! supra! 17% Cal.4((./rd at (. 961! . . . )3 (&n re +ennies .! supra.)
32&
;ther Re@uirements and "imitations) +here is no such thing as a *search incident to citation-/ because o" the lacF o" the right to physically transport the subCect. (/no,"es $# Io,a (1&&#) $2$ 4.S. 113 6132 7.8,.2n, 3&29.) Howe!er- it is not unconstitutional to (aFe a custo,ial arrest (i.e.- transporting to Cail or court) o" a person arreste, "or a (inor (is,e(eanor (At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista (2001) $32 4.S. 31# 613& 7.8,.2n, $3&9: 9ir1inia $# %oore (200#) $$3 4.S. 153 6120 7.8,.2n, $$&9: or e.en "or a "ine% only- in"raction. ()eop"e $# %c/a& (2002) 22 Cal.3th 501502: see also United States $# %cFadden (2n, Cir. 2001) 23# B.3r, 1&#- 203: Ed1er"&: $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&& B.3r, &35- &$$%&$5.) Cali"ornia s statutory pro.isions re@uire the release o" (is,e(eanor arrestees in (ost circu(stances. (8.g.- see (!C! #)3!), #)3!2, 0!C! 43333, 43)33) Io0e.er.iolation o" these statutory re@uire(ents is not a constitutional .iolation an,- there"ore- should not result in suppression o" any e.i,ence reco.ere, as a result o" such an arrest. ()eop"e $# %c/a&- supraat pp. 502%51&- a .iolation o" 0!C! 212)3!1 (ri,ing a bicycle in the 0rong ,irection): )eop"e $# Gome5 (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $31$3#%$30- seat belt .iolation (0!C! 2131)+d,+1,)- citing) At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista- supra: )eop"e $# ennett (July 21- 2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th &02- &1#.) See * anctions for Violations-/ *,isdemeanors and 'nfractions-/ un,er **rrests-/ abo.e. A state statute li(iting the right to search ,oes not re@uire the suppression o" any e.i,ence "oun, in .iolation o" the statute- so long as the Constitution is not also .iolate,. ()eop"e $# >inos (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 532- 5$3: search o" a .ehicle s e.ent ,ata recor,ers (8DR)- or sensing an, ,iagnostic (o,ules (SDO)- in .iolation o" 0!C! "")1.) &ontainers) Such a search inclu,es any containers "oun, 0ithin the area o" the ,e"en,ant s arrest. (Ne, Yor( $# e"ton (1&#1) 3$3 4.S 3$3 65& 7.8,.2n, 25#9: )eop"e $# Gutierre5 (1&#3) 153 Cal.App.3r, 332.)
3#0
1t (atters not that the container searche, ,i, not belong to the person arreste,- so long as it 0as "oun, 0ithin the arreste, ,e"en,ant s *lunging area./ ()eop"e $# )rance (1&&1) 225 Cal.App.3r, 1$2$: )eop"e $# %itche"" (1&&$) 35 Cal.App.3th 522.) Gut see Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9- belo0- se.erely li(iting the search inci,ent to an arrest 0here the suspect has alrea,y been secure,. Property in the possession or un,er the control of a sub%ect who is boo?ed into custo,y is subCect to search) *!nce articles ha.e la0"ully "allen into the han,s o" the police they (ay e?a(ine the( to see i" they ha.e been stolen- test the( to see i" they ha.e been use, in the co((ission o" a cri(e- return the( to the prisoner on his release- or preser.e the( "or use as e.i,ence at the ti(e o" trial. ()eop"e $# Ro.ertson 230 Cal.App.2, &&- 10$%105 . . . .) During their perio, o" police custo,y an arreste, person s personal e""ectsliFe his person itsel"- are subCect to reasonable inspectione?a(ination- an, test. ()eop"e $# Chai1"es (1&23) 232 J.K. 1&3 6132 J.8. $#3- 32 A.7.R. 5259- Car,o;o- J.)/ ()eop"e $# Ro1ers (1&55) 231 Cal.App.2n, 3#3- 3#&.) Gut see Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9- ,iscusse, belo0. An, see )eop"e $# Dia5 (2011) $1 Cal.3th #3- allo0ing a search inci,ent to arrest o" ite(s Himmediately associated with the person-/ e.en i" not ,one until so(eti(e a"ter the suspect s arrest. * person arrested in his home is subCect to search as is the area 0ithin his i((e,iate reach. ()eop"e $# Summers (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 2##: see the concurring- (inority opinion "or an e?cellent ,escription o" the legal reasoning behin, searches inci,ent to arrestan, 0hy it is irrele.ant that the person arreste, ha, alrea,y been (o.e, "ro( the i((e,iate location 0here the arrest is "irst (a,e.) Howe!er- the 4.S. Supre(e Court recently restricte, searches inci,ent to arrest 0hen searching a .ehicle in Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9. 1n Gant- it 0as hel, that a 0arrantless search o" a .ehicle inci,ent to arrest is la0"ul only 0hen the arrestee is unsecure, an, 0ithin reaching ,istance o" the passenger co(part(ent at the ti(e o" the search. 3#1
+he theory o" Gant is not restricte, to .ehicle searches. +he sa(e theory- ,isallo0ing a search inci,ent to arrest 0hen the suspect has alrea,y been secure,- is applicable as 0ell to an arrest 0ithin one s resi,ence. ()eop"e $# 2ea" (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th 10$1.) Gut- the 2ea" court- citing Summers an, Gant- note, that there are li(itations to this rule) *A ,i""erent rule o" reasonableness applies 0hen the police ha.e a ,egree o" control o.er the suspect but ,o not ha.e control o" the entire situation. 1n such circu(stancesPe.g.- in 0hich thir, parties Fno0n to be nearby are unaccounte, "or- or in 0hich a suspect has not yet been "ully secure, an, retains a ,egree o" ability to o.erpo0er police or ,estroy e.i,enceP the Fourth Amendment ,oes not bar the police "ro( searching the i((e,iate area o" the suspect s arrest as a search inci,ent to an arrest./ (Id.- at p. 1050.) 1t 0as also note, in 2ea" that the la0 0as su""iciently settle, prior to Gant that *goo, "aith/ reliance upon prior authority ,i, not allo0 "or the a,(issibility o" the e.i,ence reco.ere, in this case. (Id.- at pp. 105$%1055.) +he sa(e applies to a person arrested in his !ehicle: the person an, the passenger area o" that .ehicle (ay be searche, inci,ent to that arrest. (Ne, Yor( $# e"ton (1&#1) 3$3 4.S 3$3 65& 7.8,.2n, 25#9.) Gut see Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9- abo.e- an, * earches of a Vehicle-/ belo0. A search inci,ent to arrest ,oes not inclu,e the right to con,uct a *strip search-/ 0hich- as a *serious intrusion upon personal rights/ an, *an in!asion of personal rights of the first magnitude/ (Chapman $# Nicho"s (10th Cir. 1&&3) &#& B.2n, 3&3- 3&$%3&5.)- is generally not allo0e, prior to booFing. (Foote $# Spie1e" (4tah 1&&$) &03 B.Supp. 1353.) Searches ,ith )ro.a."e Cause) A person (ay also be searche, 0ithout a search 0arrant any ti(e a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer has *probable cause/ to belie.e the person has contraban, or other sei;able property on hi(. ()eop"e $# Co"eman (1&&1) 22& Cal.App.3r, 321.) The *exigency/ e?cusing the nee, "or a search 0arrant- ob.iously- is the "act that 0hen probable cause ,e.elops to belie.e that the a person 3#2
possesses contraban, or e.i,ence o" a cri(e- there 0ill not be an opportunity to obtain a search 0arrant 0ithout risFing the loss or ,estruction o" the ite(s sought. (See belo0) Probable cause (ay be "oun, "ro( the ,e"en,ant s o0n a,(issions 0hich- 0ithout in,epen,ent e.i,ence o" the corpus o" the cri(e- 0oul, not be a,(issible in court. +he liFelihoo, o" con.iction is not rele.ant in establishing probable cause to arrest. ()eop"e $# Rios (1&$5) 35 Cal.2n, 2&2: ,e"en,ant s a,(ission that he ha, inCecte, ,rugs t0o 0eeFs earlier su""icient to establish probable cause "or the past possession o" a controlle, substance. Search inci,ent to the arrest 0as there"ore la0"ul.) Ehen ,e"en,ant re"use, to e(pty his pocFets on the hoo, o" a "e,eral la0 en"orce(ent o""icer s car- there 0as no search. Gut a"ter ,e"en,ant a,(itte, to possessing (ariCuana- an, 0as then asFe, a secon, ti(e to e(pty his pocFets- this ti(e co(plying,oing so constitute, a search. Gut 0ith ,e"en,ant s a,(ission to possessing (ariCuana- the search 0as base, upon probable cause an, la0"ul. (United States $# )ope (&th Cir. 2012) 5#5 B.3r, 102#10#0%10#3.) (!C! #33) Gy statute- in Cali"ornia- peace o""icers are authori;e, to search any person the o""icer has *legal cause to arrest/ "or *dangerous weapons-/ an, then sei;e such 0eapon pen,ing the ,eter(ination 0hether the person 0ill be arreste,. +ote) 1n that (ost o" the rules on *searches incident to arrest/ are constitutionally%base, case ,ecisions- any0here they (ight ,i""er "ro( the language o" this statute (i.e.- the nee, to transport the arreste, person as a con,ition o" a search inci,ent to arrest: see belo0)- the case la0 is liFely to taFe prece,ence. See *Patdown earches-/ belo0. ;rder of earch > *rrest) 1t is irrele.ant 0hether the o""icer- 0ith probable cause to belie.e a subCect possesses contraban, or so(e other tangible e.i,ence o" a cri(e- searches "irst an, then arrests- or arrests "irst an, then searches inci,ent to that arrest (Ra,"in1s $# /entuc(& (1&#0) 33# 4.S. &#- 110 65$ 7.8,.2n, 533- 53$9: )eop"e $# Gon5a"es (1&#&) 215 Cal.App.3r, 11#$- 11#&: )eop"e $# A$i"a (1&&2) $# Cal.App.3th 105&.)- so long as the search is *substantially contemporaneous/ 0ith the arrest. (See )eop"e $# Coc(re"" (1&5$) 53 Cal.2n, 5$&- 555: )eop"e $# Nieto (1&&0) 21& Cal.App.3r, 122$- 1222.) A search o" a .ehicle inci,ent to arrest is la0"ul 0here there e?ists probable cause to arrest be"ore the search is con,ucte,- e.en i"- in 3#3
the se@uence o" e.ents- the search taFes place before the actual physical arrest o" the ,e"en,ant- so long as the search is *roughly contemporaneous/ 0ith the arrest. (United States $# Smith (&th Cir. 200$) 3#& B.3r, &33: see also United States $# 2u1o (10th Cir. 1&&&) 120 B.3r, &&5.) Gut see Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9- belo0- un,er * earches of Vehicles-/ se.erely li(iting the *search inci,ent to arrest/ theory- at least in .ehicles. +he ol, Cali"ornia rule o" re@uiring a .ali, arrest- e.en o" an unconscious suspect- prior to the e?traction o" a bloo, sa(ple (See )eop"e $# Superior Court 60a,(ins7 (1&22) 5 Cal.3r, 2$2- 252.)0as abrogate, by passage o" (ro-osition #- in 1&#2. Jo0- so long as probable cause e?ists to belie.e that the ,e"en,ant 0as ,ri.ing 0hile into?icate,- a "or(al arrest is not a prere@uisite to a 0arrantless sei;ure o" a bloo, sa(ple. ()eop"e $# Trotman (1&#&) 213 Cal.App.3r, 330- 33$: )eop"e $# De"toro (1&#&) 213 Cal.App.3r, 1312- 1322- 132$.) 'ntrusions into the Human $ody) !" all the areas 0here a person has a legiti(ate *reasonable expectation of pri!acy/ protecting the person "ro( go.ern(ental intrusions- none- perhaps- is greater than that person s o0n bo,y. (See -inston $# 2ee (1&#$) 320 4.S. 2$3- 2$& 6#3 7.8,.2n, 5529: *4 com(elled sur.ical intrusion into an indi)idualAs bod* for e)idence . . .
im(licates ex(ectations of (ri)ac* and securit* of such ma.nitude that the intrusion ma* be 'unreasonable2, e)en if li;el* to (roduce e)idence of a crime./)
Searches 0hich *shoc? the conscience-/ or 0hich are unreasonable un,er the circu(stances- are not allo0e,. (Rochin $# Ca"i'ornia (1&$2) 332 4.S 15$ 6&5 7.8,. 1#39: -inston $# 2ee- supraat pp. 250%253 6#3 7.8,.2n, at pp. 55#%5219.) Io0e.er- lesser intrusions into a hu(an bo,y (ay- un,er so(e circu(stances- be uphel, 0ith a su""icient e?igency. (Schmer.er $# Ca"i'ornia (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 2$2- 25# 615 7.8,.2n, &0#- &1#9: e.g.- bloo, 0ith,ra0al.) +ote) Ehether or not Schmer.er allo0s "or a 0arrantless e?traction o" bloo, un,er circu(stances in.ol.ing (erely the ,issipation o" the alcohol is presently be"ore the 4.S. Supre(e Court in %issouri $# %cNee"& (Oo. 2012) 3$# S.E.3r, 5$ (cert. grante,). 3#3
*The interests in human dignity and pri!acy/ "orbi, intrusions into the hu(an bo,y *on the (ere chance that ,esire, e.i,ence (ight be obtaine,./ (Schmer.er $# Ca"i'orniasupra: )eop"e $# racamonte (1&2$) 1$ Cal.3r, 3&3- 302%30$.) (actors) 1n ,eter(ining the la0"ulness o" such an intrusion- such as the "orce, e?traction o" bloo,- the court 0ill consi,er) +he ,egree o" resistance by the suspect. +he se.erity o" the cri(e at issue. Ehether the suspect pose, an i((e,iate threat to the sa"ety o" the o""icers or others. Ehether the police re"use, to respect a reasonable re@uest to un,ergo a ,i""erent "or( o" testing. +he ,egree o" the authorities nee, "or the e.i,ence. (0ammer $# Gross (&th Cir. 1&&1) &32 B.2n, #32.) Dri!ing #nder the 'nfluence &ases) Eith probable cause to arrestthe taFing o" bloo, nee,e, as e.i,ence- e.en by "orce- so long as ,one by properly traine, personnel in a (e,ically appro.e, (anner an, 0ithout use o" e?cessi.e "orce- is appro.e,. (Schmer.er $# Ca"i'orniasupra.) +he ol, Cali"ornia rule o" re@uiring a .ali, arrest- e.en o" an unconscious suspect- prior to the e?traction o" a bloo, sa(ple (See )eop"e $# Superior Court 60a,(ins7 (1&22) 5 Cal.3r, 2$2- 252.)- 0as abrogate, by passage o" (ro-osition #- in 1&#2. Jo0- so long as probable cause e?ists to belie.e that the ,e"en,ant 0as ,ri.ing 0hile into?icate,- a "or(al arrest is not a prere@uisite to a 0arrantless sei;ure o" a bloo, sa(ple. ()eop"e $# Trotman (1&#&) 213 Cal.App.3r, 330- 33$%332: )eop"e $# De"toro (1&#&) 213 Cal.App.3r, 1312- 1322- 132$.) +he bloo, test in a ,runF ,ri.ing case shoul, ha.e been suppresse, 0hen the ,e"en,ant ha, alrea,y gi.en a urine sa(ple that 0as the "unctional e@ui.alent o" the bloo, test "or e.i,entiary purposes. ()eop"e $# Fisca"ini (1&&1) 22# Cal.App.3r, 153&.) 3#$
Gut- "orcing an arreste, D41 suspect to gi.e bloo, a"ter the suspect intentionally "rustrate, the o""icer s atte(pts at obtaining a breath sa(ple 0as hel, to be la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Su1arman (2002) &5 Cal.App.3th 210.) +ote) Ehether or not Schmer.er allo0s "or a 0arrantless e?traction o" bloo, un,er circu(stances in.ol.ing (erely the ,issipation o" the alcohol is presently be"ore the 4.S. Supre(e Court in %issouri $# %cNee"& (Oo. 2012) 3$# S.E.3r, 5$ (cert. grante,). ;ther Examples of $odily 'ntrusions) Borcing a suspect to sub(it to the re(o.al o" a rubber "inger stall o" po0,ere, ,rugs "ro( his rectu(- the proce,ure being con,ucte, by a physician an, in.ol.ing little i" any pain- 0as appro.e,. ()eop"e $# -oods (1&$5) 13& Cal.App.2n, $1$.) Io0e.er- balancing the interests- the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court ,eter(ine, that a (agistrate coul, not la0"ully authori;e a search 0arrant in a chil, (olestNincest case "or a (e,ical e?a(ination consisting o" the (anual (assage o" the prostate glan, causing a ,ischarge o" se(en. ()eop"e $# Scott (1&2#) 21 Cal.3r, 2#3- 2&1%2&$: *(+)he (ore intense- unusual- prolonge,- unco("ortable- unsa"e or un,igni"ie, the proce,ure conte(plate,- or the (ore it intru,es upon essential stan,ar,s o" pri.acy- the greater (ust be the sho0ing "or the proce,ure s necessity./) Surgery to re(o.e a bullet "ro( the accuse, 0as "oun,un,er the circu(stances- to be unreasonable. (-inston $# 2ee (1&#$) 320 4.S. 2$3- 250%253 6#3 7.8,.2n, 552- 55#% 5219.) +his is not to say- ho0e.er- that surgery 0oul, ne!er be la0"ul. As the Supre(e Court pointe, out in -inston $# 2ee- supraat p. 250 6#3 7.8,.2n, at p. 55&9) *+he reasonableness o" surgical intrusions beneath the sFin ,epen,s on a case%by%case approach- in 0hich the in,i.i,ualDs interests in pri.acy an, security are 0eighe, against societyDs interests in con,ucting the proce,ure. 1n a gi.en case- the @uestion 0hether the co((unity s nee, "or e.i,ence out0eighs the substantial pri.acy interests at staFe is a ,elicate one a,(itting o" "e0 3#5
categorical ans0ers./ 1n 2ee- the ,e"en,ant 0oul, ha.e ha, to been subCecte, to general anesthesiaan, the prosecution s nee, "or the bullet 0as @uestionable- gi.en other e.i,ence o" the ,e"en,ant s guilt. 1nserting the cappe, en, o" a ballpoint pen an, prying a 2% inch 0a, o" (asFing tape out o" ,e"en,ant s (outhsuspecte, o" being e.i,ence- is not unreasonable. ()eop"e $# Fu"(man (1&&1) 23$ Cal.App.3r, $$$- $53.) +aFing a DJA sa(ple .ia a *buccal s0ab/ o" the (outh is a search un,er the Fourth Amendment- an, illegal absent a search 0arrant or an e?igent circu(stance allo0ing "or such a search. (Friedman $# oucher (&th Cir. 200&) $#0 B.3r, #32- #$2%#$3.) +here is no pri.acy right in the (outhpiece o" the PAS ,e.ice- 0hich 0as pro.i,e, by the police an, 0here ,e"en,ant aban,one, any e?pectation o" pri.acy in the sali.a he ,eposite, on the ,e.ice 0hen he "aile, to 0ipe it o"". Ehether ,e"en,ant subCecti.ely e?pecte, that the genetic (aterial containe, in his sali.a 0oul, beco(e Fno0n to the police 0as irrele.ant because he ,eposite, it on a police ,e.ice an, thus (a,e it accessible to the police. +he o""icer 0ho a,(inistere, the PAS test testi"ie, that use, (outhpieces 0ere nor(ally ,iscar,e, in the trash. +hus- any subCecti.e e?pectation ,e"en,ant (ay ha.e ha, that his right to pri.acy 0oul, be preser.e, 0as unreasonable. ()eop"e $# Thomas (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 33#.) &ho?ing) Searches o" the person (ay also inclu,e the nee, to "orce"ully Feep a suspect "ro( s0allo0ing e.i,ence. Rule) So long as the suspect can be pre.ente, "ro( s0allo0ing without *cho?ing/ hi(- reasonable "orce (ay nor(ally be use,. ()eop"e $# *ones (1&#&) 20& Cal.App.3r, 22$: )eop"e $# *ohnson (1&&1) 231 Cal.App.3r, 1- 1$%12.) *&ho?ing/ is legally ,e"ine, as pre.enting a person "ro( breathing or by obstructing the "lo0 o" bloo, to his hea,. (I.id.) Examples) 3#2
Iol,ing a subCect s A,a( s apple to pre.ent s0allo0ing is oFay. ()eop"e $# Cappe""ia (1&#&) 20# Cal.App.3r, 13311332.) 4sing pepper spray to cause the subCect to spit out the contents o" his (outh is probably not unreasonable. (United States $# 0o""o,a& (Zan. 1&&$) &05 B.Supp. 1332.) Gut see 0ead,aters Forest De'ense $# Count& o' 0um.o"dt (&th Cir. 2002) 225 B.3r, 112$- hol,ing that the use o" pepper spray on non%.iolent ,e(onstrators to gain their co(pliance is unreasonable- an, groun,s "or ci.il liability. 1nserting the cappe, en, o" a ballpoint pen an, prying a 2% inch 0a, o" (asFing tape out o" ,e"en,ant s (outhsuspecte, o" being e.i,ence- is not unreasonable. ()eop"e $# Fu"(man (1&&1) 23$ Cal.App.3r, $$$- $53.) +he use o" reasonable "orce in e?tracting bloo,- 0hen ,one in a (e,ically appro.e, (anner- is la0"ul. (Ritsche" $# Cit& o' Fountain 9a""e& (200$) 132 Cal.App.3th 102: a (is,e(eanor case.) Searches ,ith 2ess Than )ro.a."e Cause: 1n certain instances- 0here the go.ern(ental interests are stronger than in cases o" *ordinary criminal wrongdoing-/ or the in,i.i,ual s pri.acy interests are ,i(inishe,- the probable cause stan,ar,s ha.e been rela?e,. Bor instance) Persons in Per!asi!ely Regulated 'ndustries or ensiti!e Positions) 1n so(e situations- 0here there e?ists a strong go.ern(ental interest- neither a 0arrant nor a sho0ing o" in,i.i,uali;e, suspicion is re@uire, to support the .ali,ity o" statute re@uiring e(ployees to sub(it to a bloo, or urine test. Bor instance) <o!ernment Employees) A ran,o( search- 0ithout cause- o" an e(ployee s personal e""ects by a go.ern(ent e(ployer- at least 0here the e(ployee has prior notice that his possessions (ay be subCect to search- has been hel, to be la0"ul. (United States $# Gon5a"e5 (&th Cir. 2002) 300 B.3r, 103#) +he testing o" bloo, or urine o" railway wor?ers in.ol.e, in certain train acci,ents. (S(inner $# Rai",a& 2a.or E!ecuti$es? Assn# (1&#&) 3#& 4.S. 502 6103 7.8,.2n, 53&9.)
3##
Drug testing as a con,ition o" place(ent or e(ploy(ent "or &ustoms officers in a position in.ol.ing the inter,iction o" ,rugs or carrying o" "irear(s. (Nationa" Treasur& Emp"o&ees Union $# 9on Raa. (1&#&) 3#& 4.S. 5$5 6103 7.8,.2n, 5#$9: but- si(ilar re@uire(ents "or persons 0ho 0ere only re@uire, to han,le classi"ie, (aterial 0as reCecte, as being too broa,.) $ut- a urinalysis drug test re@uire(ent "or candidates for public office 0as hel, to .iolate the Fourth Amendment. (Chand"er $# %i""er (1&&2) $20 4.S. 30$ 6132 7.8,.2n, $139.) *nd see Fer1uson $# Char"eston (2001) $32 4.S. 52 613& 7.8,.2n, 20$9- "in,ing a state hospital)s drug testing policy- ,e.elope, in conCunction 0ith the police- "or testing unwed mothers "or ,rug abuse- to be unconstitutional- at least 0ithout in"or(ing the (others o" the purposes "or the test. (or tudents) *thletics and Extracurricular *cti!ities) Li.en the e?tent o" the ,rug proble( in public schools- an, the i(portance o" the go.ern(ental interest in pre.enting the proble( "ro( 0orsening (i.e.- a * pecial +eeds/ search)- the 4.S. Supre(e Court has appro.e, (an,atory ran,o( ,rug tests "or certain categories o" stu,ents as the price "or participating in) chool athletics) (9ernonia Schoo" Distirct 6L* $# Acton (1&&$) $1$ 4.S. 535 6132 7.8,.2n, $539.) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court appro.e, a si(ilar progra( "or a national college athletic organi;ation (JCAA). (0i"" $# Nationa" Co""e1iate Ath"etic Assn# (1&&3) 2 Cal.3th 1.) Extracurricular acti!ities) ( oard o' Education o' Independent Schoo" District No# C8 o' )otta,atomie Count& $# Ear"s (2002) $35 4.S. #22 61$3 7.8,.2n, 23$9.) tudents in <eneral) Recogni;ing that stu,ents (Z through high school) ,o retain so(e Fourth Amendment protections- an, that school o""icials are- in e""ect- go.ern(ent e(ployees- the Supre(e Court strucF a balance an, "oun, that school a,(inistrators (ay con,uct searches o" stu,ents an, their personal belongings on no (ore than a *reasonable suspicion./ (Ne, *erse& $# T#2#O# (1&#$) 35& 4.S. 32$ 6#3 7.8,.2n, 2209.) 3#&
A school search *0ill be per(issible in its scope 0hen the (easures a,opte, are reasonably relate, to the obCecti.es o" the search an, not e?cessi.ely intrusi.e in light o" the age an, se? o" the stu,ent an, the nature o" the in"raction./ (Id.- at p. 332.) Constitutional Protections an, Statutory Restrictions) Cal! Const!, article I, section 2#+c,- pro.i,es that stu,ents an, sta"" o" public schools ha.e *the inalienable right to atten, ca(puses 0hich are sa"esecure- an, peace"ul./ ?d! Code 4"3)3: +he ?ducation Code pro.i,es that *(n)o school e(ployee shall con,uct a search that in.ol.es) Con,ucting a bo,y ca.ity search o" a pupil (anually or 0ith an instru(ent. Re(o.ing or arranging any or all o" the clothing o" a pupil to per(it a .isual inspection o" the un,erclothing- breastbuttocFs- or genitalia o" the pupil./
Eith in"or(ation "ro( another stu,ent that a (inor (Oarissa) 0as supplying other stu,ents 0ith prescription an, o.er%the%counter pills at school- that alcohol coul, be obtaine, at the plainti"" Sa.ana Sa""or, s ho(e- an, in"or(ation "ro( Oarissa that Sa.ana ha, supplie, her 0ith the pills an, 0ith pills an, other contraban, being "oun, in Sa.ana s ,ay planner that 0as in Oarissa s possession (0hich Sa.ana a,(itte, 0as hers)- a search o" Sa.ana s bacFpacF an, outer clothing by school a,(inistrators 0as Custi"ie, by a reasonable suspicion that Sa.ana (ight ha.e (ore pills in her possession. Io0e.erthis le.el o" suspicion 0as not su""icient to Custi"y the greater intrusion o" ha.ing Sa.ana strip ,o0n to her un,er0ear an, pull her bra an, panties out to see 0hat "ell out- thus partially e?posing hersel" to school o""icials. (Sa''ord Uni'ied Schoo" District M1 $# Reddin1 (200&) $$2 4.S. 3$3 6123 7.8,.2n, 3$39: "in,ing that the school o""icials 0ere entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity "ro( ci.il liability un,er these circu(stances.) 3&0
4sing a drug6sniffing dog to ,o sni""s o" a stu,ent- being (ore intrusi.e- are consi,ere, to be a search an, controlle, by the Fourth Amendment- but only re@uires a "in,ing o" a *reasonable suspicion/ 0hen the person sni""e, is a stu,ent. ( #C# $# )"umas (&th Cir. 1&&&) 1&2 B.3r, 1250: ran,o( an, suspicionless ,rug%sni"" search o" stu,ents hel, to be unreasonable un,er the circu(stances.) 1t is the opinion o" the Cali"ornia Attorney Leneral that a policy o" unannounce,- ran,o(- neutral ,og sni""ing o" stu,ents personal belongings- such as bacFpacFs- purses- CacFets- an, outer gar(ents- a"ter or,ering stu,ents to lea.e these ite(s in a classroo( an, re(ain in another area- 0oul, be unconstitutional absent so(e suspicion or probable cause to support the search. (#3 Opn#Ca"#Att&# Gen2 2$2 (2000)) 4se o" metal detectors at the entrances o" a school buil,ing,espite the lacF o" in,i.i,uali;e, suspicion- is la0"ul as a *special needs/ search. (In re 2atasha -# (1&&#) 50 Cal.App.3th 1$23.) Patting a non6student down for possible weapons on a high school ca(pus- 0here the ,e"en,antN(inor 0as to be (o.e, to the security o""ice- nee, not be Custi"ie, by an articulable suspicion that he (ight be ar(e,. (In re *ose Y# (2005) 131 Cal.App.3th 23#.) * school resource officer- although e(ploye, as a (unicipal police o""icer- 0hile 0orFing "ull ti(e on a high school ca(pus- a,opts the rela?e, *reasonable suspicion/ stan,ar, applicable to school o""icials. (In re -i""iam 9# (2003) 111 Cal.App.3th 1353: see also In re A"e!ander # (1&&0) 220 Cal.App.3r, 1$22- 1$22%1$2#.) +he suspicionless search o" a stu,ent 0as uphel, 0here it 0as con,ucte, pursuant to an establishe, policy applying to all stu,ents an, 0as consistent 0ith the type o" action on the part o" a school a,(inistrator that "ell 0ell 0ithin the ,e"inition o" *special needs/ o" a go.ern(ental agency. +he search 0as o" a li(ite, nature- being tol, only to e(pty out his pocFets- as he 0as not subCecte, to physical touching o" his person nor 0as he e?pose, to the inti(ate process re@uire, "or a urine sa(ple necessary "or ,rug testing. +he purpose o" the search 0as to pre.ent the 3&1
intro,uction o" har("ul ite(s (0eapons an, ,rugs) into the school en.iron(ent. Li.en the general application o" the policy to all stu,ents engage, in a "or( o" rule .iolation that coul, easily len, itsel" to the intro,uction o" ,rugs or 0eapons into the school en.iron(ent (i.e.- lea.ing ,uring the school ,ay 0ithout per(ission an, returning later)"urther in,i.i,uali;e, suspicion 0as not re@uire,. (In re Sean A# (2010) 1&1 Cal.App.3th 1#2- 1#5%1&0.) Gut see the ,issent (pgs. 1&1%1&#) critici;ing the ,ecision as a non%particulari;e,- suspicionless search o" a stu,ent in .iolation o" the principles o" Ne, *erse& $# T#2#O# (1&#$) 35& 4.S. 32$ 6#3 7.8,.2n, 2209- 0here the Supre(e Court hel, that a reasonable suspicion is re@uire,. (See abo.e) (ris?s (or Patdowns) are consi,ere, searches- albeit li(ite, in intrusi.eness an, scope. Defined) BrisFs generally consist o" a police o""icer ,oing no (ore than "eeling the outsi,e o" a suspect s clothing- checFing "or the "eel o" any potential o""ensi.e 0eapons. (See Terr& $# Ohio (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1 620 7.8,.2n, ##&9.) A *stop and fris?/ is constitutionally permissible i" t0o con,itions are (et) +he in.estigatory stop (ust be la0"ul: i.e.- 0hen a police o""icer reasonably suspects that the person apprehen,e, is co((itting or has co((itte, a cri(inal o""ense. +he police o""icer (ust reasonably suspect that the person stoppe, is ar(e, an, ,angerous. (Ari5ona $# *ohnson (200&) $$$ 4.S. 323 6122 7.8,.2n, 5&39.) A "risF is a li(ite, search "or weapons only. (Santos $# Superior Court (1&#3) 1$3 Cal.App.3r, 112#.) 8.g.) =rong answer) *1 patte, hi( ,o0n "or 0eapons an,Nor contraban,./ Patting a person ,o0n "or i,enti"ication is not la0"ul e.en though the person has been la0"ully stoppe, an, clai(s to 3&2
ha.e no i,enti"ication. ()eop"e $# Garcia (2005) 13$ Cal.App.3th 2#2.) $ut see * earching for 'dentification-/ belo0. +he police o""icer nee,s to be able to articulate "acts establishing a *reasonable/ or *rational/ suspicion that the person (ay be ar(e,. (Terr& $# Ohio- supra.) At least one court re"erre, to the test as being a *reason to belie!e/ that the subCect (ay be ar(e,. ()eop"e $# 2ope5 (2003) 11& Cal.App.3th 132: see also In re 0#0# (200&) 123 Cal.App.3th 5$3- 5$2.) A tra""ic stop "or an e@uip(ent .iolation in a *high crime/ (i.e.- gang) area at night is not reasonable suspicion- by itsel"- su""icient to Custi"y a ,etention or pat,o0n "or 0eapons. ()eop"e $# %edina (2003) 110 Cal.App.3th 121.) Patting ,o0n a suspect in a (ail the"t- (erely because the inter.ie0 is to taFe place in a s(all- cro0,e, inter.ie0 roo(- that the inter.ie0 (ight turn con"rontationalan, it 0as "elt that patting the suspect ,o0n 0oul, be the *pru,ent/ thing to ,o- is not su""icient reasonable suspicion to belie.e the person (ight be ar(e,. (United States $# F"atter (&th Cir. 2005) 3$5 B.3r, 11$3.) Patting a non%stu,ent ,o0n "or possible 0eapons on a high school ca(pus- 0here the ,e"en,antN(inor 0as to be (o.e, to the security o""ice- nee, not be Custi"ie, by an articulable suspicion that he (ight be ar(e,. (In re *ose Y# (2005) 131 Cal.App.3th 23#.) Stopping- ,etaining- an, patting ,o0n a Fno0n gang (e(ber- obser.e, running through tra""ic in a gang area0hile looFing bacF ner.ously as i" "leeing "ro( a cri(e (as either a .icti( or a perpetrator)- is la0"ul In re 0#%# (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th 135. A person s assertion o" his Fourth Amendment right not to be searche, cannot be use, to establish a reasonable suspicion to belie.e that he (ight be ar(e,. (In re 0#0# (200&) 123 Cal.App.3th 5$3- citing )eop"e $# Dic(e& (1&&3) 21 Cal.App.3th &$2.)
3&3
+he test is an obCecti.e one. An o""icer nee, not later ,e(onstrate that he 0as in actual "ear. ()eop"e $# Os.orne (200&) 12$ Cal.App.3th 10$2- 1051%1052.) Patting ,o0n a passenger in a .ehicle "or 0eapons hel, to be Custi"ie, base, upon the ,e"en,ant s obser.e, "urti.e (o.e(ents o" the passenger ,uring the stop o" the .ehiclealong 0ith his apparently "alse ,enial an, then unreasonable e?planation "or the "urti.e (o.e(ents. (United States $# ur(ett (&th Cir. 2010) 512 B.3r, 1103.) A probation o""icer con"ronte, 0ith an uncooperati.e- irate in,i.i,ual 0ho 0as present in the house o" a Cu.enile probationer ,uring a Fourth 0a.ier search- 0hen the ,etaine, .isitor appeare, to be a gang (e(ber an, 0ho 0as o.erly ,resse, "or the 0eather- an, 0ho atte(pte, to turn a0ay an, co.er his sto(ach 0hen or,ere, not to ,o so- la0"ully patte, ,o0n the suspect "or 0eapons. ()eop"e $# Rios (2011) 1&3 Cal.App.3th $#3- $&#%500.) +he Court "urther ,eter(ine, that a probation o""icer has the legal authority to ,etain an, pat,o0n a non%probationer pursuant to (!C! #33!)+a,+4, (i.e.: en"orcing *.iolations o" any penal pro.isions o" la0 0hich are ,isco.ere, 0hile per"or(ing the usual or authori;e, ,uties o" his or her e(ploy(ent./) (Id- at p. 500.) A contact in the (i,,le o" the night- 0here the o""icer 0as alone 0ith no one in the i((e,iate .icinity 0ho (ight o""er assistance- 0hile outnu(bere, by three people inclu,ing one con"rontational- (uch taller (ale- an, a secon, 0earing a Fni"e on a sheath- 0hen both (aFes 0ere 0earing clothing loose enough to conceal other 0eaponsCusti"ie, a pat,o0n "or 0eapons. ()eop"e $# %endo5a L-.//0 5- &al23th /.57, /.D-20 +he *nature of the crime/ suspecte, is a "actor in ,eter(ining 0hether a "risF "or 0eapons is la0"ul. *(C)ertain cri(es carry 0ith the( the propensity "or .iolence- an, in,i.i,uals being in.estigate, "or those cri(es (ay be pat searche, 0ithout "urther Custi"ication./ ()eop"e $# Os.orne (200&) 12$ Cal.App.3th 10$210$&: see also Si.ron $# Ne, Yor( (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 30- 23 620 7.8,.2n, &129.) Bor instance)
3&3
Oail the"t) +o. (United States $# F"atter (&th Cir. 2005) 3$5 B.3r, 11$3.) Robbery) Fes. (Terr& $# Ohio (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1 620 7.8,.2n, ##&9: United States $# 0i"" (&th Cir. 1&25) $3$ B.2n, 11&1. Jightti(e Gurglary) Fes. (United States $# %attaro"o (&th Cir. 2000) 20& B.3r, 11$3.) Counter"eiting) +o. (United States $# Thomas (&th Cir. 1&##) #53 B.2n, 522.) 7arge%scale narcotics ,ealing) Fes. (United States $# H17C,1LC in U#S# Currenc& (&th Cir. 2000) 22# B.3r, 10#0: United States $# )ost (&th Cir. 1&2&) 502 B.2n, #32.) Drug tra""icFing) Fes. ()eop"e $# 2imon (1&&3) 12 Cal.App.3th $23- $3$: )eop"e $# 2ee (1&#2) 1&3 Cal.App.3r, &2$- &#3.) Drug%Relate, !""ense) Fes. (United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 200#) $30 B.3r, 105&- 10#2%10#3: *Gecause o""icers reasonably suspecte, that Richar, Da.is 0as in.ol.e, in narcotics acti.ity- it 0as also reasonable "or the( to suspect that he (ight be ar(e,./) See also )eop"e $# Co""ier (200#) 155 Cal.App.3th 1323: tra""ic stop 0here the o,or o" (ariCuana 0as ,etecte, an, ,e"en,ant 0as 0earing baggy clothing through 0hich any possible bulges coul, not be seen: pat,o0n la0"ul. Gut see United States $# I#E#9# (&th Cir. Jo.. 2#2012) >> B.3r,. >> 62012 4.S. App. 78T1S 2332590here it 0as hel, that a ,rug%sni""ing ,og alerting on ,e"en,ant s .ehicle- 0ithout any other in,ications that ,e"en,ant 0as ar(e,- 0as insu""icient cause to Custi"y a pat,o0n "or 0eapons. Drug%Relate, !""ense: 4n,er the 1n"luence !nly) +o. (Ramire5 $# Cit& o' uena )ar( (&th Cir. 200&) $50 B.3r, 1012- 1021%1023) +he "act that the ,e"en,ant 0as reasonably belie.e, to be un,er the in"luence o" a controlle, substance- by itsel"- 0as not cause to pat hi( ,o0n "or 0eapons.) 3&$
Uehicle Gurglary) +o- but 0hen co(bine, 0ith tools lying nearby- inclu,ing scre0,ri.ers that coul, be use, as a 0eapon- the "act that the suspect (ight be on parole- an, he 0as acting *real ner.ous-/ patting hi( ,o0n "or 0eapons 0as Custi"ie,. ()eop"e $# Os.orne (200&) 12$ Cal.App.3th 10$2- 10$&%1052.) Vehicle Dri!ers and Passengers) +he ,ri.er o" a (otor .ehicle stoppe, "or a tra""ic o""enseor,ere, by a police o""icer to e?it his .ehicleis subCect to be patte, ,o0n "or o""ensi.e 0eapons 0hene.er it is ,eter(ine, that there is a reasonable suspicion to belie.e that he or she *(ight be ar(e, an, presently ,angerous./ ()enns&"$ania $# %imms (1&22) 333 4.S. 105- 112 6$3 7.8,.2n, 3319.) +he sa(e rule applies to passengers in the (otor .ehicle. +hey are subCect to being or,ere, out o" the .ehicle (%ar&"and $# -i"son (1&&2) $1& 4.S. 30#- 31$ 6132 7.8,.2n, 319.)- (ay be ,etaine, "or the ,uration o" the tra""ic stop ( rend"in $# Ca"i'ornia (2002) $$1 4.S. 23& 615# 7.8,.2n, 1329.) an, patte, ,o0n 0ith a reasonable suspicion to belie.e that they (ay be ar(e,. (Ari5ona $# *ohnson (200&) $$$ 4.S. 323 6122 7.8,.2n, 5&39.) See also /no,"es $# Io,a (1&&#) $2$ 4.S. 113- 112%11# 6132 7.8,.2n, 3&29: !""icers 0ho con,uct *routine tra""ic stop6s9/ (ay *per"or( a Apat,o0n o" a ,ri.er an, any passengers upon reasonable suspicion that they (ay be ar(e, an, ,angerous./ (See also Ari5ona $# *ohnsonsupra.- at p. 323.) &onsensual Patdowns) A pat,o0n- liFe any other search- (ay be per"or(e, 0hen the suspect pro.i,es a "ree an, .oluntary consent. A"ter ,e"en,ant- 0ho ha, prior ,rug an, "irear(%relate, con.ictions- pai, cash "or a last%(inute- one%0ay ticFet 0ithout checFing any luggage- an o""icer asFe, ,e"en,ant "or per(ission to search his bag an, his person. De"en,ant consente, t0ice an, sprea, his ar(s an, legs to "acilitate the search. +he o""icer "elt so(ething har, an, unnatural in ,e"en,antDs groin area an, arreste, hi(. +he appellate court ,eter(ine, that ,e"en,ant .oluntarily consente, to a pat,o0n search because he 0as not in custo,y- o""icers tol, 3&5
hi( he 0as "ree to lea.e- an, o""icers ,i, not tell hi( that they coul, obtain a search 0arrant i" he re"use, to consent. +he scope o" the search 0as reasonable because it 0as reasonable "or the o""icer to assu(e the consent inclu,e, the groin area since the o""icer speci"ically a,.ise, ,e"en,ant that the o""icer 0as looFing "or narcotics,e"en,ant li"te, his ar(s an, sprea, his legs- ,e"en,ant ne.er obCecte, or re.oFe, consent- the search ,i, not e?ten, insi,e the clothing- an, the o""icer (etho,ically 0orFe, his 0ay up ,e"en,antDs legs be"ore searching the groin. (United States $# Russe"" (&th Cir. 2012) 553 B.3r, 122&- 12#1%12#3.) Procedures) A "risF is limited to the outer clothing- e?cept 0hen the clothing (or purse- etc.) is so resistant as to pre.ent "eeling a possible 0eapon belo0 the clothing. ()eop"e $# risendine (1&2$) 13 Cal.3r, $2#- $32.) 8.g.) Ehere the o""icer respon,e, to a &%1%1 call o" a ,isturbance- an, 0as ,irecte, to the ,e"en,ant 0ho 0as 0earing a "anny pacF in 0hich the o""icer coul, see the apparent outline o" a pistol- taFing the "anny pacF "ro( the ,e"en,ant an, un;ipping the outer co(part(ent to re(o.e 0hat 0as in "act ,eter(ine, to be a pistol 0as not unreasonable. ()eop"e $# Ritter (1&&2) $3 Cal.App.3th 223.) Ehen an obCect is "elt 0hich (ight be a weapon o" any sort- that obCect (ay then be re(o.e, an, inspecte,. ()eop"e $# Sn&der (1&&2) 11 Cal.App.3th 3#&: bottle: )eop"e $# Atmore (1&20) 13 Cal.App.3r, 233- 232: shotgun shell.) Ehen an o""icer reasonably belie.es the suspect is reaching for a weapon- the o""icer need not "irst un,ertaFe a pat,o0n search to palpate the obCect the suspect is reaching "or. ()eop"e $# -i11inton (1&23) 3$ Cal.App.3r, 232- 232%230: )eop"e $# Superior Court 60o"mes7 (1&21) 1$ Cal.App.3r, #05- #13: )eop"e $# Atmore (1&20) 13 Cal.App.3r, 233- 232%23#: )eop"e $# -oods (1&20) 5 Cal.App.3r, #32- #3#: )eop"e $# Sanche5 (1&52) 2$5 Cal.App.2n, 200- 203%203: )eop"e $# Rosa"es (1&#&) 211 Cal.App.3r, 32$- 32&.) 3&2
(!C! #33!)) Cali"ornia pro.i,es legal authority "or peace o""icers to ,etain an, *conduct a limited search/ o" a person the o""icer has *reasonable cause/ to belie.e has a "irear( or other ,ea,ly 0eapon an, to sei;e any 0eapon "oun,. 1" the person is con.icte, o" a charge relate, to the "irear( or 0eapon- it shall be ,ee(e, a nuisance an, ,ispose, o" pursuant to (!C! 1#333 W 1#33) ("or(erly- (!C! 1232#). +ote) 1n that (ost o" the rules on *patdown searches/ are "ro( constitutionally%base, case ,ecisions- any0here they (ight ,i""er "ro( the language o" this statute- the case la0 is liFely to taFe prece,ence. Problems) During a *consensual encounterM/ A pat,o0n is probably not la0"ul- although it (ay ne.er beco(e an issue in that i" an o""icer obser.es so(ething gi.ing hi( or her a reasonable suspicion that the consensually encountere, person (ay be ar(e,- that sa(e reasonable suspicion 0oul, liFely ele.ate the situation into one Custi"ying a la0"ul ,etention as 0ell as a pat,o0n. (See )eop"e $# 2ee (1&#2) 1&3 Cal.App.3r, &2$- &#2%&#3: )eop"e $# Rosa"es (1&#&) 211 Cal.App.3r, 32$- 330.) During *execution of a search warrant/ or a *Fourth =ai!er/ search- at least "or narcotics) Courts ten, to recogni;e the liFelihoo, that narcotics suspects are o"ten ar(e, an, (ay allo0 a pat,o0n 0ith no (ore than the conclusory opinion that the *need for officer safety/ ,ictate, the nee, "or a pat,o0n. ()eop"e $# Samp"es 1&&5) 3# Cal.App.3th 11&2.) Jote Y.arra $# I""inois (1&2&) 333 4.S. #$ 652 7.8,.2n, 23#9- 0here the 4nite, States Supre(e Court ,eter(ine, to be illegal the ,etention an, pat,o0n o" anyone an, e.eryone at the scene o" the e?ecution o" a narcotics search 0arrant (i.e.- a bar)absent e.i,ence connecting each person to be ,etaine, an, patte, ,o0n 0ith the illegal acti.ity being in.estigate,. During a *Fourth =ai!er/ search o" a narcotics suspect s ho(e) A pat,o0n o" a *Fno0n associate/ o" a probationer 0hose ho(e is being searche, accor,ing to that person s ter(s o" probation 0ith 3&#
e.i,ence o" ,rug abuse occurring at the house- but 0ithout an articulable suspicion that the ,e"en,ant (ight be ar(e,- but Cust because it is *the sa"e thing to ,o-/ is illegal. ()eop"e $# Sando$a" (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th 20$.) !""icer feels a controlled substance (or other ite(s subCect to sei;ure) ,uring the pat,o0n "or 0eapons) 1" the o""icer has the training an, e?pertise to recogni;e that the obCect is probably an illegal substance or obCect- he (ay ,o a "ull search base, upon that ne0ly ,e.elope, probable cause. ()eop"e $# 2ee (1&#2) 1&3 Cal.App.3r, &2$: )eop"e $# Thurman (1&#&) 20& Cal.App.3r, #12- #2$%#25.) 8.g.) Beeling a lu(p 0hich coul, not ha.e been a 0eapon- plus other "actors (prior la0"ul obser.ation o" pagers- gra( scale upon 0hich there 0as an o,or o" (etha(pheta(ine- an, a plastic baggie)- Custi"ie, a "in,ing o" probable cause to search "or contraban,. ()eop"e $# Di.. (1&&$) 32 Cal.App.3th #32.) Io0e.er- i" the o""icer "eels 0hat might be a controlle, substance in the pocFet- an, *manipulates/ (%innesota $# Dic(erson (1&&3) $0# 4.S. 355- 32# 6123 7.8,.2n, 333- 33$9: )eop"e $# Dic(e& (1&&3) 21 Cal.App.3th &$2- &$2.) or *sha?es/ it (United States $# %i"es (&th Cir. 2001) 223 B.3r, 100&.) in an atte(pt to con"ir( or .eri"y his suspicions- the (anipulation or shaFing o" the obCect is a search "or contraban,- ,one 0ithout probable cause- an, illegal. 4nless the incri(inating character o" the contraban, beco(es *immediately apparent/ to the o""icer- he (ay not retrie.e it an, (ay not (anipulate it in an atte(pt to ,eter(ine 0hat the ite( (ay be. (United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 200#) $30 B.3r, 105&- 10#2%10#3.) Gut- "eeling a bulge that is belie.e, to be a 0eaponan, (anipulating it in an atte(pt to .eri"y that it is a 0eapon- 0hich re@uires no (ore than a reasonable suspicion- is la0"ul. (United States $# %attaro"o (&th Cir. 1&&&) 20& B.3r, 11$3.) 3&&
Beeling a bulge an, being unable to ,eter(ine 0hether or not it is a 0eapon- it is oFay to asF the suspect. 1" the suspect a,(its that it is contraban,this 0ill gi.e the o""icer probable cause to arrest an, search. ()eop"e $# A$i"a (1&&2) $# Cal.App.3th 105&- 102$%1&22.) Gut "eeling a bulge an, recogni;ing that it is not a 0eapon (a "il( canister- in this case)- an, then asFing the subCect 0hat it is- has been argue, by so(e to be illegal as a *preli(inary step to an illegal search/ (see )eop"e $# 9a"de5 (1&#2) 1&5 Cal.App.3r, 2&&- #02): a @uestionable ,ecision at best. Beeling a bulge 0hich the o""icer i((e,iately recogni;e, as car Feys- a"ter the subCect ha, ,enie, ha.ing any car Feys on hi(- an, 0ith other e.i,ence ten,ing to connect hi( to a recent carCacFing ,uring 0hich the car Feys 0ere taFen0as su""icient probable cause to belie.e that the car Feys 0ere e.i,ence o" a cri(e an, to Custi"y the retrie.al o" the Feys "ro( his pocFet. (In re 2ennies 0# (200$) 125 Cal.App.3th 1232.) (ris? for a (irearm based upon an #ncorroborated *nonymous Tip) A ,etention an, pat,o0n "or 0eapons- base, upon an uncorroborate, anony(ous tip alone- is not la0"ul in that anony(ous in"or(ation has repeate,ly been hel, to be legally insu""icient to establish a reasonable suspicion. +here is no such thing as a *firearms exception/ to this rule. (F"orida $# *#2# (2000) $2& 4.S. 255 6135 7.8,.2n, 2$39.) $ut note) +he 4.S. Supre(e Court- in ,ictahinte, strongly that ha, the anony(ous tipster 0arne, o" so(ething (ore ,angerous- such as a bo(b- a pat,o0n base, upon this tip alone (ight be uphel,. +he Court also in,icate, that certain areas 0here there is a lessene, e?pectation o" pri.acysuch as in an airport or on school groun,s$00
(ay also be an e?ception to this rule. (Id.at pp. 223%223 6135 7.8,.2n, at p. 2529.) +he Court- in a concurring opinion- also brie"ly ,iscusses *predicti!e information/ 0hich (ay supply the necessary corroboration- such as being able to correctly ,escribe "uture actions o" the suspect. Also- unconnecte, anony(ous in"or(ants- or anything 0hich 0oul, a,, the ele(ent o" cre,ibility to the in"or(ation(ight su""iciently corroborate the anony(ous in"or(ant. (Id.- at p. 22$ 6135 7.8,.2n, at p. 2539.) See *Detentions-/ abo.e. +aFing the hint- the appellate court in )eop"e $# Cou"om.e (2001) #5 Cal.App.3th $2- "oun, su""icient corroboration Custi"ying a pat,o0n "or a "irear( 0hen the in"or(ation ca(e "ro( t0o separate in"or(ants- 0here the tips 0ere close in ti(e- the in"or(ants contacte, the o""icer personally (thus putting their anony(ity at risF)- an, the setting 0as in a cro0,e, throng o" celebrants at a Je0 Kear s 8.e street party- thus increasing the ,anger. +he "act that the physical ,escription o" a suspect 0ho is reporte, by an anony(ous tipster to ha.e a gun in his pocFet is .ery speci"ic- still ,oes not corroborate the tipster s in"or(ation. Absent at least so(e suspicious circu(stances obser.e, by the respon,ing police o""icers- "in,ing the person ,escribe, by the tipster ,oes not create a reasonable suspicion Custi"ying a ,etention or a pat,o0n "or 0eapons. ()eop"e $# *ordan (2003) 121 Cal.App.3th $33- $$3%5$2: the @uicF con"ir(ation o" the physical ,escription o" the ,e"en,ant an, his location- by itsel"- is legally insu""icient.) A late night ra,io call concerning t0o speci"ically ,escribe, (ales causing a ,isturbance- 0ith one $01
possibly ar(e,- in a Fno0n gang area at an a,,ress 0here a call concerning a ,ayti(e shooting ,ays earlier resulte, in the reco.ery o" t0o "irear(s- an, 0here the ,escribe, (ales are "oun, 0ithin (inutes o" the call- is su""icient to Custi"y a ,etention an, a pat,o0n. (In re Richard G# (200&) 123 Cal.App.3th 12$2- 12$2%12$#- "n. 1.) ;ther ituations) BrisF o" a person "or 0eapons 0as la0"ul 0hen it ha, been reporte, to police by a 0itness that one o" se.eral people present ha, been seen 0ith a "irear(- ,e"en,ant 0as uncooperati.e an, belligerent- an, he Fept reaching "or an area in his baggy pants 0here there appeare, to be a largehea.y obCect. ()eop"e $# 2ope5 (2003) 11& Cal.App.3th 132.) Stopping so(eone suspecte, o" ha.ing Cust co((itte, an ar(e, carCacFing- 0ith the obser.ation o" a Fni"e an, bullets- an, then a gun- all in plain sight- 0as (ore than enough to Custi"y a cursory checF o" the suspects "or possible 0eapons. +hen- "eeling obCects 0hich- as the ,eputy testi"ie,- coul, be- or coul, contain- 0eapons- the ,eputy 0as Custi"ie, in re(o.ing an, inspecting those ite(s. (United States $# 0art5 (&th Cir. 2005) 3$# B.3r, 1011- 101#%101&.) Patting a non%stu,ent ,o0n "or possible 0eapons on a high school ca(pus- 0here the ,e"en,antN(inor 0as to be (o.e, to the security o""ice- nee, not be Custi"ie, by an articulable suspicion that he (ight be ar(e,. (In re *ose Y# (2005) 131 Cal.App.3th 23#.) A tra""ic stop 0here the o,or o" (ariCuana 0as ,etecte, an, ,e"en,ant 0as 0earing baggy clothing through 0hich any possible bulges coul, not be seen- hel, to be la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Co""ier (200#) 155 Cal.App.3th 1323.) *bandoned Property) <eneral Rule) +here is no e?pectation o" pri.acy in aban,one,- or ,iscar,e,- property. Such property- there"ore- (ay be searche, or sei;e, 0ithout a 0arrant or e.en probable cause.
$02
Property aban,one, by a suspect- 0ithout both a subCecti.e an, an obCecti.ely reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy- (ay be sei;e, an, searche, 0ithout probable cause an, 0ithout a 0arrant. (In re ara(a 0# (1&&2) 5 Cal.App.3th 103&.) Trash &ans) +here is no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the trash one places in trash cans out at the curb "or picF up. (Ca"i'ornia $# Green,ood (1&##) 3#5 4.S. 3$ 6100 7.8,.2n, 309.) 7ea.ing all his belongings in a (otel roo(- ,isappearing in the (i,,le o" the night an, 0ithout (aFing arrange(ents to e?ten, his stay- it 0as hel, that ,e"en,ant aban,one, the (otel roo(- his personal belongings in the roo(- an, his .ehicle in the parFing lot. +here being no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in these ite(s ,ue to this aban,on(ent- ,e"en,ant lost his stan,ing to challenge the 0arrantless entry. ()eop"e $# )arson (200#) 33 Cal.3th 332332%33#.) 7ea.ing a cell phone at the scene o" a cri(e negates the suspect s e?pectation o" pri.acy in the contents o" that phone- an, is there"ore aban,one, property ,espite the suspect s subCecti.e 0ish to retrie.e it- 0hich he "ails to act on. *Aban,on(ent . . . is not (eant in the strict property% right sense- but rests instea, on 0hether the person so relin@uishe, his interest in the property that he no longer retaine, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in it at the ti(e o" the search./ ()eop"e $# Da11s (200$) 133 Cal.App.3th 351.) Aban,oning a cigarette butt onto a public street constitutes a loss o" one s right to pri.acy in that butt- (aFing it a.ailable to la0 en"orce(ent to reco.er an, test "or DJA 0ithout a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Ga""e1o (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 3##- 3&3%3&#.) +ricFing a suspect out o" an ite( o" personal property an, then testing it "or DJA is another issue. Gut- as note, in Ga""e1o- at p. 3&5- se.eral courts "ro( other Curis,ictions ha.e "oun, such a tactic to be la0"ul. (See Common,ea"th $# )er(ins (Oass. 200#) ##3 J.8.2n, 230: an, Common,ea"th $# "& (Oass. 2002) #52 J.8.2n, 331: testing cigarette butts an, a so,a can le"t behin, a"ter an inter.ie0 0ith police. Common,ea"th $# E,in1 (Oass 2005) 52 $03
Oass.App.Ct. $31 6#$3 J.8.2n, &&3- 1001: o""ering ,e"en,ant cigarettes an, a stra0 ,uring an interrogation. )eop"e $# 2aGuerre (2005) 2& A.D.3r, #22 6#1$ J.K.S.2n, 2119: obtaining a DJA sa(ple "ro( a piece o" che0ing gu( ,e"en,ant .oluntarily ,iscar,e, ,uring a contri.e, so,a tasting test. State $# Athan (Eash. 2002) 1$# P.3r, 22: DJA obtaine, "ro( ,e"en,ant s sali.a "ro( licFing an en.elope he (aile, to ,etecti.es in a police ruse.) +here is no pri.acy right in the (outhpiece o" the PAS ,e.ice- 0hich 0as pro.i,e, by the police an, 0here ,e"en,ant aban,one, any e?pectation o" pri.acy in the sali.a he ,eposite, on the ,e.ice 0hen he "aile, to 0ipe it o"". Ehether ,e"en,ant subCecti.ely e?pecte, that the genetic (aterial containe, in his sali.a 0oul, beco(e Fno0n to the police 0as irrele.ant because he ,eposite, it on a police ,e.ice an, thus (a,e it accessible to the police. +he o""icer 0ho a,(inistere, the PAS test testi"ie, that use, (outhpieces 0ere nor(ally ,iscar,e, in the trash. +hus- any subCecti.e e?pectation ,e"en,ant (ay ha.e ha, that his right to pri.acy 0oul, be preser.e, 0as unreasonable. ()eop"e $# Thomas (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 33#.) +he Thomas court "urther hel, that using ,e"en,ant s DJA taFen "ro( the PAS ,e.ice (outhpiece to legiti(ately test ,e"en,ant s bloo,Nalcohol le.el- 0ith his consent- 0as not a coerci.e ruse- an, there"ore la0"ul. (Id.- at p. 333.) +he *Threatened 'llegal Detention)/ Ehat happens 0hen the property is aban,one, as a ,irect result o" a police o""icer s atte(pt to illegally stop an, ,etain a suspectM +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court resol.e, a pre.ious three%0ay split o" authority) +here is no constitutional .iolation in a *threatened unlawful detention./ +he Fourth Amendment ,oes not apply to such a situation until the person is actually illegal ,etaine,: i.e.- 0hen the o""icer actually catches the ,e"en,ant or the ,e"en,ant other0ise sub(its to the o""icer s authority (i.e.: he gi.es up). (Ca"i'ornia $# 0odari D# (1&&1) 3&& 4.S. 521 6113 7.8,.2n, 5&09.)
$03
Result) Any e.i,ence aban,one, (e.g.- tosse, or ,roppe,) during a "oot pursuit o" a "leeing suspect- e.en 0ithout any reasonable suspicion Custi"ying a ,etention (i.e.- a *threatened unlawful detention/)- is a,(issible as aban,one, property (as 0ell as supplying the necessary *reasonable suspicion/ to Custi"y the suspect s ,etention upon being caught). Gut- i" the suspect ,oes not aban,on the contraban, until after he has been caught- an, thus illegally ,etaine,- then it is subCect to suppression as *fruit of the poisonous tree:/ i.e.- the unla0"ul ,etention. earching for 'dentification) A pat,o0n o" an in,i.i,ual "or i,enti"ication is illegal) Pat,o0ns on less than probable cause are allo0e, only "or the purpose o" ,isco.ering o""ensi.e 0eapons- an, then only 0hen the o""icer is able to articulate a *reasonable suspicion/ "or belie.ing 0hy the person (ight be ar(e,. ()eop"e $# Garcia (2005) 13$ Cal.App.3th 2#2.) A circu(stance allo0ing "or a checF "or i,enti"ication has been "oun, 0here the ,e"en,ant clai(e, to ha.e none- but the o""icer coul, see that he ha, a 0allet in his pocFet. ()eop"e $# 2on1 (1&#2) 1#& Cal.App.3r, 22: telling the suspect to checF his 0allet an, then insisting on 0atching hi( ,o so Custi"ie, by the nee, to insure that he ,i,n t conceal e.i,ence or retrie.e a 0eapon.) Retrie.ing a 0allet "ro( a suspect 0here the 0allet 0as .isible in his pocFet- a"ter the suspect- 0ho 0as la0"ully ,etaine,- sai, he ,i,n t ha.e any i,enti"ication- ,one "or the purpose o" checFing the 0allet "or i,enti"ication- 0as la0"ul *un,er the uni@ue "acts o" this case./ ()eop"e $# 2oudermi"( (1&#2) 1&$ Cal.App.3r, &&5.) Also note that the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court has rule, that ,uring a la0"ul tra""ic stopat least a"ter a ,e(an, "or the ,ri.er s license an, other .ehicle ,ocu(entation is (a,e an, a negati.e response is obtaine, (see United States $# 2ope5 (C.D.Cal. 1&2&) 323 B.Supp. &33- &3#%&3&.)- a 0arrantless- suspicionless intrusion into the .ehicle "or the li(ite, purpose o" locating such ,ocu(entation is la0"ul- e.en i" the ,ri.er ,enies that any such ,ocu(entation e?ists. 1n so ,oing- the o""icer (ay looF in any location 0here it is reasonable to belie.e he or she (ight "in, such ,ocu(entation. $0$
(In re Arturo D# (2002) 22 Cal.3th 50: Arturo D# 0as Coine, 0ith the co(panion case- )eop"e $# 0in1er (using the sa(e cite) out o" the Bourth District Court o" Appeal. +his 0oul, inclu,e under the front seat (0hether looFing "ro( the "ront or rear o" the seat)- in a glo!e compartmentan, o.er the !isor. 1t 0oul, probably not inclu,e 0ithin containers "oun, in the .ehicle or the trun?- absent so(e articulable reason to belie.e 0hy such ,ocu(entation (ight actually be there. (Id.- at p. #5- an, "n. 2$.) See * earching a Vehicle "or a Dri!er)s "icense an,Nor Vehicle Registration- V'+ +umber- Proof of 'nsuranceetc.-/ un,er * earches of Vehicles-/ belo0. (ingerprint E!idence) 4pon being arreste,- an arrestee has no legal right to re"use a "ingerprint e?a(ination. (9ir1"e $# Superior Court (2002) 100 Cal.App.3th $22.) +he legal authority "or "ingerprinting an arrestee can be in"erre, "ro( .arious state statutes) (!C! 1+21,: Describing the obtaining o" "ingerprints as part o" the booFing proce,ure. (!C! #)3!2+5,: +he re@uire(ent that persons arreste, an, release, on a (is,e(eanor citation pro.i,e "ingerprints prior to the person s sche,ule, court appearance. (!C! 1312)- 13121: Pro.i,ing "or the retention o" certain basic in"or(ation- inclu,ing "ingerprint i,enti"ication nu(bers- on arreste, in,i.i,uals. *Bingerprints taFen pursuant to an arrest are part o" so% calle, AbooFing proce,ures- ,esigne, to ensure that the person 0ho is arreste, is in "act the person la0 en"orce(ent o""icials belie.e they ha.e in custo,y. ("n. o(itte,)/ (United States $# /in(ade (&th Cir. 2003) 33$ B.3r, 10&$100%1101 (Re.erse, on other groun,s): citing Smith $# United States (D.C. Cir. 1&53) 323 B.2n, #2&- ##3: an, Napo"itano $# United States (1st Cir. 1&5$) 330 B.2n, 313313.) $05
Bingerprints taFen upon arrest "or i,enti"ication purposes are la0"ul- e.en i" the pro,uct o" an illegal arrest. (Immi1ration and Natura"i5ation Ser$ice $# 2ope53 %endo5a (1&#3) 35# 4.S. 1032- 103&%1030 6#2 7.8,.2n, 22#9.) 1"- ho0e.er- the "ingerprints are "oun, to ha.e been obtaine, "or *in!estigati!e purposes-/ such prints are subCect to suppression absent probable cause Custi"ying the arrest. (Da$is $# %ississippi (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 221 622 7.8,.2n, 5259: 0a&es $# F"orida (1&#$) 320 4.S. #11 6#3 7.8,.2n, 20$9: United States $# e"tran (&th Cir. 3#& B.3r, #53.) Howe!er- e.en a"ter "ingerprints are taFen "or in.estigati.e purposes- an, there"ore suppresse, as the pro,uct o" an illegal arrest- the court- upon re@uest- can re@uire ,e"en,ant to sub(it a ne0 set o" "ingerprints "or purposes o" trial on the ne0 cri(inal o""ense. (United States $# Garcia3 e"tran (&th Cir. 2005) 333 B.3r, 1125: United States $# )ar1a3Rosas (&th Cir. 2001) 23# B.3r, 120&: United States $# Orti530ernande5 (&th Cir. 200$) 322 B.3r, $52.) 1t can be argue, that re"usal to cooperate in pro.i,ing "ingerprints ,uring the booFing proce,ure is a .iolation o" (!C! 14#+a,+1,- "or inter"ering 0ith the o""icer in the per"or(ance o" his or her ,uties. (See )eop"e $# =uiro1a (1&&3) 15 Cal.App.3th &51- &21: 0here ,e"en,ant s con.iction "or (!C! 14# uphel, "or re"using to i,enti"y hi(sel" ,uring the booFing proce,ure.) 1n that "ingerprint e.i,ence ,oes not in.ol.e any Fifth Amendment- sel"%incri(ination issues (see Schmer.er $# Ca"i'ornia (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 2$2- 253 615 7.8,.2n, &0#&159.)- an arrestee has no right to re"use to pro.i,e the( at his or her booFing. (United States $# /e""& (2n, Cir. 1&32) $$ B.2n, 52: )eop"e $# *ones (1&31) 112 Cal.App. 5#.) Ehile e?cessi.e "orce is not per(issible ()eop"e $# %atteson (1&53) 51 Cal.2, 355.)- reasonable "orce 0hich ,oes not *shoc? the conscience/ (ay be use, i" necessary in or,er to secure "ingerprints "ro( the arreste, subCect. ()eop"e $# -i""iams (1&5&) 21 Cal.2n, 513- 52$.) $02
Absent an arrest- the re"usal to pro.i,e la0 en"orce(ent 0ith "ingerprints is not a cri(e. Io0e.er- it is apparently la0"ul to stop an, "ingerprint a particular suspect on less than probable cause- at least i" ,one at the scene an, 0ithout transportation to a police station. (Da$is $# %ississippi (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 221 622 7.8,.2n, 5259: 0a&es $# F"orida (1&#$) 320 4.S. #11 6#3 7.8,.2n, 20$9: 9ir1"e $# Superior Court- supra: /aupp $# Te!as (2003) $3# 4.S. 525- 530- "n. 2 61$$ 7.8,.2n, #13- #209.) +he taFing o" a ,e"en,antDs "ingerprints is not a critical stage o" cri(inal procee,ings at 0hich a ,e"en,ant nee,s the presence o" counsel. +here"ore- there is no right to the presence o" counsel at the taFing o" "ingerprints. ()eop"e $# -i""iams (1&5&) 21 Cal.2n, 513- 52$: citing United States $# -ade (1&52) 3## 4.S. 21#- 222% 22# 61# 7.8,.2, 113&- 11$2%11$#9.) Bi.e ,eputies hol,ing ,o0n a resisting cri(inal ,e"en,ant "or the purpose o" obtaining his "ingerprints- in a courtroo( (but out o" the Cury s presence)- 0here there 0ere "oun, to be less .iolent alternati.es to obtaining the sa(e e.i,ence- is "orce that *shoc?s the conscience/ an, a .iolation o" the ,e"en,ant s Fourteenth Amendment ,ue process rights. ()eop"e $# 0erndon (2002) 13& Cal.App.3th 223: hel, to be *harmless error/ in light o" other e.i,ence an, because ,e"en,ant create, the situation causing the "orce to be use,.) Handwriting (an, other types o") Exemplars) Si(ilarly- a cri(inal arrestee does not ha.e a Fifth Amendment sel"%incri(ination right not to pro.i,e a han,0riting e?e(plar. (Schmer.er $# Ca"i'ornia (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 2$2- 25# 615 7.8,.2n, &0#- &1#9: Gi".ert $# Ca"i'ornia (1&52) 3## 4.S 253 61# 7.8,.2n, 112#9: )eop"e $# Gra$es (1&55) 53 Cal.2n, 20#.) +he sa(e legal theory applies to a *!oice exemplar/ (United States $# Dionisio (1&23) 310 4.S. 1 63$ 7.8,.2n, 529.)- as 0ell as sub(itting to being photographe,. (Schmer.er $# Ca"i'orniasupra.) Prisoner earches) A person 0ho is to be booFe,- an, 0ho has obCects in his possession- (ay be subCecte, to an in!entory search ,espite the lacF o" probable cause. (I""inois $# 2a'a&ette (1&#3) 352 4.S. 530 622 7.8,.2n, 5$9.) $0#
A *search incident to arrest/ ,oes not inclu,e a *strip search/ 0hich- as a *serious intrusion upon personal rights/ an, *an in.asion o" personal rights o" the "irst (agnitu,e/ (Chapman $# Nicho"s (10th Cir. 1&&3) &#& B.2n, 3&3- 3&$%3&5.)- is generally not allo0e, prior to booFing. (Foote $# Spie1e" (4tah 1&&$) &03 B.Supp. 1353.) =arrantless searches (ay be (a,e by Cail an, prison o""icials to acco((o,ate legiti(ate *institutional needs and ob%ecti!es:/ pri(arily internal security. (0udson $# )a"mer (1&#3) 35# 4.S. $12- $23 6#2 7.8,.2n, 3&3- 3019.) ;ther purposes inclu,e) +o pre.ent the intro,uction o" ,rugs an, other contraban, (inclu,ing 0eapons) into the pre(ises: +he ,etection o" escape plots: and +he (aintenance o" sanitary con,itions. (See 0udson $# )a"mer- supra- at p. $22 6#2 7.8,.2n, at pp. 303%3039: United States $# Cohen (2n, Cir. 1&#5) 2&5 B.2n, 20- 22%23.) +o collect e.i,ence against in(ates- inclu,ing pretrial ,etainees. ()eop"e $# Da$is (200$) 35 Cal.3th $10- $23%$2&.) $oo?ing Land in!entory0 searches) *$oo?ing/ entails the recor,ation o" an arrest in o""icial police recor,s- an, the taFing by the police o" "ingerprints an, photographs o" the person arreste,. (See )eop"e $# Superior Court 6Simon7 (1&21) 2 Cal.3r, 1#5- 20#: see also (!C! 1, su4d! 21!) GooFing searches are Custi"ie, un,er a nu(ber o" legal theories) +o sa"eguar, the person s property an, "or security purposes. (I""inois $# 2a'a&ette (1&#3) 352 4.S. 530- 533%532 622 7.8,.2n, 5$9: )eop"e $# 2ai,a (1&#3) 33 Cal.3r, 211- 223%222: )eop"e $# 0ami"ton (1&##) 35 Cal.3r, 123- 132.) $0&
See 9o:.t! Code 22243: ,uty o" the sheri"" to taFe charge o"- an, sa"ely Feep- the property o" a prisoner. +o pre.ent intro,uction o" 0eapons an, contraban, into the Cail "acility. ()eop"e $# Gi""iam (1&23) 31 Cal.App.3r, 1#1- 1#&.) +o ,isco.er e.i,ence pertaining to the cri(e "or 0hich the person 0as arreste,. ()eop"e $# %aher (1&25) 12 Cal.3r, 1&5- 200%201.)
!l,er authority has hel, that a booFing search is really a *search incident to arrest with an inconse@uential time lag./ ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6%urr&7 (1&23) 30 Cal.App.3r, 2$2- 253: an, United States $# Ed,ards (1&23) 31$ 4.S. #00- #03 63& 7.8,.2n, 221- 22$%2259.) &ontainers) +he right to con,uct a 0arrantless booFing search inclu,es the right to search containers (e.g.- purse- 0allet- etc.) in the possession o" the person to be booFe,. (I""inois $# 2a'a&ettesupra: )eop"e $# 0ami"ton (1&##) 35 Cal.3r, 123- 132.) A ,e"en,ant ,etaine, at a Cail "or "ailure to present satis"actory e.i,ence o" i,enti"ication- pursuant to 0!C! 43331- (ay properly be subCecte, to a booFing search e.en though not "or(ally booFe, into the Cail. ()eop"e $# en5 (1&#3) 1$5 Cal.App.3r, 3#3- 3#&.) 'mpounded Property) A 0arrantless search o" a prisoner s i(poun,e, property- such as a 0allet or a purse- 0hich 0as not searche, until a"ter co(pletion o" the booFing process- an, 0hen there is no e?igency- .iolates the in(ate s pri.acy rights. A search 0arrant 0ill be re@uire, to la0"ully search the i(poun,e, 0alletpurse- or other ite(. ()eop"e $# Smith (1&#0) 103 Cal.App.3r, #30: e.i,ence reco.ere, "ro( a 0allet- not pre.iously searche,- in the ,e"en,ant s booFe, property.) Exceptions) Although Smith has ne.er been e?pressly o.errule,- its continuing .ali,ity is seriously in @uestion. At the .ery least- the e?ceptions to Smith ha.e Cust about eaten up the rule. Bor instance) Jo 0arrant is necessary "or a post%booFing search 0hen the personal property searche, has pre.iously $10
been .ie0e, by o""icials. (8.g.: ,uring the booFing process or ,uring a la0"ul search inci,ent to arrest.) ()eop"e $# Da$is (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 3&0: United States $# 0o"5man (&th Cir. 1&#&) #21 B.2n, 13&51$0$: United States $# Thompson ($th Cir. 1&##) #32 B.2n, 523- 52$: United States $# *ohnson (&th Cir. 1&#2) #20 B.2n, 105$- 1021%1022.) Property 0hich is e.i,ence o" a cri(e (ay be taFen "ro( the person o" the ,e"en,ant 0ithout a 0arrante.en hours a"ter booFing- "or the purpose o" e?a(ination an, testing. (United States $# Ed,ards (1&23) 31$ 4.S. #00- #05 63& 7.8,.2n, 221- 2229: ,e"en,ant s clothing- 0orn at the ti(e o" the booFing- taFen "ro( hi( ten hours later- a"ter replace(ent clothing 0as purchase, "or hi(.) +ote- ho0e.er- the Supre(e Court re"use, to *conclu,e that the Earrant Clause o" the Fourth Amendment is ne.er applicable to post%arrest sei;ures o" the e""ects o" an arrestee. 6"n. !(itte,9/ (Id.- at p. #0# 63& 7.8,.2n, at p. 22#9.) Reco.ery o" a ring "ro( ,e"en,ant s booFe, property- containe, in- an, rea,ily .isible through- a transparent property bag- 0ithout the nee, to search any containers- 0as la0"ully sei;e, "ro( ,e"en,ant s property 0ithout the nee, "or a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Gunn7 (1&#0) 112 Cal.App.3r, &20.) +ote- ho0e.er- the Court s ,iscussion in,icating that the right to search property 0ithout a 0arrant (ay e.en be broa,er) *!nce articles ha.e la0"ully "allen into the han,s o" the police they (ay e?a(ine the( to see i" they ha.e been stolen- test the( to see i" they ha.e been use, in the co((ission o" a cri(e- return the( to the prisoner on his release- or preser.e the( "or use as e.i,ence at the ti(e o" trial. 6Citation9 During their perio, o" police custo,y an arreste, person s personal e""ects- liFe his person itsel"- are subCect to reasonable inspection- e?a(ination- an, test. $11
6Citation9 Ehate.er segregation the police (aFe as a (atter o" internal police a,(inistration o" articles taFen "ro( a prisoner at the ti(e o" his arrest an, booFing ,oes not ,erogate the "act o" their continue, custo,y an, possession o" such articles. 6Citation9/ (Id.- at pp. &23%&2$.) Ring 0orn by ,e"en,ant in a robbery- .isible to an, i,enti"iable by the .icti(- an, properly in the custo,y o" the sheri"" a"ter booFing- ,oes not hol, the *!estige of pri!acy/ as ,i, the 0allet in Smithan, 0as there"ore properly retrie.e, "ro( his i(poun,e, property in the Cail an, use, as e.i,ence in trial. ()eop"e $# rad"e& (1&#1) 11$ Cal.App.3r, 233- 2$1: see also )eop"e $# Da$is (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 3&0.) +he 0arrantless search o" ,e"en,ant s personal e""ects- as an e?tension o" the booFing process- is oFay. ()eop"e $# )an'i"i (1&#3) 13$ Cal.App.3r, 3#2- 3&2%3&3: 0here the arresting o""icer 0as instructe, to isolate the property "or a (ore ,etaile, search later.) +he 0arrantless inspection o" ,e"en,ant s cellphone- reco.ere, "ro( his person as he 0as being processe, "ollo0ing his arrestan, not inspecte, until &0 (inutes a"ter his arrest an, about 30 (inutes a"ter it 0as reco.ere, "ro( his pocFet0as uphel, as la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Dia5 (2011) $1 Cal.3th #3.) trip earches of Prisoners) Ehether a prison or county Cail in(ate (ay be la0"ully subCecte, to a *strip search/ has been the subCect o" so(e contro.ersy- an, been hel, to ,epen, upon the circu(stances- 0ith Fifth an, Fourteenth Amendment *due process-/ as 0ell as Fourth Amendment *search and seizure/ i(plications. +he Fourth Amendment right o" the people to be secure against unreasonable searches an, sei;ures *e?ten,s to incarcerate, prisoners: ho0e.er- the reasonableness o" a particular search is ,eter(ine, by re"erence to the prison conte?t./ (%ichen'e"der $# Sumner (&th Cir. 1&##) #50 B.2n, 32#- 332: e"" $# -o"'ish (1&2&) 331 4.S. $20- $3$: $12
650 7. 8,.2n, 3329: u"" $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&$ B.3r, &53- &22.) Jote also authority (albeit the (inority rule) "ro( another circuit hol,ing that prisoners ha.e no pri.acy interests protecte, by the Fourth Amendment. (*ohnson $# )he"an (2th Cir. 1&&$) 5& B.2r, 133- 1$0.) 8.en i" the Fourth Amendment is inapplicable- the Fourteenth Amendment *due process/ clause prohibits prison o""icials "ro( *treating prisoners in a "ashion so Abrutal an, Ao""ensi.e to hu(an ,ignity as to AshocF the conscience. / (9au1hn $# Ric(etts (&th Cir. 1&##) #$& B.2n, 235- 232: ,igital ca.ity searches con,ucte, in a brutal "ashion.) Io0e.er- e.en i" a prisoner retains so(e ,egree o" his or her Fourth Amendment rights- strip searches are reasonably relate, to legiti(ate penological interests- an, there"ore- i" con,ucte, properly- an, li(ite, to 0hen necessary un,er the circu(stances- are legal. (%ichen'e"der $# Sumner- supraat p. 333.) *Reasonableness-/ un,er the Fourth Amendmentre@uires the court to balance the nee, "or the particular search against the in.asion o" personal rights that the search entails. Courts (ust consi,er the scope o" the intrusion- the Custi"ication "or initiating itan, the place in 0hich it is con,ucte,. ( e"" $# -o"'ish (1&2&) 331 4.S. $20- $$& 650 7.8,.2n, 332- 3#09.) +he constitutionality o" a .isual inspection o" a prison in(ate s unclothe, bo,y- inclu,ing bo,y ca.ities- ,epen,s upon a balancing o" (1) the scope o" the particular intrusion- (2) the (anner in 0hich it is con,ucte,- (3) the Custi"ication "or initiating the search- an, (3) the place in 0hich it is con,ucte,. ()eop"e $# Co""ins (2003) 11$ Cal.App.3th 132- 1$2%1$3.) +he Court also note, that the (ore intrusi.e*physical body ca!ity search/ re@uires Cu,icial authori;ation (i.e.- a search 0arrant) an, the use o" properly traine, (e,ical personnel. (Id.- at p. 133.)
$13
California Code of 8e5ulations, Title 1), 32#1+4,- allo0s "or a .isual search o" an in(ate- clothe, or unclothe,- 0hene.er there is a *substantial reason to belie.e the in(ate (ay ha.e unauthori;e, or ,angerous ite(s conceale, on his or her person./ (1talics a,,e,) Ju,icial authori;ation (i.e.- a search 0arrant)- an, the use o" *(e,ical personnel in a (e,ical setting-/ is only re@uire, in the case o" a *physical (as oppose, to a non%contact !isual) body ca!ity search./ 1n Co""ins- a .isual inspection o" the ,e"en,ant s rectal area 0as inten,e,- "or 0hich it is generally accepte, that the rigorous re@uire(ents o" the (ore intrusi.e *physical body ca!ity search/ is not re@uire,. Such .isual bo,y ca.ity searches ha.e been uphel, un,er circu(stances constituting less than e.en a reasonable suspicion- such as a"ter a .isit to the la0 library- in"ir(ary or e?ercise roo(- or an encounter 0ith an outsi,er. (Id.- at pp. 1$2%1$$: Go'' $# Ni! (#th Cir. 1&#5) #03 B.2n, 3$#- 35#%321: Camp.e"" $# %i""er (2th Cir. 1&#5) 2#2 B.2n, 212- 22#: an, Arruda $# Fair (1st Cir. 1&#3) 210 B.2n, ##5- ##5% ###.) +ote) Uiolation o" the a,(inistrati.e pro.isions "or the searching o" prisoners in a prison- absent a constitutional .iolation- ,oes not re@uire the suppression o" any resulting e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# Co""ins- supra- at p. 1$5.) Eith these principles in (in,- the Courts ha.e been reluctant to grant Cail an, prison o""icials carte blanch authority to con,uct unrestricte, strip searches) +he "act that the o""ense "or 0hich the ,e"en,ant 0as arreste, is classi"ie, as a "elony ,oes not (ean that a strip search is constitutional. +he seriousness o" the o""ense (ust be balance, 0ith all the other "actors. (/enned& $# 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 1&#&) &01 B.2n, 202- 210%215: arrest "or gran, the"t ,i, not 0arrant a .isual strip search- un,er the circu(stances.) $13
Gut- a .isual strip search 0as uphel, "or a person arreste, "or gran, the"t auto- in that this o""ense is su""iciently associate, 0ith .iolence to Custi"y the intrusion into ,e"en,ant s pri.acy. (Thompson $# 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 1&#&) ##$ B.2n, 133&- 133$% 133#.) Thompson $# 2os An1e"essupra- ho0e.er0as o.errule, in u"" $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&$ B.3r, &53 (see belo0)- in so "ar as it note, that strip searches (ust be base, upon a reasonable suspicion that the arrestee is carrying contraban, an, not on 0hether he is going to be place in a Cail s general population. Also- searches 0hich are e?cessi.e- .in,icti.eharassing- or unrelate, to any legiti(ate penological interest 0ill not be uphel,. (%ichen'e"der $# Sumner- supraat p. 332: routine an, repeate, .isual bo,y ca.ity searches uphel, "or in(ates in a (a?i(u( security prison hol,ing Je.a,a s 30 (ost ,angerous prisoners.) Contact bo,y ca.ity searches o" "e(ale in(ates con,ucte, by police o""icers- 0ithout (e,ical personnel- in a non%hygienic (anner an, in the presence o" (ale o""icers- reCecte, as unreasonable. ( onit5 $# Fair (1st Cir. 1&#5) #03 B.2n, 153- 122% 123.) Io0e.er- "e(ale prison guar,s subCecting (ale in(ates to perio,ic bo,y ca.ity searches is not a Fourteenth Amendment ,ue process .iolation- nor an ?i5hth Amendment *cruel and unusual punishment-/ an, there"ore 0ill not subCect the guar,s to any ci.il liability. (Somers $# Thurman (&th Cir. 1&&2) 10& B.3r, 513.) A *partial strip search/ (i.e.- 0ith the prisoner clothe, in his bo?er shorts only) o" a (ale prisoner by a "e(ale ,etentions ca,et (or any such *cross% gen,er/ strip search)- is a Fourth Amendment .iolation absent an e(ergency situation. ( &rd $# %aricopa Count& Sheri''?s Department (&th Cir. $1$
2011) 52& B.3r, 113$- 1130%1132: but see the ,issent- pgs. 1132%11$3.) Strip Searches 4phel,) A "ull bo,y ca.ity search o" a group o" 30 to 33 in(ates returning to an honor "ar( "ro( a ,ay s 0orF "urlough 0as uphel, 0hen base, upon in"or(ation that (ariCuana 0as being brought into the honor "ar(. +he bo,y ca.ity searches 0ere con,ucte, by a ,octor using an acceptable (e,ical proce,ure. ()eop"e $# -est (1&#$) 120 Cal.App.3r, 325.) T%raying all inco(ing prisoners being (o.e, "ro( one high%risF prison to a secon, high%risF prison is la0"ul. ()eop"e $# )i'er (1&#&) 215 Cal.App.3r, &$5.) An en banc panel o" the Jinth Circuit re.erse, its prior ,ecisions an, in Thompson $# Cit& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 1&#&) ##$ B.2n, 133&- an, Gi"es $# Ac(erman (&th Cir. 1&#3) 235 B.2n, 513- an, hel, that a sheri"" s blanFet policy o" ,oing non%contact strip searches o" all persons being place, into the general Cail population 0as reasonable an, la0"ul. ( u"" $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&$ B.3r, &53.) Binally- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court en,e, the ,ebate on this issue. De"en,ant- arreste, on an outstan,ing 0arrant an, brie"ly incarcerate, in t0o ,i""erent Cails in the general Cail population- 0as subCect to strip searches on t0o occasions. +he charges against hi( 0ere later ,is(isse, in that ,e"en,ant ha, earlier satis"ie, the re@uire(ents o" the 0arrant. De"en,ant clai(e, that in,i.i,uals arreste, "or (inor o""enses shoul, not be re@uire, to re(o.e their clothing an, e?pose the (ost pri.ate areas o" their bo,ies to close .isual inspection as a routine part o" the Cail intaFe process. Ie argue, that Cail o""icials coul, con,uct this Fin, o" search only i" they ha, reason to suspect a particular in(ate o" concealing a 0eapon- ,rugs or other contraban,. +he Supre(e Court ,isagree, an,- in a $%to%3 ,ecision- a""ir(e, the +hir, Circuit $15
Court o" Appeals- hol,ing that the search proce,ures at the t0o Cails strucF a reasonable balance bet0een in(ate pri.acy an, the nee,s o" the institutions. (F"orence $# oard o' Chosen Freeho"ders o' the Count& o' ur"in1ton (Apr. 22012) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S.Ct. 1$10: 1#2 7.8,.2n, $559.) 1n so hol,ing- the Court accepte, the prison o""icials assertions- supporte, by e.i,ence presente,- that strip searches 0ere nee,e, to) Detect inCury or ,isease upon intaFe: 1,enti"y gang%relate, (arFings an, tattoos so as to a.oi, housing proble(s an, .iolence- and Detect contraban, that (ight be har("ul to prisoners an, prison o""icials aliFe.
+ote) +his rule probably ,oes not apply to persons arreste, on (inor tra""ic o""ense an,Nor 0ho are not hel, in the Cail s general population. (See Id.- at p. >>.) See Cal! Code of 8e5!, Title 1), 32#1+4,- "or statutory rules on strip searches o" prison in(ates. ,isdemeanor $oo?ing earches) Due Process) Galancing the interests in.ol.e,- it has been hel, to be a Fourteenth (an, Fifth) Amendment due process .iolation to strip%search a misdemeanor arrestee 0here the arrestee is not to be inter(ingle, 0ith the general Cail population- the o""ense "or 0hich she 0as arreste, is not one co((only associate, 0ith the possession o" 0eapons or contraban, (i.e.- D41 in this case)- an, there is no cause to belie.e she (ay possess either. (2o1an $# Shea"& (3th Cir. 1&#1) 550 B.2n, 1002.) An en banc panel o" the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal- in u"" $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&$ B.3r, &53- o.errule, itsel" in its prior ,ecision o" Gi"es $# Ac(erman (&th $12
Cir 1&#3) 235 B.2n, 513- Gi"es ha.ing hel, that a person arreste, on (inor (is,e(eanor arrest 0arrants- 0ith no prior cri(inal history or any relationship to ,rugs or 0eapons- coul, not be subCecte, to a strip search e.en though she 0as to be put into the general Cail population. F"orence $# oard o' Chosen Freeho"ders o' the Count& o' ur"in1ton (Apr. 2- 2012) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S.Ct. 1$10: 1#2 7.8,.2n, $559 also has the e""ect o" o.erruling these prior Jinth Circuit ,ecisions. Restrictions) 1n the case o" (ost (is,e(eanors- the Cali"ornia 7egislature has restricte, the right to con,uct *strip/ an, *!isual/ or *physical/ body ca!ity searches. ((!C! 4333: see belo0.) +he "ollo0ing restrictions apply only to pre6 arraignment detainees arreste, "or in"raction an, (is,e(eanor o""enses- an, (inors ,etaine, prior to a ,etention hearing "or in"raction an, (is,e(eanor .iolations. +hey do not apply to prisoners o" the Depart(ent o" Corrections or the Cali"ornia Kouth Authority- or to post%arraign(ent in(ates in local custo,y. ((!C! 4333+4,) Definitions) (!C! 4333+c,) * trip earch/ (eans any search 0hich re@uires the o""icer to re(o.e or arrange so(e or all o" that person s clothing so as to per(it a .isual inspection o" the un,erclothing- breasts- buttocFs- or genitalia o" the person. (!C! 4333+d,+1,) *$ody &a!ity/ (eans the sto(ach or rectal ca.ity o" a person- an, .agina o" a "e(ale person. (!C! 4333+d,+2,) *Visual $ody &a!ity earch/ (eans .isual inspection o" a bo,y ca.ity. (!C! 4333+d,+3,) *Physical $ody &a!ity earch/ (eans physical intrusion into a bo,y ca.ity "or the purpose o" ,isco.ering any obCect conceale, in the bo,y ca.ity. $1#
(!"ten re"erre, to as a *manual body ca!ity search/ in "e,eral cases.) (!C! 4333+e,) *ny person arreste, an, taFen into custo,y (ay be subCecte, to a patdown searchmetal detector search- an, thorough clothing searchin or,er to ,isco.er an, retrie.e conceale, 0eapons an, contraban, prior to being place, in a booFing cell. (!C! 4333+f,) 4nless- an, until- a person (or (inor- prior to a ,etention hearing)- arreste, "or an in"raction or (is,e(eanor- is (o.e, into the general Cail population (see su4d! +5, "or the prere@uisites "or (o.ing a person arreste, "or an in"raction or (is,e(eanor into the general population)- he or she may not be subCecte, to a *strip search/ or a *!isual body ca!ity search/ unless) +he o""ense "or 0hich he or she 0as arreste, in.ol.e, weapons- controlled substances- or !iolence: or A peace o""icer has a *reasonable suspicion-/ base, upon articulable "acts- that the person is concealing a weapon or contraband an, a strip search 0ill result in the ,isco.ery o" the 0eapon or contraban,. Jo strip search or !isual body ca!ity search (ay be con,ucte, 0ithout prior 0ritten authori;ation o" the super.ising o""icer on ,uty- 0ith such authori;ation speci"ying the articulable "acts an, circu(stances upon 0hich the reasonable suspicion ,eter(ination 0as (a,e by the super.isor. An arrest "or the (is,e(eanor o""ense o" being un,er the in"luence o" a controlle, substance- per F&S 11))3- ,oes not Custi"y a later .isual bo,y ca.ity search at the Cail prior to $1&
being taFen into the general Cail population- ,espite this statute to the contrary- absent any speci"ic articulable "acts a(ounting to a reasonable suspicion that the arrestee ,oes in "act possess a controlle, substance. (-a& $# Count& o' 9entura (2005) 33$ B.3r, 11$2.) (!C! 4333+h,) Jo person (nor a (inor- prior to a ,isposition hearing) arreste, "or an in"raction or a (is,e(eanor o""ense shall be subCecte, to a *physical body ca!ity search/ e?cept un,er the authority o" a search warrant issue, by a (agistrate speci"ically authori;ing the physical bo,y ca.ity search. (!C! 4333+K,) Persons con,ucting a *strip search/ or a *!isual body ca!ity search/ shall not touch the breasts- buttocFs- or genitalia o" the person being searche,. (!C! 4333+',) *Physical body ca!ity searches/ (ay be con,ucte, only) 4n,er sanitary con,itions. !nly by a physician- nurse practitionerregistere, nurse- license, .ocational nurse or e(ergency (e,ical technician 7e.el 11license, to practice in this state.
(!C! 4333+l,) All persons con,ucting or other0ise present "or a *strip search-/ or a *!isual/ or *physical body ca!ity search-/ e?cept "or physicians or license, (e,ical personnel- shall be o" the same sex as the person being searche,. (!C! 4333+m,) All *strip searches-/ or *!isual/ or *physical body ca!ity searches/ shall be con,ucte, in an area o" pri.acy so that the search cannot be obser.e, by persons not participating in the search. Persons are consi,ere, to be participating in the search i" their o""icial ,uties relati.e to search proce,ure re@uire the( to be present at the ti(e the search is con,ucte,. $20
(!C! 4333+n,) Uiolation o" any o" the abo.e is a (is,e(eanor: 5 (onths an, [1-000 "ine. ((!C! 1") (!C! 4333+o,- +-,) Ci.il re(e,ies "or .iolations. &ase law) )eop"e $# -ade (1&#&) 20# Cal.App.3r, 303) Probable cause e?iste, "or a .isual bo,y ca.ity search o" a ,e"en,ant arreste, "or a narcotics .iolation- although other (!C! 4333 re@uire(ents 0ere not (et. Io0e.er- (!C! 4333 ,oes not pro.i,e "or suppression o" e.i,ence as a re(e,y "or .iolating the ter(s o" this section- an, the search 0as .ali, un,er "e,eral constitutional la0. +here"ore- the resulting e.i,ence 0as a,(issible ,espite the (!C! 4333 .iolation. A blanFet policy o" strip searching in%co(ing county Cail prisoners- 0ithout at least a reasonable suspicion to belie.e that the searche, prisoner possesses contraban, or 0eapons- Cust because the prisoner is classi"ie, "or housing in the general Cail population regar,less o" the cri(e "or 0hich he or she is charge,- is a ,ue process .iolation. ( u"" $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 200#) $3& B.3r, 11&3.) +he necessary *reasonable suspicion/ Custi"ying a strip search can be supplie, by *the nature o" the o""ense- the arrestee s appearance an, con,uct- an, the prior arrest recor,./ (Id.- at p. 11&#.) +ote) Ehile these statutes shoul, continue to be "ollo0e,- 0here they (ight be in con"lict 0ith the less restricti.e rules o" F"orence $# oard o' Chosen Freeho"ders o' the Count& o' ur"in1ton (Apr. 2- 2012) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S.Ct. 1$10: 1#2 7.8,.2n, $559 (see abo.e)- it is liFely that no e.i,ence 0ill be suppresse, "or .iolations o" the statutes in that absent a constitutional .iolation.iolating a state statute ,oes not re@uire the $21
suppression o" any resulting e.i,ence. (See *#nlawful *rrest-/ un,er **rrests-/ abo.e.) :ail &ells) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has uphel, the ran,o(- 0arrantless searches o" an in(ate s prison cellconclu,ing that the Fourth Amendment.s proscription against unreasonable searches an, sei;ures is not applicable because an in(ate has no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in his or her cell. (0udson $# )a"mer (1&#3) 35# 4.S. $12- $25 6#2 7.8,.2n, 3&3302%3039.) +he courts ha.e "oun, the rules "or prisons to be no ,i""erent than those "or a county Cail. (See De2ancie $# Superior Court (1&#2) 31 Cal.3r, #5$- o.errule, on other groun,s.) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court is in accor,- applying the rule o" 0udson $# )a"mer to a ,e"en,ant s Cail cell. ()eop"e $# itta(er (1&#&) 3# Cal.3r, 1035- 10&5.) 1n ,iscussing the 0arrantless sei;ure o" (aterials "ro( the ,e"en,ant s Cail cell that 0ere rele.ant to a pen,ing (ur,er prosecution- the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court- at pages 10&$%10&5- note, that) *(D)e"en,ant ha, no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in property 0ithin his Cail cell either un,er "e,eral la0 (see 0udson :! )a"mer (1&#3) 35# 4.S. $12- $25 6#2 7.8,.2, 3&3- 302%303 . . . 9.) or un,er Cali"ornia ,ecisions 0hich go.ern searches ante,ating De2ancie :! Superior Court (1&#2) 31 Cal.3, #5$ 61#3 Cal.Rptr. #55- 532 P.2, 1329 (see )eop"e :! 9a"en5ue"a (1&#3) 1$1 Cal.App. 3, 1#01#& 61&# Cal.Rptr. 35&9 an, cases there cite,). Since Gu,,s coul, ha.e sei;e, the (anuscript 0ithout asFing "or or recei.ing consent- the issues ,e"en,ant raises are i((aterial to the .ali,ity o" the sei;ure./ +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court has also interprets 0udson to (ean that ea.es,ropping on Cail in(ates (inclu,ing pretrial ,etainees) con.ersations is la0"ul ,ue to the lacF o" an e?pectation o" pri.acy- an, e.en i" ,one "or the purpose o" collecting e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# Da$is (200$) 35 Cal.3th $10- $23%$2&: recogni;ing that so(e courts $22
,isagree on 0hether pretrial ,etainees ha.e a higher e?pectation o" pri.acy than ,o con.icte, in(ates.) See Cal! Code of 8e5!, Title 1), 32#1+a, an, 4111 "or statutory rules on the searches o" prison cells an, other in(ate property. ,onitoring of :ail Visitations and Telephone &alls) Rule) Li.en an in(ate s lacF o" any reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy- the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court- in )eop"e $# 2o&d (2002) 22 Cal.3th &&2- o.erruling its pre.ious ,ecision in De"ancie $# Superior Court (1&#2) 31 Cal.3r, #5$- has recently uphel, the constitutionality o" the "ollo0ing- e.en 0hen ,one "or the sole purpose o" seeFing incri(inating e.i,ence- despite the lac? of a warrant or other %udicial authorization2 Oonitoring an, recor,ing o" %ail !isitations. Oonitoring an, recor,ing o" Cail con.ersations o.er internal phone lines. Oonitoring an, recor,ing o" Cail con.ersations o.er external phone lines. (!C! 2233 W 2231+d,- purporting to pro.i,e state prison (an, by in"erence- county Cail) in(ates 0ith a right to .isitors- 0ere a(en,e, by the 7egislature in 1&&2- eli(inating that right. +he Court in 2o&d- ho0e.er- speci"ically ,ecline, to ,eci,e the applicability o" Title III of the Imni4us Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1"2# (1# !S!C! 2)13<2)23) to the (onitoring an, recor,ing o" Cail con.ersations o.er external telephone lines. See )eop"e $# 4epeda (2001) #2 Cal.App.3th 11#3- 0here the nee, to obtain Cu,icial authori;ation 0as assu(e,- 0ithout ,iscussion- to be the la0. Io0e.er- un,er Title III: *(1)t shall not be unla0"ul . . . "or a person acting un,er color o" la0 to intercept a 0ire- oral- or electronic co((unication 0here . . . one o" the parties to the $23
co((unication has gi.en prior consent to such interception./ (1# !S!C! 2)11+2,+c,) Gase, upon this- it has been hel, that 0here a sign has been poste, in,icating that *telephone calls may be monitored and recorded-/ in(ates are on notice- an, his or her *,ecision to engage in con.ersations o.er those phones constitute i(plie, consent to that (onitoring an, taFes any 0iretap outsi,e the prohibitions o" Title III./ ()eop"e $# /e""& (2002) 103 Cal.App.3th #$3#$#: 0arrantless recor,ing o" ,e"en,ant s telephone con.ersations to parties on the outsi,e appro.e,.) Such 0arning signs also taFe such telephone calls outsi,e the search 0arrant pro.isions o" Cali"ornia s 0iretap statutes. ((!C! 22"!)3 et se*.: Id.- at pp. #$&%#50.) See also )eop"e $# -indham (2005) 13$ Cal.App.3th ##1) +he 0arrantless (onitoring an, recor,ing o" a Cail in(ates telephone calls- 0here signs 0ere poste,- a (essage 0as hear, at the beginning o" e.ery call- an, Cail rules pro.i,e, to in(ates- all note, that telephone calls 0oul, be (onitore,- .iolate, neither the "e,eral Title III rules nor Cali"ornia s (ri:acA Act pro.isions ((!C! 233 et se*!) Jote also- a phone use, ,uring a physical .isitation by a prisoner an, his or her .isitor ,oes not (eet the re@uire(ents o" a *wire communication-/ not using a line in interstate or "oreign co((erce. 1t is there"ore not subCect to the 0iretap restrictions o" (!C! 231. ()eop"e $# Santos (1&22) 25 Cal.App.3r, 3&2- 302.) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court interprets 0udson to si(ilarly allo0 ea.es,ropping on the con.ersations o" in(ates (inclu,ing pretrial ,etainees) ,ue to the lacF o" an e?pectation o" pri.acy- e.en i" ,one "or the purpose o" collecting e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# Da$is (200$) 35 Cal.3th $10- $23%$2&.) $23
See also )eop"e $# 2eonard (2002) 30 Cal.3th 13201303- 0here the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court "oun, no .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment- the California Constitution.s right to pri.acy- an, Title III o" the federal Imni4us Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1"2# (42 !S!C! 3111) by .i,eotaping the ,e"en,ant s en, o" a telephone con.ersation 0ith his "ather 0hen the ,e"en,ant Fne0 he 0as being .i,eotape,. +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal is in accor,. (United States $# 9an )o&c( (&th Cir. 1&&5) 22 B.3r, 2#$- 2&1: *(A)ny e?pectation o" pri.acy in outboun, calls "ro( prison is not obCecti.ely reasonable an, . . . the Fourth Amendment is there"ore not triggere, by the routine taping o" such calls./) See also United States $# %on1hur (&th Cir. 200&) $25 B.3r, 100#- 1011: noting that the ,e"en,ant conce,e,- *as he (ust- that he ha, no e?pectation o" pri.acy in those calls/ "ro( county Cail- 0here 0arnings 0ere poste, that telephone con.ersations "ro( Cail 0ere (onitore, an, recor,e,: citing 9an )o&c(- supra.) Exceptions) +here are a nu(ber o" .ery i(portant e?ceptions 0ith 0hich la0 en"orce(ent must be a0are) (!C! 232+a,: OaFes it a "elony to ea!esdrop onor record- by (eans o" an electronic de!ice- a con.ersation bet0een a person in the physical custo,y o" a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer or other public o""icer- or 0ho is on the property o" a la0 en"orce(ent agency or other public agency- an, that person s attorney- religious ad!isor- or licensed physician. (See In re *ordan (1&22) 2 Cal.3r, &30&32%&3#- "n. 3: )eop"e $# 2ope5 (1&53) 50 Cal.2n, 223- 23#.) Su4di:ision +4, (aFes it a "elony to ea!esdrop on such a con.ersation by *nonelectronic/ (eans- but e?clu,es ina,.ertently o.erhearing such a con.ersation- or 0hen the con.ersation is in $2$
a courtroo( or other roo( use, "or a,Cu,icatory procee,ings. Ehere Cail o""icers acte, so that the suspect *an, his 0i"e 0ere lulle, into belie.ing that their con.ersation 0oul, be con"i,ential./ (North $# Superior Court (1&22) # Cal.3r, 301- 311: )eop"e $# 2o&d (2002) 22 Cal.3th &&2- 1002.) See also- *=iretap "aws-/ un,er * earches with a earch =arrant-/ abo.e. ,onitoring :ail ,ail) 1t is constitutionally per(issible to (onitor in(ate (ail co(ing into a Cail "acility. ()eop"e $# Din(ins (1&55) 232 Cal.App.2n, #&2- &03: )eop"e $# *ones (1&21) 1& Cal.App.3r, 332- 33&.) An in(ate s *legal mail/ (i.e.- correspon,ence 0ith the prisoner s attorney) (ay be opene, as 0ell- so long as it is not rea,. ()eop"e $# )oe (1&#3) 13$ Cal.App.3r, $23: )eop"e $# -hite (1&#3) 151 Cal.App.3r, 235.) ;utgoing mail (ay also be (onitore,- *to pre.ent any threats e(anating "ro( in(ates./ ()eop"e $# *ones- suprasee Cal! Code 8e5s, Title 1), 313#+a,) +he sole e?ception is legal correspon,ence to the ,e"en,ant s attorney. (Cal! Code 8e5s, tit! 1), 3141+4,, +c,)) *An attorney at la0 liste, 0ith a state bar./ (su4d! +c,+2,) +he (arital co((unication pri.ilege ,oes not protect ,e"en,ant s personal letters to his 0i"e. (United States $# Gri''in (&th Cir. 2005) 330 B.3r, 113#.) *'ntra6%ail mail/ bet0een in(ates (ay also be rea, *to ,isco.er any threats that (ight be (a,e to an in(ateAsnitch CacFets place, on other in(ates- an, to ,etect coor,ination o" possible escape atte(pts bet0een in(ates in custo,y./ ()eop"e $# %cCas"in (1&#5) 12# Cal.App.3r, 1- 3.) Prison authorities (ay enact an, en"orce rules restricting the receipt o" (aga;ines an, other literature so long as such regulations *support the legiti(ate penological interests o" $25
re,ucing prohibite, beha.iors such as se?ual aggression an, ga(bling an, (aintaining respect "or legiti(ate authority./ ( ahrampour $# 2ampert (&th Cir. 2003) 3$5 B.3r, &5&.) 4n,er the theory o" )eop"e $# 2o&d (2002) 22 Cal.3th &&2- it 0oul, see( that (onitoring all non%legal (ail- co(ing in an, going out o" a "acility- 0oul, be constitutionally per(issible e.en i" the purpose is to looF "or incri(inating e.i,ence. +ote) Jone o" the abo.e cases ha.e re@uire,- or in,icate, the nee, "or- a search 0arrant to (onitor Cail (ail. Regulating :ailJPrison Visitations) +here is no constitutionally guarantee, *due process/ right to .isitation "or Cail or prison in(ates. *+he ,enial o" prison access to a particular .isitor Ais 0ell 0ithin the ter(s o" con"ine(ent or,inarily conte(plate, by a prison sentence- (0e,itt $# 0e"ms (1&#3) 3$& 4.S. 350- 35# 6&5 7.8,.2n, 5$3- 5#59.)- an, there"ore is not in,epen,ently protecte, by the Due Process Clause./ (/entuc(& Department o' Corrections $# Thompson (1&#&) 3&0 4.S. 3$3- 351 6103 7.8,.2n, $05- $1$9.) +he 7os Angeles County Jail has the authority to ban all contact .isits bet0een .isitors an, in(ates because o" the threat they pose,. ( "oc( $# Ruther'ord (1&#3) 35# 4.S. $25 6#2 7.8,.2n, 33#9.) 1t is not a .iolation o" the constitutional right o" association (First Amendment)- against cruel an, unusual punish(ent (?i5ht Amendment)- nor ,ue process (Fifth an, Fourteenth Amendments) to li(it the nu(ber an, relationship o" .isitors- such regulations being reasonably relate, to *legitimate penological interests./ (O$erton $# a55etta (2003) $3& 4.S. 125 61$5 7.8,.2n, 1529.) Howe!er- a state (ay create such en"orceable liberty interests in the prison- an, presu(ably county Cail- settings by statute. (I.id.: 0e,itt $# 0e"ms- supra- at p. 35& 6&5 7.8,.2n, at p. 5#59.) (!C! 2233 W 2231+d,- purporting to pro.i,e state prison (an, by in"erence- county Cail) in(ates 0ith a $22
right to .isitors- 0ere a(en,e, by the 7egislature in 1&&2- eli(inating that right. A person 0ho inten,s to .isit a prison or county Cail in(ate 0ill be subCect to a strip search- inclu,ing a *!isual body ca!ity search-/ 0hene.er there is a *reasonable suspicion/ to belie.e the .isitor possessions 0eapons an,Nor contraban,. (In re Roar( (1&&5) 3# Cal.App.3th 1&35.) Io0e.er- it has been hel,- at least "or purposes o" persons atte(pting to .isit an in(ate o" any o" the prisons o" the Cali"ornia Depart(ent o" Corrections0hile Custi"ying the lo0ere, search stan,ar, on the theory that Feeping 0eapons an, contraban, out o" a prison is an i(portant go.ern(ental interest an, that there"ore searching .isitors is an *administrati!e search-/ the .isitor (ust be gi.en the option o" "orgoing the .isit- an, lea.ing- rather than sub(itting to a strip search. (Estes $# Ro,"and (1&&3) 13 Cal.App.3th $0#: see belo0.) Estes $# Ro,"andsupra- also i(poses the "ollo0ing re@uire(ents upon the Depart(ent o" Corrections be"ore a strip search o" a prison .isitor or the search o" the person s .ehicle 0ill be allo0e,) All persons eligible to .isit in(ates (ust be (aile, 0ritten notice in 8nglish an, Spanish o" a ,og search policy- the reasons "or the policy- an, the conse@uences o" "in,ing contraban, in a .ehicle or on the person o" a prison .isitor. 1((e,iately prior to a propose, search- the ,ri.er o" each .ehicle (ust be in"or(e, orally an, in 0riting (again- in 8nglish an, Spanish) o" 0hat the search 0ill entail- the reasons "or itan, the conse@uences o" "in,ing contraban,. +he notice (ust a,.ise the ,ri.er that he or she has the option o" lea.ing an, returning 0ithout the car 0ithout losing .isiting pri.ileges "or that ,ay. Searches (ay be con,ucte, only a"ter 0ritten consent "or the search is "irst obtaine, "ro( the ,ri.er. 1" the ,ri.er ,eci,es to lea.e- passengers (ay stay an, cannot be ,enie, their .isit. $2#
7ocal police o""icers (ay not be in.ol.e, in the search process- an, (ay not be present at the search unless there is so(e .ali, reason "or their presence. Uiolations o" the Uehicle Co,e (ay not be reporte, to any la0 en"orce(ent agency. Jo .ehicle (ay be ,elaye, (ore than ten (10) (inutes prior to the search. A 0ait o" up to 30 (inutes is allo0e, *in unusual situations/ (see p. $2& o" the ,ecision) *0here the e?igency is not create, by the Depart(ent (o" Corrections)./ A search shoul, taFe no longer than reasonably necessary. Dogs (ust be Fept at least t0enty (20) "eet "ro( .isitors at all ti(es. Searchers (ay not rea, booFs- letters or other ,ocu(ents in possession o" the .isitors absent a reasonable suspicion that they are contraban,. A .isitor (ay be re@ueste, to sub(it to a strip search i" a ,rug ,og alerts on the in,i.i,ual or ,rugs are "oun, in the .ehicle. +he person (ust be gi.en the reasons "or the search orally an, in 0riting- an, gi.en the option o" re"using to be searche, an, lea.ing the groun,s. +he Depart(ent o" Corrections (ust a,opt regulations enco(passing the con,itions an, (ust ,istribute the( to all institutions.
A *manual/ or *physical/ bo,y ca.ity search- re@uiring a touching an, constituting (ore than a (ere .isual inspection- may re@uire *probable cause/ an, a search 0arrant. +here is no local authority telling us 0hat the stan,ar,s shoul, be. $ut see) 2au1hter $# /a& (D. 4tah 1&&2) &#5 B.Supp. 1352: 0here probable cause an, a search warrant 0ere re@uire,.
$2&
2on1 $# Norris (5th Cir. 1&&1) &2& B.2n, 1111: in"erring that no (ore than a reasonable suspicion is necessary- an, that a search warrant 0as not re@uire,. +ote) +he bo,y ca.ity .isual inspection o" all in(ates in a "e,eral prison institution- (a,e a"ter contact .isits 0ith persons "ro( the outsi,e- 0as hel, to be reasonable an, not prohibite, by the Fourth Amendment. ( e"" $# -o"'ish (1&2&) 331 4.S. $20 650 7.8,.2n, 3329.) A county Cail- inclu,ing locFers locate, outsi,e the .isitor center but (aintaine, by the Cail personnel- particularly 0ith signs 0arning .isitors that they 0ere subCect to searchis the e@ui.alent to a closely regulate, business allo0ing "or a 0arrantless search o" a .isitor an, the property he ,eposits in the locFers. ()eop"e $# ou"ter (2011) 1&& Cal.App.3th 251.) Retained &onstitutional Rights) 'nfringement of Rights) 1t has been hel, that prison in(ates do retain certain basic constitutional rights that (ay be in"ringe, on- i" at all- only 0hen rationally relate, to *institutional penological interests./ (O$erton $# a55etta (2003) $3& 4.S. 125 61$5 7.8,.2n, 1529.) *Ehen a prison regulation or practice o""en,s a "un,a(ental constitutional guarantee- "e,eral courts 0ill ,ischarge their ,uty to protect constitutional rights./ ()rocunier $# %artine5 (1&23) 315 4.S. 3&5- 30$%305 630 7.8,.2n, 223- 2359.) Io0e.er- absent a sho0ing that prison regulations or practices *create inhu(ane prison con,itions,epri.e in(ates o" basic necessities or "ail to protect their health or sa"ety . . . (or) in.ol.e the in"liction o" pain or inCury- or ,eliberate in,i""erence to the risF that it (ight occur-/ there is no constitutional .iolation. (O$erton $# a55etta- supraat p. 132 61$5 7.8,.2n, at p. 1239.) Rights retained by prison in(ates inclu,e)
$30
+he right to *petition the go!ernment for a redress of grie!ances/ (First Amendment). (*ohnson $# A$er& (1&5&) 3&3 4.S. 3#3 621 7.8,.2n, 21#9.) +he right to be protecte, "ro( *in!idious racial discrimination/ (Fourteenth Amendment- E@ual Protection). (2ee $# -ashin1ton (1&5#) 3&0 4.S. 333 61& 7.8,.2n, 12129.) +he right to *due process/ (Fifth an, Fourteenth Amendments). (-o"'' $# %cDonne"" (1&23) 31# 4.S. $3& 631 7.8,.2n, &3$9: 0aines $# /erner (1&22) 303 4.S. $1& 630 7.8,.2n, 5$29.)
D+* Profiling of Prisoners and other Persons *rrested for (elonies) (!C! 2")+a,) +he DJA an, Borensic 1,enti"ication Database an, Data GanF Act o" 1&&#- as a(en,e,. (!C! 2")+4,) tatement of 'ntent. *1t is the intent o" the people o" the State o" Cali"ornia- in or,er to "urther the purposes o" this chapter- to re@uire DJA an, "orensic i,enti"ication ,ata banF sa(ples "ro( all persons- inclu,ing Cu.eniles- "or the "elony an, (is,e(eanor o""enses ,escribe, in su4di:ision +a, o" Section 2"2./ ((ara! +2,) (!C! 2")+c,) Purpose) +he state, purpose is to establish a ,ata banF an, ,atabase to assist "e,eralstate- an, local cri(inal Custice an, la0 en"orce(ent agencies in the e?pe,itious ,etection an, prosecution o" in,i.i,uals responsible "or se? o""enses an, other cri(es- the e?clusion o" suspects 0ho are being in.estigate, "or these cri(es- an, the i,enti"ication o" (issing an, uni,enti"ie, personsparticularly ab,ucte, chil,ren. (!C! 2")+d,) Describes these pro.isions as *an a,(inistrati.e re@uire(ent to assist in the accurate i,enti"ication o" cri(inal o""en,ers./ (!C! 2")+e,) 4nless other0ise re@ueste, by the Depart(ent o" Justice- collection o" biological sa(ples "or DJA analysis "ro( @uali"ying persons is li(ite, to collection o" inner cheeF cells o" the (outh (*buccal swab samples/). $31
(!C! 2")+f,) Authori;es the collection o" bloo, speci(ens "ro( "e,eralstate or local la0 en"orce(ent agencies 0hen necessary in a particular case or 0oul, ai, D!J in obtaining an accurate "orensic DJA pro"ile "or i,enti"ication purposes. (!C! 2")+5, & +h,) Depart(ent o" Justice is responsible "or the (anage(ent an, a,(inistration o" the DJA an, Borensic 1,enti"ication Database an, Data GanF Progra(an, "or liaison 0ith the BG1. Pro.isions "or the enact(ent o" local an, state policies an, proce,ures. Pro.isions "or pro.i,ing in"or(ation to an international DJA ,atabase an, ,ata banF progra( ,oes not .iolate ,e"en,ant s pri.acy rights an, is there"ore constitutional. ()eop"e $# %cCra& (2005) 133 Cal.App.3th 2$#.) (!C! 2")+i,) &ounties) Responsibilities) +1,) Ehen the speci(ens- sa(ples an, print i(pressions are collecte, at a county Cail or other county "acility- inclu,ing a pri.ate co((unity correctional "acility- the county sheri"" or chie" a,(inistrati.e o""icer o" the county Cail or other "acility shall be responsible "or all the "ollo0ing) +A,) Collect the speci(ensetc.i((e,iately "ollo0ing arrest- con.iction- or a,Cu,ication- or ,uring the booFing or intaFe or reception center process at that "acility- or reasonably pro(ptly therea"ter. +&,) Collect the speci(ensetc.- as soon as a,(inistrati.ely practicable a"ter a @uali"ying person reports to the "acility "or the purpose o" pro.i,ing the(. +C,) Bor0ar, the collecte, speci(ensetc.i((e,iately to the Depart(ent o" Justicean, in co(pliance 0ith ,epart(ent policies. +2,) +he speci(ensetc.- shall be collecte, by a person using a collection Fit appro.e, by the $32
Depart(ent o" Justice an, in accor,ance 0ith the re@uire(ents an, proce,ures set "orth in (!C! 2"#. +3,) Counties to be rei(burse, "or e?penses. (!C! 2")+K,) Portion o" the costs (ay be pai, by ,e"en,ants at sentencing. (!C! 2")+',) Bun,s to be ,eposite, in the DJA +esting Bun,. (!C! 2")+l,) +he Depart(ent o" Justice DJA 7aboratory to be Fno0n as the *:an $ashins?i D+* "aboratory./ (!C! 2"2+a,) +he belo0 liste, persons shall pro.i,e buccal s0ab sa(ples- right thu(bprints- an, a "ull pal( print i(pression o" each han,- an, any bloo, speci(ens or other biological sa(ples as ,escribe, in the statutes- "or la0 en"orce(ent i,enti"ication analysis) +1,) Any person- inclu,ing any Cu.enile- 0ho is con!icted o" or plea,s guilty or no contest to any "elony o""ense- or any Cu.enile 0ho is a,Cu,icate, un,er /&I 232 "or co((itting any "elony o""ense. +he (an,atory re@uire(ents o" this section ha.e 0ithstoo, constitutional attacF- as "ar as a,ult ,e"en,ants are concerne,- a nu(ber o" ti(es. (See )eop"e $# /in1 (2000) #2 Cal.App.3th 1353: A"'aro $# Terhune (2002) &# Cal.App.3th 3&2: )eop"e $# Tra$is (2005) 13& Cal.App.3th 1221.) 1t has also been hel, that the re@uire(ent that a (inor co(ply 0ith this section is constitutional (i.e.- no Fourth Amendment .iolation) ,espite the stronger pri.acy interest in Ju.enile Court procee,ings. (In re Ca"$in S# (2002) 1$0 Cal.App.3th 333.) Re,uction o" ,e"en,ant s "elony con.iction to a (is,e(eanor- a"ter ha.ing success"ully co(plete, certain ter(s an, con,itions o" probation "or one year- ,oes not entitle ,e"en,ant to the e?punge(ent o" the DJA $33
,ata or return or ,estruction o" the DJA sa(ple. (Co''e& $# Superior Court (200$) 12& Cal.App.3th #0&.) +2,) Any a,ult 0ho is arrested for or charge, 0ith any o" the "ollo0ing "elony o""enses) +A,) All "elony (!C! 2"3 (se? registration) o""enses- or atte(pts to co((it such o""ense. +&,) Our,er or .oluntary (anslaughter- or atte(pts to co((it such o""ense. +C,) Any "elony o""ense (e""ecti.e 1N1N200&). +he constitutionality o" "orcing pre% con.ictees- post%arrest- to pro.i,e DJA sa(ples 0as uphel, by the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal in 0as(e"" $# 0arris (&th Cir. 2012) 55& B.3r, 103&.) +oteI A rehearing- en banc0as grante, in 0as(e"" $# 0arris (&th Cir. July 2$2012) 2012 4.S. App. 78T1S 1$32#- (aFing this case una.ailable "or citation. Also note that the 4nite, States Supre(e Court has be"ore it this sa(e issueha.ing grante, a stay o" a Oarylan, Appellate Court s ,ecision in /in1 $# State (2012) 32$ O,. $$0- 0hich strucF ,o0n a si(ilar statute. 1n granting the stay- the 4.S. Supre(e Court note, that *there is a reasonable probability this Court 0ill grant certiorari./ (%ar&"and $# /in1 ( (July 30 2012) 2012 4.S. 78T1S $01#.) $33
Io0e.erthis pro.ision 0as hel, to be unconstitutional in state court as a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment- in so "ar as it re@uires people "or 0ho( there has not e.en been a ,eter(ination o" probable cause to pro.i,e a DJA sa(ple. ()eop"e $# u5a (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 1323.) Re.ie0 0as grante, by the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court (2011 Cal. 78T1S 102&5 (Cal. !ct. 1&- 2011)- (aFing this case una.ailable "or citation pen,ing "urther ,ecision. +3,) Any person- inclu,ing any Cu.enile- 0ho is re@uire, to register per (!C! 2"3 (se?) or 4)1!1 (arson) because o" the co((ission o"- or atte(pt to co((it- a "elony or (is,e(eanor o""ense- or any person- inclu,ing any Cu.enile- 0ho is house, in a (ental health "acility or se? o""en,er treat(ent progra( a"ter re"erral to such "acility or progra( by a court a"ter being charge, 0ith any "elony o""ense. All registere, se? o""en,ers- e.en 0hen con.icte, prior to the DJA statutes 0ere passe,- are re@uire, to pro.i,e a DJA sa(ple. +he statutes a,,e, by (ro-osition 2"- a,,ing (ore o""enses to the list o" people 0ho (ust pro.i,e a DJA sa(pleare retroacti.e. (Good $# Superior Court 6)eop"e7 (200#) 1$# Cal.App.3th 13&3.) +4,) 1nclu,es atte(pts. +),) +hese pro.isions are not inten,e, to preclu,e the collection o" sa(ples as a con,ition o" a plea "or a non%@uali"ying o""ense. (!C! 2"2+4,) Pro.isions apply to all @uali"ying persons regar,less o" the sentence i(pose,. $3$
(!C! 2"2+c,) Pro.isions apply to all @uali"ying persons regar,less o" place(ent or con"ine(ent in any (ental hospital or other public or pri.ate treat(ent "acility- an, shall inclu,e- but not be li(ite, to- the "ollo0ing persons inclu,ing Cu.eniles) +1,) Any person co((itte, to a state hospital or other treat(ent "acility as a (entally ,isor,ere, se? o""en,erper /&I 2333 et se*! +2,) Any person 0ho has a se.ere (ental ,isor,erper (!C! 2"23 et se*! +3,) Any person "oun, to be a se?ually .iolent pre,ator- per (!C! 2233 et se*! (!C! 2"2+d,) Pro.isions are (an,atory- an, apply e.en i" not so a,.ise, by the court. !ne s religious belie"s might pro.i,e a particular ,e"en,ant- un,er the *8eli5ious Freedom 8estoration Act/ 0ith a legal e?cuse "or ,eclining to pro.i,e a bloo, sa(ple i" the ,e"en,ant can) Articulate the scope o" his belie"s: Sho0 that his belie"s are religious: Pro.e that his belie"s are sincerely hel,: and 8stablish that the e?ercise o" his sincerely hel, religious belie"s is substantially bur,ene,.
1" ,e"en,ant can pro.e the abo.e- the go.ern(ent (ay still re@uire that he pro.i,e a bloo, sa(ple i" it can sho0 Re@uiring that he pro.i,e a bloo, sa(ple "urthers a co(pelling go.ern(ental interest: +hrough the least restricti.e (eans. (United States $# 4immerman (&th Cir. 2002) $13 B.3r, #$1.) +he Jinth Circuit has hel, that a 0arrantlesssuspicionless "orce, (outh s0ap o" a pre%trial ,etainee in Je.a,a- "or inclusion in the state s col, $35
case ,ata banF- 0hen there is no @uali"ying con.iction- is a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (Friedman $# oucher (&th Cir. 200&) $#0 B.3r, #32.) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court- in contrast- has hel, that (istaFenly collecting bloo, sa(ples "or inclusion into Cali"ornia s DJA ,ata base (See (!C! 2"2)- 0hen the ,e"en,ant ,i, not actually ha.e a @uali"ying prior con.iction- is not a Fourth Amendment .iolation- but e.en i" it 0ere- it ,oes not re@uire the suppression o" the (istaFenly collecte, bloo, sa(ples- nor is it groun,s to suppress the resulting (atch o" the ,e"en,ant s DJA 0ith that le"t at a cri(e scene. ()eop"e $# Ro.inson (2010) 32 Cal.3th 1103- 1115%112&.) (!C! 2"2+e,) Duty o" a prosecutor to noti"y the court o" a ,e"en,ant s ,uty to pro.i,e the re@uire, sa(ples. (!C! 2"2+f,) Duty o" a court to in@uire an, .eri"y that the re@uire, sa(ples ha.e been collecte,. Abstract o" Cu,g(ent to sho0 that a ,e"en,ant 0as or,ere, to pro.i,e such sa(ples- an, a,.isal to a ,e"en,ant that he or she 0ill be inclu,e, in the DJA ,ata banF. Bailure to so noti"y a ,e"en,ant is not groun,s to in.ali,ate an arrest- plea con.iction or ,isposition- or a""ect the ,e"en,ant s ,uty to pro.i,e such sa(ples. (!C! 2"2!1+a,) +he speci(ens- sa(ples- an, print i(pressions shall be collecte, "ro( persons as ,escribe, in (!C! 2"2+a, "or *present and past @ualifying offenses of record/ as "ollo0s) Su4d! +a,+1,) Collection "ro( any a,ult "ollo0ing arrest "or a "elony o""ense as ,escribe, in (!C! 2"2+a,+2,+A,- +&, an, +C,) +A,) 1((e,iately "ollo0ing arrest- or ,uring the booFing or intaFe or reception center process- or as soon as a,(inistrati.ely practicable a"ter arrest- butin any case- prior to release on bail or pen,ing trial or any physical release "ro( con"ine(ent or custo,y: or $32
+&,) 4pon (an,atory or,er o" the court to report 0ithin "i.e calen,ar ,ays to a county Cail "acility or to a city- state- localpri.ateor other ,esignate, "acility. Su4d! +a,+2,) Collection "ro( persons (a,ult or Cu.enile) alrea,y con"ine, or in custo,y a"ter con.iction or a,Cu,ication) +A,) 1((e,iately upon intaFe- or ,uring the prison reception center process- or as soon as a,(inistrati.ely practicable at the appropriate custo,ial or recei.ing institution or progra(- if) +i,) +he person has a recor, o" any past or present con.iction or a,Cu,ication as a 0ar, o" the court in Cali"ornia o" a @uali"ying o""ense ,escribe, in (!C! 2"2+a,- or has a recor, o" any past or present con.iction or a,Cu,ication in any other court- inclu,ing any state"e,eral- or (ilitary court- o" any o""ense that- i" co((itte, or atte(pte, in this state- 0oul, ha.e been punishable as an o""ense as ,escribe, in (!C! 2"2+a,: and +ii,) +he person s speci(ensetc.are not in the possession o" the Depart(ent o" Justice DJA 7aboratory- or ha.e not been recor,e, as part o" D!J s DJA ,ata banF progra(. Su4d! +a,+3,) Collection "ro( persons on probationparole- or other release) +A,) Any person- inclu,ing a Cu.enile- 0ho has a recor, o" any past or present con.iction or a,Cu,ication "or any o""ense liste, in (!C! 2"2+a,- 0ho is on probationparole- postrelease co((unity super.isionor (an,atory super.ision pursuant to (!C! 1113+h,+), "or any "elony or (is,e(eanor $3#
0hether or not liste, un,er (!C! 2"2+a,shall pro.i,e the re@uire, sa(ples if +i,) +he person has a recor, o" any past or present con.iction or a,Cu,ication as a 0ar, o" the court in Cali"ornia o" a @uali"ying o""ense ,escribe, in (!C! 2"2+a,- or has a recor, o" any past or present con.iction or a,Cu,ication in any other court- inclu,ing any state"e,eral- or (ilitary court- o" any o""ense that- i" co((itte, or atte(pte, in this state- 0oul, ha.e been punishable as an o""ense as ,escribe, in (!C! 2"2+a,: and +ii,) +he person s speci(ensetc.are not in the possession o" the Depart(ent o" Justice DJA 7aboratory- or ha.e not been recor,e, as part o" D!J s DJA ,ata banF progra(. +&,) +he person shall ha.e the re@uire, speci(ensetc.- collecte, 0ithin "i.e calen,ar ,ays o" being noti"ie, by the courtor a la0 en"orce(ent agency or other agency authori;e, by the Depart(ent o" Justice. +he speci(ensetc.- shall be collecte, in accor,ance 0ith (!C! 2")+i, at a county Cail "acility or a city- state- localpri.ate- or other "acility ,esignate, "or this collection. Su4d! +a,+4,) Collection "ro( parole .iolators an, others returne, to custo,y) +A,) 1" a person- inclu,ing a Cu.enile- 0ho has been release, on parole- "urlough- or other release "or any o""ense or cri(e0hether or not set "orth in (!C! 2"2+a,- is returne, to a state correctional or other institution "or a .iolation o" a con,ition o" his or her parole- "urlough- or other releaseor "or any other reason- that person shall $3&
pro.i,e the re@uire, sa(ples at a state correctional or other recei.ing institution- if +i,) +he person has a recor, o" any past or present con.iction or a,Cu,ication as a 0ar, o" the court in Cali"ornia o" a @uali"ying o""ense ,escribe, in (!C! 2"2+a,- or has a recor, o" any past or present con.iction or a,Cu,ication in any other court- inclu,ing any state"e,eral- or (ilitary court- o" any o""ense that- i" co((itte, or atte(pte, in this state- 0oul, ha.e been punishable as an o""ense as ,escribe, in (!C! 2"2+a,: and +ii,) +he person s speci(ensetc.are not in the possession o" the Depart(ent o" Justice DJA 7aboratory- or ha.e not been recor,e, as part o" D!J s DJA ,ata banF progra(. Su4d! +a,+),) Collection "ro( persons accepte, into Cali"ornia "ro( other Curis,ictions) +A,) Ehen an o""en,er "ro( another state is accepte, into this state un,er the .arious liste, agree(ents an, co(pacts- 0hether or not the o""en,er is in custo,y- the acceptance is con,itional on the o""en,er pro.i,ing the re@uire, speci(ens if the o""en,er has a recor, o" any past or present con.iction or a,Cu,ication in Cali"ornia o" a @uali"ying o""ense as liste, in (!C! 2"2+a,or has a recor, o" any past or present con.iction or a,Cu,ication in any other court- inclu,ing any state- "e,eral- or (ilitary court- o" any o""ense that- i" co((itte, or atte(pte, in this state- 0oul, ha.e been punishable as an o""ense as ,escribe, in (!C! 2"2+a,. +&,) 1" the person is not in custo,y- the re@uire, speci(ensetc.- (ust be pro.i,e, $30
0ithin "i.e calen,ar ,ays a"ter the person reports to the super.ising agent or 0ithin "i.e calen,ar ,ays o" notice to the person0hiche.er occurs "irst. +he person shall report to a county Cail "acility in the country 0here he or she resi,es or te(porarily is locate, to ha.e the speci(ens collecte,- in accor,ance 0ith (!C! 2")+i,. +C,) 1" the person is in custo,y- the re@uire, speci(ensetc.- shall be collecte, as soon as practicable a"ter receipt in the "acility. Su4d! +a,+2,) Collection "ro( persons in "e,eral custo,y) +A,) SubCect to the appro.al o" the BG1persons con"ine, or incarcerate, in a "e,eral prison or "e,eral institution 0ho ha.e a recor, o" any past or present con.iction or Cu.enile a,Cu,ication "or an o""ense liste, in (!C! 2"2+a,- or a si(ilar cri(e un,er the la0s o" the 4ntie, States or any other state that 0oul, constitute an o""ense ,escribe, in (C! 2"2+a,- are subCect to the re@uire(ents o" these sections if any o" the "ollo0ing apply) +i,) +he person co((itte, the @uali"ying o""ense in Cali"ornia: +ii,) +he person 0as a resi,ent o" Cali"ornia at the ti(e o" the @uali"ying o""ense: +iii,) +he person has any recor, o" a Cali"ornia con.iction "or an o""ense ,escribe, in (!C! 2"2+a, regar,less o" 0hen it 0as co((itte,: or +i:,) +he person 0ill be release, in Cali"ornia. +&,) +he Depart(ent o" Justice DJA 7aboratory shall "or0ar, portions o" the re@uire, speci(ensetc.- to the 4.S. $31
Depart(ent o" Justice- upon re@uest. Sa(ples 0ill be collecte, in accor,ance 0ith (!C! 2")+i,. (!C! 2"2!1+4,) +he abo.e pro.isions are retroacti.e. (!C! 2"2!2) Proce,ures "or obtaining replace(ent sa(ples 0hen the originals are not usable. (!C! 2"1) Analysis o" cri(e scene sa(ples. (!C! 2"#) Proce,ures "or collection o" sa(ples) +a,) +he Director o" Corrections- or the Chie" A,(inistrati.e !""icer o" the ,etention "acility- Cail or other "acility at 0hich the speci(ensetc.- 0ere collecte, shall cause the( to be "or0ar,e, pro(ptly to the Depart(ent o" Justice. +he speci(ensetc.shall be collecte, by a person using a Depart(ent o" Justice appro.e, collection Fit an, in accor,ance 0ith the re@uire(ents an, proce,ures set "orth belo0. +4,+1,) Depart(ent o" Justice s responsibility "or pro.i,ing Fits. +4,+2,) +he 0ith,ra0al o" bloo, shall be per"or(e, in a (e,ically appro.e, (anner by health care pro.i,ers traine, an, certi"ie, to ,ra0 bloo,. +4,+3,) Guccal s0ab sa(ples (ay be procure, by la0 en"orce(ent or correctional personnel or other in,i.i,uals traine, to assist in buccal s0ab collection. +4,+4,) +hu(b an, pal(s prints shall be taFen on "or(s prescribe, by the Depart(ent o" Justice- 0ith pal( print "or(s to be "or0ar,e, to- an, (aintaine, by- the Gureau o" Cri(inal 1,enti"ication an, 1n"or(ation- Depart(ent o" Justice. +hu(bprints to be place, on the sa(ple an, speci(en containers an, "or(s as ,irecte, by the Depart(ent o" Justicean, "or0ar,e, to- an, (aintaine, by- the DJA 7aboratory.
$32
+4,+),) +he collecting agencies responsibility to con"ir( that the person "ro( 0ho( the speci(ensetc.- are collecte,- @uali"ies. +4,+2,) +he DJA 7aboratory is responsible "or establishing proce,ures "or entering ,ata banF an, ,atabase in"or(ation. +c,) Protection "ro( ci.il or cri(inal liability "or errors in the abo.e. OistaFes also not groun,s "or in.ali,ating an arrest- plea- con.iction- or ,isposition. (!C! 2"#!1+a,) Sanctions "or "ailure to pro.i,e the re@uire, sa(ples upon written noti"ication) ,isdemeanor: 1 year an, [$00 "ine. Bor persons alrea,y con"ine, in state prison: *by sanctions "or (is,e(eanors accor,ing to a sche,ule ,eter(ine, by the Depart(ent o" Corrections./ (!C! 2"#!1+4,+1,) Authori;e, la0 en"orce(entcusto,ial- or corrections personnel- inclu,ing peace o""icers as ,e"ine, in (!C! #33- #33!1- #33!2+d,- #33!)- an, #33!))- (ay e(ploy reasonable force to collect bloo, speci(ens- sali.a sa(ples- or thu(b or pal( print i(pressions "ro( in,i.i,uals 0ho- a"ter a 0ritten or oral re@uest- re"use to pro.i,e those speci(ens- sa(ples- or thu(b or pal( print i(pressions. (!C! 2"#!1+c,+1,+A,- +2,+A,) *#se of Reasonable (orce/ is ,e"ine, as "orce that an obCecti.e- traine, an, co(petent correctional e(ployee- "ace, 0ith si(ilar "acts an, circu(stances- 0oul, consi,er necessary an, reasonable to gain co(pliance. (!C! 2"#!1+c,+1,+&,- +2,+&,) +he use o" "orce (ust be prece,e, by 0ritten authori;ation by the super.ising o""icer on ,uty- 0hich (ust inclu,e the ,etails o" the re@uest an, the subCect s re"usal. (!C! 2"#!1+c,+1,+C,- +2,+C,) +he use o" "orce (ust be prece,e, by e""orts to secure .oluntary co(pliance. (!C! 2"#!1+c,+1,+$,- +2,+$,) 1" the use o" "orce inclu,es a Cail *cell extraction-/ the e?traction shall be .i,eotape,.
$33
(!C! 2"#!1+4,+2,) +he 0ith,ra0al o" bloo, shall be per"or(e, in a (e,ically appro.e, (anner in accor,ance 0ith the re@uire(ents o" (!C! 2"#+4,+2, (abo.e). (!C! 2"") 8?punge(ent o" Data. Re,uction o" ,e"en,ant s "elony con.iction to a (is,e(eanor- a"ter ha.ing success"ully co(plete, certain ter(s an, con,itions o" probation "or one year- ,oes not entitle ,e"en,ant to the e?punge(ent o" the DJA ,ata or return or ,estruction o" the DJA sa(ple. (Co''e& $# Superior Court (200$) 12& Cal.App.3th #0&.) (!C! 2""!)) Con"i,entiality re@uire(ents an, per(itte, ,isclosures. (!C! 2""!2) Disse(ination o" in"or(ation to la0 en"orce(ent agencies) +a,) Sharing or ,isse(ination o" population ,atabase or ,ata banF in"or(ation- DJA pro"ile or "orensic i,enti"ication ,atabase or ,ata banF in"or(ation- analytical ,ata an, results generate, "or "orensic i,enti"ication ,atabase an, ,ata banF purposes- or protocol an, "orensic DJA analysis (etho,s an, @uality assurance or @uality control proce,ures- (ay be (a,e 0ith) +1,) Be,eralstate or local la0 en"orce(ent agencies. +2,) Cri(e laboratories- public or pri.atethat ser.e "e,eralstate an, local la0 en"orce(ent agencies- that ha.e been appro.e, by the Depart(ent o" Justice. +3,) +he attorney general s o""ice o" any state. +4,) Any state or "e,erally authori;e, au,iting agent or boar, that inspects or re.ie0s the 0orF o" the Depart(ent o" Justice DJA 7aboratory "or the purpose o" ensuring that the laboratory (eets ,escribe, stan,ar,s. $33
+),) Any thir, party D!J ,ee(s necessary to assist the ,epart(ent s cri(e laboratory 0ith statistical analyses o" population ,atabases- or the analyses o" "orensic protocol- research (etho,s- or @uality control proce,ures- or to assist in the reco.ery or i,enti"ication o" hu(an re(ains "or hu(anitarian purposes- inclu,ing i,enti"ication o" (issing persons. +4,) +he population ,atabases an, ,ata banFs o" the DJA 7aboratory (ay be (a,e a.ailable to an, searche, by the BG1 an, any other agency participating in the BG1 s C!D1S Syste( or any other national or international la0 en"orce(ent ,atabase or ,ata banF syste(. +c,) +he Depart(ent o" Justice (ay pro.i,e portions o" biological sa(ples (as ,escribe,) to local public la0 en"orce(ent DJA laboratories "or i,enti"ication purposes pro.i,e, that the pri.acy pro.isions are "ollo0e,- an, i" each o" the "ollo0ing con,itions are (et) +1,) +he proce,ures use, "or han,ling o" speci(ens an, sa(ples an, the ,isclosure o" results are as establishe, by D!J pursuant to (!C! 2"1- 2"# an, 2""!). +2,) +he (etho,ologies an, proce,ures use, "or DJA or "orensic i,enti"ication analysis are co(patible 0ith those establishe, by D!J pursuant to (!C! 2""!)+i,- or other0ise are ,eter(ine, by D!J to be .ali, an, appropriate "or i,enti"ication purposes. +3,) !nly tests o" .alue to la0 en"orce(ent "or i,enti"ication purposes are per"or(e, an, a copy o" the results o" the analysis are sent to D!J. +4,) All pro.isions concerning pri.acy an, security are "ollo0e,.
$3$
(!C! 2""!1) Disposal o" sa(ples. (!C! 333 et se*!) Construction an, se.erability. Case 7a0) +he pro.isions o" these statutes ("or(erly- (!C! 2"3!2)- re@uiring the pro.i,ing o" the liste, sa(ples- are constitutional. ()eop"e $# /in1 (2000) #2 Cal.App.3th 1353.) +he ne0 pro.isions replacing (!C! 2"3!2 ((!C! 2") et se*!) ha.e si(ilarly been hel, to be constitutional. (A"'aro $# Terhune (2002) &# Cal.App.3th 3&2.) +he taFing o" bloo, sa(ples "ro( prison in(atesparolees an, probationers "or the purpose o" co(pleting a "e,eral DJA ,atabase- is la0"ul. (United States $# /incade (&th Cir. 2003) 32& B.3r, #13.) See also United States $# 2u;an (&th Cir. 2002) $03 B.3r, 1003: uphol,ing the "e,eral *$%A AnalAsis &ac'lo5 ?limination Act of 2333-/ 42 !S!C! 1413)<1413)e- 0hen challenge, on the basis that the Act .iolates the Fourth Amendment- the ?@ (ost Facto Clause- that it is a *&ill of Attainder- an, that it contra.enes constitutional *separation o" po0ers/ restrictions- 0hen challenge, by a "e,eral "elon 0ho- 0hen the re@uire(ent that she pro.i,e a DJA sa(ple 0as i(pose,- 0as on super.ise, release. Si(ilarly- "urther a(en,(ent to this legislation by passage o" the *Dustice for All Act of 2334-/ e?pan,ing the DJA collection re@uire(ents to all "e,eral "elonies- cri(es o" .iolence- an, all se?ual abuse cri(es- 0here the ,e"en,ant is on probationparole or super.ise, release- is constitutional. (United States $# /riese" (&th Cir. 2002) $0# B.3r, &31.)
$35
Re,uction o" ,e"en,ant s "elony con.iction to a (is,e(eanor- a"ter ha.ing success"ully co(plete, certain ter(s an, con,itions o" probation "or one year- ,oes not entitle ,e"en,ant to the e?punge(ent o" the DJA ,ata or return or ,estruction o" the DJA sa(ple. (Co''e& $# Superior Court (200$) 12& Cal.App.3th #0&.) +he a(en,(ents to (!C! 2"2+a,+1,- pro.i,ing "or the (an,atory collection o" DJA sa(ples "ro( anyone con.icte, o" a "elony o""ense- ,o not .iolate a ,e"en,ant s Fourth (Search an, Sei;ure) or Fourteenth (8@ual Protection an, Due Process) rights- an, is not an Ex Post (acto .iolation ,espite being enacte, a"ter the ,ate o" ,e"en,ant s o""ense. ()eop"e $# Tra$is (2005) 13& Cal.App.3th 1221: "elony D41 case.) +he */e""&JFr&e/ ()eop"e $# /e""& (1&25) 12 Cal.3r, 23: Fr&e $# United States (D.C. Cir. 1&23) 2&3 B. 1013.) stan,ar, ,oes not apply to a DJA ,ata base search use, to i,enti"y a possible suspect. Re@uiring in(ates to supply a DJA sa(ple- e.en though not a cri(inal suspect at the ti(e o" the taFing o" the sa(ple- is a constitutional *search/ pursuant to (!C! 2"). ()eop"e $# *ohnson (2005) 13& Cal.App.3th 113$.) All registere, se? o""en,ers- e.en 0hen con.icte, prior to the DJA statutes 0ere passe,- are re@uire, to pro.i,e a DJA sa(ple. +he statutes a,,e, by (ro-osition 2"- a,,ing (ore o""enses to the list o" people 0ho (ust pro.i,e a DJA sa(pleare retroacti.e. (Good $# Superior Court 6)eop"e7 (200#) 1$# Cal.App.3th 13&3.) Cali"ornia s pro.isions "or e?tracting DJA sa(ples "ro( con.icte, "elons- e.en o.er a prisoner s obCection an, through the use o" reasonable "orce,oes not .iolate either the Fourth Amendment search or sei;ure rules- the ?i5hth Amendment (*recFless an, ,eliberate in,i""erence/)- nor Fourteen Amendment ,ue process. (0ami"ton $# ro,n (&th Cir. 2010) 530 B.3r, ##&.)
$32
+he constitutionality o" Cali"ornia s DJA collection statutes ((!C! 2"2+a,+2,+C,- allo0ing the collection o" DJA "ro( post%arrestpre% con.iction suspects) 0as e.aluate, by the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal by consi,ering the totality o" the circu(stances- balancing the arrestees pri.acy interests against the Lo.ern(ent s nee, "or the DJA sa(ples. 7a0 en"orce(ent o""icials collecte, a DJA sa(ple "ro( a buccal s0ab o" the arrestee s (outh- a ,e (ini(is intrusion that occurre, only a"ter a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer ,eter(ine, there 0as probable cause to belie.e that the in,i.i,ual co((itte, a "elony. 7a0 en"orce(ent o""icers analy;e, only enough DJA in"or(ation to i,enti"y the in,i.i,ual- (aFing DJA collection substantially si(ilar to "ingerprinting. Ooreo.er- state an, "e,eral statutes i(pose, signi"icant cri(inal an, ci.il penalties on persons 0ho (isuse, DJA in"or(ation. !n the other si,eDJA analysis is a .ery e""ecti.e tool "or la0 en"orce(ent o""icials to i,enti"y arrestees- sol.e past cri(es- an, e?onerate innocent suspects. +he Lo.ern(ent s co(pelling interests "ar out0eigh an arrestees pri.acy concerns- so there is no Fourth Amendment .iolation. (0as(e"" $# 0arris (&th Cir. 2012) 55& B.3r, 103&.) +oteI A rehearing- en banc- 0as grante, in 0as(e"" $# 0arris (&th Cir. July 2$- 2012) 2012 4.S. App. 78T1S 1$32#- (aFing this case una.ailable "or citation. Also note that the 4nite, States Supre(e Court has be"ore it this sa(e issueha.ing grante, a stay o" a Oarylan, Appellate Court s ,ecision in /in1 $# State (2012) 32$ O,. $$0- 0hich strucF ,o0n a si(ilar statute. 1n granting the stay- the 4.S. Supre(e Court note, that *there is a reasonable probability this Court 0ill grant certiorari./ (%ar&"and $# /in1 ( (July 30 2012) 2012 4.S. 78T1S $01#.) Io0e.er- (!C! 2"2+a,+2,+C,- allo0ing the collection o" DJA "ro( post%arrestpre%con.iction suspects- 0as hel, to be unconstitutional in state $3#
court as a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment- in so "ar as it re@uires people "or 0ho( there has not e.en been a ,eter(ination o" probable cause to pro.i,e a DJA sa(ple. ()eop"e $# u5a (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 1323.) Re.ie0 0as grante, by the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court (2011 Cal. 78T1S 102&5 (Cal. !ct. 1&- 2011)- (aFing this case una.ailable "or citation pen,ing "urther ,ecision.
$3&
Chapter C
Searches o' 9ehic"es) Genera" Ru"e) Search 0arrants are not nee,e, to la0"ully sei;e an, search a (otor .ehicle- at least in (ost instances. So(eti(es re"erre, to as the *automobile exception/ to the search 0arrant re@uire(ent- it is accepte, that the auto(obile is co((only an e?igent circu(stance in an, o" itsel". ()eop"e $# Nicho"son (1&#3) 202 Cal.App.3r, 202- 211%212: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6Nasmeh7 (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th #$- 100%102.) +ote) Assu(ing that there is an *automobile exception/ to the search 0arrant re@uire(ent is perhaps a ,angerous assu(ption. +here are still situations 0here there are .iable argu(ents that a search 0arrant is necessary in or,er to la0"ully search a .ehicle. (See belo0) +his rule is Custi"ie, by) +he rea,y (obility o" the auto(obile. (Carro"" $# United States (1&2$) 252 4.S. 132 65& 7.8,.2n, $339: United States $# Ross (1&#2) 3$5 4S. 2&# 622 7.8,.2n, $229: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6Nasmeh7- supra.) +he lessene, e?pectation o" pri.acy in a .ehicleresulting "ro( the per.asi.e go.ern(ental regulation o" .ehicles capable o" tra.eling on public high0ays. (see Cad& $# Dom.ro,s(i (1&23) 313 4.S. 333 632 7.8,.2n, 2059: South Da(ota $# Opperman (1&25) 32# 4.S. 3$3 63& 7.8,.2n, 10009: see also )eop"e $# 9a"encia (2011) 201 Cal.App.3th &22- &3#%&3&- co(paring the ,i(inishe, e?pectation o" pri.acy in one s .ehicle 0hen co(pare, to the *heightene, e?pectation o" pri.acy/ in one s resi,ence.) +he e?pense- ,elay- an, risF o" loss in securing a .ehicle 0hile a search 0arrant is obtaine,. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 69a"de57 (1&#3) 3$ Cal.3r, 11- 15.) +he nee, "or clear gui,elines "or police. (I.id.: see also )eop"e $# Cha$ers (1&#3) 33 Cal.3r, 352- 35&: an, Ar(ansas $# Sanders (1&2&) 332 4.S. 2$3- 250%251- 25$- "n. 13 651 7.8,.2, 23$- 232% 233- 2359.)
$$0
-arrant"ess Searches o' 9ehic"es can be Custi"ie, un,er one or (ore o" se!en legal theories) 'ncident to *rrest =ith Probable &ause =hen the Vehicle 'tself is E!idence of a &rime 'n!entory earches The *Patdown/ (or *Protecti!e earch/) of a Vehicle for =eapons tatutory *utomobile 'nspections earching a Vehicle "or a Dri!er)s "icense an,Nor Vehicle RegistrationV'+ +umber- Proof of 'nsuranceetc.
Incident to Arrest: Any ti(e a person is arreste, in- or e.en *near/ (see belo0)or e.en as a *recent occupant/ o" his or her .ehicle (see belo0)- a search o" the suspect an, the area i((e,iately surroun,ing the suspect is la0"ul. (Ne, Yor( $# e"ton (1&#1) 3$3 4.S. 3$3 65& 7.8,.2n, 25#9: United States $# Ro.inson (1&23) 313 4.S. 21# 63# 7.8,.2n, 3229: )eop"e $# %o"ina (1&&3) 2$ Cal.App.3th 103#1033: Thornton $# United States (2003) $31 4.S. 51$ 61$# 7.8,.2n, &0$9.) The Rationale: +he tra,itional rationale o" 0arrantless searches inci,ent to arrest is the t0o%"ol, nee, to (1) unco.er e.i,ence o" the cri(e- to pre.ent its ,estruction- an, (2) to preclu,e the possibility the arrestee (ight reach "or a 0eapon 0ith 0hich he coul, inCure the arresting o""icer or e""ect an escape. ()reston $# United States (1&53) 325 4.S. 353- 352 611 7.8,.2, 222- 2#09: United States $# Ra.ino,it5 (1&$0) 33& 4.S. $522%2$ 6&3 7.8,. 5$3- 553%55$9: A1ne""o $# United States (1&2$) 25& 4.S. 20- 30 620 7.8,. 13$- 13#9: United States $# Ed,ards (1&23) 31$ 4.S. #00- #02%#03 63& 7.8,.2n, 2219: )eop"e $# Dia5 (2011) $1 Cal.3th #3.) Gut see Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$90hich has se.erely li(ite, searches inci,ent to arrest in .ehicle- at least 0here the arreste, subCect has alrea,y been secure, an, can no longer lunge "or e.i,ence or 0eapons. (See *"imitation of the Chime"N e"ton A$right "ine Test: =hen the *rrestee Has $een ecured-/ belo0.) &ontainers in the Uehicle) +he searchable area inclu,es any containers "oun, in that area- e.en i" not the arrestee s property. ()eop"e $# %itche"" (1&&$) 35 Cal.App.3th 522: )eop"e $# )rance (1&&1) 225 Cal.App.3r, 1$2$: purses belonging to passengers.) See also -&omin1 $# 0ou1hton (1&&&) 525 4.S. 2&$ 6133 7.8,.2n, 30#9: search o" another person s purse 0hen the search base, upon probable cause (belo0). $$1
Howe!er- a search o" the "e(ale ,e"en,ant s purse le"t in the car 0hen an o""icer is con,ucting a parole search o" a (ale parolee- is illegal absent a reasonable suspicion to belie.e that the parolee ha, Coint access- possession or control o.er the purse. ()eop"e $# a(er (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th 11$2.) Probable &ause +ot +eeded) 8?cept "or that 0hich is necessary to Custi"y the arrest- there need not be any separate probable cause to belie.e there is anything there to sei;e- in or,er to Custi"y the search o" the .ehicle. +he arrest alone Custi"ies the search. (United States $# Ro.inson- supra: )eop"e $# %o"ina (1&&3) 2$ Cal.App.3th 103#.) "imitations) *The "unging area)/ +he area to be searche, is li(ite, by Chime" $# Ca"i'ornia (1&5&) 3&$ 4.S. 2$2 623 7.8,.2n, 5#$9- to the *lunging area/ 0ithin the .ehicle. ()eop"e $# Summers (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 2##.) See the concurring- (inority opinion in Summers ,iscussing the legal Custi"ication "or a search after the suspect has been i((obili;e, an, re(o.e, "ro( the *grabbing area-/ ,elaying the search until it can be ,one sa"ety. +he *lunging area/ o" Chime" generally inclu,es the entire passenger area o" the car. (Ne, Yor( $# e"ton (1&#1) 3$3 4.S. 3$3- 350 65& 7.8,.2n, 25#- 22$9.) +his inclu,es the rear area o" a hatchbacF .ehicle- so long as that area is accessible to the passengers in the .ehicle0hether or not that storage area is co.ere,. (United States $# %a&o (&th Cir. 200$) 3&3 B.3r, 1221: see also United States $# Ca"d,e"" (#th Cir. 1&&5) &2 B.3r, 1053- 1052: United States $# Do,ard (1st Cir. 1&&3) 31 B.3r, 2#&- 2&3.) ee also United States $# O"1uin3Ri$era (10th Cir. 1&&&) 15# B.3r, 1203- 120$%1202: co.ere, cargo area o" a sport utility .ehicle. *nd United States $# )ino (5th Cir. 1&##) #$$ B.2n, 3$2- 353: cargo area o" (i,si;e station 0agon. &ontemporaneous) De"en,ant (ust be arreste, in or near his caran,- e?cept 0hen i(practical to ,o so un,er the circu(stances- the search (ust be *roughly contemporaneous in time and place/ 0ith $$2
the arrest. ()eop"e $# Sto''"e (1&&2) 1 Cal.App.3th 1521: )eop"e $# oissard (1&&2) $ Cal.App.3th &22: United States $# -ea$er (&th Cir. 2005) 333 B.3r, 1103.) 1" his car is 0ithin the *lunging area/ o" Chime"- the passenger area o" the car (ay be searche, ,espite the "act that the ,e"en,ant 0as not in it 0hen arreste,. (Thornton $# United States (2003) $31 4.S. 51$ 61$# 7.8,.2n, &0$9: analy;ing 0hether the arrestee 0as an occupant or a *recent occupant/ as the ,e"initi.e test.) ee * earches where *rrestee is a ARecent ;ccupant- / belo0. Be,eral la0 is in accor, as to the re@uire(ent that the search be conte(poraneous 0ith the arrest. ()reston $# United States (1&53) 325 4.S. 353 611 7.8,.2n, 2229: United States $# %c2au1h"in (&th Cir. 1&&&) 120 B.3r, ##&.) A ten to "i"teen (inute ,elay bet0een an arrest in a .ehicle an, the search o" that .ehicle 0ith no inter.ening occurrences is still a la0"ul 0arrantless search inci,ent to arrest. (United States $# -ea$er- supra.) Arresting ,e"en,ant a blocF an, a hal" a0ay a"ter a "oot pursuit- an, 0hen the car is then searche, *well after/ the arrest- is neither conte(poraneous in ti(e or place 0ith ,e"en,ant s arrest. (United States $# Caseres (&th Cir. 200#) $33 B.3, 1053- 1020%1023.) See also United States $# 9ase& (&th Cir. 1&#2) #33 B.2n, 2#2- 2#2: "in,ing unauthori;e, a .ehicle search con,ucte, 30 to 3$ (inutes a"ter an arrest an, a"ter the arrestee ha, been han,cu""e, an, secure, in the bacF o" a police car. "imitation of the Chime"N e"ton *$right "ine/ Test: =hen the *rrestee Has $een ecured) Rule &riticized) 1n a,,ition to the abo.e- a nu(ber o" courts critici;e, the application o" a *bright line rule/ allo0ing "or the search o" a .ehicle inci,ent to arrest in those circu(stances 0here a the arrestee has been re(o.e, "ro( the .ehicle an, secure,- an, 0here there is no reasonable possibility he can still lunge "or 0eapons an,Nor e.i,ence. (8.g.- see United States $# -ea$er- supra- at p. $$3
1102: Thornton $# United States (2003) $31 4.S. 51$- 523 61$# 7.8,.2n, &0$9: concurring opinion.) Ari5ona $# Gant) Binally- the 4.S. Supre(e Court ,eci,e, in Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9that a 0arrantless search o" a .ehicle inci,ent to arrest is la0"ul only 0hen the arrestee is unsecure, an, 0ithin reaching ,istance o" the passenger co(part(ent at the ti(e o" the search. (!.erruling Ne, Yor( $# e"ton (1&#1) 3$3 4.S. 3$3- 350 65& 7.8,.2n, 25#- 22$9- in so "ar as it has been interprete, to allo0 the 0arrantless- suspicionless search o" a (otor .ehicle inci,ent to arrest after the suspect has been han,cu""e, an, secure, in a patrol car "ro( 0here he coul, no longer lunge "or 0eapons or ,estroy e.i,ence.) +he theory o" Gant is not restricte, to .ehicle searches. +he sa(e theory- ,isallo0ing a search inci,ent to arrest 0hen the suspect has alrea,y been secure,- is applicable as 0ell to an arrest 0ithin one s resi,ence. ()eop"e $# 2ea" (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th 10$1.) Citing United States $# F"emin1 (2th Cir. 1&#2) 552 B.2n, 502- 50$%50#- the 2ea" Court note, that han,cu""ing alone is probably not enough to "ully secure the suspect. (Id.- at p. 1052.) *Ian,cu""s are a te(porary restraining ,e.ice: they li(it but ,o not eli(inate a person s ability to per"or( .arious acts. +hey ob.iously ,o not i(pair a personDs ability to use his legs an, "eet- 0hether to 0alFrun- or FicF. Ian,cu""s ,o li(it a personDs ability to use his han,s an, ar(s- but the ,egree o" the e""ecti.eness o" han,cu""s in this role ,epen,s on a .ariety o" "actorsinclu,ing the han,cu""e, personDs si;e- strength- bone an, Coint structure- "le?ibility- an, tolerance o" pain. Albeit ,i""icult- it is by no (eans i(possible "or a han,cu""e, person to obtain an, use a 0eapon conceale, on his person or 0ithin $$3
lunge reach- an, in so ,oing to cause inCury to his inten,e, .icti(- to a bystan,er- or e.en to hi(sel"./ Io0e.er- apparently putting a suspect into a locFe, patrol .ehicle 0hile unhan,cu""e, is su""icient to trigger the rule o" Gant. (See United States $# Ruc(es (&th Cir. 200&) $#5 B.3r, 213: issue not ,iscusse,.) Gant?s *lternati!e Theory) +he Gant Court- ho0e.er- also (entions that there is a secon, legal theory Custi"ying the 0arrantless search o" a .ehicle- inci,ent to arrest- e.en i" the suspect has been re(o.e, "ro( the .ehicle an, secure,) 1.e.- 0hen it is *reasonable to belie!e e!idence rele!ant to the crime of arrest might be found in the car./ (Id.- pp. 333%333.) +ote) +he Supre(e Court in Gant (entions this as an *alternate/ theory Custi"ying the 0arrantless search o" a .ehicle inci,ent to arrest- but "ails to e?plain 0hen an, ho0 it is applicable- (erely citing Thornton $# United States- supra- as authority "or its application. *So(e courts ha.e conclu,e, or i(plie, that 0hether it is reasonable to belie.e o""ense%relate, e.i,ence (ight be "oun, in a .ehicle is ,eter(ine, solely by re"erence to the nature o" the o""ense o" arrest- rather than by re"erence to the particulari;e, "acts o" the case. !thers ha.e re@uire, so(e le.el o" particulari;e, suspicionbase, at least on the "acts o" the speci"ic case./ ()eop"e $# E$ans (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 23$- 232%2$1.) +he E$ans Court (Secon, District Court o" Appeal) conclu,e, that *a reasonable belie" to search "or e.i,ence o" the o""ense o" arrest e?ists 0hen the nature o" the o""ense- consi,ere, in conCunction 0ith the particular "acts o" the case- gi.es rise to a ,egree o" suspicion co((ensurate 0ith that su""icient "or li(ite, intrusions such as in.estigatory stops./ (Id.- at p. 2$1: "urther noting that) *Reasonable suspicion- not probable cause- is re@uire,./) $$$
Thornton $# United States- supraat pp. 52&%532 (a concurring opinion)- ,escribes its applicability to .ehicle searches citing as its authority United States $# Ra.ino,it5 (1&$0) 33& 4.S. $5 6&3 7.8,. 5$39. United States $# Ra.ino,it5- supra- is a case in.ol.ing the 0arrantless search o" a business o""ice- ho0e.er- base, upon probable cause- itsel" being se.erely critici;e, later in Chime" $# Ca"i'ornia (1969) /9% U. . 7%2! 7%95768 "2/
#.$d.2d 68%&.
Also- the phrases *reasonable to belie!e/ an, *reasonable basis to belie!e/ are not ,e"ine, (e.g.*probable cause/ or *reasonable suspicionM/). Jeither are the other legal para(eters (e.g.- is it li(ite, to the passenger area o" the car- (ust it be conte(poraneous 0ith the arrest in ti(e an, placeetc.M) e.en ,iscusse,. See )eop"e $# Os.orne (200&) 12$ Cal.App.3th 10$2- 105$- 0here *reasonable basis to belie!e/ in a Gant search o" a .ehicle 0as ,e"ine, as *a standard less than probable cause./ (See also )eop"e $# Notto"i (2011) 1&& Cal.App.3th $31- $$1- "n. &- W $$3: an, )eop"e $# E$ans- supra- at p. 2$1.) Also- Thornton (at p. 532) in,icates that this theory is liFely to be li(ite, to 0arrantless .ehicle searches that are *inci,ent to arrest-/ base, upon the relati.ely lo0er e?pectation o" pri.acy in.ol.e, in one s (otor .ehicle. (See also )eop"e $# E$ans- supra- at p.23$.) Howe!er- +he sa(e theory,isallo0ing a search inci,ent to arrest 0hen the suspect has alrea,y been secure,- has been hel, to be applicable as 0ell to an arrest 0ithin one s resi,ence. ()eop"e $# 2ea" (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th 10$1.) $$5
ubse@uent &ase "aw) Arresting ,e"en,ant "or .ehicle burglary- sitting in a .ehicle- particularly 0ith tools .isible in the .ehicle- Custi"ie, the 0arrantless search o" the .ehicle upon *a reasonable basis to belie!e/ that e.i,ence relate, to the suspecte, .ehicle burglary (ight be "oun, in the car. ()eop"e $# Os.orne (200&) 12$ Cal.App.3th 10$2- 1052%105$.) Os.orne interprets *reasonable basis to belie!e/ to be so(ething less than *probable cause./ (Id.- at p. 105$.) +he search o" a cell phone at the scene o" an arrest in a .ehicle is la0"ul so long as it is *reasonable to belie.e e.i,ence rele.ant to the cri(e o" arrest (ight be "oun, in the .ehicle./ Ehen the ,ri.er is arreste, "or ,ri.ing un,er the in"luence o" ,rugsan, the recor, contains e?pert testi(ony concerning the use o" cell phones by ,rug users- the 0arrantless search o" the ,ri.er s cell phone is la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Notto"i (2011) 1&& Cal.App.3th $31- $33%$$&.) Arresting a person "or ,ri.ing on a suspen,e, license ,oes not establish a *reasonable basis to belie!e/ that the car 0ill contain any e.i,ence o" this o""ense. (United States $# Ruc(es (&th Cir. 200&) $#5 B.3r, 213- 21#: citing Gant at 12& S.Ct. p. 121&.) Stoppe, an, physically arreste, "or ,ri.ing on a suspen,e, license (0ith a prior con.iction "or the sa(e)- ,e"en,ant 0as secure, in the bacF seat o" a patrol car. +he subse@uent search o" his )ehicle!
resultin. in reco)er* of cocaine and an ille.al firearm (defendant bein. a con)icted felon)! +as found to be in )iolation of the rule of Gant. (United States v. !uckes (9th Cir. 2009) %86 1./rd 71/! 71657182 e)idence +as held to be admissible! ho+e)er! under the ine)itable disco)er* rule in that the )ehicle +as to be im(ounded and sub6ected to an in)entor* search2 ((. 7185719.)
+he Se.enth Circuit Court o" Appeal has "oun, that in a ,rug conspiracy%relate, arrest- there is co((only going to be *a reasonable basis to $$2
believe3 that e)idence related to the dru.s or the cons(irac* are .oin. to be found in the defendant,s )ehicle. (United States v. Slone (7th Cir. 2011) 6/6 1./rd 84%! 8%2: ,e"en,ant arreste, 0hile in the
process o" con,ucting security or counter% sur.eillance operations in a ,rug tra""icFing conspiracy.) +0o searches o" ,e"en,ant s car 0ere not Custi"ie, as inci,ent to his arrest "or inter"ering 0ith an in.estigation ((!C! 14#). +he "irst search ,i, not "all 0ithin the Gant "irst prong (arrestee 0ithin reaching ,istance o" his .ehicle) because ,e"en,ant ha, been +ase, an, ,etaine,- an, 0as lying "ace ,o0n on the groun, 0ith o""icers on hi(. +he secon, search 0as con,ucte, at the i(poun, yar,. Gut un,er the secon, Gant prong- it 0as not reasonable to belie.e e.i,ence o" inter"ering 0ith the o""icer 0oul, re(ain in the .ehicle a"ter ,e"en,ant 0as re(o.e,. A reasonable belie" to search a .ehicle "or e.i,ence o" the o""ense o" arrest e?ists 0hen the nature o" the o""ense- consi,ere, in conCunction 0ith the particular "acts o" the casega.e rise to a ,egree o" suspicion co((ensurate 0ith that su""icient "or li(ite, intrusions. Reasonable suspicion- not probable cause- is re@uire,. +here"ore- the auto(obile e?ception also ,i, not Custi"y either search. Probable cause 0as not establishe, by ,e"en,antDs erratic ,ri.ingner.ousness- or re"usal to e?it the car- or by the location o" the stop in gang territory- or the ,isco.ery o" baggies an, cash in the "irst search. ()eop"e $# E$ans (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 23$- 233% 2$$.) +he Court "urther reCecte, both the *in.entory search/ an, *ine.itable ,isco.ery/ theories in that neither theory 0as su""iciently ,e.elope, at the trial court le.el. (Id.- at pp. 2$$%2$5.) Exception) Ehere the person is arreste, an, transporte, to the police station- property "oun, *on his person/ (ay be searche, (an,Nor his property taFen "or laboratory analysis) upon arri.al at the station- there being little percei.e, ,i""erence bet0een searching in the "iel, an, shortly $$#
therea"ter at the police station. (United States $# Ed,ards (1&23) 31$ 4.S. #00- #02%#03 63& 7.8,.2n, 2219: In re Char"es C# (1&&&) 25 Cal.App.3th 320- 32$: see also United States $# Fin"e& ($th Cir. 2002) 322 B.3rd 2%0! 260! fn. 7: United States $# Rodri1ue5 ($th Cir. Dec. 2- 2012) >>B.3r, >> 62012 4.S. App. 78T1S 2$0#17: )eop"e $# Dia5 (2011) $1 Cal.3th #3.) +he 0arrantless search o" a cell phone (or other personal property) is la0"ul so long as it is *immediately associated with the person of an arrestee-/ e.en i" the search is ,elaye,. (I.id.) +he ,elay in Dia5 0as so(e &0 (inutes a"ter his arrestan, 30 (inutes a"ter being reco.ere, "ro( his person. Joting that an e?igency is not necessary to Custi"y the search o" ,e"en,ant s clothing- or anything else *i((e,iately associate, 0ith the person o" the arrestee-/ the Court "oun, the ,elay to be irrele.ant to the legality o" the search o" the cellphone. (Id.- at p. &3.) +he Dia5 Court ,i,n t speci"y ho0 long this ,elay (ay be- but prior Supre(e Court authority has up hel, a booFing search o" property reco.ere, "ro( the ,e"en,ant s person up to 10 hours later. (United States $# Ed,ards (1&23) 31$ 4.S. #00- #03%#03 63& 7.8,.2n, 221- 22$%2259.) Contrary case la0 "ro( another Curis,iction (State $# Smith (!hio 200&) &20 J.8. &3&)- (aFes the Dia5 issue ripe "or 4nite, States Supre(e Court re.ie0. Io0e.er- the 4S Supre(e Court has ,enie, certiorari. (Dia5 $# Ca"i'ornia (!ct. 3- 2011) 132 S.Ct. &3: 1#1 7.8,.2n, 23.) 's Gant Retroacti!eM Bollo0ing Gant- a gun "oun, ,uring the search o" a .ehicle in 0hich the ,e"en,ant 0as a passengersearche, inci,ent to the arrest o" another passenger an, a"ter ,e"en,ant hi(sel" ha, been han,cu""e, an, secure, in a patrol car- shoul, ha.e been suppresse,. (United States $# Gon5a"e5 (&th Cir. 200&) $2# B.3r, 1130: also noting that the ,ecision $$&
in Gant applies retroacti.ely to any case not yet "inal (i.e.- still on appeal) ,espite the o""icer s goo, "aith in "ollo0ing the ol, rule that 0as .ali, at the ti(e o" the search.) Io0e.er- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court has since rule, that searches con,ucte, in obCecti.ely reasonable reliance on bin,ing appellate prece,ent in e""ect at the ti(e o" the search- ,espite a later ,ecision changing the rules- are not subCect to the 8?clusionary Rule. +Da$is $# United States (June 15- 2011) >> 4.S. >> 6131 S.Ct. 231&- 2323%2323: 1#0 7.8,.2n, 2#$9.) As a result- a search o" a ,e"en,ant s .ehicle "ollo0ing his custo,ial arrest- ,one in .iolation o" Gant- ,i, not re@uire the suppression o" t0o "irear(s "oun, in the car in that this search occurre, prior to the Gant ,ecision. (United States $# Tschacher (&th Cir. 2012) 5#2 B.3r, &23- &32%&33.) Gut see )eop"e $# 2ea" (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th 10$1- 105$%1055- a search inci,ent to arrest in a resi,ence 0here the Court applie, the rule o" Gantan, "oun, that the la0 0as su""iciently settle, prior to Gant- at least un,er Cali"ornia authority as it applie, to searches o" resi,ences- that *good faith/ reliance upon prior authority ,i, not allo0 "or the a,(issibility o" the e.i,ence reco.ere, in this case: a @uestionable ,ecision in light o" the ,ecision in Da$is $# United States- supra.) Transportation) +he arrestee (ust be subCect to a post%arrest transportation to Cail or the police station- or perhaps a ,eto?i"ication "acility- be"ore a search inci,ent to arrest is Custi"ie,. ()eop"e $# risendine (1&2$) 13 Cal.3r, $2#.) +here"ore- i" the proce,ure is to cite an, release the subCect at the scene o" the arrest- no *search incident to arrest/ is la0"ul. +he theory is that a person is not as prone to atte(pt to ,estroy e.i,ence or reach "or a 0eapon i" he is only to be cite,- as oppose, to taFen to Cail. (I.id.) See * earch 'ncident to *rrest-/ un,er * earches of Persons-/ abo.e. $50
&itations) +here is no such thing as legal Custi"ication "or a *search incident to citation-/ because o" the lacF o" the right to physically transport the subCect "ro( the scene. (/no,"es $# Io,a (1&#&) $2$ 4.S. 113 6132 7.8,.2n, 3&29.) Howe!er- it is not unconstitutional to (aFe a custo,ial arrest (i.e.- transporting to Cail or court) o" a person arreste, "or a (inor (is,e(eanor (At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista (2001) $32 4.S. 31# 613& 7.8,.2n, $3&9.)- or e.en "or a "ine%only- in"raction. ()eop"e $# %c/a& (2002) 22 Cal.3th 501- 502: see also United States $# %cFadden (2n, Cir. 2001) 23# B.3r, 1&#- 203: see also 9ir1inia $# %oore (200#) $$3 4.S. 153 6120 7.8,.2n, $$&9.) Cali"ornia s statutory pro.isions re@uire the release o" (is,e(eanor arrestees in (ost circu(stances. (e.g.- see (!C! #)3!), #)3!2, 0!C! 43333, 43)33) Io0e.er.iolation o" these statutory re@uire(ents is not a constitutional .iolation an,- there"ore- should not result in suppression o" any e.i,ence reco.ere, as a result o" such an arrest. ()eop"e $# %c/a&- supraat pp. 502%51&- a .iolation o" 0!C! 212)3!1 (ri,ing a bicycle in the 0rong ,irection): )eop"e $# Gome5 (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $31- $3#%$3&- seat belt .iolation (0!C! 2131)+d,+1,)- citing) At,ater $# Cit& o' 2a1o 9ista (2001) $32 4.S. 31# 613& 7.8,.2n, $3&9: )eop"e $# ennett (July 21- 2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th &02- &1#.) A state statute li(iting the right to search ,oes not re@uire the suppression o" any e.i,ence "oun, in .iolation o" the statute- so long as the Constitution is not also .iolate,. ()eop"e $# >inos (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 532- 5$3: search o" a .ehicle s e.ent ,ata recor,ers (8DR)- or sensing an, ,iagnostic (o,ules (SDO)- in .iolation o" 0!C! "")1.) See also: * earch 'ncident to *rrest-/ un,er * earches of Persons-/ abo.e. earches where *rrestee is a *Recent ;ccupant)/ +he arrestee nee, not ha.e been arreste, 0hile physically 0ithin his .ehicle so long as he is at least a *recent occupant/ o" the .ehicle. (Thornton $# United States (2003) $31 4.S. 51$ 61$# 7.8,.2n, &0$9.)
$51
ee United States $# Osi'e (&th Cir. 200$) 3&# B.3r, 1133- 0here the Court- 0ithout ,iscussing the issue- "oun, the ,e"en,ant to be a *recent occupant/ 0here he ha, le"t his .ehicle- gone into a storean, returne, to it be"ore being arreste,. Gut 0here ,e"en,ant is arreste, a blocF an, a hal" a0ay a"ter a "oot pursuit "ro( his .ehicle- so that 0hen arreste, he is no longer 0ithin reach o" the passenger area o" his car- the Jinth Circuit is o" the belie" that he ,oes not @uali"y as a *recent occupant./ (United States $# Caseres (&th Cir. 200#) $33 B.3, 1053- 1020%1023.) Geing a *recent occupant/ o" a .ehicle ,oes not a,, a re@uire(ent that in or,er to search the passenger area o" the .ehicle there (ust be so(e reason to belie.e the .ehicle contains e.i,ence relate, to the cri(e "or 0hich the ,e"en,ant 0as arreste,. (United States $# Osi'e- supra- rea""ir(ing the rule o" Ne, Yor( $# e"ton (1&#1) 3$3 4.S. 3$3- 350 65& 7.8,.2n, 25#- 22$9- ,e"en,ant arguing that a (inority- concurring opinion in Thornton to this e""ect shoul, be accepte, as a ne0 rule.) +ote) 1t is assu(e, that this *recent occupant/ theory is still subCect to the rule o" Ari5ona $# Gant- supra2 -ith )ro.a."e Cause: Search with Probable &ause to belie.e there is contraban, or other sei;able ite(s in a .ehicle) <eneral Rule) 1" police o""icers ha.e probable cause to search a car- they (ay (aFe a 0arrantless search any0here a 0arrant coul, ha.e authori;e,. ()enns&"$ania $# 2a.ron (1&&5) $1# 4.S. &3# 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9: %ar&"and $# D&son (1&&&) $22 4.S. 35$ 6133 7.8,.2n, 3329: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6Nasmeh7 (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th #$- 100%102: United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 200#) $30 B.3r, 105&- 10#3: United States $# Noster (&th Cir. 200&) $&0 B.3r, 523- 533%533: )eop"e $# >inos (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 532- 5$3%5$&.) +he rule is that i" such probable cause e?ists to belie.e that a la0"ully stoppe, .ehicle contains e.i,ence o" cri(e or other contraban,- then any0here in the .ehicle that a 0arrant coul, ha.e authori;e, is subCect to search. Earrantless searches in such cases are Custi"ie, by *the re,uce, e?pectation o" pri.acy in a .ehiclethe "act a .ehicle is inherently (obile- an, the historical ,istinction bet0een searches o" auto(obiles an, ,0ellings./ ()eop"e $# E$ans (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 23$- 2$3.) 8rratic ,ri.ingner.ousness- an, a "ailure to cooperate- e.en 0hen co(bine, 0ith Fno0le,ge that ,e"en,ant ha, hi,,en a $52
0eapon in the air .ents in his car on a prior occasion- 0ere hel, to be insu""icient to establish probable cause to search his car. (Id2- at pp. 2$3%2$$.) Earrantless search o" ,e"en,ant s .ehicle Custi"ie, by e?igent circu(stances (looFing "or a (issing eight%year%ol, girl) an, probable cause (bloo, seen in the .ehicle an, a cor, hanging out o" the trunF). ()eop"e $# )anah (200$) 3$ Cal.3th 3&$- 35#%35&.) +his inclu,es any co(part(ents an, containers in the .ehicle: assu(ing the ite( "or 0hich there is probable cause "or 0hich to search 0oul, reasonably be e?pecte, to be in the container searche,. (United States $# Ross (1&#2) 3$5 4.S. 2&# 622 7.8,.2n, $229: )eop"e $# Cha$ers (1&#3) 33 Cal.3r, 352- 355%352.) 8.en i" the container searche, ,oes not belong to the ,e"en,ant- it is subCect to search. (-&omin1 $# 0ou1hton (1&&&) $25 4S. 2&$ 6133 7.8,.2n, 30#9) Ehere ,e"en,ant 0as a passenger in the .ehicle- the search o" ,e"en,ant s purse 0hich 0as le"t in the car 0hen the passengers 0ere or,ere, out is oFay.) Jote )eop"e $# %itche"" (1&&$) 35 Cal.App.3th 522: )eop"e $# )rance (1&&1) 225 Cal.App.3r, 1$2$- uphol,ing the search o" purses belonging to passengers un,er the *incident to arrest/ theory (abo.e). Howe!er- a search o" the "e(ale ,e"en,ant s purse le"t in the car 0hen an o""icer is con,ucting a parole search o" a (ale parolee- is illegal absent a reasonable suspicion to belie.e that the parolee ha, Coint access- possession or control o.er the purse. ()eop"e $# a(er (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th 11$2.) 1t is not rele.ant that the car (ust be ,a(age, to get to the hi,,en co(part(ents. (-im.er"& $# Superior Court (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, $$2- $21.) 1t is also la0"ul to (aFe a 0arrantless sei;ure o" a .ehicle- "oun, in any public area- 0hen an o""icer has probable cause to belie.e that the .ehicle itsel" is *forfeitable contraband/ (F"orida $# -hite (1&&&) $25 4.S. $$& 6133 7.8,.2n, 23#9: see also Carro"" $# United States (192%) 267 U. . 1/2! 1%051%1 "69 #.$d. %4/&.)- or is transporting contraban,. (United States $# A"$ere53Te;eda (&th Cir. 2002) 3&1 B.3r, 1013.)
$53
*(C)ircu(stances uni@ue to the .ehicle conte?t Custi"y a search inci,ent to a la0"ul arrest 0hen it is *reasonable to belie!e e!idence rele!ant to the crime of arrest might be found in the !ehicle./ (Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9- citing Thornton $# United States (2003) $31 4.S. 51$- 52&% 532 61$# 7.8,.2n, &0$9.) +ote) +his theory "or Custi"ying a 0arrantless search- 0hich is liFely to be li(ite, to the searches o" .ehicles (Thornton $# United States- infra- at p. 532.) generates (ore @uestions than it ans0ers) Bor instance- *reasonable to belie!e/ is not ,e"ine, (e.g.- *probable cause/ or *reasonable suspicionM/) Jeither are the other legal para(eters (e.g.- is it li(ite, to the passenger area o" the car- (ust it be conte(poraneous 0ith the arrest in ti(e an, placeetc.M) e.en ,iscusse,. +he theory itsel" co(es "ro( the concurring (t0o Custices) opinion in Thornton $# United States (2003) $31 4.S. 51$- at pp. 52&%532 61$# 7.8,.2, &0$9. Thornton itsel" cites as its authority United States $# Ra.ino,it5 (1&$0) 33& 4.S. $5 6&3 7.8,. 5$39- 0hich 0as itsel" all but o.errule, in Chime" $# Ca"i'ornia (1969)
/9% U. . 7%2! 7%95768 "2/ #.$d.2d 68%&.
+he 0arrantless search o" a .ehicle pursuant to the *auto(obile e?ception/ to the 0arrant re@uire(ent is no less Custi"ie, (erely because the .ehicle is parFe, at the ,e"en,ant s apart(ent in a nearby carport. +he *t0in Custi"ications/ "or not re@uiring search 0arrants to search .ehicles: i.e.- *the per.asi.e sche(es o" regulation- 0hich necessarily lea, to re,uce, e?pectations o" pri.acy- an, the e?igencies atten,ant to rea,y (obility-/ applies Cust as (uch as 0hen the car is out on the street. ()eop"e $# 0oc(straser (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th ##3- &02%&0$.) Ia.ing probable cause to arrest a passenger in a .ehicle "or pro.i,ing "alse in"or(ation to a peace o""icer concerning her age ,oes not constitute probable cause to belie.e that she is hi,ing i,enti"ication in a car 0hen she tells the o""icer that she ,oes not ha.e any i,enti"ication 0ith her. (United States $# Rod1ers (&th Cir. 2011) 5$5 B.3r, 1023.) During a tra""ic stop- ,e"en,ant ga.e counter"eit bills to another passenger 0ho stu""e, the(- "ol,e,- into the 0eather stripping bet0een the right "ront passenger ,oor an, 0in,o0. An o""icer notice, the partially%.isible bills- re(o.e, the(- un"ol,e, the(an, obser.e, that they 0ere counter"eit. +he appellate court ,eter(ine, that suppression 0as not 0arrante, because (1) the $53
circu(stances presente, a "air probability that the (oney 0as in.ol.e, in ,rug tra""icFing an, that a search o" the car 0oul, ha.e re.eale, e.i,ence o" a cri(e since the passenger 0as ner.ous- a parolee- an, appeare, un,er the in"luence o" a ,rug- an, the (oney 0as locate, in a place that suggeste, an e""ort to conceal its presence an, calle, to the o""icer s (in, the ,oor co(part(ents an, other hi,ing places use, by ,rug couriers to transport contraban, an, cash- an, (2) a separate *secon,ary/ search ,i, not occur 0hen the o""icer un"ol,e, the bills since the (oney 0as 0ithin the scope o" the search. (United States $# E,in1 (&th Cir. 2011) 53# B.3r, 1225- 1230%1233.) +he "act that the ,e"en,ant an, his cohorts 0ere in.ol.e, in counter"eiting instea, o" ,rug tra""icFing ,i, not ,etract "ro( the "act that probable cause to belie.e that the cri(e being co((itte, 0as relate, to ,rugs. (Id.- at p. 1233.) +0o searches o" ,e"en,ant s car 0ere not Custi"ie, un,er the probable cause theory in that probable cause 0as not establishe, by ,e"en,antDs erratic ,ri.ingner.ousness- or re"usal to e?it the car- or by the location o" the stop in gang territory- or the ,isco.ery o" baggies an, cash in the "irst search. ()eop"e $# E$ans (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 23$- 2$3%2$$.) A police o""icer s conclusory state(ent that a bo? in ,e"en,ant s car ca(e "ro( a *suspecte, narcotics stash house-/ an, his obser.ation that ,e"en,ant *,i, not taFe a ,irect route to his location-/ 0ere not su""icient to establish probable cause to con,uct a 0arrantless search o" ,e"en,ant s car un,er the auto(obile e?ception to the Fourth Amendment.s 0arrant re@uire(ent. (United States $# Cer$antes (&th Cir. Jo.. 2#- 2012) >> B.3r, >>- >> 62012 4.S. App. 78T1S 2$2359.) Problem) Does "in,ing a limited amount of contraband in the passenger area o" a car- such as ,uring a search inci,ent to arrest or 0ith a plain%sight obser.ation- pro.i,e an o""icer 0ith probable cause to search the rest o" the .ehicle (e.g.- the trunF) "or (ore contraban,M +he former rule 0as that "in,ing a li(ite, a(ount o" e.i,ence ,oes not necessarily pro.i,e probable cause to belie.e (ore (ight be containe, in other areas o" the car- such as the trunF or the engine co(part(ent. (See -im.er"& $# Superior Court (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, $$2: )eop"e $# Gre11 (1&23) 33 Cal.App.3r, 132.) +he new rule is that any0here in the .ehicle 0here an o""icer (ight logically e?pect to "in, 0hate.er it is that there is probable $5$
cause to belie.e is there- is subCect to a 0arrantless search. ()eop"e $# De& (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 131#: "in,ing that the old rule- as e?presse, in -im.er"&- 0as in e""ect o.errule, by United States $# Ross (1&#2) 3$5 4.S. 2#& 622 7.8,.2n, $229- establishing a *bright line/ test "or .ehicle searches.) De& 0as rea""ir(e, in )eop"e $# 0unter (200$) 133 Cal.App.3th 321- 0here a .ehicle s trunF 0as searche, base, upon a li(ite, a(ount o" (ariCuana "oun, in the passenger area. Passage o" (ro-osition #- the *Truth in E!idence/ 1nitiati.e in June- 1&#2,ictate, that trial courts "ollo0 Ross. +he Court in 0unter critici;e, the trial Cu,ge "or not "ollo0ing De&- noting that the rules o" * tare Decisis/ ,i, not allo0 a trial court an option. +he Court in 0unter also rule,- ho0e.er- that e.en i" -im.er"& 0ere still the rule- the arresting o""icers in this case ha, *probable cause/ to belie.e that (ore contraban, 0oul, be "oun, in the trunF base, upon the .ehicle occupants suspicious actions 0hen "irst stoppe, an, the "act that one occupant 0as a Fno0n ,rug ,ealer an, a secon, a CKA parolee. (Id.- at p. 32&.) Problem) Ehere e.i,ence is "oun, in a .ehicle 0ithin reach o" (ore than one o" the occupants- but no one a,(its o0nership- 0ho is subCect to arrestM Ehere a large a(ount o" (oney is "oun, rolle, up in a .ehicle s glo.e co(part(ent- an, "i.e plastic glassine baggies o" cocaine are "oun, behin, the center ar(rest o" the bacFseat- 0ith the ar(rest pushe, up into the close, position to hi,e the contraban,- such contraban, being accessible to all the occupants o" the .ehicle- the arrest o" all three subCects in the .ehicle (,ri.er- right "ront an, rear seat passengers) 0as supporte, by probable cause. (%ar&"and $# )rin1"e (2003) $30 4.S. 355 61$2 7.8,.2n, 25&9.) !""icers ha, probable cause to arrest both the passenger an, the ,ri.er "or possession o" a billy club seen resting against the ,ri.er s ,oor. ()eop"e $# 9ermouth (1&21) 20 Cal. App. 3, 2352$5.) 1n"or(ing t0o suspects in a .ehicle that they 0oul, both be arreste, "or possession o" a conceale, "irear(- pro(pting a response "ro( ,e"en,ant that he , *ta?e the charge-/ 0as not the "unctional e@ui.alent o" an interrogation that re@uire, a %iranda $55
a,(onish(ent. (United States $# Co""ins (5th Cir. 2012) 5#3 B.3r, 5&2- 201%203.) +ote) Io0e.er- absent su""icient e.i,ence to connect contraban, "oun, in the .ehicle *beyond a reasonable doubt-/ the case is unliFely to be "ile, by a prosecutor. Problem) Ehat i" the .ehicle is already impounded an, in police custo,yan, a search 0oul, no longer be *contemporaneous in time and placeM/ +he *contemporaneous in time and place/ re@uire(ent only applies to *searches incident to arrest./ 1" probable cause to belie.e a .ehicle contains contraban, or other sei;able ite(s e?iste, at the ti(e the .ehicle is sei;e, an, i(poun,e,- a ,elaye,0arrantless search is no less .ali, than i" searche, at the ti(e o" sei;ure. +he courts ha.e hel, that such a ,elaye, search i(poses no greater intrusion upon a ,e"en,ant s pri.acy rights than i" it ha, been i((e,iately searche, upon initial sei;ure. ()eop"e $# Nicho"son (1&#&) 202 Cal.App.3r, 202: United States $# *ohns (1&#$) 35& 4.S. 32# 6#3 7.8,.2n, #&09: United States $# Garcia (&th Cir. 2000) 20$ B.3r, 11#2.) *(+)he passage o" ti(e bet0een the sei;ure an, the search o" 6a9 car is legally irrele.ant./ ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Nasmeh7 (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th #$- 100%102: citing United States $# Gastia.uro (3th Cir. 1&&3) 15 B.3r, $#2$#2.) $ut note: * earch =arrant Re@uired) Gase, upon the reasoning o" the abo.e cases- it is arguable that 0hen a .ehicle is i(poun,e, at a ti(e 0hen there is no probable cause to belie.e it contains contraban, or other sei;able ite(s- ,e.eloping probable cause to search the .ehicle at a later ti(e probably does not allo0 a 0arrantless search a"ter i(poun,. +here no longer being any legal theory allo0ing "or a 0arrantless search- nor any e?igent circu(stances- a search 0arrant shoul, be obtaine,. Problem) Searches o" *closed containers/ in a .ehicle) ;ld Rule) 1" a police o""icer ha, probable cause to belie.e a particular close, container in a .ehicle containe, contraban,- as oppose, to probable cause to belie.e that there 0as contraban, in so(e unFno0n location in the .ehicle in general- then the container itsel" 0oul, ha.e to be sei;e, an, a search 0arrant obtaine, be"ore opening it. (United States $# Chad,ic( (1&22) 333 4.S. 1 6$3 7.8,.2n, $3#9.) $52
+ew Rule) Recogni;ing the absur,ity o" trying to ,istinguish the rule o" Ross (United States $# Ross (1&#2) 3$5 4.S. 2#& 622 7.8,.2n, $229.)- allo0ing a 0arrantless search o" containers in a .ehicle i" there 0as probable cause to search the car in general (abo.e)- an, the rule o" Chad,ic(- re@uiring a 0arrant "or a particular container 0hen there 0as probable cause to belie.e a Fno0n container in a .ehicle itsel" containe, contraban, or other sei;able ite(s- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court "inally o.errule, Chad,ic( in Ca"i'ornia $# Ace$edo (1&&1) $00 4.S. $5$- $#0 6113 7.8,.2n, 51&- 5339. Jo0- pursuant to Ace$edo- any ti(e a close, container is "oun, in a car- 0hether searche, (1) inci,ent to arrest- (2) 0ith probable cause to belie.e there is contraban, or other sei;able e.i,ence so(e0here in the car- or (3) 0ith probable cause to belie.e a speci"ic container 0ithin the .ehicle contains contraban, or sei;able ite(s- the container (ay be searche, 0ithout a search 0arrant. (See also )eop"e $# %o"ina (1&&3) 2$ Cal.App.3th 103#: see also )eop"e $# Thompson (2010) 3& Cal.3th 2&- 112.) +his inclu,es a close, container belonging to a passenger e.en though the passenger is not arreste, ()eop"e $# %itche"" (1&&$) 3$ Cal.App.3th 522: )eop"e $# )rance (1&&1) 225 Cal.App.3r, 1$2$.) an, e.en though the passenger has alrea,y been or,ere, out o" the .ehicle. (-&omin1 $# 0ou1hton (1&&&) $25 4.S. 2&$ 6133 7.8,.2n, 30#9.) 1"- ho0e.er- the passenger taFes the container (such as a purse) 0ith hi( or her upon being or,ere, out o" a .ehicleis that container subCect to searchM Probably not (see United States $# 9au1han (&th Cir. 1&#3) 21# B.2n, 332.)absent so(e reason to belie.e it (ay contain a 0eapon- in 0hich case a *patdown/ o" the container (i.e.- the purse) (ay be appropriate. (See *(ris?s-/ abo.e.) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court applie, this e?ception to per(it the 0arrantless sei;ure o" goo,s or chattels consigne, to a co((on carrier "or ship(ent. +he court hel, that 0hen the police ha.e probable cause to belie.e that a pacFage consigne, to a co((on carrier contains contraban,- they are entitle, either to search it i((e,iately 0ithout a 0arrant or to sei;e an, hol, it until they can $5#
obtain a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# %c/innon (1&22) 2 Cal.3r, #&&- &0&.) Problem) A motorhome (an, other si(ilar *!ehicles/)) A (otorho(e- although ha.ing (any o" the attributes o" a pri.ate resi,ence- is (obile an, subCect to registration liFe any other (otor .ehicle- an, is there"ore inclu,e, 0ithin the .ehicle e?ception to the search 0arrant re@uire(ent. (Ca"i'ornia $# Carne& (1&#$) 321 4.S. 3#5 6#$ 7.8,.2n, 3059.) *Ehen a .ehicle is being use, on the high0ays- or i" it is rea,ily capable o" such use an, is "oun, stationary in a place not regularly use, "or resi,ential purposesPte(porary or other0isePthe t0o Custi"ications "or the .ehicle e?ception (i.e.- Amobility an, Alessened expectation of pri!acy ) co(e into play./ (Ca"i'ornia $# Carne&- supraat pp. 3&2%3&3 6#$ 7.8,.2n, at p. 3139.) Thus- 0hen a (otorho(e is not *readily capable of 2 2 2 use/ on the high0ay- an, is "oun, stationary in a place 0hich is *regularly used for residential purposes-/ (i.e.such as 0hen hooFe, up in the resi,ential area o" a parF)then the rules "or searching ho(es 0oul, apply. De"en,ant s picFupNca(per- 0hich the parties stipulate, 0as actually ,e"en,ant s resi,ence- but 0hich 0as "oun, parFe, on the street 0ithin 1000 "eet o" an ele(entary school- 0as hel, not to co(e 0ithin the *residence/ e?ception to P.C. V 525.& ("irear( in a .ehicle 0ithin a *gun6free school zone/) 0hen a "irear( 0as "oun, in it. ()eop"e $# Anson (2002) 10$ Cal.App.3th 22- 25%22.) +he sa(e rule applies to a houseboat (United States $# 0i"" (10th Cir. 1&##) #$$ B.2n, 553- 55#: United States $# A".ers (&th Cir. 1&&#) 135 B.3r, 520.). an, "or a trailer use, "or resi,ential purposes but hooFe, up to a .ehicle an, (o.e, to a non% resi,ential area. (Gar.er $# Superior Court (2010) 1#3 Cal.App.3th 223: ,iscussing 0hether the e?ceptions to the conceale, an, loa,e, "irear(s statutes ((!C! 1232) W 12331) applie, to ,e"en,ant s trailer that he li.e, in: hol,ing that- un,er the circu(stances- they ,i, not.) $icycles ri,,en on public streets are liFe cars an, can be searche, 0ithout a 0arrant 0hen there is probable cause to belie.e it contains contraban,. ()eop"e $# A""en (2000) 2# Cal.App.3th 33$.)
$5&
+he .ehicle e?ception has been use, 0ith other types o" .ehiclessuch as an airplane2 (See United States $# Ro""ins (11th Cir. 1&#3) 5&& B.2n, $30.) Problem) Expanding the scope of the search beyond the purposes of the original cause for the traffic stop) Ia.ing a ,rug%sni""ing ,og checF the outsi,e o" a .ehicle stoppe, "or a tra""ic .iolation ,oes not re@uire any in,epen,ent reasons "or belie.ing contraban, is in the car in or,er to be la0"ul. +he ,rug sni"" is not a search- an, thus ,oes not i(plicate the Fourth Amendment. (I""inois $# Ca.a""es (200$) $33 4.S. 30$ 6150 7.8,.2n, #329- reCecting the argu(ent that to ,o so *un6ustifiabl*
enlar.e(s) the sco(e of a routine traffic sto( into a dru. in)esti.ation.3
See *Enlarging the cope of the ;riginal Detention-/ un,er *Detentions-/ abo.e. E!idence of Probable &ause) Probable cause to search a (otor .ehicle is establishe, Cust as in any other case. ()eop"e $# Carri""o (1&&$) 32 Cal.App.3th 1552: ,e"en,ant clai(ing no o0nership interest in a .ehicle 0hen a registration checF sho0e, the .ehicle to be registere, to hi(- a,,s to the e.i,ence nee,e, to pro.e probable cause.) -hen the 9ehic"e Itse"' is E$idence o' a Crime: Although there is not a lot o" authority on the issuean, 0hat authority there is ten,s to be a bit .ague an, inconsistent- it has been hel, that 0hen the .ehicle itsel" constitutes e.i,ence o" a cri(e- or is the instru(entality o" a cri(e- rather than the *mere container of e!idence-/ sei;ure an, a 0arrantless search o" that .ehicle is la0"ul. Bor instance) 1t is la0"ul to (aFe a 0arrantless sei;ure o" a .ehicle- "oun, in any public area- 0hen an o""icer has probable cause to belie.e that the .ehicle itsel" is *forfeitable contraband./ (F"orida $# -hite (1&&&) $25 4.S. $$& 6133 7.8,.2n, 23#9: see also Carro"" $# United States (192%) 267 U. . 1/2! 1%05 1%1 "69 #.$d. %4/&.) Ehere the ,e"en,ant s bloo,y shoeprint 0as obser.e, on the "loorboar, o" his .ehicle- the .ehicle itsel" 0as "oun, to be e.i,ence o" the cri(e. ()eop"e $# Gri''in (1&##) 35 Cal.3r, 1011.) Ehen the .ehicle 0as use, to Fi,nap the .icti(- it 0as "oun, to be the *instrumentality/ o" the cri(e o" Fi,napping. (North $# Superior Court (1&22) # Cal.3r, 301.)
$20
+ote) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has ne.er recogni;e, the category o" e.i,ence re"erre, to as *the instrumentality of the crime-/ an, there are no recent Cali"ornia cases uphol,ing this theory. (See )eop"e $# >inos (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 532- 552- an, "n. &.) +he .ehicle in 0hich the .icti( 0as shot 0as e.i,ence o" the cri(e. ()eop"e $# Tea"e (1&5&) 20 Cal.2n, 3&2.) Ehen the ,e"en,ant 0as arreste, "or co((itting le0, acts on chil,ren 0here it 0as suspecte, that he tooF pictures o" his .icti(s in his .an- the .an beca(e e.i,ence o" the cri(e. ()eop"e $# Ro1ers (1&2#) 21 Cal.3r, $32.) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court note, that this theory "or Custi"ying the 0arrantless sei;ure an, search o" a .ehicle 0here the .ehicle is itsel" e.i,ence o"- or the instru(entality o"- a cri(e is implicit in a nu(ber o" 4nite, States Supre(e Court ,ecisions as 0ell. ()eop"e $# Gri''in- supraat p. 102$- citing Card,e"" $# 2e,is (1&23) 312 4.S. $#3- $&2%$&3 631 7.8,.2, 32$- 3359: Coo"id1e $# Ne, 0ampshire (1&21) 303 4.S. 333- 353 62& 7.8,.2, $53- $#1%$#29: Cooper $# Ca"i'ornia (1&52) 3#5 4.S. $# 612 7.8,.2, 2309: Carro"" $# United States (1&2$) 252 4.S. 132- 1$3- 1$5 65& 7.8,. $33- $$1- $$2%$$39: United States $# Di Re (1&3#) 332 4.S. $#1$#5 6&2 7.8,. 210- 2159.) Euestion) Ehen a .ehicle has 0ithin it a *false compartment/ (i.e.- a *bo?- container- space or enclosure that is inten,e, "or use or ,esigne, "or use to conceal- hi,e- or other0ise pre.ent ,isco.ery o" any controlle, substance 0ithin or attache, to a .ehicle- . . ./ See )eop"e $# Arias (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 15&.)- per F&S 11322!#- is the .ehicle itsel" *e.i,ence o" a cri(eM/ Jo Fno0n case has yet to rule on this issue. In$entor& Searches: A la0"ully i(poun,e, .ehicle (ay be searche, "or the purpose o" ,eter(ining its con,ition an, contents at the ti(e o" i(poun,ing- to a.oi, later ,isputes. Anything obser.e, in the .ehicle ,uring the in.entory search 0ill be a,(issible in court. (F"orida $# -e""s (1&&0) 3&$ 4.S. 1 610& 7.8,.2n, 19.) 8.i,ence "oun, ,uring a la0"ul in.entory search is a,(issible in court. (See 0arris $# United States (1&5#) 3&0 4.S. 233 61& 7.8,.2n, 10529.) Io0e.er- such searches are only proper i" ,one accor,ing to standardized procedures use, by the in.ol.e, la0 en"orce(ent agency. (I.id.) Such *standardized procedures/ nee, not be "or(al or e.en in 0ritten "or(- so long as the searching o""icer is not allo0e, to act in his o0n $21
*unfettered discretion./ ()eop"e $# Needham (2000) 2& Cal.App.3th 25025$: oral .ehicle in.entory search policy o" sheri"" s ,epart(ent taught to ,eputies Custi"ie, an in.entory search o" property on a (otorcycle.) 1t has been hel, that 0!C! 222)1+-, an, *established department practices/ are enough to (eet this re@uire(ent. ()eop"e $# enites (1&&2) & Cal.App.3th 30&: )eop"e $# Stee"e& (1&#&) 210 Cal.App.3r, ##2.) +he stan,ar, in.entory proce,ures 0hich pre.ail throughout the country an, appro.e, by an o.er0hel(ing (aCority o" courts- i" "ollo0e, by the searching o""icers- 0ill pro.i,e the stan,ar,s necessary to (aFe an in.entory search legal. ()eop"e $# Green (1&&5) 35 Cal.App.3th 352.) +his inclu,es closed containers in the .ehicle (South Da(ota $# Opperman (1&25) 32# 4.S. 353 63& 7.8,.2n, 10009: )eop"e $# Sa"cero (1&&2) 5 Cal.App.3th 220.)- at least i" the ,epart(ent s stan,ar,i;e, proce,ures inclu,e close, containers. (F"orida $# -e""s- supra- citing Co"orado $# ertine (1&#2) 32& 4.S. 352 6&3 7.8,.2n, 23&9.) 1" containers are to be opene,- the stan,ar,i;e, proce,ures (ust co.er that topic as 0ell- so as to preclu,e the in.entory search being use, as a ruse "or a general ru((aging "or any incri(inatory e.i,ence. (F"orida $# -e""s- supraat p. 3 610& 7.8,.2n, at p. 59: )eop"e $# -i""iams (1&&&) 20 Cal.3th 11&- 13#.) See )eop"e $# Notto"i (2011) 1&& Cal.App.3th $31- $3$%$350here the lacF o" any e.i,ence as to the arresting o""icer s ,epart(ent s policies an, proce,ures concerning the searching o" containers- inclu,ing cell phones- le, to the "in,ing that the cell phone in @uestion coul, not be opene, an, searche, as a part o" the in.entory search o" a la0"ully i(poun,e, .ehicle. Howe!er- the i(poun,ing o" a .ehicle ,one (erely as a pretext "or con,ucting an in.estigatory search is not la0"ul- an, the resulting e.i,ence 0ill be suppresse,. ()eop"e $# A1ui"ar (1&&1) 22# Cal.App.3r, 103&.) See also )eop"e $# 9a"en5ue"a (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 1202: noting that the rule allo0ing a *pretext/ stop un,er -hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9 is inapplicable to stops or ,etentions 0hen the legal e?cuse is to con,uct an *administrati!e search-/ such as inspecting the licensing o" a ta?icab or an in!entory search o" a .ehicle. $22
+he sole legal basis "or ,oing in.entory searches is to (1) protect the o0ner s property 0hile it is in police custo,y- (2) insure against clai(s o" lost- stolen or .an,ali;e, property- or (3) protect the police "ro( ,anger. (South Da(ota $# Opperman (1&25) 32# 4.S. 353 63& 7.8,.2n, 10009.) 4sing an in.entory search o" a .ehicle as a *ruse "or a general ru((aging in or,er to ,isco.er incri(inating e.i,ence/ is not a legal Custi"ication- or at least can t be the only reason 0hy a car is searche,. (F"orida $# -e""s (1&&0) 3&$ 4.S. 1 610& 7.8,.2n, 19: )eop"e $# -i""iams (1&&&) 20 Cal.3th 11&- 125.) +ote) !""icers must be "a(iliar 0ith their o0n ,epart(ent s policies "or ,oing .ehicle in.entory searches an, be prepare, to testi"y to the correct legal Custi"ications "or con,ucting such a search. 1(poun,ing a .ehicle "or the purpose o" allo0ing the o""icer to ,o an in.entory search o" the .ehicle in the hopes o" "in,ing narcotics%relate, e.i,ence- 0hen none o" the *co((unity caretaFing "unction/ ele(ents apply- is illegal. Ehile stopping the .ehicle (ay be "or an ulterior purpose- so long as there is also an obCecti.ely reasonable basis "or ,oing so (e.g.- seeing a tra""ic .iolation)- the o""icer s subCecti.e (oti.ations are in issue 0hen e.aluating the legality o" i(poun,ing the .ehicle an, con,ucting an in.entory search. ()eop"e $# Torres (2010) 1## Cal.App.3th 22$- 2#$%2&3: i(poun,(ent an, in.entory search hel, to be illegal 0hen the o""icer a,(itte, that his purpose 0as to looF "or narcotics%relate, e.i,ence.) +he sei;ure an, subse@uent in.entory search o" ,e"en,ant s car 0as hel, not to be Custi"ie, by the co((unity caretaFing e?ception to the Fourth Amendment.s 0arrant re@uire(ent. 4n,er the co((unity caretaFing e?ception- police o""icers (ay i(poun, .ehicles that Ceopar,i;e public sa"ety an, the e""icient (o.e(ent o" tra""ic. Jeither o""icer pro.i,e, testi(ony that ,e"en,ant s car 0as parFe, illegally- pose, a sa"ety ha;ar,- nor 0as .ulnerable to .an,alis( or the"t. Although ,e"en,ant s car 0as not locate, close to his ho(e 0hen the o""icers i(poun,e, it- there 0as no e.i,ence that it 0oul, ha.e been .ulnerable to .an,alis( or the"t i" it 0ere le"t in its resi,ential location or that it pose, a sa"ety ha;ar,. +he court conclu,e, that sei;ure an, in.entory search o" ,e"en,ant s car 0as a prete?t "or an in.estigatory search "or e.i,ence o" narcotics tra""icFing. (United States $# Cer$antes (&th Cir. 2012) 52# B.3r, 2&#- #03%#02.) $23
4nless re@uire, by the o""icer s ,epart(ent in.entory proce,ures- the o""icer is not re@uire, to allo0 a subCect to re(o.e personal ite(s prior to con,ucting the in.entory o" an i(poun,e, .ehicle. (United States $# )enn (&th Cir. 2000) 233 B.3r, 1111.) +ote) +he e.i,ence 0as suppresse, in )enn in an unpublishe, ,ecision on re(an, an, a"ter rehearing- base, upon e.i,ence that the o""icer opene, an, looFe, into a close, container in .iolation o" his ,epart(ent s 0ritten in.entory proce,ures. (2001 4.S. Dist. 78T1S 1&53&.) 1(poun,ing a .ehicle pursuant to 0!C! 222)1+-,- 0hen neither the ,ri.er nor the passenger coul, (or 0oul,) pro,uce a .ali, ,ri.er s license0as hel, to be la0"ul. ()eop"e $# 0o&os (2002) 31 Cal.3th #22- #&2.) +he stan,ar,i;e, criteria re@uire(ents- ho0e.er- only relate to an in.entory search. +hey 0ere not inten,e, to necessarily apply to an o""icer s ,ecision to i(poun, the .ehicle in the "irst place. Although an i(poun,(ent ,ecision (a,e pursuant to stan,ar,i;e, criteria is (ore liFely to satis"y the Fourth Amendment than one not (a,e pursuant to stan,ar,i;e, criteria- it is not legally necessary that that be the case. +he reasonableness o" i(poun,ing a .ehicle base, upon the circu(stances is the test un,er the Fourth Amendment. ()eop"e $# Sha'rir (2010) 1#3 Cal.App.3th 123#.) See *'mpounding Vehicles- belo0. The G)atdo,nH +or G)rotecti$e SearchH, o' a 9ehic"e 'or -eapons: Ehene.er- ,uring a la0"ul contact 0ith an in,i.i,ual- an o""icer ,e.elops a *reasonable belief-/ base, on speci"ic articulable "acts- that the suspect s .ehicle (ay contain a 0eapon- any0here 0ithin the passenger area o" that .ehicle that a 0eapon (ay reasonably be e?pecte, to be "oun, (ay be checFe, "or that purpose. (%ichi1an $# 2on1 (1&#3) 353 4.S. 1032- 103& 622 7.8,.2n, 1201- 12209.) Anything else seen in plain sight ,uring such a checF "or 0eapons is a,(issible in court. (See *Plain ight ;bser!ations-/ abo.e) 8?a(ples) !bser.ation o" a Fni"e in the .ehicle in plain sight ,uring a tra""ic stop- 0hether the Fni"e is legal or not- Custi"ies a search o" the .ehicle "or a,,itional 0eapons. ()eop"e $# 2a'itte (1&#&) 211 Cal.App.3r, 132&.) $23
Contact o" t0o people in a car behin, a 23%hour (arFet- in a ,arF area- 0ith Fno0le,ge that one o" the suspects 0as recently arreste, "or a 0eapons o""ense- Custi"ies a search o" the .ehicle "or 0eapons. ()eop"e $# ruec(ner (1&&0) 223 Cal.App.3r, 1$00.) !bser.ation o" a passenger reaching un,er the seat (i.e.- a *furti!e mo!ement/) an, the soun, o" (etal hitting (etal Custi"ies checFing un,er that seat "or 0eapons. ()eop"e $# /in1 (1&&0) 215 Cal.App.3r, 1232.) An o""icer (ay constitutionally search the co(part(ents o" a .ehicle upon a *reasonable belief/ that *the suspect poses a roa,si,e ,anger/ arising "ro( *the possible presence o" 0eapons in the area surroun,ing a suspect./ ()eop"e $# ush (2001) ## Cal.App.3th 103#: base, upon si?%year%ol, in"or(ation that the person stoppe, 0as a FicF%bo?er an, ha, a history o" .iolence.) ChecFing the passenger area o" .ehicle "or "irear(s base, upon a *reasonable suspicion-/ 0hich ca(e as a result o" an i,enti"ie, citi;en s report to la0 en"orce(ent- enhance, by the ,ri.er s lacF o" cooperation- that the occupants (ay ha.e guns- hel, to be la0"ul. (0a&nie $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 2003) 33& B.3r, 1021.) Gase, upon anony(ous in"or(ation that ,e"en,ant 0as sitting in his .ehicle 0ith a han,gun- such in"or(ation being su""iciently corroborate, to a(ount to a reasonable suspicion- the ,etention o" the ,e"en,ant an, other passengers an, a search o" the .ehicle "or the gun 0as legally Custi"ie,. ()eop"e $# Do""& (2002) 30 Cal.3th 3$#.) $ut- searching a .ehicle "or 0eapons- ,espite the ,ri.er s atte(pt to e.a,e the o""icer by (aFing a couple o" @uicF turns an, hi,ing in the ,arF- is illegal absent speci"ic an, articulable reasons to belie.e that the ,ri.er is ,angerous or that he (ight gain i((e,iate control o" a 0eapon. (2i.era" $# Estrada (&th Cir. 2011) 532 B.3r, 1053- 10#3%10#3.) 1t is irrele.ant that the subCect has alrea,y been re(o.e, "ro( the .ehicle. +he courts "eel that the subCect (ay breaF a0ay "ro( police control- or (ay be per(itte, to reenter the .ehicle an, retrie.e a 0eapon be"ore the *Terr&/ in.estigation is o.er. (%ichi1an $# 2on1- supraat pp. 10$1% 20$2 622 7.8,.2n, at p. 12219.) Re"erring to Terr& $# Ohio (1&5#) 3&2 4.S. 1 620 7.8,.2n, ##&9.) $2$
Statutor& Automo.i"e Inspections: 0!C! 2#3)+a,) 8le(ents) Any la0 en"orce(ent o""icer 0ho is (e(ber o") +he Cali"ornia Iigh0ay Patrol: A city police ,epart(ent: A county sheri"" s o""ice: or A ,istrict attorney s o""ice as an in.estigator:
Ehose pri(ary responsibility is to con,uct .ehicle the"t inspections: Bor the purpose o" locating stolen .ehicles: Oay inspect) Any .ehicle o" a type re@uire, to be registere, un,er the Uehicle Co,e: or Any i,enti"iable .ehicle co(ponent thereo":
Ehen "oun, on a high0ay: or at any public) Larage: Repair shop: +er(inal: ParFing lot: Je0 or use, car lot: Auto(obile ,is(antler s lot: Uehicle shre,,ing "acility: Uehicle leasing or rental lot: Uehicle e@uip(ent rental yar,: Uehicle storage pool: or !ther si(ilar establish(ent: or
Any agricultural or construction 0orF location 0here 0orF is being acti.ely per"or(e,: Oay inspect the title an, registration o" such .ehicles: 1n or,er to establish- as to that .ehicle or i,enti"iable .ehicle co(ponent- the right"ul) $25
!0nership: or Possession.
+he section has been hel, to be constitutional. ()eop"e $# Ca"$ert (1&&3) 1# Cal.App.3th 1#20- 1#31%1#33: )eop"e $# -oo"se& (1&2&) &0 Cal.App.3r, &&3- 1001%1002: So"ander $# %unicipa" Court (1&2$) 3$ Cal.App.3r, 553- 552.) Such a 0arrantless *search/ is Custi"ie, as an a,(inistrati.e search o" a *closely regulated business-/ an, (ust be ,one in a reasonable (anner. ()eop"e $# )otter (200$) 12# Cal.App.3th 511: see also )eop"e $# 2ope5 (1&#1) 115 Cal.App.3r, 500.) (See *&losely Regulated $usinesses or *cti!ities-/ un,er *=arrantless earches-/ abo.e.) *+he regulatory sche(e authori;ing 0arrantless inspections (ust (eet three re@uire(ents) (1) the sche(e (ust ser.e a substantial go.ern(ent interest: (2) the 0arrantless inspections (ust be necessary to "urther the regulatory sche(e: an, (3) the inspection progra( *(ust per"or( the t0o basic "unctions o" a 0arrant) it (ust a,.ise the o0ner o" the co((ercial pre(ises that the search is being (a,e pursuant to the la0 an, has a properly ,e"ine, scope- an, it (ust li(it the ,iscretion o" the inspecting o""icers./ (Id.- at p. 51&: citing (0e, 1ork v. *urger (1987) 482 U. . 691!
702570/ "96 #.$d.2nd 601&.)
Io0e.er- see 'eo(le v. Turner (1994) 8 Cal.4th 1/7!

182! +here -.C. 28 " +as cited b* the California u(reme Court as authorit* for an officer to chec; an alread* la+full* sto((ed )ehicle! in an other5than5 commercial context! for its re.istration.
+on6commercial property) Section 2#3) does not authori;e the 0arrantless search o" property not being use, "or co((ercial purposes or other0ise open to the public. ()eop"e $# Roman (1&&1) 222 Cal.App.3r, 523: )eop"e $# Ca"$ertsupra- at pp. 1#2#% 1#2&.) #se of (orce) An, shoul, the o0nerNoccupant o" the business re"use- he or she is subCect to arrest- ho0e.er- "orcible entry o" the business is not la0"ul. An a,(inistrati.e search 0arrant shoul, be obtaine,. (See )eop"e $# -oo"se&- supraat p. 1003: (Co"onade Caterin1 Corp# $# $# United States (1&20) 3&2 4.S. 22- 23 62$ 7.8,.2n, 509.)) $22
0!C! 2#3)+4,) 8le(ents) Pro.i,es the sa(e authority to inspect) +he "ollo0ing e@uip(ent) Ehen at) +he places liste, in su4d! +a, (abo.e): or 4pon a high0ay either 0hile) 1nci,entally operate,: or Geing transporte,. 1(ple(ents o" husban,ry: Special construction e@uip(ent: BorFli"ts: Special Oobile e@uip(ent:
+ote) Su4d! +c, pro.i,es that- 0hene.er possible- such inspections shall be con,ucte, at a time and in a manner so as to (ini(i;e any inter"erence 0ith- or ,elay o"- business operations. Penalties) Re"using to co(ply 0ith an o""icer s re@uest to con,uct a la0"ul search pursuant to (!C! 2#3)+a, or +4, is a misdemeanor. (See 0!C! 2#33+a, an, (!C! 14#+a,+1,: an, )eop"e $# -oo"se& (1&2&) &0 Cal.App.3r, &&3- 1000- 1001- "n. 3) Rele!ant Definitions) 'dentifiable Vehicle &omponent) Any co(ponent 0hich can be ,istinguishe, "ro( other si(ilar co(ponents by a serial nu(ber or other uni@ue ,istinguishing nu(ber- sign- or sy(bol. +0!C! 2#3)+a,) <arage) A buil,ing or other place 0herein the business o" storing or sa"eFeeping .ehicles o" a type re@uire, to be registere, un,er this co,e an, 0hich belong to (e(bers o" the general public is con,ucte, "or co(pensation. (0!C! 343) $2#
Repair hop) A place 0here .ehicles subCect to registration un,er this co,e are repaire,- rebuilt- recon,itione,- repainte,- or in any 0ay (aintaine, "or the public at a charge. (0!C! )13) Terminal) A place 0here a .ehicle o" a type liste, in 0!C! 34)33 is regularly garage, or (aintaine,- or "ro( 0hich the .ehicle is operate, or ,ispatche,. (0!C! )")) (Jote) Section 34)33 lists *motortruc?s-/ *truc? tractors-/ *buses-/ large trailersan, si(ilar large .ehicles.) *utomobile Dismantler) Any person (not e?clu,e, by 0!C! 221) 0ho is engage, in the business o" buying- selling- or ,ealing in .ehicles o" a type re@uire, to be registere, un,er this co,einclu,ing nonrepairable .ehicles- "or the purpose o" ,is(antling the .ehicles- 0ho buys or sells the integral parts an, co(ponent (aterials thereo"- in 0hole or in part- or ,eals in use, (otor .ehicle parts. (0!C! 223: see this section an, section 221 "or e?ceptions.) &ase "aw) <eneral Rule) +he Fourth Amendment prohibition on unreasonable searches an, sei;ures applies to co((ercial pre(ises as 0ell as pri.ate ho(es. (Ne, Yor( $# ur1er (1&#2) 3#2 4.S. 5&1- 5&& 6&5 7.8,.2n, 501- 5129: )eop"e $# Dot& (1&#$) 15$ Cal.App.3r, 1050- 1055.) Io0e.er- a 7egislature (ay enact statutes authori;ing 0arrantless administrati!e searches o" co((ercial property 0ithout .iolating the Fourth Amendment. (Dono$an $# De,e& (1&#1) 3$2 4.S. $&3- $&#%$&& 65& 7.8,.2n, 252- 25#%25&9: )eop"e $# )au"son (1&&0) 215 Cal.App.3r, 13#0- 13#3%13#3.) +ote) Co((ercial .ehicles (ay be constitutionally subCecte, to 0arrantless a,(inistrati.e inspections un,er the Fourth Amendment- co((ercial trucFing being a *per!asi!ely regulated industry/ un,er the criteria as set out in Ne, Yor( $# ur1er- supra. (United States $# De"1ado (&th Cir. 200#) $3$ B.3r, 11&$: uphol,ing a Oissouri statute allo0ing "or such inspections.) 0!C! 2#3) has been hel, to (eet the stan,ar,s "or a *closely regulated business-/ an, thus ha.e a rela?e, search an, sei;ure stan,ar,. ()eop"e $# Ca"$ert (1# Cal.App.3th 1#20: )eop"e $# -oo"se& (1&2&) &0 Cal.App.3r, &&3.) $2&
An auto repair garage (ay be subCecte, to a 0arrantless search by auto the"t ,etecti.es un,er authority o" U.C. V 2#0$- 0hether or not the business is open to the public. ()eop"e $# )otter (200$) 12# Cal.App.3th 511.) Such a statute is constitutional un,er the Fourth Amendment i" it ser.es a substantial go.ern(ental interest- the 0arrantless search is ,one to "urther the statutory sche(e- an, the inspection progra( ser.es the t0o basic "unctions o" a search 0arrant: i.e.- gi.ing the o0ner notice that the search is being (a,e pursuant to la0 an, li(iting the scope o" the search. Section 2#3) (eets these re@uire(ents. (I.id.) +he section has been hel, to be constitutional. )eop"e $# Ca"$ertsupra- at pp. 1#31%1#33: )eop"e $# -oo"se&- supraat pp. 1001% 1002: So"ander $# %unicipa" Court (1&2$) 3$ Cal.App.3r, 553552.) Io0e.er- there are limitations) Section 2#3) does not authori;e the 0arrantless search o" property not being use, "or co((ercial purposes or other0ise open to the public. ()eop"e $# Roman (1&&1) 222 Cal.App.3r, 523: )eop"e $# Ca"$ertsupra- at pp. 1#2#% 1#2&.) #se of (orce) An, shoul, the o0nerNoccupant o" the business re"use- he or she is subCect to arrest- ho0e.er- "orcible entry o" the business is not la0"ul. An a,(inistrati.e search 0arrant shoul, be obtaine,. (See )eop"e $# -oo"se&- supraat p. 1003: (Co"onade Caterin1 Corp# $# United States (1&20) 3&2 4.S. 22- 23- 22 62$ 7.8,.2n, 50- 53%5$9.) 0!C! "")1+c,+2,: Do0nloa,ing the Contents o" an *E!ent Data Recorder/ (i.e.- *EDR/)) A court or,er is re@uire, "or la0 en"orce(ent to retrie.e ,ata "ro( a *8.ent Data Recor,er/ (*EDR/)- also Fno0n as a * ensing and Diagnostic ,odule/ (* D,/)- or a *$lac? $ox./ +4,) As use, in this section- *recor,ing ,e.ice/ (eans a ,e.ice that is installe, by the (anu"acturer o" the .ehicle an, ,oes one or (ore o" the "ollo0ing- "or the purpose o" retrie.ing ,ata a"ter an acci,ent)
$#0
+1, Recor,s ho0 "ast an, in 0hich ,irection the (otor .ehicle is tra.eling. +2, Recor,s a history o" 0here the (otor .ehicle tra.els. +3, Recor,s steering per"or(ance. +4, Recor,s braFe per"or(ance- inclu,ing- but not li(ite, to- 0hether braFes 0ere applie, be"ore an acci,ent. +), Recor,s the ,ri.erDs seatbelt status. +2, Ias the ability to trans(it in"or(ation concerning an acci,ent in 0hich the (otor .ehicle has been in.ol.e, to a central co((unications syste( 0hen an acci,ent occurs. +d,) 1n"or(ation retrie.e, by a (otor .ehicle ,ealer or auto(oti.e technician "or ,iagnostic purposes- as allo0e, un,er su4d! +c,+3, or +4,- (ay not be release, to la0 en"orce(ent. Gy its o0n ter(s- section "")1 applies only to *(otor .ehicles (anu"acture, on or a"ter July 1- 2003./ (Su4d! +f,) Uiolating the court or,er re@uire(ents o" the section (i.e.- "ailing to get a search 0arrant) ,oes not re@uire suppression o" the retrie.e, ,ata in that suppression is not re@uire, by the 4nite, States Constitution. ()eop"e $# >inos (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 532- 5$3% 5$3.) Io0e.er- "ailing to retrie.e the ,ata until a"ter the ,e"en,ant has ple, guilty (or no contest) (eans that any pre%e?isting probable cause that (ay ha.e e?iste, no longer e?ists- (aFing such a search a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (Id.- at pp. 5$&%553.) +he >inos court "urther recogni;e, a person s reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the ,igital contents o" the SDO. (Id.- at pp. 5$3%5$&.) 0!C! 2#14!1) Vehicle &hec?points) A County Goar, o" Super.isors is authori;e, by statute to establish a .ehicle%inspection checFpoint to checF "or .iolations o" 0!C! 211)3 an, 211)3!) (e?haust an, e?cessi.e s(oFe .iolations). 0!C! 2#14!1+d,) Ootorcycle%only checFpoints are prohibite,. Searchin1 a 9ehic"e for a Dri$er?s 2icense andLor 9ehic"e Re1istration, 9IN Num.er, )roo' o' Insurance, etc!: +he general rule- no0 perhaps totally eaten up by the e?ceptions- not to (ention the recogni;e, ,angerousness o" a tra""ic stop- is that an o""icer $#1
(aFing a tra""ic stop (ust allo0 an occupant o" a (otor .ehicle to locate an, pro,uce his o0n ,ri.er s license an, registration. ()eop"e $# *ac(son (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, 351.) Case la0 has been @uicF to "in, e?ceptions. Bor instance- a police o""icer (ay checF "or registration (or a ,ri.er s license) 0ithout per(ission 0hen) +he circu(stances call "or "urther in.estigation o" the .ehicle s o0nership. ()eop"e $# -e.ster (1&&1) $3 Cal.3r, 311- 330%331.) +he ,ri.er tells the o""icer 0here it is an, ,oes not obCect to the o""icer entering to looF "or it. (In1"e $# Superior Court (1&#2) 12& Cal.App.3r, 1##- 1&3.) 4n,er the circu(stances- the o""icer reasonably "elt that it 0as necessary "or his or her o0n protection. ()eop"e $# %artin (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, 333- 332.) Ehere a legiti(ate concern "or *officer)s safety/ ,ictates that the o""icer control the (o.e(ents o" the occupant o" a .ehicle. ()eop"e $# Fadd"er (1&#2) 132 Cal.App.3r, 502- 510%511: see also )eop"e $# 0art (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 32&.) +he .ehicle is aban,one,. ()eop"e $# Turner (1&&3) # Cal.3th 1321#1%1#3.)
+he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court has rule, that ,uring a la0"ul tra""ic stopat least a"ter a ,e(an, "or the ,ri.er s license an, other .ehicle ,ocu(entation is (a,e an, a negati.e response is obtaine, (see United States $# 2ope5 (C.D.Cal. 1&2&) 323 B.Supp. &33- &3#%&3&.)- a 0arrantless- suspicionless intrusion into the .ehicle "or the li(ite, purpose o" locating such ,ocu(entation is la0"ul- e.en i" the ,ri.er ,enies that any such ,ocu(entation e?ists. 1n so ,oing- the o""icer (ay looF in any location 0here it is reasonable to belie.e he or she (ight "in, such ,ocu(entation. (In re Arturo D# (2002) 22 Cal.3th 50: Arturo D# 0as Coine, 0ith the co(panion case- )eop"e $# 0in1er- out o" the Bourth District Court o" Appeal. +his 0oul, inclu,e under the front seat (0hether looFing "ro( the "ront or rear o" the seat)- in a glo!e compartmentan, o.er the !isor. 1t 0oul, probably not inclu,e 0ithin containers "oun, in the .ehicle or the trun?- absent so(e articulable reason to belie.e 0hy such ,ocu(entation (ight actually be there. (Id.- at p. #5- an, "n. 2$.) $#2
+his right o" police o""icers to con,uct such searches is constitutionally acceptable *in light o" the per.asi.e regulation o" .ehicles capable o" tra.eling on the public high0ays- . . . (an, the) re,uce, e?pectation o" pri.acy 0hile ,ri.ing a .ehicle on public thorough"ares./ (Id.- at p. 20: citing )eop"e $# -e.ster- supra- an, Ne, Yor( $# C"ass (1&#5) 32$ 4.S. 105 6#& 7.8,.2n, #19.) So(e o" that *per!asi!e regulation-/ cite, by the Supre(e Court in Arturo D#- inclu,es) 0!C! 4422+a,: Re@uire(ent that the !ehicle)s registration be pro,uce, on ,e(an, o" a peace o""icer. 0!C! 12")1+4,: Re@uire(ent that the dri!er)s license be pro,uce, on ,e(an, o" a peace o""icer. 0!C! 2#3)+a,: Right o" the Cali"ornia Iigh0ay Patrol an, other liste, peace o""icers 0hose pri(ary ,uties are to con,uct .ehicle the"t in.estigations to inspect a (otor .ehicle "or its title in or,er to ,eter(ine o0nership. Although not (entione, by the Supre(e Court- it 0oul, see( that 0!C! 1232#+a,- re@uiring pro,uction o" proo" o" insurance upon ,e(an, 0hen being cite, "or another o""ense- coul, be a,,e, to this list.
ChecFing "or a Vehicle)s 'dentification +umber (*V'+/) un,er the hoo, o" a car has been hel, to be a search- an, is illegal absent probable cause. (United States $# Soto (&th Cir. 1&2&) $&# B.2n, $3$.) Gut (erely (o.ing papers o"" the ,ash so as to (aFe .isible the U1J co((only "oun, in that location- resulting in obser.ation o" a gun on the "loor- 0as hel, to be la0"ul. (Ne, Yor( $# C"ass- supra.) :eh. Code 281..2(d) # (e)" Vehicle Stops Involving Agricultural Irrigation Supplies" Where a vehicle stop is made pursuant to this section (allo%ing for the inspection of agricultural supplies that are in plain vie% for the purpose of inspecting the bills of lading, shipping, or delivery papers, or other evidence, to determine %hether the driver is in legal possession of the load, %henever the vehicle is on an unpaved road %ithin the &urisdiction of the .epartment of (arks and /ecreation, the .epartment of 0ish # 1ame, the .epartment of 0orestry and 0ire (rotection, the +tate 2ands ,ommission, a regional park district, the *'+' 0orest +ervice, or the $#3
3ureau of 2and 4anagement, or is in a timberland production zone), if the driver is in violation of :.C. 125.. (driving %ithout a valid license), the peace officer %ho makes the stop shall make a reasonable attempt to identify the registered o%ner of the vehicle and release the vehicle to him or her' 5mpoundment of the vehicle is prohibited if the drivers only offense is :.C. 125..' (+ee 6Detentions,7 above') Impoundin1 9ehic"es: The *&ommunity &areta?ing Doctrine)/ +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has rule, that i(poun,ing a .ehicle can be Custi"ie, un,er the *&ommunity &areta?er Doctrine/ 0hene.er such .ehicle (ay i(pe,e tra""ic- threaten public sa"ety- or be subCect to .an,alis(. (United States $# *ensen (&th Cir. 200$) 32$ B.3r, 5&#- 205.) Howe!er- the Jinth Circuit has also hel, that a statute allo0ing "or the pre%court%hearing i(poun,ing o" a .ehicle (ay be in .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment absent a legiti(ate nee, to pre.ent it "ro( again being ,ri.en illegally- "ro( creating a ha;ar, to others ,ri.ers- or being a target "or .an,alis(. (%iranda $# Cit& o' Corne"ius (&th Cir. 200$) 32& B.3r, #$#: ,ri.er ,ri.ing 0ithout a license.) +he (ere "act that its ,ri.er is cite, or e.en physically arreste, ,oes not necessarily i(plicate the *community careta?ing doctrine./ (I.id.) !n the issue o" 0hether the o""icer has a ,uty to (aFe sure the unlicense, ,ri.er ,oesn t continue to illegally ,ri.e the car- the Court note, that *the nee, to ,eter a ,ri.er s unla0"ul con,uct is by itsel" insu""icient to Custi"y a to0 un,er the Acareta?er rationale./ Io0e.er- the rule is other0ise (thus allo0ing "or a to0) 0here it can be pro.e, that *the ,ri.er is unable to re(o.e the .ehicle "ro( a public location 0ithout continuing its illegal operation./ (Id. at pp. #5$%#55.) Gut- 0here the ,e"en,ant has been physically arreste, an, taFen to Cail- i(poun,ing the car to pre.ent hi( "ro( continuing the o""ense is unla0"ul. (United States $# Caseres (&th Cir. 200#) $33 B.3, 1053- 2023%102$: see also )eop"e $# Torres (2010) 1## Cal.App.3th 22$- 2&2- in,icating that belie.ing ,e"en,ant (ay repeat his o""ense o" ,ri.ing 0ithout a .ali, license is ne!er groun,s "or i(poun,ing his car.) $#3
Cali"ornia is no0 in accor, 0ith the rule as set ,o0n in %iranda $# Cit& o' Corne"ius. ()eop"e $# -i""iams (2005) 13$ Cal.App.3th 2$5: i(poun,ing the car- per U.C. V 225$1(h)(1)- subse@uent to the ,ri.er s arrest on an outstan,ing 0arrant.) +o0ing an, i(poun,ing a .ehicle (erely because it is illegally parFe,- 0ithout prior notice to the .ehicle s o0ner an, a pre% sei;ure hearing- absent an e?igency re@uiring i((e,iate action (such as in an e(ergency- 0here notice 0oul, ,e"eat the entire point o" the sei;ure- or 0here the interests at staFe are s(all relati.e to the bur,en that gi.ing notice 0oul, i(pose: e.g.- the car is parFe, in the path o" tra""ic- blocFing a ,ri.e0ay- obstructing a "ire lane- or appears to be aban,one,- or 0here there is no current registration sticFers an, there s no guarantee the o0ner 0on t (o.e or hi,e the .ehicle instea, o" paying the "ine "or illegal parFing)- is a Fourteenth Amendment ,ue process .iolation ,espite statutes allo0ing "or the to0ing- an, (ay generate so(e ci.il liability "or the police. (C"ement $# Cit& o' G"enda"e (&th Cir. 200#) $1# B.3r, 10&0: an unregistere, .ehicle 0ith a *planne, non% operation (PJ!) certi"icate/ "ile,- parFe, in a publicly accessible parFing lot in .iolation o" 0!C! 222)1+o,.) Gut- at least one "e,eral trial court has uphel, the i(poun,ing o" a .ehicle- per 0!C! 222)1+o,+1,- 0hich ha, an out%o"%,ate registration o" o.er si? (onths. (United States $# %cCartne& (8.D. Cal. 200#) $$0 B.Supp.2, 121$122$.) 0!C! 222)1+h,+1, authori;es the i(poun,ing o" a .ehicle *(0)hen an o""icer arrests any person ,ri.ing or in control o" a .ehicle "or an allege, o""ense/ an, taFes that person into custo,y./ Io0e.er- i(poun,ing a .ehicle un,er authority o" this section is constitutional only i" i(poun,(ent ser.es so(e *community careta?ing function./ Ehether or not the co((unity caretaFing "unction Custi"ies the i(poun,ing o" a .ehicle ,epen,s upon the location o" the .ehicle an, the police o""icer s ,uty to pre.ent it "ro( creating a ha;ar, to other ,ri.ers or "ro( being a target "or .an,alis( or the"t. Ehen it 0as "oun, that an arreste, ,e"en,ant s .ehicle 0as la0"ully parFe, only t0o houses ,o0n "ro( his o0n ho(e- i(poun,ing it 0as hel, to be illegal. (United States $# Caseres (&th Cir. 200#) $33 B.3r, 1053- 1023%102$.) 1(poun,ing a .ehicle pursuant to 0!C! 222)1+-,- 0hen neither the ,ri.er nor the passenger coul, (or 0oul,) pro,uce a .ali, ,ri.er s license- 0as hel, to be la0"ul. ()eop"e $# 0o&os (2002) 31 Cal.3th #22- #&2.) $#$
+ote) The *&ommunity &areta?ing Doctrine/ 0as not raise, in this case. A police ,epart(ent has ,iscretion to establish gui,elines that 0oul, allo0 an i(poun,e, .ehicle to be release, in less than 30 ,ays- un,er 0!C! 222)1+-,- in situations 0here a "i?e, 30%,ay statutory i(poun,(ent perio,- un,er 0!C! 14232!2+a,+1,- (ay also potentially apply. (&$ Ops#Ca"#Att&#Gen 1 (2012).) 1(poun,ing a .ehicle 0here the ,ri.er 0as ,ri.ing on a suspen,e, license- 0ith a Eashington state statute allo0ing "or the i(poun,(ent o" the car 0here the ,ri.er has been cite, once be"ore "or the sa(e- 0as assu(e, to be la0"ul (0ithout ,iscussing the issue) 0hen the car 0as on a "ree0ay (1nterstate $)- ,e"en,ant 0as going to Cail- an, no one else 0as a.ailable to taFe possession o" the car. (United States $# Ruc(es (&th Cir. 200&) $#5 B.3r, 21321&.) +he ,ecision to i(poun, a .ehicle "ollo0ing an arrest 0hen (a,e pursuant to stan,ar,i;e, ,epart(ental criteria is (ore liFely to satis"y the Fourth Amendment than one not (a,e pursuant to such criteria. Io0e.er- it is not legally necessary that that be the case. +he reasonableness o" i(poun,ing a .ehicle base, upon the circu(stances is the test un,er the Fourth Amendment. ()eop"e $# Sha'rir (2010) 1#3 Cal.App.3th 123#: ,e"en,ant s ne0er Oerce,es la0"ully i(poun,e, "ollo0ing his arrest "or D41 because- in the o""icers opinions- the car 0oul, not be sa"e i" le"t at the site o" the arrest.) 1(poun,ing a .ehicle "or the purpose o" allo0ing the o""icer to ,o an in.entory search o" the .ehicle in the hopes o" "in,ing narcotics%relate, e.i,ence- 0hen none o" the *co((unity caretaFing "unction/ ele(ents apply- is illegal. Ehile stopping the .ehicle (ay be "or an ulterior purpose- so long as there is also an obCecti.ely reasonable basis "or ,oing so (e.g.- seeing a tra""ic .iolation)- the o""icer s subCecti.e (oti.ations are in issue 0hen e.aluating the legality o" i(poun,ing the .ehicle an, con,ucting an in.entory search. ()eop"e $# Torres (2010) 1## Cal.App.3th 22$- 2#$%2&3: i(poun,(ent an, in.entory search hel, to be illegal 0hen the o""icer a,(itte, that his purpose 0as to looF "or narcotics%relate, e.i,ence.) Doing an in.entory search o" a .ehicle un,er the theory that it is to be i(poun,e,- absent any e.i,ence that any o" the *co((unity $#5
caretaFing/ "actors apply (i.e.- : it is aban,one,- i(pe,ing tra""icor threatening public sa"ety or con.enience)- is unla0"ulparticularly in light o" the "act that the ,e"en,ant tol, the o""icer that he ha, a "rien, 0ho coul, co(e out an, retrie.e his .ehicle. (United States $# %addo! (&th Cir. 2010) 513 B.3r, 1035- 103&% 10$0.) +he sei;ure an, subse@uent in.entory search o" ,e"en,ant s car 0as hel, not to be Custi"ie, by the co((unity caretaFing e?ception to the Fourth Amendment.s 0arrant re@uire(ent. 4n,er the co((unity caretaFing e?ception- police o""icers (ay i(poun, .ehicles that Ceopar,i;e public sa"ety an, the e""icient (o.e(ent o" tra""ic. Jeither o""icer pro.i,e, testi(ony that ,e"en,ant s car 0as parFe, illegally- pose, a sa"ety ha;ar,- or 0as .ulnerable to .an,alis( or the"t. Although ,e"en,ant s car 0as not locate, close to his ho(e 0hen the o""icers i(poun,e, it- there 0as no e.i,ence that it 0oul, ha.e been .ulnerable to .an,alis( or the"t i" it 0ere le"t in its resi,ential location or that it pose, a sa"ety ha;ar,. Alsothe court conclu,e, that sei;ure an, in.entory search o" ,e"en,ant s car 0as a prete?t "or an in.estigatory search "or e.i,ence o" narcotics tra""icFing. (United States $# Cer$antes (&th Cir. Jo.. 2#- 2012) >> B.3r, >>- >> 62012 4.S. App. 78T1S 2$2359.) Dri!ing on a uspended "icense (or +e!er Had a "icense), per 9#C# B 16D71#1 (or 0!C! 12)33)) +he authority to i(poun, a .ehicle an, hol, it "or 30 ,ays- per U.C. V 13502.5(a)(1)- 0hen a person is arreste, "or ,ri.ing on a suspen,e, license or ne.er ha, a license- inclu,ing 0hen the .ehicle has been in an acci,ent- is a ,iscretionary act by la0 en"orce(ent an, ,oes not generate ci.il liability 0hen the .ehicle is not hel, "or 30 ,ays. (Ca"i'ornia 0i1h,a& )atro" $# Superior Court 6-a"(er7 (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th 1133.) 4se o" 0!C! 14232!2 an, 22#)2 to i(poun, .ehicles an, hol, the( "or 30 ,ays- 0ith the pro.isions "or a post%sei;ure a,(inistrati.e hearing 0ithin t0o ,ays o" a re@uest "ro( the .ehicle s o0ner to ,eter(ine 0hether the i(poun, 0as proper an, the e?istence o" any (itigating "actors- 0as hel, to be la0"ul an, not a .iolation o" e@ual protection- ,ue process- or the Fourth Amendment.s search an, sei;ure re@uire(ents. (A"$iso $# Sonoma Count& Sheri''?s Department et a"# (2010) 1#5 Cal.App.3th 1&#.) +ote) +he initial i(poun, o" the .ehicle 0as not conteste,- eli(inating any nee, to ,iscuss the possible $#2
applicability o" the rules on la0 en"orce(ent s *community careta?ing/ "unction. (Id.- at p. 213.) A police ,epart(ent has ,iscretion to establish gui,elines that 0oul, allo0 an i(poun,e, .ehicle to be release, in less than 30 ,ays- un,er 0!C! 222)1+-,- in situations 0here a "i?e, 30%,ay statutory i(poun,(ent perio,- un,er 0!C! 14232!2+a,+1,- (ay also potentially apply. (&$ Ops#Ca"#Att&#Gen 1 (2012).) 'mpounding a Vehicle #sed for Prostitution, per "ocal ;rdinance) Alsothe Cali"ornia Supre(e Court has rule, that a local or,inance that purports to allo0 "or the sei;ure an, "or"eiture o" a (otor .ehicle use, "or purposes o" prostitution or to ac@uire any controlle, substance has been pree(pte, by state la0 an, there"ore unen"orceable. (O?Conne"" $# Cit& o' Stoc(ton (2002) 31 Cal.3th 1051.) 0!C! 2#14!2: 'mpoundment of a Vehicle at a obriety &hec?point) Su4d! +a,) A ,ri.er o" a (otor .ehicle 0ho "ails to stop an, sub(it to a sobriety checFpoint inspection con,ucte, by a la0 en"orce(ent agency 0hen signs an, ,isplays are poste, re@uiring that stop is guilty o" an in"raction. Su4d! +4,) 1(poun,(ent o" a .ehicle at a sobriety checFpoint is prohibite, i" the ,ri.er s only o""ense is a .iolation o" 0!C! 12)33 (,ri.ing 0ithout a .ali, license). Su4d! +c,) Re@uires a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- in the case o" a ,ri.er 0ho is in .iolation o" 0!C! 12)33- to (aFe a reasonable atte(pt to i,enti"y the registere, o0ner o" the .ehicle an, release the .ehicle to hi( or her i" license,- or to a license, ,ri.er authori;e, by the registere, o0ner. 1" a notice to appear is issue, to the unlicense, ,ri.er- the na(e an, ,ri.er s license nu(ber o" the license, ,ri.er to 0ho( the car is release, shall be liste, on the o""icer s copy o" the notice. Ehen a .ehicle cannot be release,- it shall be remo!ed pursuant to 0!C! 222)1+-,- 0hether or not a notice to appear is issue,. 0!C! 14232: A .ehicle re(o.e, pursuant to this section shall be release, to the registere, o0ner or his or her agent at any ti(e the "acility to 0hich the .ehicle has been re(o.e, is open- upon presentation o" the registere, o0ner s or his or her agent s .ali, ,ri.er s license an, proo" o" current .ehicle registration.
$##
A police ,epart(ent has ,iscretion to establish gui,elines that 0oul, allo0 an i(poun,e, .ehicle to be release, in less than 30 ,ays- un,er 0!C! 222)1+-,- in situations 0here a "i?e, 30%,ay statutory i(poun,(ent perio,- un,er 0!C! 14232!2+a,+1,- (ay also potentially apply. (&$ Ops#Ca"#Att&#Gen 1 (2012).)
$#&
Chapter 17
Searches o' Residences and Other ui"din1s) )ri$ate Residences enCoy the perhaps highest *expectation of pri!acy/ o" any obCect or place that (ay be subCect to a search. ()eop"e $# Rame& (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, 253: )a&ton $# Ne, Yor( (1&#0) 33$ 4.S. $23 653 7.8,.2n, 53&9.) *1t is a?io(atic that the Aphysical entry o" the ho(e is the chie" e.il against 0hich the 0or,ing o" the Fourth Amendment is ,irecte,. / (-e"sh $# -isconsin (1&#3) 355 4.S. 230- 23# 6#0 7.8,.2n, 2329: United States $# United States District Court (1&22) 302 4.S. 2&2- 313 632 7.8,.2n, 2$2- 253: United States $# roo(s (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, 112#1133: )eop"e $# Thompson (2005) 3# Cal.3th #11- #12.) 1n,i.i,uals or,inarily possess the highest e?pectation o" pri.acy 0ithin their ho(es- 0hich is an area that typically is *a""or,e, the (ost stringent Fourth Amendment protection./ (United States $# %artine53Fuerte (1&25) 32# 4.S. $33- $51 63& 7.8,.2n, 1115- 11309.) +his sa(e ,egree o" pri.acy is accor,e, the curtilage o" the ho(e- as 0ell. (United States $# -arner (&th Cir. 1&##) #33 B.2n, 301- 30$: United States $# Romero3 ustamente (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, 1103- 110&: United States $# Da$is (200#) $30 B.3r, 105&: see belo0.) Io0e.er- the protections a""or,e, the *curtilage/ o" one s ho(e do not apply *to an e(pty structure use, occasionally as sleeping @uarters./ (United States $# ara;as3A$a"os (&th Cir. 2003) 3$& B.3r, 1203- 120&%1215.) See *&urtilage of the Home-/ belo0. Euery) Does not the human body enCoy an e.en higher e?pectation o" pri.acyM See * earches of Persons-/ abo.e. Genera" Ru"e) Oore so than any other thing or place 0hich is subCect to search- a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence is presumpti!ely unreasonable an,- there"oreabsent proo" o" an e?ception to the rule- is unla0"ul. ()eop"e $# -i""iams (1&##) 3$ Cal.3r, 125#- 12&2: )eop"e $# ennett (1&&#) 12 Cal.3th 323- 3#3.) Earrantless entries by police into a resi,ence are presu(e, illegal unless Custi"ie, by either consent- or probable cause 0ith e?igent circu(stances. ()a&ton $# Ne, Yor(- supraat p. $#5 653 7.8,.2n, at pp. 5$0%5$19: )eop"e $# Coddin1ton (2000) 23 Cal.3th $2&- $2$.) $&0
*As a general rule- to satis"y the Fourth Amendment- a search o" a ho(e (ust be supporte, by probable cause- and there (ust be a 0arrant authori;ing the search./ (United States $# roo(s (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, 112#- 1133- citing Nathanson $# United States (1&33) 2&0 4.S. 31- 32 62# 7.8,. 1$&9.) *Lo.ern(ent o""icials Abear a hea.y bur,en 0hen atte(pting to ,e(onstrate an urgent nee, that (ight Custi"y 0arrantless searches or arrests (0ithin one s ho(e). 6Citation9/ (Con,a& $# )asadena 0umane Societ& (1&&5) 3$ Cal.App.3th 153- 122.) Other ui"din1s and )"aces) Hotel an, motel rooms are accor,e, the sa(e protection as one s resi,ence. Hotel) Stoner $# Ca"i'ornia (1&53) 325 4.S. 3#3- 3&0 611 7.8,.2n, #$5- #519: United States $# A"$are5 (&th Cir. 1&#2) #10 B.2n, #2&: see also United States $# roo(s (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, 112#: United States $# %cC"enton (3r, Cir. 1&&$) $3 B.3r, $#3- $#2%$##: see also )eop"e $# 9i""a"o.os (2005) 13$ Cal.App.3th 310: United States $# Youn1 (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 211- 21$%215: )eop"e $# Torres et a"! (2012) 20$ Cal.App.3th &#&- &&3.) ,otel) )eop"e $# -i""iams (1&##) 3$ Cal.3r, 125#- 12&2- )eop"e $# ennett (1&&#) 12 Cal.3th 323- 3#3%3#5: United States $# Cormier (&th Cir. 2000) 220 B.3r, 1103- 110#%110#: United States $# autista (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $#3: )eop"e $# 9i""a"o.os- supra.: )eop"e $# )arson (200#) 33 Cal.3th 332- 33$: United States $# Fran("in (&th Cir. 2010) 503 B.3r, 5$2.) A"ter a hotel (or (otel) guest s rental perio, has e?pire,- or has been la0"ully ter(inate,- or the ,e"en,ant has aban,one, the roo(- the guest no longer has a legiti(ate e?pectation o" pri.acy in the hotel roo(. (United States $# 0addad (&th Cir. 1&22) $$# B.2n, &5#- &2$.) Io0e.er- it has also been hel, that any a,,itional ti(e establishe, by the hotelN(otel s pattern an, practice "or allo0ing guests to stay past the liste, checFout ti(e- an, taFing into account any speci"ic agree(ent bet0een the (anage(ent an, the guest- 0ill be a,,e, to the ti(e perio, the guest is la0"ully in the roo(. Ie or she ,oes not lose his or her e?pectation o" pri.acy until this occurs- (aFing a 0arrantless entry up until then unla0"ul. (United States $# Dorais (&th Cir. 2001) 231 B.3r, 1123.) $&1
Also- one 0ho rents a hotel roo( 0ith a stolen cre,it car, does not ha.e stan,ing to challenge the other0ise unla0"ul entry o" the roo( by la0 en"orce(ent. ()eop"e $# Sat5 (1&&#) 51 Cal.App.3th 322.) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal ,isagreesan, has hel, that ,espite renting a (otel roo( 0ith a stolen cre,it car,- the ,e"en,ant ,i, not lose his stan,ing to challenge an unla0"ul entry until the (otel s (anager tooF so(e a""ir(ati.e steps to repossess the roo(. 1n this case- the (anager 0as still seeFing pay(ent "or the roo(. +he Court note, that at the ti(e the o""icers entere, the ,e"en,ant s roo(- the status o" the cre,it car, as stolen 0as yet to be con"ir(e,. (United States $# autista (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $#3.) Also- a ,e"en,ant has not lost his e?pectation o" pri.acy in his hotel roo( (0hich 0as later- a"ter the "act- ,isco.ere, to ha.e been rente, 0ith a stolen cre,it car,) by the hotel locFing hi( out 0here he 0as locFe, out pursuant to a policy to ,o so a"ter a ,angerous 0eapon (a "irear() is "oun, in the roo( by hotel e(ployees. 7ocFing hi( out- in this case0as not ,one 0ith the intent to e.ict hi(. (United States $# Youn1 (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 211- 21$% 220.) +he Jinth Circuit- straining to ,i""erentiate the "acts o" autista- also hel, that the occupant o" a hotel roo( has no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy 0hen the occupancy is achie.e, through cre,it car, "rau,. (Also see United States $# Cuna1 (&th Cir. 2003) 3#5 B.3r, ###.) 1n Cuna1- the ,e"en,ant 0as ne.er a la0"ul occupant. 1n autista- the Court rule, that the ,e"en,ant 0as a la0"ul occupant- ,espite the use o" a stolen cre,it car,- until the (otel s (anager tooF a""ir(ati.e steps to repossess the roo(: a @uestionable ,istinction. Also- paying the rent 0ith counter"eit bills ,oes not ,epri.e a ,e"en,ant o" her e?pectation o" pri.acy in $&2
her (otel roo( absent e.i,ence that she Fne0 the bills she use, 0ere counter"eit. Also- the ,e"en,ant s e?pectation o" pri.acy ,oes not abate absent e.i,ence to the e""ect that the (otel (anager ha, atte(pte, to e.ict the ,e"en,ant- or enlist the police to help hi( ,o so. ()eop"e $# %uno5 (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th 125.) Ehether or not a ,e"en,ant aban,one, a (otel roo( is a @uestion o" the ,e"en,ant s intent- as ,eter(ine, by *ob%ecti!e factors/ (as oppose, to his actual subCecti.e intent) such as the ,e"en,ant s 0or,s an, actions. Aban,on(ent ,oes not *necessarily/ turn on 0hether a (otel s (anage(ent elects to repossess. ()eop"e $# )arson (200#) 33 Cal.3th 332- 332%33#: ,e"en,ant "le, "ro( the (otel roo( in or,er to a.oi, arrest.) +he issue is *0hether the person so relin@uishe, his interest in the property that he no longer retaine, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in it at the ti(e o" the search./ (Id.- at p. 335.) +he Court- in )arson- also reCecte, the argu(ent that aban,on(ent (ay not be "oun, 0here the (otel (anager ,i, not retaFe physical possession o" the (otel roo( "ro( the guest prior to the challenge, search. (Id.- at pp. 332%33#.) 8.en though the occupant inten,s to use the (otel roo( "or only one night "or so(e illicit purpose- ha.ing a ho(e nearby- it is still an *inhabited dwelling/ "or purposes o" "in,ing a "irst ,egree burglary an, a "irst ,egree robbery +(!C! 423+a,- 212!)+a,respecti.ely.) that occurs in the roo(. ()eop"e $# 9i""a"o.os (2005) 13$ Cal.App.3th 310.) +here is no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the guest register o" a hotel or (otel. Police o""icers- there"ore- are not preclu,e, "ro( .ie0ing such a register "or the purpose o" checFing the resi,ents "or 0arrants. (United States $# Cormier (&th Cir. 2000) 220 B.3r, 1103- 1102%110#.) A city or,inance re@uiring hotels an, si(ilar establish(ents to (aFe their guest registers a.ailable to la0 en"orce(ent "or inspection- 0ithout a 0arrant- is constitutional. )ate" $# Cit& o' 2os An1e"es (&th Cir. 2012) 5#5 B.3r, 10#$.) $&3
+he Jinth Circuit note, that there (ay be instances 0hen in"or(ation about a guest collecte, by a hotel is entitle, to Fourth Amendment protection. Bor instance- the Court notes that a *custo(er list/ co(pile, by a hotel (ay be entitle, to the sa(e protections as other business recor,s. Gut that 0as not the circu(stance in this particular case0hen ,iscussing hotel guest registers. (Id.- at pp. 10##% 10#&.) A rente, roo( in a boarding house recei.es the sa(e protections. (United States $# %cDona"d (1&3#) 33$ 4.S. 3$1 6&3 7.8,. 1$39.) A garage to one s resi,ence recei.es the sa(e constitutional protections as the resi,ence itsel". (United States $# Oa!aca (&th Cir. 2000) 233 B.3r, 11$3.) A wee?end fishing retreat is an *inhabited dwelling./ (United States $# Graham (#th Cir. 1&&2.) &#2 B.2n, 31$.) A hospital room is an *inhabited dwelling./ ()eop"e $# Fond (1&&&) 21 Cal.App.3th 122- 131%132.) 8.en a %ail cell is an *inhabited dwelling./ ()eop"e $# %cDade (1&&1) 230 Cal.App.3r, 11#- 122%12#: a "irst ,egree robbery case.) ,ilitary Housing) Oilitary personnel- li.ing o"" base in a (otel- but 0ith the housing pai, "or by the (ilitary as an alternati.e to li.ing in the on%base barracFs- retain the sa(e pri.acy protections as anyone else in the ci.ilian 0orl,. ()eop"e $# Rodri1ue5 (1&55) 232 Cal.App.2n, 233.) +he sa(e rule applies to any o""%base (ilitary housing- at least 0hen the case is a state case being in.estigate, by state la0 en"orce(ent o""icers "or presentation in state court. ()eop"e $# %i""er (1&#2) 1&5 Cal.App.3r, 302.) Io0e.er- on the base- a co((an,ing o""icer (ay authori;e a 0arrantless search o" propertyinclu,ing the ser.ice(an s locFer ()eop"e $# Shepard (1&53) 212 Cal.App.2n, 5&2- 200.) an, his roo( in the barracFs. ()eop"e $# *asmin (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th &#.) 8.i,ence properly sei;e, pursuant to a ser.ice (e(ber s co((an,ing o""icer s (or *co(petent (ilitary authority s/) oral or 0ritten authori;ation to search a person or an area$&3
"or speci"ie, property or e.i,ence or "or a speci"ic person (see BilitarA 8ules of ?:idence, 8ule 31)+a, & +4,)- the results (ay be use, in state court. ()eop"e $# *asminsupra- at p. 110.) &urtilage of the Home) +he Fourth Amendment protections against 0arrantless searches an, sei;ures e?ten, to the curtilage aroun, one s ho(e: i.e.- that area aroun, the house nor(ally use, "or li.ing purposes. (United States $# -arner (&th Cir. 1&##) #33 B.2n, 301- 30$: United States $# Romero3 ustamente (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, 1103- 110&.) *At co((on la0- the curtilage is the area to 0hich e?ten,s the inti(ate acti.ity associate, 0ith the Asanctity o" a (an s ho(e an, the pri.acies o" li"e- 6Citation9- an, there"ore has been consi,ere, part o" the ho(e itsel" "or Fourth Amendment purposes. +huscourts ha.e e?ten,e, Fourth Amendment protection to the curtilage: an, they ha.e ,e"ine, the curtilage- as ,i, the co((on la0- by re"erence to the "actors that ,eter(ine 0hether an in,i.i,ual reasonably (ay e?pect that an area i((e,iately a,Cacent to the ho(e 0ill re(ain pri.ate./ (O"i$er $# United States (1&#3) 355 4.S. 120- 1#0 6#0 7.8,.2n, 213- 22$9.) See also )eop"e $# Strider (200&) 122 Cal.App.3th 13&313&&- "n. 3: an, Sims $# Stanton (Jan. 15- 2013) >> B.3r, >> 62013 4.S. App. 78T1S 10$29: "ront yar, o" a resi,enceenclose, by a "ence. +he curtilage o" a ho(e e?ten,s to those areas i((e,iately pro?i(ate to a ,0elling- 0hich *harbors those inti(ate acti.ities associate, 0ith ,o(estic li"e an, the pri.acies o" the ho(e./ (United States $# Dunn (1&#2) 3#0 4.S 2&3- 301- "n. 3 6&3 7.8,.2n, 325- 333%33$9.) *1t is 0ell%establishe, that A6t9he presu(pti.e protection accor,e, people at ho(e e?ten,s to out,oor areas tra,itionally Fno0n as *curtilage/Pareas that- liFe the insi,e o" a house- harbor the inti(ate acti.ity associate, 0ith the sanctity o" a personDs ho(e an, the pri.acies o" li"e. (Sims $# Stanton (&th Cir. Jan. 15- 2013) >> B.3r, >> 62013 4.S. App. 78T1S 10$299 noting that defendant)s front yard, behind a solid wood six6foot fence, constituted the curtilage of her home9 citing United States $# Struc(man (&the Cir. 2010) 503 B.3rd 18/, 18D, which @uotes United States $# Dunnsupra- at p. 8..20 +he "actors to consi,er in ,eter(ining the boun,aries o" the curtilage inclu,e) $&$
+he pro?i(ity o" the area to the house: Ehether the area is inclu,e, 0ithin an enclosure aroun, the house: +he nature o" the uses (a,e o" the area: and Steps taFen to protect the area "ro( obser.ation by people passing by. (United States $# Dunn- supra: United States $# Da$is (200#) $30 B.3r, 105&- 1022%10#0: )eop"e $# 2ien1 (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 1213: United States $# )erea3Re& (&th Cir. 2012) 5#0 B.3r, 112&- 11#3%11#$: United States $# *ohnson (&th Cir. 2001) 2$5 B.3r, #&$- &00%&03: Sims $# Stanton (&th Cir. Jan. 15- 2013) >> B.3r, >>- >> "n. 3 62013 4.S. App. 78T1S 10$29.)
Howe!er- e.en though 0ithin the curtilage o" a suspect s ho(e- a hole in the groun, 0hich is in a *common area/ o" an apart(ent co(ple? ,oes not carry 0ith it the sa(e pri.acy e?pectations. +here"ore- it 0as not unla0"ul "or police- obser.ing ,e"en,ant "ro( a .antage point outsi,e the cartilage- 0hile he 0as engage, in apparent narcotic transactions- to co(e onto the property an, li"t a boar, co.ering the hole 0here ,e"en,ant Feep contraban,- ,espite the lacF o" a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Sha, (2002) &2 Cal.App.3th #33.) *lso- the protections a""or,e, the *curtilage/ o" one s ho(e do not apply 0hen the allege, ho(e 0as nothing (ore than *an e(pty structure use, occasionally as sleeping @uarters./ (United States $# ara;as3A$a"os (&th Cir. 2003) 322 B.3r, 1030- 10$3%10$#: a t0el.e%"oot tra.el trailer on the property 0ithout any hooFups or other in,ications that it *harbor(e,) those inti(ate acti.ities associate, 0ith ,o(estic li"e an, the pri.acies o" the ho(e./) !bser.ations (a,e into the curtilage o" the ho(e "ro( the ,e"en,ants ,ri.e0ay- 0hen the ,ri.e0ay 0as an area accessible to the neighbors- 0ere properly use, to obtain a search 0arrant. +he use o" night .ision goggles 0as irrele.ant. ()eop"e $# 2ien1 (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 1213.) A person s "ence, o"" bacFyar, is the curtilage o" his ho(e. (United States $# Struc(man (&th Cir 2010) 503 B.3, 231- 23&.) A carport attache, to the si,e o" ,e"en,ant s house 0as 0ithin the curtilage o" the ho(e. (United States $# )erea3Re& (&th Cir. 2012) 5#0 B.3r, 112&- 11#3%11#&.) $&5
Temporar& or Impermanent Residences) +he sa(e rules (ay apply to temporary or impermanent residences- such as a tent in a public ca(pgroun, (United States $# Gooch (&th Cir. 1&&3) 5 B.3r, 523- 52#.) or migrant farm housing on pri.ate property. (2aDu(e $# Ne"son (&th Cir. 1&#$) 252 B.2n, 131#- 1331% 1332.) *(+)here is no Fourth Amendment rule that pro.i,es "or protection only "or tra,itionally constructe, houses./ (United States $# ara;as3A$a"os (&th Cir. 2003) 322 B.3r, 1030- 10$$%10$5.) See United States $# Sando$a" (&th Cir. 2000) 200 B.3r, 5$&- 0here it 0as hel, that the ,e"en,ant s tent- locate, on Gureau o" 7an, Oanage(ent property- e?hibite, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy un,er the circu(stances (purposely hi,,en)- an, that it 0as there"ore illegal to search it 0ithout a search 0arrant. (See also United States $# Gooch (&th Cir. 1&&3) 5 B.3r, 523: an, United States $# asher (&th Cir. 2011) 52& B.3r, 1151- 115#- 115&.) 1n United States $# Gooch- supra- +he Jinth Circuit hel, that the Fourth Amendment protecte, ,e"en,antDs pri.acy interests in his tent- 0hich 0as locate, on a public ca(pgroun,. +he Court "oun, that ,e"en,ant ha, both a subCecti.e an, an obCecti.ely reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the tent. +here 0ere no e?igent circu(stances that Custi"ie, the 0arrantless arrest o" ,e"en,ant in his tent. +he Court "oun, that the tent 0as (ore liFe a house than a car "or the purpose o" Fourth Amendment. +he court hel, that ,e"en,ant s tent 0as a *non%public/ place "or the purpose o" the Fourth Amendment analysis- e.en though the tent 0as pitche, on public property. +he court "oun, that ,e"en,ant ha, no less reasonable an e?pectation o" pri.acy at a public ca(pgroun, than he 0oul, ha.e at a pri.ate ca(pgroun,. +he area i((e,iately aroun, a tent- at a ca(psite 0hich is open to the public an, e?pose, to public .ie0: no e?pectation o" pri.acy. (United States $# asher (&th Cir. 2011) 52& B.3r, 1151- 115&.) State Courts ha.e been (ore restricti.e on this issue- "in,ing a lacF o" an e?pectation o" pri.acy) A tent on public property. (State $# C"eator (1&&3) #$2 P.2n, 30530#%30&- case out o" Eashington State: but see United States $# Sando$a"- supra- abo.e.) +he area aroun, ,e"en,ant s tent 0hich he ha, set up illegally (ha.ing been cite, there be"ore "or illegal ca(ping) in a public $&2
preser.e 0here ca(ping re@uire, a per(it- 0hich ,e"en,ant ,i, not ha.e. ()eop"e $# Nishi (-./-0 -.1 &al2*pp23th 453, 45164789 no legitimate expectation of pri!acy in the area under a tarp next to his tent20 See also United States $# asher (&th Cir. 2011) 52& B.3r, 1151- 115&. De"en,ant 0as "oun, to ha.e *a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy/ "or Bourth A(en,(ent purposes in an alu(inu( "ra(e co.ere, 0ith tarps that 0as erecte, 0ithin a ,esignate, site on lan, speci"ically set asi,e "or ca(ping ,uring a (usic "esti.al. +he court ,eclare,) *!ne shoul, be "ree to ,epart the ca(psite "or the ,ayDs a,.enture 0ithout "ear o" this e?pectation o" pri.acy being .iolate,./ ()eop"e $# 0u1hston (200#) 15# Cal.App.3th 1052- 105#%1021.) Gut so(e other types o" temporary residences ha.e been hel,- un,er the circu(stances- not to be protecte,) Bor instance) A cardboard box- locate, on a public si,e0alF- in 0hich ,e"en,ant li.e,- did not ha.e the sa(e reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy- an, there"ore coul, be searche, 0ithout a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# Thomas (1&&$) 3# Cal.App.3th 1331- 1333%133$.) A ca!e on "e,eral property 0here ,e"en,ant ,i, not ha.e a legal right to be. (United States $# Ruc(man (10th Cir. 1&#5) #05 B.2n, 1321- 1323: the court noting that the lacF o" a *legal right to occupy the lan, an, buil, structures on it-/ 0ere "actors *highly rele.ant/ to the issue o" the ,e"en,antDs e?pectation o" pri.acy.) 1n a *s@uatter)s community/ on public property (Ame5:uita $# 0ernande53Co"on (1st Cir. 1&2$) $1# B.2n, #- 11%12.) or under a bridge abutment. (State $# %oone& (1&&1) $## A.2n, 13$- 1$21$3.) usinesses) A 0arrantless arrest in a pri.ate area o" a business- 0hen the area entere, is not e?pose, or .isible to the public an, not the subCect o" any la0"ul business regulation by la0 en"orce(ent- an, 0ithout an e?igency e?cusing the lacF o" a 0arrant- .iolates the occupant s e?pectation o" pri.acy. ()eop"e $# 2ee (1&#5) 1#5 Cal.App.3r, 233: citing G#%# 2easin1 Corp# $# United States (1&22) 32& 4.S. 33# 6$0 7.8,.2n, $309: see also United States $# Dri$er (&th Cir. 1&#$) 225 B.2n, #02- #0&%#10.) +here is a *plainly . . . reasonable- legiti(ate- an, obCecti.e e?pectation o" pri.acy 0ithin the interior o" . . . co.ere, buil,ings- an, it is e@ually clear $&#
that e?pectation is one society is prepare, to obser.e. (Do, Chemica" Co# $# United States (1&#5) 325 4.S. 222- 235 6&0 7.8,.2n, 225- 2359.) +his e?tension o" Rame& ,oes not inclu,e areas o" a business 0hich are *freely accessible to the public./ )eop"e $# 2ee- supraat pp. 235%232.) 2ee ,oes not a""ect the applicability o" a regulatory sche(e authori;ing 0arrantless inspections o" the pri.ate areas o" so(e regulate, businessesunless the search is being con,ucte, "or the purpose o" seeFing contraban, or e.i,ence o" cri(e un,er the guise o" an a,(inistrati.e 0arrant. (Id.- at p. 23&: Dono$an $# De,e& (1&#1) 3$2 4.S. $&3- $&#- "n. 5 65& 7.8,.2n, 252- 25#9.) 4se o" an a,(inistrati.e- or *inspection/ 0arrant- issue, by a court "or the purpose o" regulating buil,ing- "ire- sa"ety- plu(bingelectrical- healthlabor or ;oning co,es- ,oes not Custi"y an entry by police to (aFe an arrest gi.en the lesser proo" stan,ar,s nee,e, to obtain an a,(inistrati.e 0arrant. 1" an entry is e""ecte, "or the purpose o" arresting the occupantan arrest 0arrant 0ill ha.e to be obtaine,. (A"e!ander $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (1&&3) 2& B.3r, 13$$.) +here is no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the guest register o" a hotel or (otel. Police o""icers- there"ore- are not preclu,e, "ro( .ie0ing such a register "or the purpose o" checFing the resi,ents "or 0arrants. (United States $# Cormier (&th Cir. 2000) 220 B.3r, 1103- 1102%110#.) -or(p"ace Searches o' Go$ernment Emp"o&ees) Rule) *Searches an, sei;ures by go.ern(ent e(ployers or super.isors o" the pri.ate property o" their e(ployees . . . are subCect to the restraints o" the Fourth Amendment./ Io0e.er- *(p)ublic e(ployees e?pectations o" pri.acy in their o""ices- ,esFs- an, "ile cabinets- liFe si(ilar e?pectations o" e(ployees in the pri.ate sector- (ay be re,uce, by .irtue o" actual o""ice practices an, proce,ures- or by legiti(ate regulation./ (O?Connor $# Orte1a (1&#2) 3#0 4.S. 20&- 21$- 212 6&3 7.8,.2n, 213221- 2239.) *+he 0orFplace inclu,es those areas an, ite(s that are relate, to 0orF an, are generally 0ithin the e(ployerDs control . . . e.en i" the e(ployee has place, personal ite(s in the(- . . ./ (Id.- at pp. 21$%215 6&3 7.8,.2n, at p. 2229.) *(R)easonableness rather than probable cause (is) the stan,ar,- balancing the Ae(ployees legiti(ate e?pectation o" pri.acy against the go.ern(ent s nee, "or super.ision- control- an, the e""icient operation o" the 0orFplace./ (United States $# Gon5a"e5 (&th Cir. 2002) 300 B.3r, 103#$&&
103&%10$0: citing O?Connor $# Orte1a- supraat pp. 21&%220 6&3 7.8,.2n, at p. 2239.) 1n Gon5a"e5- a 0arrantless- suspicionless search o" a go.ern(ent e(ployee s bacFpacF 0as con,ucte, as a part o" a progra( to co(bat e(ployee the"t. 4phol,ing the la0"ulness o" such a search- the Court note, that the "act that the ,e"en,ant ha, signe, a "or( upon initial e(ploy(ent acFno0le,ging that such ran,o( searches 0oul, be con,ucte, (lessening the ,e"en,ant s e?pectation o" pri.acy) a,,e, to the reasonableness o" the search. See also United States $# Ta(eta (&th Cir. 1&&1) &23 B.2n, 55$- 523% 523- 0here a search o" a D.8.A. agent s o""ice by his super.isors 0as teste, by the O?Connor stan,ar, o" *reasonableness/ an, not probable cause because the search 0as a part o" an internale(ployee (iscon,uct in.estigation. )u."ic Restrooms, Adu"t oo(store ooths and Dressin1 Rooms) 1t is consi,ere, to be a *general exploratory search-/ an, thus- a Fourth Amendment .iolation- to spy on persons using public toilets- but perhaps not in other areas 0here there is a lesser e?pectation o" pri.acy. 8?a(ples) Pay toilets in an a(use(ent parF- 0here o""icers 0atche, "ro( an obser.ation pipe lea,ing "ro( the roo" to the in,i.i,ual booths: obser.ations suppresse,. ( ie"ic(i $# Superior Court (1&52) $2 Cal.2n, 502.) ,en)s restroom in a ,epart(ent store- 0here the police o""icers positione, the(sel.es in the cra0l space bet0een the ceiling an, the ne?t "loor0atching through a legiti(ately installe, .ent: obser.ations suppresse,. ( ritt $# Superior Court (1&52) $# Cal.2n, 35&.) +ote) +here is no reason to belie.e the sa(e rule 0oul,n t apply to the 0o(en s restroo(. Doorless stalls in a public restroo( 0ith the police o""icer in the ceilinglooFing ,o0n into the stall. Although the o""icer coul, ha.e la0"ully obser.e, the illegal acti.ity by si(ply 0alFing into the bathroo(obser.ing that sa(e acti.ity "ro( insi,e the ceiling abo.e the stall .iolate, the Fourth Amendment. ()eop"e $# Tri11s (1&23) # Cal.3r, ##3.) Io0e.er- looFing into a curtained booth 0here se?ually e?plicit "il(s 0ere sho0n in an *adult boo?store/ 0as uphel,. +he curtains 0ere "oun, to be there to e?clu,e light: not to pro.i,e the occupant 0ith any reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy. 7ooFing into the in,i.i,ual booths500
there"ore- 0as la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Freeman (1&22) 55 Cal.App.3r, 323332%333.) 1t 0as also hel, to be la0"ul to looF o.er an, un,er a ,epart(ent store fitting room ,oor 0here there 0as a t0o%"oot gap un,er the three%"oot high ,oor- an, another t0o%"oot gap bet0een the top o" the ,oor an, the ceiling. Ehile the ,oor 0as inten,e, to pro.i,e a (ini(al protection to (o,esty- it ,i, not reasonably pro.i,e the occupant 0ith an e?pectation o" pri.acy. (In re De.orah C# (1&#1) 30 Cal.3r, 12$- 132%13&.) pying 'nto $athrooms, Etc.: tatutes) Jote also (!C! 241+',+1,- 0hich (aFes it a (is,e(eanor to looF through a hole or opening- or other0ise .ie0- by (eans o" any instru(entality inclu,ing- but not li(ite, to- a periscope- telescopebinoculars- ca(era- (otion picture ca(era- or ca(cor,er- into the interior o" a bathroo(- changing roo(- "itting roo(- ,ressing roo(- or tanning booth- or into the interior o" any other area in 0hich the occupant has a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy. (!C! 241+',+3, (aFes it a (is,e(eanor to *use a conceale, ca(cor,er- (otion picture ca(era- or photographic ca(era o" any ti(e to secretly .i,eotape- "il(- photograph- or recor, by electronic (eans-/ so(eone *in a state o" "ull or partial un,ress"or the purpose o" .ie0ing the bo,y o"- or the un,ergar(ents 0orn by- that other person-/ 0ithout the .icti( s Fno0le,ge or consent0hile *in the interior o" a be,roo(- bathroo(- changing roo("itting roo(- ,ressing roo(- or tanning booth- or the interior o" any other area in 0hich that other person has a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy- 0ith the intent to in.a,e the pri.acy o" that other person./ Two6=ay ,irrors) (!C! 2)3n- (aFes it a (is,e(eanor to install or (aintain a *two6way mirror/ per(itting the obser.ation o" any restroo(- toilet- bathroo(- 0ashroo(- sho0er- locFer roo(- "itting roo(- (otel roo(- or hotel roo(. +he section speci"ically e?clu,es state or local public penal- correctional- custo,ial- or (e,ical institutions. )ro."em: -hen O''icers Trespass: +he "act that an o""icer (ight be *trespassing/ upon the ,e"en,ant s property (0ithin the curtilage- 0ithout entering the pre(ises) is relati.ely insigni"icant 0hen ,eter(ining 0hether the Fourth Amendment has been .iolate,. +he issue is one o" *reasonableness/ un,er the circu(stances. +he "act that a trespass (ay be in.ol.e, is but one "actor to consi,er 0hen ,eter(ining reasonableness. ()eop"e $# %anderscheid (2002) && Cal.App.3th 3$$- 0here 0alFing aroun, to the bacF o" the ,e"en,ant s 501
house to FnocF- 0hile looFing "or an ar(e, parolee%at%large- hel, to be la0"ul,i""erentiating the rule o" )eop"e $# Camacho (2000) 23 Cal.3th #23 6see belo09on the "acts an, the relati.e seriousness o" the cri(e in.ol.e,.) See also )eop"e $# Cha$e5 (200#) 151 Cal.App.3th 13&3- 0here 0alFing to the si,e o" the house an, cli(bing o.er a si? "oot "ence- past a locFe, gate- 0as la0"ul 0hen the o""icer obser.e,- in plain sight- a cocFe, re.ol.er on the groun, at the si,e o" the house. +he necessity to retrie.e the 0eapon- "or sa"ety purposes- allo0e, "or the entry o" the si,e yar,. Securin1 the )remises pendin1 the o.tainin1 o' a search ,arrant) Fourth Amendment: +he securing o" a resi,ence by police- pen,ing the obtaining o" a 0arrant- is subCect to Fourth Amendment protections. (United States $# 2indse& (&th Cir. 1&#&) #22 B.2n, 222- 2#0.) <eneral Rule) Ehere police o""icers are alrea,y at a resi,ence 0ithout a 0arrant 0hen e.i,ence is la0"ully ,isco.ere, (e.g.- by a plain sight obser!ation)- the ,isco.ery o" 0hich pro.i,es probable cause to search the rest o" the resi,ence- but 0hen any other e.i,ence in the house is liFely to ,isappear or be ,estroye, 0hile a search 0arrant is obtaine, (i.e.- an *exigency:/ see )eop"e $# Superior Court 6Ir,in7 (1&23) 33 Cal.App.3r, 32$.)- the o""icers ha.e three options) Sei;e only that 0hich is in plain sight- an, ignore 0hat (ight be "oun, in the rest o" the house. SeeF consent to search the entire resi,ence "ro( the resi,ents. (See *&onsent earches-/ belo0) ecure the residence (i.e.- ,etain its occupants an, guar, the house) pen,ing the obtaining o" a search 0arrant. (See belo0)
Exigency of the ;fficers) ;wn ,a?ing) +he ol, rule 0as that although a police o""icer (ay- 0ith e?igent circu(stances- enter an, secure a resi,ence (or other protecte, place) pen,ing the obtaining o" a 0arrant or consent to search- the la0 ,i, not allo0 a 0arrantless entry an, securing o" the pre(ises i" the e?igency 0as o" the o""icers o0n (aFing. 8.g.) !""icers- with probable cause 0hich 0oul, ha.e Custi"ie, the obtaining o" a search 0arrant- but hoping to obtain an oral consent to search instea,- FnocF on the "ront ,oor only to be tol, by the occupants that a,(ission is being ,enie,. +he "act that e.i,ence (ay no0 be ,estroye,- etc.- 0hile a 0arrant is obtaine, is not an e?cuse to (aFe a 0arrantless entry to secure the house. ()eop"e $# 502
Shue& (1&23) 13 Cal.App.3r, #3$: see also United States $# Dri$er (&th Cir. 1&#$) 225 B.2n, #02.) +he continuing .ali,ity o" Shue& an, Dri$er is @uestionable in light o" the 4nite, States Supre(e Court ,ecision in /entuc(& $# /in1 (Oay 15- 2011) >> 4.S. >> 6131 S.Ct. 1#3&: 12& 7.8,.2n, #5$9. See belo0. Io0e.er- assu(ing the continuing .ali,ity o" Shue& an, Dri$er- 0hen a house is illegally entere, an, secure, by la0 en"orce(ent un,er these circu(stances- an, a 0arrant is therea"ter obtaine, using only that in"or(ation ,e.elope, prior to an, in,epen,ent o" the illegal entry as the probable cause- a subse@uent search o" the pre(ises un,er authority o" the 0arrant 0ill be uphel,. (Se1ura $# United States (1&#3) 35# 4.S. 2&5 6#2 7.8,.2n, $&&9: )eop"e $# An1u"o (1&##) 1&& Cal.App.3r, 320: )eop"e $# 2amas (1&&1) 22& Cal.App.3r, $50- $21.) Gut- per the Jinth Circuit- e.en though the *"ruit o" the poisonous tree/ ,octrine ,oes not apply to the la0"ul search o" a resi,ence a"ter the house 0as *,etaine,/ "or an unreasonable ti(e 0hile a search 0arrant 0as obtaine,- the resulting e.i,ence reco.ere, "ro( the resi,ence 0hen the ho(e 0as searche, 0ith the 0arrant 0ill be suppresse, any0ay in that the o""icers 0ere not acting reasonably in taFing 25H hours to get the 0arrant- an, so(e punish(ent (ust "ollo0 such an unreasonable ,elay. (United States $# Cha (&th Cir. 2010) $&2 B.3r, &&$- 1003%1003.) 8.en 0hen obser.ations (a,e ,uring an illegal entry are use, in the 0arrant a""i,a.it- the courts ha.e hel, that that part (ay be e?cise, "ro( the a""i,a.it an, the re(ain,er then reteste, "or the e?istence o" probable cause. 1" it is there- the search 0ill be uphel,. ()eop"e $# Gesner (1&##) 202 Cal.App.3r, $#1.) 1" it is not- the e.i,ence (ust be suppresse,. ()eop"e $# %achupa (1&&3) 2 Cal.3th 513.) 1" the reteste, 0arrant is hel, to be .ali,- those ite(s illegally obser.e, ,uring the initial illegal entry shoul, still be a,(issible un,er the *ine!itable disco!ery rule./ ()eop"e $# Gesnersupra- at pp. $&1%$&2.) 503
=ith +o Probable &ause) 1"- ho0e.er- there 0as legiti(ately no opportunity to get a 0arrant be"ore the e?igency ,e.elops (i.e.- the e?igency 0as not o" the o""icers o0n (aFing)- the pre(ises (ay be entere, an, secure, an, the status @uo (aintaine, 0hile a 0arrant is obtaine,. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Ir,in7 (1&23) 33 Cal.App.3r, 32$.) +ew Rule) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court recently pro.i,e, consi,erable clari"ication on this issue- appearing to establish a ne0 rule. 1" so- the ne0 rule is that so long as the o""icers actions in FnocFing on the ,oor an, i,enti"ying the(sel.es- an, presu(ably seeFing a consensual entry- ,oes not itsel" constitute a .iolation or threatene, .iolation o" the nited States Constitution (i.e.- the Fourth Amendment)- there is no penalty "or ,oing so. Shoul, the occupants then atte(pt to ,estroy or secret e.i,encethat s their choice. (/entuc(& $# /in1 (Oay 15- 2011) >> 4.S. >> 6131 S.Ct. 1#3&: 12& 7.8,.2n, #5$9.) +ote) +he /in1 case- ho0e.er- speci"ically ,oes not ,eci,e 0hat is- an, 0hat is not- an e?igent circu(stance allo0ing "or an i((e,iate 0arrantless entry. 1n /in1- the o""icers 0ere in pursuit o" a "leeing "elon 0hen they hear, noises "ro( insi,e consistent 0ith e.i,ence being ,estroye,. +he issue 0hether being ,enie, a consensual entry is itsel" an e?igent circu(stance 0as not ,iscusse,. ecuring &ases) Securing a resi,ence as a cri(e scene is a *seizure/ subCect to Fourth Amendment protection. (United States $# A"aima"o (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 11##- 11&2- "n. 1.) Gut- 0ith *probable cause/ to belie.e a resi,ence (ay contain e.i,ence o" a cri(e- the resi,ence (ay constitutionally be sei;e, as a *crime scene./ (Di!on $# -a""o,a Count& (&th Cir. 2003) 335 B.3r, 1013.) A "i.e%hour sei;ure o" the ,e"en,ant s resi,ence- pen,ing the obtaining o" a search 0arrant- 0as Custi"ie, 0hen the o""icers ha, probable cause to belie.e 0eapons "ro( a ,ri.e%by shooting0hich ha, occurre, shortly be"ore- (ight be in the house. (In re E"i5a.eth G# (2001) ## Cal.App.3th 3&5.) Ehere it appears that con"e,erates o" a person arreste, "or selling narcotics 0ill learn o" the arrest an, ,estroy or secret contraban, still in the house- it is la0"ul to secure the house pen,ing the 503
obtaining o" a search 0arrant. (Ferdin $# Superior Court (1&23) 35 Cal.App.3r, 223- 2#1: )eop"e $# Freen& (1&23) 32 Cal.App.3r, 20.) Eith probable cause to belie.e that contraban, is containe, in a particular resi,ence- an, a reasonable belief that i" the house is not i((e,iately secure, the e.i,ence 0ill be ,estroye,- o""icers (ay enter to secure the house pen,ing the obtaining o" a search 0arrant or a consent to ,o a co(plete search. (United States $# A"aima"osupra.) A three%(inute s0eep o" a house to checF "or persons reasonably belie.e, to be in the house 0ho (ight ,estroy e.i,ence- 0as hel, to be la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Seaton (2001) 25 Cal.3th $&#.) Detention of a Residence) 1t is proper "or the police to te(porarily *detain/ a resi,ence- guar,ing it "ro( the outsi,e an, pre.enting people "ro( entering- 0hen there is a reasonable suspicion that contraban, or e.i,ence o" a cri(e is insi,e- at least until the o""icers can ,eter(ine through their in.estigation 0hether or not to seeF a search 0arrant. (I""inois $# %cArthur (2001) $31 4.S. 325 613# 7.8,.2n, #3#9: )eop"e $# ennett (1&&#) 12 Cal.3th 323.) 1n ,eter(ining 0hat is reasonable- a court (ust balance the pri.acy%relate, concerns o" the resi,ent 0ith the la0 en"orce(ent% relate, concerns- consi,ering "our "actors) (1) Ehether the police ha, probable cause to belie.e that the ,e"en,ant s resi,ence containe, e.i,ence o" a cri(e or contraban,: (2) 0hether the police ha, goo, cause to "ear that- unless restraine,- the ,e"en,ant 0oul, ,estroy the e.i,ence or contraban, be"ore the police coul, return 0ith a 0arrant: (3) 0hether the police (a,e reasonable e""orts to reconcile their la0 en"orce(ent nee,s 0ith the ,e(an,s o" personal pri.acy: an, (3) 0hether the police i(pose, the restraint "or a li(ite, perio, o" ti(e: i.e.- 0hether the ti(e perio, 0as no longer than reasonably necessary "or the police- acting 0ith ,iligence- to obtain the 0arrant. (United States $# Cha (&th Cir. 2010) $#2 B.3r, &&$- 1000: citing I""inois $# %cArthur- supra.- at p. 331%332.) 1n United States $# Cha- supra- ,etaining the ,e"en,ant s resi,ence "or 25H hours 0hile a search 0arrant 0as obtaine, 0as hel, to be unreasonable- re@uiring the suppression o" the resulting e.i,ence. 1n Se1ura $# United States (1&#3) 35# 4.S. 2&5 6#2 7.8,.2n, $&&91& hours (,uring 0hich the house 0as ,etaine, "ro( insi,e) 0as 50$
hel, to be reasonable in that the o""icers ,i, not e?ploit the ,elayonly eight o" the 1& hours 0as 0hen a Cu,ge 0as a.ailable- an, the ,e"en,ants 0ere both in custo,y any0ay. A thirteen hour sei;ure o" a hotel roo( hel, to be reasonable in that the sei;ure occurre, at (i,night 0ith the 0arrant obtaine, by the "ollo0ing a"ternoon- at 1)00 p.(.- an, the ,e"en,ants 0ere in custo,y ,uring this ti(e perio,. (United States $# 0o"5man (&th Cir. 1&#&) #21 B.2n, 13&5- 1$02%1$0#.) Detention of the Residents ;utside) Also- 0ith probable cause Custi"ying the obtaining o" a search 0arrant- the resi,ents (ay be la0"ully ,etaine, outsi,e pen,ing the arri.al o" the search 0arrant. (I""inois $# %cArthursupra. /noc( and Ta"() Ehere the o""icer does not ha.e probable cause prior to the contact (thus- he is not able to obtain a search 0arrant)- there is no constitutional i(pe,i(ent to con,ucting 0hat is Fno0n as a *?noc? and tal?:/ (aFing contact 0ith the occupants o" a resi,ence "or the purpose o" asFing "or a consent to enter. (United States $# Cormier (&th Cir. 2000) 220 B.3r, 1103- 110#%110&.) *Absent e?press or,ers "ro( the person in possession against any possible trespass- there is no rule o" pri.ate or public con,uct 0hich (aFes it illegal per se- or a con,e(ne, in.asion o" the person s right o" pri.acy- "or anyone openly an, peaceably- at high noon- to 0alF up the steps an, FnocF on the "ront ,oor o" any (an s Acastle 0ith the honest intent o" asFing @uestions o" the occupant thereo"P0hether the @uestioner be a pollster- a sales(an- or an o""icer o" the la0./ (Da$is $# United States (&th Cir. 1&53) 322 B.3r, 301. 303.) ZnocFing at the ,e"en,ant s (otel roo( ,oor an, asFing (as oppose, to ,e(an,ing) the occupants to open the ,oor to speaF 0ith the( is- 0hen the ,e"en,ant co(es outsi,e- no (ore than a la0"ul consensual encounter 0hen nothing is sai, or ,one 0hich 0oul, ha.e in,icate, to ,e"en,ant that he 0as not "ree to lea.e or return to his roo(. (United States $# Crapser (&th Cir. 2002) 322 B.3r, 1131- 113$%1132.) State authority si(ilarly uphol,s the practice. ()eop"e $# Co"t (2003) 11#Cal.App.3th 1303- 1310%1311.) See also )eop"e $# %ichae" (1&$$) 3$ Cal.2n, 2$1- at page 2$3- 0here the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court note, that) *1t is not unreasonable "or o""icers to seeF inter.ie0s 0ith suspects or 0itnesses or to call upon the( at their ho(es "or such purposes. Such in@uiries- although courteously (a,e an, not acco(panie, 0ith any assertion o" a right to enter or search or secure ans0ers- 0oul, per(it the cri(inal to ,e"eat his prosecution by 505
.oluntarily re.ealing all o" the e.i,ence against hi( an, then conten,ing that he acte, only in response to an i(plie, assertion o" unla0"ul authority./ +he Fey to con,ucting a la0"ul *?noc? and tal?-/ 0hen there is no articulable suspicion that can be use, to Custi"y an *in!estigati!e detention-/ is 0hether *a reasonable person 0oul, "eel "ree Ato ,isregar, the police an, go about his business. / 6Citation9 1" sono articulable suspicion is re@uire, to (erely FnocF on the ,e"en,ant s ,oor an, in@uire o" hi( 0ho he is an,Nor to asF "or consent to search. ()eop"e $# *en(ins (2003) 11& Cal.App.3th 35#.) +he in"or(ation (oti.ating an o""icer to con,uct a FnocF an, talF (ay be "ro( an anony(ous tipster. +here is no re@uire(ent that o""icers corroborate anony(ous in"or(ation be"ore con,ucting a FnocF an, talF. ()eop"e $# Ri$era (2002) 31 Cal.3th 303.) Gut see Orhorha1he $# INS (&th Cir. 1&&3) 3# B.3r, 3##- 0here o""icers positione, the(sel.es so as to be certain the ,e"en,ant coul, not escape or lea.e- they ,eliberately re.eale, their pre.iously conceale, "irear(s- the contact occurre, in a non%public place- the o""icers acte, in an aggressi.e (anner suggesting that co(pliance 0as not optional- an, the o""icers outnu(bere, ,e"en,ant "our%to%one. +he contact 0as hel, to be an unla0"ul ,etention. An, see United States $# *ere5 (2th Cir. 1&&2) 10# B.3r, 5#3- 0here a si(ilar situation 0as hel, to constitute an *in!estigati!e detention-/ thus re@uiring an *articulable reasonable suspicion/ to be la0"ul- because the o""icers FnocFe, on the (otel roo( ,oor in the (i,,le o" the night continually "or a "ull three (inutes- 0hile co((an,ing the occupants to open the ,oor. An other0ise la0"ul *?noc? and tal?-/ 0here o""icers continue, to press the ,e"en,ant "or per(ission to enter his apart(ent a"ter his ,enial o" any illegal acti.ity- con.erte, the contact into an unla0"ully *e?ten,e,/ ,etentioncausing the Court to conclu,e that a later consent%to%search 0as the pro,uct o" the illegal ,etention- an, thus in.ali,. (United States $# -ashin1ton (&th Cir. 2003) 3#2 B.3r, 1050.) An anony(ous &11%hangup call- traceable to a particular (otel- but 0ithout su""icient in"or(ation to ,eter(ine 0hich roo( the call (ay ha.e co(e "ro(- ,i, not allo0 "or the non%consensual entry into the ,e"en,ant s roo( (erely because o" the suspicious atte(pts by the person 0ho ans0ere, the ,oor to Feep the o""icers "ro( looFing insi,e- an, her apparent lies concerning no one else being there. (United States $# Deemer (&th Cir. 2003) 3$3 B.3r, 1130.) 502
Although police o""icers are allo0e, to approach a ho(e to contact in,i.i,uals insi,e an, con,uct a *FnocF an, talF-/ in this case- the e.i,ence ,i, not support the Gor,er Patrol Agents argu(ent that they entere, ,e"en,ant s property to initiate a consensual encounter 0ith hi(. +he court conclu,e, that it 0as not obCecti.ely reasonable- as part o" a FnocF%an,%talF- "or the agent to bypass the "ront ,oor- 0hich he ha, seen ,e"en,ant open in response to a FnocF by a suspecte, illegal alien (o(ents earlier- an, intru,e into an area o" the curtilage 0here an unin.ite, .isitor 0oul, not be e?pecte, to appear (i.e.- carport attache, to the si,e o" the house). Gy trespassing onto the curtilage an, ,etaining ,e"en,ant- the agent .iolate, ,e"en,ant s Fourth Amendment rights. (United States $# )erea3Re& (&th Cir. 2012) 5#0 B.3r, 112&- 11#3%11#&.) The Doctrine o' GConsent Once Remo$ed:H 1n the situation 0here an un,erco.er police o""icer- or e.en a pai, in"or(ant- has alrea,y been in.ite, into a cri(inal suspect s ho(e 0herethrough obser.ations 0hile there- probable cause is establishe, resulting in the un,erco.er o""icer or in"or(ant signaling other o""icers- the bacFup o""icers (ay then la0"ully (aFe a 0arrantless entry. (United States $ ram."e (&th Cir. 1&55) 103 B.3r, 132$- 132#%132&: United States $# Yoon (5th Cir. 200$) 3&# B.3r, #02.) *!nce consent has been obtaine, "ro( one 0ith authority to gi.e it- any e?pectation o" pri.acy has been lost. Ee seriously ,oubt that the entry o" a,,itional o""icers 0oul, "urther ,i(inish the consenterDs e?pectation o" pri.acy- an,- in the instant case- any re(aining e?pectation o" pri.acy 0as out0eighe, by the legiti(ate concern "or the sa"ety o" 6the o""icers insi,e9. (Citations omitted.)3 $United States $ ram."e- supraat p. 132#.) O.ser$in1 Contra.and 'rom Outside a Residence) Ehen a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer obser.es contraban, in plain sight "ro( outsi,e the house- such as through an open 0in,o0 or ,oor- the o""icer may not (aFe a 0arrantless entry to sei;e that e.i,ence absent an e?igent circu(stance. (0orton $# Ca"i'ornia (1&&0) 3&5 4S. 12#- 132 "n. 2 (an, cases cite, therein) 6110 7.8,.2n, 112- 1239.) +ote) 8?igent circu(stances (ight be present 0hen occupants o" the house obser.e the police o""icer obser.ing the contraban,- thus creating the circu(stance 0here it is reasonable to belie.e the e.i,ence 0ill be ,estroye, be"ore a 0arrant can be obtaine,. 1n such a case- it (ight be appropriate to (aFe an i((e,iate entry "or purposes o" *securing/ the resi,ence pen,ing the obtaining o" a search 0arrant. (See * ecuring the Premises-/ abo.e.) 50#
8?igent circu(stances allo0ing an i((e,iate entry 0ere "oun, 0here the suspect 0as obser.e, through the open ,oor near the contraban, un,er circu(stances 0here it appeare, he (ight ha.e been the .icti( o" an o.er,ose. ()eop"e $# 4a.e""e (1&&5) $0 Cal.App.3th 12#2.) !bser.ing 0hat appeare, to be a cocFe, re.ol.er at the si,e o" a house (i.e.- in the cartilage) behin, a si? "oot "ence 0ith a locFe, gate- allo0e, "or the o""icer to scale the "ence to reco.er the 0eapons "or o""icer sa"ety purposes- an, because it 0as belie.e, that a chil, (ight be present in the house. ()eop"e $# Cha$e5 (200#) 151 Cal.App.3th 13&3.) *nd- be"ore e?igent circu(stances- or a resulting search 0arrant- can be use, as a basis "or entering a resi,ence- it (ust be "irst ,eter(ine, 0hether the police o""icer s initial obser.ations 0ere in "act la0"ul: i.e.(a,e "ro( a position or location the o""icer ha, a legal right to be. (United States $# Garcia (&th Cir. 1&&3) &&2 B.2n, 1223- 122&: )eop"e $# Orti5 (1&&3) 32 Cal.App.3th 2#5- 2&1: see also )eop"e $# Camacho (2000) 23 Cal.3th #23: 0here obser.ations "ro( the si,e o" ,e"en,ant s house hel, to be illegal.) Usin1 a Ruse to Cause a Suspect to Open his Door: plit of *uthority) Ehile *?noc? and tal?s/ are legal (see abo.e)- there is a split o" authority on the issue o" 0hether an o""icer- 0ithout probable cause- (ay use a ruse or subter"uge to (aFe 0arrantless obser.ations insi,e a resi,ence. Held to be 'llegal) Causing a suspect to open his ,oor "or the purpose o" allo0ing the o""icer the opportunity to (aFe a *plain sight obser!ation/ o" contraban, 0ithin the resi,ence is illegal. ()eop"e $# Ree$es (1&53) 51 Cal.2n, 25#.) 1n or,er to la0"ully gain an intentional .isual access to the insi,e o" a resi,ence- one or (ore o" three circu(stances (ust be present) +he occupant .oluntarily an, Fno0ingly opens the ,oor in response to a re@uest- but not a threat or co((an,- such as in a *?noc? and tal?/ (see abo.e): +he o""icers ha.e a search 0arrant: or +he o""ices ha.e probable cause an, e?igent circu(stances Custi"ying the lacF o" a 0arrant.
50&
(United States $# -ashin1ton (&th Cir. 2003) 3#2 B.3r, 1050- 1020%1021: o""icers re"use, to allo0 ,e"en,ant to shut the ,oor ,uring an other0ise la0"ul *?noc? and tal?-/ (aFing the insi,e o" ,e"en,ant s apart(ent clearly .isible.) 4sing a ruse to tricF people outsi,e ,uring a narcotics in.estigation at an apart(ent co(ple?- "or the purpose o" con"ronting as (any people as they coul, lure outsi,e- resulte, in the ,e"en,ant s illegal ,etention 0hen he 0as surroun,e, by a tea( o" o""icers all ,resse, in rai, gear. *A ,eception use, to gain entry into a ho(e an, a ruse that lures a suspect out o" a resi,ence is a ,istinction 0ithout (uch ,i""erence. . . ./ ()eop"e $# Re&es (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 212%13.) 4se o" an a,(inistrati.e- or *inspection/ 0arrant- issue, by a court "or the purpose o" regulating buil,ing- "ire- sa"ety- plu(bingelectrical- health- labor or ;oning co,es- ,oes not Custi"y a concurrent entry (i.e.- entering 0ith the inspectors) by police to (aFe an arrest 0hen the police atte(pt to use the lo0er stan,ar, o" proo" nee,e, to obtain an a,(inistrati.e 0arrant as their Custi"ication "or entering. 1" an entry is e""ecte, "or the purpose o" arresting the occupantan arrest 0arrant 0ill ha.e to be obtaine,. (A"e!ander $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (1&&3) 2& B.3r, 13$$.) Posing as a potential buyer o" a resi,ence- thus gaining entry "or the purpose o" (aFing obser.ations o" illegal acti.ity- is an illegal ruse. ()eop"e $# De Caro (1&#1) 123 Cal.App.3r, 3$3.) $ut see )eop"e $# 2ucatero (200#) 155 Cal.App.3th 1110belo0. A real estate agent 0ho- upon sho0ing a house to potential buyersobser.e, an abnor(al a(ount o" electronic e@uip(ent an, suspecte, that the ite(s 0ere stolen. She calle, police 0ho (a,e a 0arrantless entry 0ith the agent an,- a"ter an e?tensi.e searchsei;e, stolen property. Although critici;ing De Caro to so(e e?tent- the Court still hel, the 0arrantless entry to be illegal. +he Court hel, that the agent- 0hile authori;e, to sho0 prospecti.e buyers the house- 0as not authori;e, to allo0 the police in "or the purpose o" con,ucting a cri(inal in.estigation. +he authority o" a real estate agent- *is li(ite,- as is all consensual authority- by the ter(s o" the consent an, the purpose "or 0hich it 0as gi.en. 6Citations9 A real estate agent is authori;e, to consent to the entry o" persons the agent belie.es in goo, "aith to be potential 510
purchasers o" the property./ ()eop"e $# *a:ue5 (1&#$) 153 Cal.App.3r, &1#.) Held to be "egal) Oerely FnocFing on the ,e"en,ant s ,oor an, then stepping to the si,e "or purposes o" insuring the sa"ety o" the o""icers (a co((on police practice) is not an illegal ruse (erely because the ,e"en,ant (0ho 0as un,er the in"luence o" (etha(pheta(ine at the ti(e) ca(e out about 20 "eet looFing "or the source o" the FnocFing an, got hi(sel" arreste,. ()eop"e $# Co"t (2003) 11#- Cal.App.3th 1303: United States $# Crapser (&th Cir. 2002) 322 B.3r, 1131- 113$% 1132.) Ehen police o""icers 0ho FnocF at the ,oor are in.ite, in by the occupants 0ho ,i, not Fno0 it 0as the police at the ,oor 0hen they (a,e the in.itation- there is no subter"uge re@uiring the suppression o" any obser.ations (a,e by the o""icers as they enter. (%ann $# Superior Court (1&20) 3 Cal.3r, 1.) OaFing an anony(ous phone call to the occupant o" a resi,ence0arning hi( that *the police are co(ing: get ri, o" the stu""-/ causing ,e"en,ant to lea.e the house 0ith his contraban, in han,is not illegal. ()eop"e $# Rand (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, $2&: *Ehere the ruse ,oes no (ore than to cause a ,e"en,ant- acti.ate, by his o0n ,ecision- to ,o an incri(inating actP0hether that act be a sale to an un,erco.er agent or a Cettisoning o" incri(inating (aterialPno illegality e?ists./ (Id.- at p. $#3: see also )eop"e $# %artino (1&#$) 155 Cal.App.3r, 222- 2#&: phone call to cocaine ,ealer.) An un,erco.er narcotics agent- (isrepresenting his i,entity by clai(ing to be a potential buyer o" narcotics- acts la0"ully 0hen in.ite, into the ,e"en,ant s ho(e "or the purpose o" purchasing narcotics ,espite the lacF o" a 0arrant. (2e,is $# United States (1&55) 3#$ 4.S. 205- 20#%20& 612 7.8,.2n, 3129.) A police o""icer 0ho- 0ith in"or(ation "ro( an unteste, in"or(ant that ,rugs 0ere in a house that 0as "or sale- pose, as a potential buyer an, 0as sho0n the house by the real estate agent- ,uring 0hich entry the o""icer (a,e corroborating obser.ations 0ith 0hich he later obtaine, a search 0arrant. +he entry 0as hel, to be la0"ul 0here the o""icer ,i, no (ore than coul, any prospecti.e buyer. ()eop"e $# 2ucatero (200#) 155 Cal.App.3th 1110.)
511
+he 2ucatero Court ,i""erentiate, its "acts "ro( )eop"e $# De Caro- supra- noting that the prior ruling s conclusion that the entry 0as illegal 0as *dicta/ only (i.e.- not necessary to its ,ecision) an, incorrectly ,eci,e,. +he 2ucatero Court also ,i""erentiate, its "acts "ro( those o" )eop"e $# *a:ue5- supra- 0here the o""icers entere, 0ith the real estate agent s per(ission "or the Fno0n purpose o" con,ucting a 0arrantless police in.estigation. 1n *a:ue5the real estate agent 0as not authori;e, to allo0 police into the house to con,uct a cri(inal in.estigation. 1n 2ucatero0here the o""icer pose, as a potential buyer- the real estate agent was authori;e, to allo0 in potential buyers. +he 2ucatero Court also ,i""erentiate, this case "ro( others 0ere ruses 0ere hel, to be illegal- the Court noting that *(t)his is not a ruse in 0hich the o""icer is in.ite, in un,er the ruse that he is a (eter rea,er an, then ,oes not rea, the (eter- or that he is a "rien, o" the repair(an- but then engages in in.estigatory beha.ior inconsistent 0ith a "rien, s .isit./ (Citing State $# Neder1ard (Eash. Ct.App. 1&##) 2$3 P.2n, $25.) Possible Resolution) +he issue has possibly been resol.e, by the Supre(e Court in the recent ,ecision o" /entuc(& $# /in1 (Oay 15- 2011) >> 4.S. >> 6131 S.Ct. 1#3&: 12& 7.8,.2n, #5$9) So long as the o""icers actions in FnocFing on the ,oor an, i,enti"ying the(sel.es- an, presu(ably seeFing a consensual entry- ,oes not itsel" constitute a .iolation or threatene, .iolation o" the nited States Constitution (i.e.- the Fourth Amendment)there is thus no penalty "or ,oing so. Arguably- there"ore- any obser.ations in (a,e in the process o" ,oing so shoul, be la0"ul. Searches Incident to Arrest) Ehene.er a person is arreste,- o""icers (ay (,epen,ing upon the circu(stances) search the person an, the area 0ithin that person s i((e,iate reach. (Chime" $# Ca"i'ornia (1&5&) 3&$ 4.S. 2$2 623 7.8,.2n, 5#$9.) 'n a Residence) +his inclu,es 0ithin a house- an, (ay in.ol.e- as a part o" a *protecti!e sweep/ (see belo0)- looFing *in closets an, other spaces i((e,iately a,Coining the place o" arrest "ro( 0hich an attacF coul, be i((e,iately launche,./ (%ar&"and $# uie (1&&0) 3&3 4.S. 32$- 333 610# 7.8,.2n, 225- 2#59.)
512
Io0e.er- looFing any "urther than the a,Coining roo(s re@uire *articulable "acts 0hich- taFen together 0ith the rational in"erences "ro( those "acts- 0oul, 0arrant a reasonably pru,ent o""icer in belie.ing that the area to be s0ept harbors an in,i.i,ual posing a ,anger to those on the arrest scene./ (%ar&"and $# uie (1&&0) 3&3 4.S. 32$- at pp. 322- 333 610# 7.8,.2n, at pp. 2#2- 2#59: United States $# 2emus (&th Cir. 200&) $#2 B.3r, &$#- &52.) See *Protecti!e weeps-/ belo0. Arresting a subCect in his ho(e Custi"ies a search o" the Chime" *lunging area/ inci,ent to arrest- at least 0here there are still unsecure, people an, possibly unaccounte, "or thir, parties in the resi,ence. ()eop"e $# Summers (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 2##.) Howe!er- the 4.S. Supre(e Court recently restricte, searches inci,ent to arrest 0hen searching a .ehicle in Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9. 1n Gant- it 0as hel, that a 0arrantless search o" a .ehicle inci,ent to arrest is la0"ul only 0hen the arrestee is unsecure, an, 0ithin reaching ,istance o" the passenger co(part(ent at the ti(e o" the search. +his sa(e rule is liFely to apply to searches inci,ent to arrest in a resi,ence- or any0here else. +he theory o" Gant is not restricte, to .ehicle searches. +he sa(e theory- ,isallo0ing a search inci,ent to arrest 0hen the suspect has alrea,y been secure,- is applicable as 0ell to an arrest 0ithin one s resi,ence. ()eop"e $# 2ea" (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th 10$1.) Gut- the 2ea" court- citing Summers an, Gant- note, that there are li(itations to this rule) *A ,i""erent rule o" reasonableness applies 0hen the police ha.e a ,egree o" control o.er the suspect but ,o not ha.e control o" the entire situation. 1n such circu(stancesPe.g.- in 0hich thir, parties Fno0n to be nearby are unaccounte, "or- or in 0hich a suspect has not yet been "ully secure, an, retains a ,egree o" ability to o.erpo0er police or ,estroy e.i,enceP the Fourth Amendment ,oes not bar the police "ro( searching the i((e,iate area o" the suspect s arrest as a search inci,ent to an arrest./ (Id.- at p. 1050.) +he 2ea" Court also hel, that the rule o" Gant 0as retroacti.e (see pp. 105$%1055): a @uestionable ,ecision in light o" the ,ecision in Da$is $# United States (June 15- 2011) >> 4.S. >> 6131 S.Ct. 231&2323%2323: 1#0 7.8,.2n, 2#$9- 0here it 0as hel, 513
that ,ecisions such as Gant are not retroacti.e. (See *'s Gant Retroacti!eM/ un,er * earches of Vehiclesbelo0.) Citing United States $# F"emin1 (2th Cir. 1&#2) 552 B.2n, 502- 50$%50#- the 2ea" Court note, that han,cu""ing alone is probably not enough to "ully secure the suspect. (Id.- at p. 1052.) Gut see )eop"e $# Dia5 (2011) $1 Cal.3th #3- 0here the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court hel, that a 0arrantless search o" an arrestee s person- an, o" personal property *immediately associated with the person-/ an, an inspection o" the contents o" any container "oun, on the subCect s person- is la0"ul- e.en though the search o" the container is ,elaye, "or a substantial ti(e perio, o" ti(e. +husthe 0arrantless search o" the ,e"en,ant s cell phone &0 (inutes a"ter his arrest- taFen "ro( hi( an, i(poun,e, 0ith his other property- 0as la0"ul. See also In re Char"es C# (1&&&) 25 Cal.App.3th 320- 32$: see also United States $# Fin"e& ($th Cir. 2002) 322 B.3rd 2%0! 260! fn. 7: United States $# Rodri1ue5 ($th Cir. Dec. 22012) >>B.3r, >> 62012 4.S. App. 78T1S 2$0#17 Contrary case la0 "ro( another Curis,iction (State $# Smith (!hio 200&) &20 J.8. &3&)- (aFes this issue ripe "or 4nite, States Supre(e Court re.ie0. Io0e.er- the 4S Supre(e Court has ,enie, certiorari. (Dia5 $# Ca"i'ornia (!ct. 3- 2011) 132 S.Ct. &3: 1#1 7.8,.2n, 239.) The *Protecti!e weep)/ Defined) A @uicF- li(ite, pre(ises search inci,ent to a lawful arrest in a resi,ence has been uphel, by the 4.S. Supre(e Court i" the arresting o""icers ha.e a *reasonable belief/ that there is another person on the pre(ises 0ho poses a ,anger to those on the arrest scene. (%ar&"and $# uie (1&&0) 3&3 4.S. 32$ 610# 7.8,.2n, at pp. 2#2- 2#59: )eop"e $# D&(e (1&&0) 223 Cal.App.3r, 53#- 551: )eop"e $# "oc( (1&21) 5 Cal.3r, 23&.) *A Aprotecti.e s0eep is a @uicF an, li(ite, search o" pre(ises- inci,ent to an arrest an, con,ucte, to protect the sa"ety o" police o""icers or others./ ()eop"e $# Ormonde (2005) 133 Cal.App.3th 2#2- 2&2.)
513
A protecti.e s0eep o" a trailer uphel, 0hen a suspect in a narcotics tra""icFing case- upon seeing the o""icers approach- ,ucFe, bacF out o" sight- atte(pte, to close the ,oor- an, close, the blin,s. (United States $# Are""ano3 Ochoa (&th Cir. 2005) 351 B.3r, 1132: protecti.e s0eep (a,e a"ter an i((e,iate 0arrantless entry 0as (a,e,e"en,ant 0as arreste,- an, a gun 0as obser.e, on the "loor near the "ront ,oor.) A protecti.e s0eep (although not re"erre, to it as such) ,uring the e?ecution o" a search 0arrant- 0here the o""icers ha, Fno0le,ge that a suspect ha, a "irear( registere, to hi(- is also reasonable at least 0hen that suspect ha, not yet been "oun,. (See 2os An1e"es Count& $# Rette"e (2002) $$0 4.S. 50& 6152 7.8,.2n, &239.) *(+)he type o" cri(inal con,uct un,erlying the arrest or search is signi"icant in ,eter(ining i" a protecti.e s0eep is Custi"ie,./ ()eop"e $# 2edesma (2003) 105 Cal.App.3th #$2: #5$: see )eop"e $# -erner (2012) 202 Cal.App.3th 11&$- 120#: an earlier inci,ent o" ,o(estic .iolence ,oes not in,icate that so(eone insi,e 0ith 0eapons (ight be present. "imitation) Protecti!e sweeps o" the areas o" the ho(e beyon, the i((e,iate area (i.e.- any a,Coining roo(s) o" the arrest 0ill not be uphel, absent an articulable reason "or belie.ing so(eone in the ho(e is present 0ho constitutes a potential ,anger to the o""icers. (United States $# Furro, (&th Cir. 2000) 22& B.3r, #0$: see also )eop"e $# Sanders (2003) 31 Cal.3th 31#: United States $# 2emus (&th Cir. 200&) $#2 B.3r, &$#- &52.) Areas i((e,iately a,Cacent to the location o" the arrestsuch as closets an, other spaces i((e,iately a,Coining the place o" arrest "ro( 0hich an attacF coul, be launche,(ay be searche, 0ithout any cause to belie.e there (ay be people there. (See %ar&"and $# uie- supra- at p. 333 610# 7.8,.2n, 225- 2#59: an, see * earches 'ncident to *rrest-/ abo.e.) +o search beyon, the areas i((e,iately a,Cacent to the location o" an arrest- the courts ha.e been lenient on the reasons- so long as it can be argue, that the o""icer 0as reasonably in "ear "or his sa"ety. (8.g.: See )eop"e $# 2edesma (2003) 105 Cal.App.3th #$2: A Fourth Ea.ier search o" a probationer s roo(- on probation "or narcotics 51$
relate, o""enses- 0hen a resi,ent appeare, to be un,er the in"luence o" ,rugs an, others 0ere Fno0n to be in the house ,uring a prior contact.) Gut the courts 0ill not uphol, a protecti.e s0eep 0here there are no speci"ic articulable "acts in,icating the presence o" so(eone 0ho (ight be a ,anger to the o""icers. (8.g.- see United States $# Cha$es (11th Cir. 1&&&) 15& B.3r, 5#2- 5&2: United States $# Co".ert (5th Cir. 1&&5) 25 B.3r, 223- 222%22#.) An e?ception to the probable cause re@uire(ent "or entering an, searching a resi,ence is 0hen an o""icer has a *reasonable belief/ (or *reasonable suspicion/) to belie.e that other people (ight be insi,e 0ho constitute a ,anger to the o""icers or others at the scene. 1n such a case- the la0 allo0s a li(ite, *protecti!e sweep/ to insure that no one (ight be there 0ho constitutes such a ,anger. ()eop"e $# Ormonde (2005) 133 Cal.App.3th 2#2: entry into a resi,ence "ollo0ing a ,o(estic .iolence%relate, arrest out "ront hel, to be illegal 0hen the o""icer only 0ante, to checF to see i" anyone (ight be there- 0ith no reason to belie.e that there 0as.) See also )eop"e $# -erner (2012) 202 Cal.App.3th 11&$120$%1210- 0here it 0as hel, that an earlier inci,ent o" ,o(estic .iolence ,oes not in,icate by itsel" that so(eone insi,e 0ith 0eapons (ight be present. A"ter ,e"en,ant s arrest on the "ront porch- a 0arrantless entry un,er the theory o" a protecti.e s0eep- 0ith no articulable "acts in,icating the presence o" anyone insi,e 0ho (ight be a ,anger- hel, to be illegal. An o""icer s general e?perience that ,o(estic .iolence inci,ents o"ten in.ol.e ,anger to respon,ing o""icers hel, to be insu""icient to Custi"y a protecti.e s0eep. (Id.- at pp. 120#%120&.) 1n -erner- the protecti.e s0eep argu(ent 0as use, by the Attorney Leneral on appeal to Custi"y an o""icer "ollo0ing a "rien, o" the arrestee bacF into the house to retrie.e personal ite(s "or the arrestee,uring 0hich e?cursion contraban, 0as obser.e, in plain sight. Ehile such an entry 0as hel, to be an illegal protecti.e s0eep- gi.en the lacF o" any articulable reason to belie.e there (ight be 515
so(eone insi,e 0ho constitute, a ,anger- it 0as note, that the sa(e is not true 0here it is the arrestee hi(sel" 0ho is asFing per(ission to go bacF into the resi,ence. 1n such a circu(stanceentering 0ith the arrestee e.en 0ithout per(ission 0oul, be la0"ul. (Id! at p. 1210- "n. &: citing -ashin1ton $# Chrisman (1&#2) 3$$ 4.S. 1 620 7.8,.2n, 2##9.) Burther- protecti.e s0eeps *(ay e?ten, only to a cursory inspection o" those spaces 0here a person (ay be "oun,. +he s0eep lasts no longer than is necessary to ,ispel the reasonable suspicion o" ,anger an, in any e.ent no longer than it taFes to co(plete 6the police action9 an, ,epart the pre(ises. 6"n. o(itte,9/ (%ar&"and $# uie- supra.- at pp. 33$%335 610# 7.8,.2n, at p. 2#29.) Io0e.er- a protecti.e s0eep o" a resi,ence- 0here the resi,ent is a parolee- is la0"ul 0ith or 0ithout a suspicion that others (ight be present in that the 0hole house 0as subCect to search any0ay un,er the parolee s Fourth 0ai.er con,itions. (United States $# 2ope5 (2002) 323 B.3r, 120#.) A protecti.e s0eep is not Custi"ie, by the "act that the ,e"en,ant is arreste, at the ,oor hol,ing a 0eapon absent e.i,ence to belie.e that there is so(eone else insi,e 0ho (ight constitute a threat to the o""icers. (United States $# %urph& (&th Cir. 200#) $15 B.3r, 1112- 1120%1121: protecti.e s0eep uphel,- ho0e.er- because there 0as a secon, outstan,ing suspect 0ho (ight ha.e been insi,e.) Gut a cursory checF o" the i((e,iately a,Coining li.ing roo( 0as uphel, 0here ,e"en,ant 0as arreste, at the threshol,. +he plain sight obser.ation o" a "irear( un,er the couch cushion uphel,. (United States $# 2emus (&th Cir. 200&) $#2 B.3r, &$#.) See ,issenting opinion to the Court s ,enial o" an en banc rehearing- at (&th Cir. 2010) $&5 B.3r, $12- by Zo;insFi- C.J. *rresting a person i((e,iately outside o" the house- 0ith cause to belie.e that there (ay be others insi,e 0ho coul, constitute a ,anger to the o""icers- 0arrants a protecti.e s0eep o" the house. ()eop"e $# %aier (1&&1) 225 Cal.App.3r, 1520- 152$: )eop"e $# 512
2edesma- supraat p. #53- "n. 3: United States $# 0o&os (&th Cir. 1&#&) #&2 B.2n, 13#2 6re.erse, on other groun,9: United States $# -i"son ($th Cir. 2001) 305 B.3r, 231- 23#%23&: United States $# -atson ($th Cir. 2001) 223 B.3r, $&&- 503: Sharrar $# Fe"sin1 (3r, Cir. 1&&2) 12# B.3r, #23: United States $# Co".ert (5th Cir. 1&&5) 25 B.3r, 223: United States $# 0enr& (D.C. Cir. 1&&$) 3# B.3r, 12#2- 12#3: United States $# )aopao (&th Cir. 2005) 35& B.2r, 25025$.) Io0e.er- (erely Fno0ing that the ,e"en,ant s 0i"e an, son li.e 0ith hi(- but ha.ing no reason to belie.e they 0ere ,angerous or that they 0ere e.en ho(e at the ti(e- is insu""icient cause to ,o a protecti.e s0eep o" the ho(e a"ter ,etaining the ,e"en,ant i((e,iately outsi,e. ()eop"e $# Ce"is (2003) 33 Cal.3th 552- 525%5#0.) Ce"is also raises- but ,oes not ans0er the @uestion 0hether to (aFe entry into the house to con,uct the protecti.e s0eep a"ter an arrest that occurs outsi,e re@uires only a *reasonable suspicion/ that persons are insi,e 0ho constitute a threat to the o""icers- or 0hether "ull%blo0n *probable cause/ is nee,e,. (Id.- at p. 52#.) Detentions ;utside the House) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court le"t open the @uestion o" 0hether (erely *detaining/ so(eone outsi,e the ho(e 0ill allo0 "or a *protecti!e sweep/ o" the ho(e "or ,angerous suspects- absent *probable cause/ to belie.e so(eone is in "act insi,e 0ho constitutes a ,anger to the o""icers. ()eop"e $# Ce"is- supra- at p. 5#0.) At least one other state has uphel, such a protecti.e s0eep upon ,etaining a suspect outsi,e on the "ront porch. (State $# Re$enau1h (1&&&) 123 1,aho 223- 225%222.) A protecti.e s0eep o" a commercial establishment (i.e.- a ga(bling house) 0hen an arrest is (a,e outsi,e has also been uphel, an, the o""icers ha, a *reasonable suspicion/ that a secon, robbery suspect (ight be insi,e. (United States $# )aopao (&th Cir. 2005) 35& B.2r, 250- 25$%252.) ;ther ituations) Protecti.e s0eeps ha.e also been uphel, in situations other than 0ith an arrest. Bor instance) 1n con,ucting a Fourth Eai.er search 0here the suspect 0as on probation "or narcotics%relate, o""enses- a resi,ent appeare, to be un,er the in"luence o" ,rugsan, others 51#
0ere Fno0n to be in the house ,uring a prior contact. ()eop"e $# 2edesma (2003) 105 Cal.App.3th #$2.) !""icers la0"ully insi,e the house 0ith consent. (United States $# Gou"d ($th Cir. 2003) 353 B.3r, $2#.) Gy an o""icer le"t behin, to secure a resi,ence 0hile a search 0arrant is obtaine,. (United States $# Ta&"or (5th Cir. 2001) 23# B.3r, $05- $13.) Ehile e?ecuting a search 0arrant. (Drohan $# 9au1hn (1st Cir. 1&&&) 125 B.3r, 12- 22.) Protecti.e s0eep o" a be,roo( a"ter the lessee ha, gi.en consent to search other parts o" an apart(ent. (United States $# )atric( (D.C. Cir. 1&&2) &$& B.2n, &&1- &&5%&&2.) So(e cases- ho0e.erha.e in,icate, that to be la0"ul- a protecti.e s0eep (ust "ollo0 a la0"ul arrest 0ithin the ho(e. (See United States $# Da$is (10th Cir. 2002) 2&0 B.3r, 123&- 1232- "n. 3: United States $# Reid (&th Cir. 2000) 225 B.3r, 1020- 1022.) +he legality o" (aFing a protecti.e s0eep o" a house 0here o""icers are la0"ully in the house "or so(e purpose other than to (aFe an arrest 0as speci"ically le"t unans0ere, by the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court. ()eop"e $# Ce"is- supra- at pp. 52#%52&.) A protecti.e s0eep o" a resi,ence- 0here the resi,ent is a parolee- is la0"ul 0ith or 0ithout a suspicion that others (ight be present in that the 0hole house 0as subCect to search any0ay un,er the parolee s Fourth 0ai.er con,itions. (United States $# 2ope5 (2002) 323 B.3r, 120#.) )"ain Si1ht O.ser$ations- "ro( a location the police o""icer has a legal right to be- are la0"ul- an, not consi,ere, to be a search. ()eop"e $# "oc( (1&21) 5 Cal.3r, 23&- 233: North $# Superior Court (1&22) # Cal.3r, 301- 305.) +huse.i,ence so obser.e, 0hen an o""icer is alrea,y la0"ully insi,e- or other0ise (ay la0"ully enter a resi,ence or its curtilage- is subCect to sei;ure. Bor instance) Contraban, obser.e, through the open ,oor o" a (otel roo( 0hile arresting the ,e"en,ant Cust outsi,e- (ay be sei;e,. Gut a search 0arrant (ust be use,- or probable cause an, e?igent circu(stances (ust be "oun,51&
or the suspect s consent (ust be obtaine,- in or,er to la0"ully search o" the rest o" the roo(. ()eop"e $# 2e "anc (1&&#) 50 Cal.App.3th 1$2.) !bser.ations o" contraban, locate, 0ithin the curtilage o" the ,e"en,ant s ho(e "ro( a la0"ul position outsi,e that curtilage are la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Channin1 (2000) #1 Cal.App.3th &#$.) !bser.ation o" ,e"en,ant s gro0ing (ariCuana plants "ro( a neighbor s property- 0ithout the neighbor s Fno0le,ge or per(ission- looFing into ,e"en,ant s a,Cacent bacFyar,- hel, to be la0"ul. De"en,ant ,i, not ha.e stan,ing to challenge the trespass into the neighbor s yar,- an, ,i, not ha.e a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in 0hat 0as gro0ing in his o0n yar,- in that his (ariCuana plants 0ere plainly .isible. ()eop"e $# C"ae&s (2002) &2 Cal.App.3th $$.) !bser.ations o" ,e"en,ant retrie.ing contraban, "ro( a hole in the groun, in the co((on area o" an apart(ent co(ple?- 0hile the obser.ing o""icers 0ere stan,ing on a,Cacent pri.ate property 0ith the per(ission o" the property s o0ner- 0ere la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Sha, (2002) &2 Cal.App.3th #33.) +he obser.ations o" contraban, 0ithin the *curtilage/ o" the ,e"en,ant s ho(e- 0hile the o""icers 0ere 0alFing aroun, the house in an atte(pt to "in, an occupant- 0as uphel,. (United States $# 0ammett (&th Cir. 2001) 235 B.3r, 10$3.) $ut see )eop"e $# Camacho (2000) 23 Cal.3th #23- 0here the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court hel, that obser.ations "ro( the si,e o" the resi,ence- 30 "eet "ro( the si,e0alF- 0ith nothing there to in,icate that the public 0as in"erably in.ite, to that si,e- 0ere unla0"ul- at least 0hen the o""icers 0ere checFing nothing (ore than a co(plaint o" lou, (usic- it 0as late at night- an, they "aile, to "irst try FnocFing at the "ront ,oor. See also the ,issent- at pp. #32 et se@.- listing nu(erous "e,eral circuit court ,ecisions see(ingly in ,isagree(ent 0ith the rule o" Camacho. !bser.ation o" contraban, in plain sight by police o""icers 0ho (a,e a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence- respon,ing to an e(ergency call "ro( so(eone in apparent ,istress- 0as la0"ul- an, Custi"ie, the obtaining o" a search 0arrant to search the resi,ence. (United States $# Snipe (&th Cir. 200#) $1$ B.3r, &32.) An o""icer stan,ing on his tiptoes- a,,ing about three inches to his heightin or,er to see o.er a si? "oot "ence- 0as la0"ul. !bser.ation o" a "irear( 520
behin, the "ence by so ,oing 0as a *plain sight obser.ation./ ()eop"e $# Cha$e5 (200#) 151 Cal.App.3th 13&3- 13&&%1$02.) Ehen e.i,ence o" a ,i""erent cri(e is ,isco.ere, ,uring a la0"ul 0arrant search- e.en i" the o""icers are participating in the search hoping to "in, e.i,ence o" a ,i""erent cri(e "or 0hich there is not yet probable causesuch *plain sight/ obser.ations are la0"ul an, (ay there"ore be use, to obtain a secon, search 0arrant an,Nor in the interrogation o" the in% custo,y suspect. ()eop"e $# Carrin1ton (200&) 32 Cal.3th 13$- 150- 153% 15#- i(plie,ly o.erruling )eop"e $# A".ritton (1&#2) 13# Cal.App.3r, 2&0hich pre.iously hel, such plain sight obser.ations- unless totally *ina,.ertent-/ 0ere unla0"ul.) 1n )eop"e $# Carrin1ton- supra.- o""icers "ro( agency ^2 acco(panie, o""icers "ro( agency ^1 0ho 0ere e?ecuting a la0"ul search 0arrant in their o0n case. +he o""icers "ro( agency ^2 0ere there "or the purpose o" (aFing *plain sight/ obser.ations o" e.i,ence relate, to their agency s o0n in.estigation. 4pon (aFing such obser.ations- this in"or(ation 0as use, to obtain a secon, 0arrant ,irecte, speci"ically at agency ^2 s in.estigation. +his proce,ure 0as appro.e, by the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court. *8.en assu(ing the o""icers ("ro( the agency ^2) . . . hope, to "in, e.i,ence o" other o""enses- their subCecti.e state o" (in, 0oul, not ren,er their con,uct unla0"ul. . . . +he e?istence o" an ulterior (oti.ation ,oes not in.ali,ate an o""icer s legal Custi"ication to con,uct a search./ (Id.- at p. 15#: citing -hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9- "or the argu(ent that an o""icer s subCecti.e (oti.ations "or being on the search party are irrele.ant so long as the search- .ie0e, *ob%ecti!ely-/ is la0"ul.) !bser.ations (a,e into the curtilage o" the ho(e "ro( the ,e"en,ants ,ri.e0ay- 0hen the ,ri.e0ay 0as an area accessible to the neighbors0ere properly use, to obtain a search 0arrant. +he use o" night .ision goggles 0as irrele.ant. ()eop"e $# 2ien1 (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 1213.) 8.i,ence obser.e, in plain .ie0 by o""icers entering a resi,ence 0ith the suspect s consent an, 0ith e?igent circu(stances- 0hile the o""icers ,i, a protecti.e s0eep an, checF "or .icti(s o" a shooting- Custi"ie, a later 0arrantless entry to sei;e an, process that e.i,ence so long as the police ,i, not gi.e up control o" the pre(ises. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Chapman7 (2012) 203 Cal.App.3th 1003- 1013%1021.) )reser$in1 the )eace) 521
A 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence 0hen necessary to *preser!e the peace/ in the e?ecution o" a restraining or,er- allo0ing the ,e"en,ant s ,aughter to retrie.e certain property- 0as hel, to be la0"ul. Reasonable "orce 0as also properly use, 0hen necessary to e""ecti.ely preser.e the peace. (0enderson $# Cit& o' Simi 9a""e& (&th Cir. 2002) 30$ B.3r, 10$2.) +he la0"ulness o" a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence 0as uphel, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court- at least 0hen there 0as a "ight going on insi,e the resi,ence an, the o""icers ha, *an ob%ecti!ely reasonable basis for belie!ing/ that i((e,iate action 0as necessary in or,er to pre.ent so(eone "ro( being seriously inCure,. ( ri1ham Cit& $# Stuart (2005) $32 4.S. 3&# 6153 7.8,.2n, 5$09- a case appeale, "ro( a ,ecision o" the 4tah Supre(e Court "in,ing the entry to be a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment.) !""icers respon,ing to a call o" a ,isturbance- "in,ing a picFup trucF in the ,ri.e0ay 0hich ha, apparently been in an acci,ent- bloo, on the trucF an, on clothes in the trucF- broFen 0in,o0s in the house- an, ,e"en,antbarrica,e, insi,e- screa(ing an, thro0ing things. De"en,ant ha, a .isible cut on his han,. !ne o""icer "orce, his 0ay in an, ,e"en,ant pointe, a ri"le at hi(. Joting that- *(i)t re@uires only Aan obCecti.e reasonable basis "or belie.ing that Aa person 0ithin 6the house9 is in nee, o" i((e,iate ai,- / an, that the o""icer 0as acting reasonably 0hen he (a,e the 0arrantless entry into ,e"en,ant s ho(e- the Court "oun, the entry to be la0"ul. (Cites !(itte,: %ichi1an $# Fisher (200&) $$# 4.S. 3$ 612$ 7.8,.2n, 3109.) *!""icers ,o not nee, ironcla, proo" o" Aa liFely serious- li"e% threatening inCury to in.oFe the e(ergency ai, e?ception (to the 0arrant re@uire(ent. Also- the o""icer s subCecti.e (oti.ations "or entering 0ere irrele.ant- the test being an obCection one. (Id.at p. >>.) Also- the Court note, the reality o" such a situation 0hen a police o""icer is "orce, to ,eci,e 0hat to ,o) *1t ,oes not (eet the nee,s o" la0 en"orce(ent or the ,e(an,s o" public sa"ety to re@uire o""icers to 0alF a0ay "ro( a situation liFe the one they encountere, here. !nly 0hen an apparent threat has beco(e an actual har( can o""icers rule out innocuous e?planations "or o(inous circu(stances. Gut A6t9he role o" a peace o""icer inclu,es pre.enting .iolence an, restoring or,er- not si(ply ren,ering "irst ai, to casualties. (citing ri1ham Cit&- supraat p. 305.)/ (I.id.) +ote) Ehile the Supre(e Court in neither ri1ham Cit& $# Stuart nor Fisher use the label- it can be argue, that these cases are consistent 0ith the *community careta?ing doctrine/ theory o" 522
con,ucting a 0arrantless entry into the respecti.e resi,ences. (See belo0.) )re$entin1 the destruction o' e$idence) A 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence "or the purpose o" pre.enting the ,estruction o" e.i,ence (ay be la0"ul- ,epen,ing upon 0hat the e.i,ence is. ()eop"e $# 0u.er (1&5$) 232 Cal.App.2n, 553.) *Probable cause/ to belie.e that e.i,ence 0ill *i((inent(ly)/ be ,estroye, (or a suspect 0ill escape) 0ill Custi"y a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence. ()eop"e $# Strider (200&) 122 Cal.App.3th 13&3: entry into a resi,ence 0hile chasing a subCect 0ith a "irear( in his pocFet- a potential .iolation o" (!C! 12331+a,+1, (loa,e, "irear( in public: no0 (!C! 2)#)3+a,)- hel, to be illegal in that the "ront yar, ,e"en,ant 0as in 0as not a *public place/ un,er the circu(stances- as re@uire, by the statute.) A three%(inute s0eep o" a house to checF "or persons reasonably belie!ed to be in the house 0ho (ight ,estroy e.i,ence in a ho(ici,e case 0as hel, to be la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Seaton (2001) 25 Cal.3th $&#.) Ehere it appears that con"e,erates o" a person arreste, "or selling narcotics 0ill learn o" the arrest an, ,estroy or secret contraban, still in the house- it is la0"ul to secure the house pen,ing the obtaining o" a search 0arrant. (Ferdin $# Superior Court (1&23) 35 Cal.App.3r, 2232#1: )eop"e $# Freen& (1&23) 32 Cal.App.3r, 20.) Eith *probable cause/ to belie.e that contraban, is containe, in a particular resi,ence- an, a *reasonable belief/ that i" the house is not i((e,iately secure, the e.i,ence 0ill be ,estroye,- o""icers (ay enter to secure the house pen,ing the obtaining o" a search 0arrant or a consent to ,o a co(plete search. (United States $# A"aima"o (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 11##.) Differentiating (elony !s2 ,isdemeanor cases) 8ntering a house 0ithout consent to taFe a suspecte, D41 ,ri.er into custo,y an, to re(o.e hi( "ro( the house "or i,enti"ication an, arrest by a pri.ate citi;en 0ho sa0 ,e"en,ant s ,ri.ing- an, to preser.e e.i,ence o" his bloo,Nalcohol le.el- has been hel, to be legal. ()eop"e $# Thompson (2005) 3# Cal.3th #11.) +ote) +he Court ,i""erentiate, on its "acts -e"sh $ -isconsin (1&#3) 355 4.S. 230 6#0 7.8,.2n, 2329- 0here it 0as hel, that a "irst ti(e D41- being no (ore than a ci.il o""ense 0ith a [200 "ine un,er Eisconsin la0- 0as not aggra.ate, enough to allo0 "or a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence to arrest the perpetrator. +he cut o"" bet0een a 523
(inor an, a serious o""ense see(s to be 0hether or not the o""ense is one "or 0hich incarceration is a potential punish(ent. ()eop"e $# Thompson- supraat pp. #21%#23 citing I""inois $# %cArthur (2001) $31 4.S. 325- 335- 332 613# 7.8,.2n, #3#9.) See also )eop"e $# 0ampton (1&#$) 153 Cal.App.3r, 22- 33) A 0arrantless entry 0as uphel, to pre.ent the ,estruction o" e.i,ence (the bloo,Nalcohol le.el) an, there 0as reason to belie.e ,e"en,ant inten,e, to resu(e ,ri.ing. -e"sh can be ,istinguishe, by the si(ple "act that Cali"ornia treats D41 cases as serious (is,e(eanors as 0ell as the ,e"en,ant- in -e"sh- no longer ha, his car a.ailable to hi(. Gut the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal- arguing the continuing .ali,ity o"- -e"sh- has hel, that Cali"ornia s interpretation un,er Thompson is 0rong- an, that a 0arrantless entry into a ho(e to arrest a (is,e(eanor ,ri.ingS0hile%un,er%the%in"luence suspect is a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (0op(ins $# on$icino (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 2$2- 25#%25&: "in,ing that 0arrantless entries into resi,ences in (is,e(eanor cases *0ill sel,o(- i" e.er- Custi"y a 0arrantless entry into the ho(e./) 8ntering the curtilage o" a ho(e in pursuit o" a suspect 0ith the intent to ,etain hi( 0hen the subCect is ignoring the o""icer s ,e(an,s to stopat 0orst a (is,e(eanor .iolation o" (!C! 14#)is illegal. +he 0arrantless "resh or hot pursuit o" a "leeing suspect into a resi,ence (or the curtilage o" a resi,ence) is li(ite, to "elony suspects only. (Sims $# Stanton (&th Cir. Jan. 15- 2013) >> B.3r, >> 62013 4.S. App. 78T1S 10$2920 See also United States $# *ohnson (&th Cir. 2001) 2$5 B.3r, #&$&0#- "n. 5: *1n situations 0here an o""icer is truly in hot pursuit an, the un,erlying o""ense is a "elony- the Fourth Amendment usually yiel,s. (Citation) Io0e.erin situations 0here the un,erlying o""ense is only a (is,e(eanor- la0 en"orce(ent (ust yiel, to the Fourth Amendment in all but the Ararest cases. (Citing -e"sh $# -isconsin (1&#3) 355 4.S. 230- 2$3 6#0 7.8,.2n, 2329.)./ !""icers entering a ho(e on a lou, (usic co(plaint uphel, ,espite the Supre(e Court s hol,ing in -e"sh- ruling that the situation 0as (ore aFin to a *community careta?ing/ issue than the one 0here it 0as necessary to "in, an e?igent circu(stance. (United States $# Rohri1 (5th Cir. 1&&5) &# B.3r, 1$05.) 523
8ntering a resi,ence 0ith probable cause to belie.e only that the non%booFable o""ense o" possession o" less than an ounce o" (ariCuana is occurring (F&S 113)1+4,)- is closer to the -e"sh situation- an, a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment 0hen entry is (a,e 0ithout consent or a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# 0ua (200#) 1$# Cal.App.3th 1022: )eop"e $# Torres et a"! (2012) 20$ Cal.App.3th &#&- &&3%&&#.) +he Torres Court also reCecte, as *speculation/ the People s argu(ent that there being "our people in the ,e"en,ants hotel roo( in,icte, that a *(ariCuana% s(oFing party/ 0as occurring- 0hich probably in.ol.e, a booFable a(ount o" (ariCuana. ()eop"e $# Torres et a"!supraat p. &&5.) -e"'are Chec(s, the GEmer1enc& Aid Doctrine,H and the GCommunit& Careta(in1 Function:H ChecFing "or .icti(s in a resi,ence upon a *reasonable belief/ that so(eone insi,e a resi,ence is in nee, o" ai,- or that there is an i((inent threat to the li"e or 0el"are o" so(eone insi,e- an i((e,iate- Custi"ies a 0arrantless entry. ()eop"e $# Ra& (1&&&) 21 Cal.3th 353: Tam.orino $# Superior Court (1&#5) 31 Cal.3r, &1&: )eop"e $# Ammons (1&#0) 103 Cal.App.3r, 20.) 1n Ra&- supra- a *plurality/ o" the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court rule, that un,er the so%calle, *emergency aid doctrine-/ 0hich is a subcategory o" a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer s *community careta?ing/ ,uties- a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence (ay be allo0e, 0hene.er police o""icers *reasonably belie!e/ so(eone insi,e is in nee, o" assistance or action (ust be taFen to preser.e the occupant s property. *+he appropriate stan,ar, un,er the co((unity caretaFing e?ception is one o" reasonableness) Li.en the Fno0n "acts- 0oul, a pru,ent an, reasonable o""icer ha.e percei.e, a nee, to act in the proper ,ischarge o" his or her co((unity caretaFing "unctionsM/ (Id. at pp. 325%322.) +hree Custices in Ra& "oun, this *emergency aid doctrine/ to be a subcategory o" the *community careta?ing/ rationale- an, not a "or( o" *exigent circumstance./ ()eop"e $# Ra&- supraat p. 321.) +hree concurring Custices "oun, such a situation to co(e 0ithin the stan,ar, *exigent circumstance/ rationale. (Id.- at p. 3#0.) +ote) +here is so(e ,ebate 0hether the *community careta?ing/ theory applies to anything other than .ehicles. (See Ra& $# To,nship o' -arren (3r, Cir. 2010) 525 B.3r, 120- 12$%122.) Io0e.er- Cali"ornia an, the Jinth Circuit ha.e both use, the co((unity caretaFing argu(ent to Custi"y 0arrantless entries o" 52$
resi,ences on .arious occasions. (See )eop"e $# Ra&- supra.: United States $# Cer$antes (&th Cir. 2000) 21& B.3r, ##2- ###%#&0: %artin $# Cit& o' Oceanside (&th Cir. 2003) 350 B.3r, 102#- 10#1% 10#3: United States $# Russe"" (&th Cir. 2005) 335 B.3r, 10#5.) See also United States $ Snipe (&th Cir. 200#) $1$ B.3r, &32- &$1% &$2. Ehile the &th Circuit here ,oesnDt use the ter( *co((unity caretaFing-/ it ,oes taFe the rules as announce, in United States $# Cer$antes- supra, an, (o,i"ies the ele(ents o" the ,octrine base, upon the 4.S. Supre(e CourtDs ,ecision in ri1ham Cit& $# Stuart (2005) $32 4.S. 3&# 6153 7.8,.2n, 5$09. Also- 0hile the 4nite, States Supre(e Court ,oes not use the phrase *community careta?ing-/ the Court has uphel, 0arrantless entries into resi,ences 0here there is *an ob%ecti!ely reasonable basis for belie!ing/ that i((e,iate action 0as necessary in or,er to pre.ent so(eone "ro( being seriously inCure,. (See ri1ham Cit& $# Stuart- supra- an, %ichi1an $# Fisher (200&) $$# 4.S. 3$ 612$ 7.8,.2n, 3109: see belo0.) +he *community careta?ing/ theory 0as hel, to Custi"y o""icers entering a ho(e on a lou, (usic co(plaint. 1n balancing (1) 0hether i((e,iate go.ern(ent action 0as re@uire,- (2) 0hether the go.ern(ental interest 0as su""iciently co(pelling to Custi"y a 0arrantless intrusion- an, (3) 0hether the ,e"en,ant s e?pectation o" pri.acy 0as ,i(inishe, in so(e 0ay by his actions o" generating the lou, (usic- the Court rule, that a 0arrantless entry to a,,ress the proble( o" the lou, (usic 0as reasonable. (United States $# Rohri1 (5th Cir. 1&&5) &# B.3r, 1$05.) 1n so ruling- the Si?th Circuit cites the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court case o" )eop"e $# 2anthier (1&21) $ Cal.3r, 2$1- 0here the 0arrantless search o" a college stu,ent s locFer 0as uphel, 0hen it 0as note, that a *no?ious o,or/ 0as e(anating "ro( it- (uch to the ,isco("ort o" the other stu,ents. +he *ongoing nuisance/ Custi"ie, a 0arrantless intrusion into the stu,ent s locFer. Subse@uently- ho0e.er- the Si?th Circuit see(s to ha.e secon, thoughts 0hether *co((unity caretaFing/ applies to resi,ences. (See United States $# -i""iams (5th Cir. 2003) 3$3 B.3r, 3&2- $0#: *(D)espite re"erences to the ,octrine o" Rohri1- 0e ,oubt that co((unity caretaFing 0ill generally Custi"y 0arrantless entries into pri.ate ho(es./) 1n earlier cases- the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal applie, a three%point stan,ar, in or,er to e(ploy the *emergency aid/ e?ception to the Fourth 525
Amendment as a "unction o" la0 en"orce(ent s *community careta?ing function-/ an, re@uire, a "in,ing o" three circu(stances to be applicable) +he police (ust ha.e *reasonable grounds/ to belie.e that there is an e(ergency at han, an, an i((e,iate nee, "or their assistance "or the protection o" li"e or property: and +he search (ust not be pri(arily (oti.ate, by an intent to arrest an, sei;e e.i,ence: and +here (ust be so(e reasonable basis- *approximating probable cause-/ to associate the e(ergency 0ith the area or place to be searche,. (United States $# Cer$antes (&th Cir. 2000) 21& B.3r, ##2- ###%#&0: %artin $# Cit& o' Oceanside (&th Cir. 2003) 350 B.3r, 102#- 10#1% 10#3: United States $# %artine5 (&th Cir. 200$) 305 B.3r, 1150: United States $# Russe"" (&th Cir. 2005) 335 B.3r, 10#5.) Io0e.erin United States $ Snipe (&th Cir. 200#) $1$ B.3r, &32&$1%&$2- the Jinth Circuit (o,i"ie, these rules in light o" ri1ham Cit& $# Stuart (2005) $32 4.S. 3&# 6153 7.8,.2n, 5$09 an, -hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9- ,eleting altogether the secon, "actor (the o""icers subCecti.e (oti.ations being irrele.ant) an, "in,ing the thir, "actor to be a part o" the necessary *obCecti.ely reasonable basis "or conclu,ing that an e(ergency is un"ol,ing in the place to be entere,./ (See belo0.) Jo0- the Jinth Circuit "in,s the "ollo0ing "actors to be necessary) Ehether (1) consi,ering the totality o" the circu(stances- la0 en"orce(ent ha, an obCecti.ely reasonable basis "or conclu,ing that there 0as an i((e,iate nee, to protect others or the(sel.es "ro( serious har(- an, (2) the search s scope an, (anner 0ere reasonable to (eet the nee,. (United States $ Snipe- supra.- at p. &$2: see also 0op(ins $# on$icino (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 2$2253- "n. $.) Howe!er- the *community careta?ing function/ has been hel, to be inapplicable to the situation 0here police o""icers (aFe a 0arrantless entry into a (ental patient s ho(e a"ter his ,etention "or a (ental e.aluation per /&I )1)3- ,espite the "act that /&I #132+a, co((an,s a peace o""icer to con"iscate "irear(s an, other ,ea,ly 0eapons in such a situation. ()eop"e $# S,ei1 (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th 113$.) 522
+he S,ei1 Court also "oun,- ho0e.er- that a search 0arrant is not per(itte, un,er (!C! 1)24 (see * tatutory <rounds for 'ssuance ((!C! 1)24+a,+1, through +#,,-/ un,er * earch =arrants-/ abo.e) 0hen the ,e"en,ant is ,etaine, pursuant to F&S )1)3 only. +he Court suggeste, that the 7egislature shoul, "i? the proble( 0ith a legislati.e a(en,(ent to Section 1)24. +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court has grante, a petition in S,ei1- (aFing it una.ailable "or citation pen,ing the Court s ,ecision. Also- the Cali"ornia 7egislature has a(en,e, (!C! 1)24e""ecti.e 1N1N10- a,,ing a nu(ber o" a,,itional groun,s "or obtaining a search 0arrant- inclu,ing to reco.er "irear(s an, other ,ea,ly 0eapons 0here a person has been co((itte, "or obser.ation pursuant to F&S )1)3. *lso- the *community careta?ing/ theory 0as "oun, to be inapplicable 0hen o""icers entere, the ,e"en,ant s locFe,%o"" property base, upon little (ore than a neighbor s unsubstantiate, belie" that the ,e"en,ants (ight ha.e been the .icti(s o" a *,rug rip%o""/ the night be"ore. Bin,ing a s(all a(ount o" (ariCuana ,ebris at the e,ge o" the ,e"en,ants property an, a s(all ,epression lea,ing un,er the "ence 0as not legally su""icient. Also- the o""icers appeare, (ore concerne, 0ith in.estigating allegations that the ,e"en,ants 0ere culti.ating (ariCuana. +he co((unity caretaFing theory is inapplicable 0hen the police act to sol.e cri(e as oppose, to co(ing to the ai, o" persons. ()eop"e $# %orton (2003) 113 Cal.App.3th 103&.) ri1ham Cit& $# Stuart (2005) $32 4.S. 3&# 6153 7.8,.2n, 5$09) +he Supre(e Court ignore, e""orts by the lo0er courts to categori;e the entry into a house upon .ie0ing an altercation through the 0in,o0 as co(ing 0ithin the *emergency aid doctrine-/ an, (erely note, the e?igency o" protecting the occupants "ro( being hurt. 1n so ,oing- the Court hel, that a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence is la0"ul 0hen police ha.e *an ob%ecti!ely reasonable basis for belie!ing/ that an occupant is seriously inCure, or i((inently threatene, 0ith such inCury- an, then the (anner o" the o""icers entry 0as also reasonable. 8?pan,ing upon the ,iscussion in ri1ham Cit&- but still not using the phrase *community careta?ing-/ the Supre(e Court "urther hel, that o""icers respon,ing to a call o" a ,isturbance- "in,ing a picFup trucF in the ,ri.e0ay 0hich ha, apparently been in an acci,ent- bloo, on the trucF an, on clothes in the trucF- broFen 0in,o0s in the house- an, ,e"en,antbarrica,e, insi,e- screa(ing an, thro0ing things. De"en,ant ha, a .isible 52#
cut on his han,. !ne o""icer "orce, his 0ay in only to ha.e ,e"en,ant point a ri"le at hi(. Joting that *(i)t re@uires only Aan obCecti.e reasonable basis "or belie.ing that Aa person 0ithin 6the house9 is in nee, o" i((e,iate ai,- an, that the o""icer 0as acting reasonably 0hen he (a,e the 0arrantless entry into ,e"en,ant s ho(e- the Court "oun, the entry to be la0"ul. (Cites !(itte,: %ichi1an $# Fisher (200&) $$# 4.S. 3$ 612$ 7.8,.2n, 3109.) *!""icers ,o not nee, ironcla, proo" o" Aa liFely serious- li"e% threatening inCury to in.oFe the e(ergency ai, e?ception (to the 0arrant re@uire(ent. Also- the o""icer s subCecti.e (oti.ations "or entering 0ere irrele.ant- the test being an obCection one. (Id.at p. >>.) Also- the Court note, the reality o" such a situation 0hen a police o""icer is "orce, to ,eci,e 0hat to ,o) *1t ,oes not (eet the nee,s o" la0 en"orce(ent or the ,e(an,s o" public sa"ety to re@uire o""icers to 0alF a0ay "ro( a situation liFe the one they encountere, here. !nly 0hen an apparent threat has beco(e an actual har( can o""icers rule out innocuous e?planations "or o(inous circu(stances. Gut A6t9he role o" a peace o""icer inclu,es pre.enting .iolence an, restoring or,er- not si(ply ren,ering "irst ai, to casualties. (citing ri1ham Cit&- supraat p. 305.)/ (I.id.) Respon,ing to a ra,io call concerning a (ale being shot se.eral ti(es- an, "in,ing a 0oun,e, "e(ale an, an inCure, (ale on the "ront porch- 0ith bloo, on the "ront entrance in,icating so(eone 0ith inCuries either entere, or e?ite, the resi,ence- 0ithout any other 0ay to ,eter(ine 0hether the reporte, (ale 0ith a gunshot 0oun, (ight be in the house re@uiring ai,"orcing entry into the resi,ence (conce,e, by the parties) an, then into a locFe, upstairs be,roo( (the issue in the case) 0as la0"ul un,er the *emergency aid doctrine./ Also- "or the protection o" the police- not Fno0ing 0here the shooter(s) (ight be- "orcing entry into the be,roo( to (aFe sure the suspects 0eren t there 0as also reasonable "or the o""icers protection as they con,ucte, an in.estigation. ()eop"e $# Tro&er (2011) $1 Cal.3th $&&.) +he Court "urther reCecte, ,e"en,ant s argu(ent that the o""icers nee,e, *probable cause/ to belie.e so(eone insi,e nee,e, ai,. +he test- citing ri1ham Cit& $# Stuart- supraat p. 300- is (erely ha.ing an *obCecti.ely reasonable basis "or belie.ing that an occupant is seriously inCure, or i((inently threatene, 0ith inCury./ (Id. at pp. 505%502.) +he Court reCecte, the ,issenting Custices conclusion that there 0ere other reasonable- innocent e?planations "or 0hat the police 52&
"irst "oun,. 1t is not the o""icers responsibility to eli(inate the possibility o" other reasonable e?planations- but rather to act on the reasonable belie" that a,,itional .icti(s 0ho nee, i((e,iate assistance (ay be so(e0here in that house. (Id. at p. 513.) A police o""icer s entry into a resi,ence- (oti.ate, out o" a concern "or the 0el"are o" a nine%year%ol, chil, 0ho the o""icers suspecte, ha, been le"t ho(e alone at night- 0as la0"ul un,er the so%calle, *emergency doctrine-/ 0hich is ,eri.e, "ro( the o""icers *community careta?ing function./ +he *emergency doctrine/ is an e?ception to the Fourth Amendment.s restrictions on 0arrantless resi,ential entries- an, *(ay be Custi"ie, by the nee, to protect li"e or a.oi, serious inCury./ (United States $# rad"e& (&th Cir. 2003) 321 B.3r, 1212.) +0o 0arrantless entries to looF "or a (issing eight%year%ol, girl base, upon probable cause to belie.e that she- or her bo,y- (ight be in the apart(ent. ()eop"e $# )anah (200$) 3$ Cal.3th 3&$- 353%35&.) 1n"or(ation that *suspicious acti!ity/ 0as taFing place at a ho(e- "in,ing a rear sli,ing ,oor slightly aCar- 0ith the lights an, a tele.ision on insi,ebut 0ith no one respon,ing to the o""icers atte(pts to get the attention o" the occupants- 0as su""icient *probable cause/ to belie.e that a resi,ent in the house (ight ha.e been in ,anger or inCure,. (%urdoc( $# Stout (&th Cir. 1&&$) $3 B.3r, 1332.) Sheri"" s Deputies respon,ing to a shooting call- not Fno0ing 0hether the ,e"en,ant ha, shot hi(sel" or 0hether there 0as a secon, .icti( or a possible shooter in the house- 0ere Custi"ie, in (aFing a 0arrantless entry to looF "or (ore .icti(s an,Nor a possible shooter. (United States $# Russe"" (&th Cir. 2005) 335 B.3r, 10#5.) +he 0arrantless entry o" the ,e"en,ant s trailer- base, upon *probable cause/ to belie.e a Fi,nap .icti(s 0ere insi,e- 0as Custi"ie,. ()eop"e $# Coddin1ton (2000) 23 Cal.3th $2&- $#0.) Ehether or not the BG1 agents in Coddin1ton actually nee,e, "ull% blo0n *probable cause/ to belie.e the .icti(s 0ere in insi,e an, in i((e,iate nee, o" rescue 0as not ,iscusse,. Arguably- a si(ple *reasonable suspicion/ 0oul, ha.e been su""icient. An e(ergency &11 call reporting an acci,ental stabbing Custi"ie, a 0arrantless entry o" a hotel roo( "or the li(ite, purpose o" ensuring the sa"ety o" those insi,e. ()eop"e $# Snead (1&&1) 1 Cal.App.3th 3#0- 3#5.) Respon,ing to a ,o(estic .iolence call- o""icers contacte, a 0o(an 0hoalthough ,enying there 0as a proble(- appeare, to be "rightene, an, 530
apparently ha, been strucF. +he 0arrantless entry 0as uphel, base, upon 0hat the Court ,eter(ine, to be su""icient *probable cause./ ()eop"e $# 0i11ins (1&&3) 25 Cal.App.3th 232- 2$2%2$$.) Respon,ing to a call concerning a *shooting-/ a bullet hole 0as "oun, in a patio ,oor an, bloo, on the patio "loor. 8ntry 0as Custi"ie, "or the purpose o" checFing "or possible shooting .icti(s. ()eop"e $# So"do'' (1&#0) 112 Cal.App.3r, 1.) An, see United States $# %artine5 (&th Cir. 200$) 305 B.3r, 1150- a @uestionable legal analysis atte(pting to ,i""erentiate the ,i""erences bet0een *exigent circumstance/ an, the *emergency doctrine/ as it relates to a ,o(estic .iolence situation. +he Court "oun, that checFing a resi,ence "or a potential ,o(estic .iolence .icti( "ell un,er the later. 8ntry into a resi,ence to checF "or the possible presence o" a ,o(estic .iolence .icti( 0ho ha, telephone, police (inutes earlier to asF "or assistance in returning to the apart(ent to retrie.e her belongings- but 0ho coul,n t be "oun, upon the o""icers arri.al- 0as hel, to be la0"ul un,er the circu(stances. (United States $# "ac( (&th Cir. 2002) 3#2 B.3r, 103$.) Ehile the case 0as analy;e, as a *welfare chec?/ an, *exigent circumstances-/ the Court note, in a "ootnote ("n. 1) that the sa(e result 0oul, be applicable i" analy;e, un,er the *emergency aid doctrine./ See ,issenting opinion to the Court s ,enial o" an en banc rehearing- at (&th Cir. 2002) 3#2 B.3r, 1033- by Zo;insFi- C.J. 8ntry into a (otel roo( to checF the 0el"are o" the occupant 0hose "our% year ol, son an, an e(ployee o" the (otel tol, o""icers that the occupant 0as unconscious an, coul, not be 0oFen uphel, to be su""icient o" an *exigent circumstance-/ supporte, by *probable cause-/ to Custi"y a 0arrantless entry. ()eop"e $# Semino'' (200#) 1$& Cal.App.3th $1#- $2#% $30.) !bser.ation o" contraban, in plain sight by police o""icers 0ho (a,e a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence- respon,ing to an e(ergency call "ro( so(eone in apparent ,istress (*<et the cops here now-/ "ollo0e, by the caller being ,isconnecte,)- 0as la0"ul- an, Custi"ie, the obtaining o" a search 0arrant to search the resi,ence. (United States $# Snipe (&th Cir. 200#) $1$ B.3r, &32.) +he +hir, District Court o" Appeal (Shasta County) "oun, that althoughun,er the *emergency aid/ ,octrine- an o""icer (ust ha.e *an ob%ecti!ely reasonable basis/ to belie.e so(eone insi,e is seriously inCure, or 531
i((inently threatene, 0ith such inCury in or,er to Custi"y a 0arrantless entry (citing ri1ham Cit& $# Stuart- supra.)- the o""icer (ay looF through the ,e"en,ant s si,e 0in,o0 (0hich the Court "oun, to be at a location- at the si,e o" the house- that i(plicate, the Fourth Amendment)- an a,(itte,ly lesser intrusion than (aFing entry- 0ith no (ore than a *reasonable suspicion/ to belie.e that so(eone insi,e (ight nee, their assistance. ()eop"e $# Gemmi"" (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th &$#.) *lso see Ca"a.retta $# F"o&d (&th Cir. 1&&&) 1#& B.3r, #0#- 0here it 0as hel, that an entry o" a resi,ence "or the purpose o" in.estigating a possible chil, abuse- 0here there 0ere no e?igent circu(stances re@uiring an i((e,iate entry- re@uires "ull *probable cause/ an, a search 0arrant. An, see United States $# Deemer (&th Cir. 2003) 3$3 B.3r, 1130: 0here it 0as hel, that an anony(ous &11%hangup call- traceable to a particular (otel- but 0ithout su""icient in"or(ation to ,eter(ine 0hich roo( the call (ay ha.e co(e "ro(- ,i, not allo0 "or the non%consensual entry into the ,e"en,ant s roo( to see is anyone nee,e, help (erely because o" the suspicious atte(pts by the person 0ho ans0ere, the ,oor to Feep the o""icers "ro( looFing insi,e- an, her apparent lies concerning no one else being there. Eith a citi;en s report that plainti"" ha, been in a (inor tra""ic acci,ent an, ha, the o,or o" alcohol on his breath- o""icers "orce, entry into his ho(e un,er the supposition that a layperson (ight (isinterpret the "ruity s(ell o" a person s breath 0ho is on the brinF o" a ,iabetic co(a as being un,er the in"luence o" alcohol. Absent any other e.i,ence that plainti"" 0as in "act about to su""er a ,iabetic co(a- the Court reCecte, this argu(ent as *both si(ple an, au,acious./ +he Court also reCecte, the o""icers clai( that they "elt plainti"" (ight ha.e been inCure, gi.en the "act that the tra""ic acci,ent 0as so (inor that there 0as no ,a(age to either car. (0op(ins $# on$icino (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 2$2- 2$&- 253% 255.) Eith a (issing .icti(- an, su""icient suspicious circu(stances causing an o""icer to reasonably belie.e that the .icti( (ay ,ie i" i((e,iate action is not taFen- a 0arrantless entry into a pri.ate area (ay be la0"ul. Jo 0arrant is re@uire, *0hen an e(ergency situation re@uires s0i"t action to pre.ent i((inent ,anger to li"e./ *(1)" the "acts a.ailable to the o""icer at the (o(ent o" the entry 0oul, cause a person o" reasonable caution to belie.e that the action taFen 0as appropriate-/ the o""icer (ay la0"ully (aFe a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence or other pri.ate area. ()eop"e $# Ro1ers (200&) 35 Cal.3th 1135- 1133%113$- 11$3%1151: 0ith prior in"or(ation that ,e"en,ant (ay ha.e secrete, a (issing .icti( in a storage roo(- an, the ,e"en,ant s ner.ousness an, lacF o" cooperation532
the i((e,iate- 0arrantless entry into the storage area 0as hel, to be la0"ul.) Bollo0ing the reasoning in Ro1ers- the Court hel, that o""icers 0ere Custi"ie, in (aFing entry into a ,arFene, apart(ent 0hen no one 0oul, ans0er their FnocFing to checF the 0el"are o" a 0o(an an, her chil, 0ho ha,n t been hear, "ro( all ,ay "ollo0ing a .iolent *,o(estic .iolence/ inci,ent 0ith her li.e%in boy"rien, the night be"ore- 0hen no one coul, locate her an, it 0as Fno0n that it 0as uncharacteristic o" her not to ans0er her ho(e or cell phone "or the 0hole ,ay. ()eop"e $# 0oc(straser (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th ##3- #&$%&01.) Plain sight obser.ations (a,e 0hile la0"ully insi,e the apart(ent pro.i,e, probable cause to search the ,e"en,ant s .ehicle parFe, outsi,e the apart(ent- 0here the .icti( s ,is(e(bere, bo,y 0as then "oun,. (Id#- at pp. &01%&0$.) +he 0arrantless entry an, search o" a resi,ence is la0"ul so long as there is an obCecti.ely reasonable basis "or belie.ing that so(eone insi,e or the o""icer is in serious ,anger- the (anner o" entry is reasonable- an, the scope o" the subse@uent search is reasonable. (United States $# Re&es3 os:ue (&th Cir. 2010) $&5 B.3r, 1012- 102&%1030.) 4n,er the *emergency exception-/ an o""icer (ay enter a ho(e 0ithout a 0arrant to in.estigate an e(ergency that threatens li"e or li(b so long as there is *ob%ecti!ely reasonable grounds to belie!e that an emergency exists and that his immediate response is needed./ +he Court note, that this e?ception ,eri.es "ro( a police o""icer s *community careta?ing function./ +he other possible e?ception to the 0arrant re@uire(ent is Fno0n as the *exigency exception-/ 0hich ste(s "ro( the o""icer s in.estigatory "unction. 4n,er this theory- an o""icer (ay enter a resi,ence 0ithout a 0arrant i" he has *probable cause to belie.e that a cri(e has been or is being co((itte, an, a reasonable belie" that his entry is nee,e, to stop the ,estruction o" e.i,ence or a suspect s escape or to carry out other cri(e pre.ention or la0 en"orce(ent e""orts./ Goth e?ceptions re@uire that the o""icer ha.e an obCecti.ely reasonable belie" that the circu(stances Custi"y an i((e,iate entry. (Espinosa $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&# B.3r, $2#- $33%$35.) Police o""icers (ay (aFe a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence 0hene.er they ha.e *an ob%ecti!ely reasonable basis for belie!ing/ that an occupant or the o""icers are i((inently threatene, 0ith serious inCury. (R&.urn $# 0u'' (Jan. 23- 2012) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S.Ct. &#2: 1#1 7.8,.2n, &559: re.ersing the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal s ,ecision that ha, hel, that un.eri"ie, ru(ors that the plainti""s son ha, threate, to *shoot up/ a high school- along 0ith the son s (other- 0ho 0as generally uncooperati.e533
running bacF into the house 0hen asFe, about "irear(s in the house- 0as insu""icient to Custi"y an i((e,iate entry. +he *emergency exception/ seeFs to ensure that o""icers can carry out their ,uties sa"ely 0hile at the sa(e ti(e ensuring the sa"ety o" (e(bers o" the public. 1t applies 0hen o""icers *ha!e an ob%ecti!ely reasonable basis for concluding that there is an immediate need to protect others or themsel!es from serious harm./ Gut there (ust be articulable circu(stances beyon, (ere speculation that a suspect constitutes a ,anger be"ore this e?ception 0ill e?cuse the lacF o" a 0arrant in entering the curtilage o" a person s ho(e. A .iolation o" a (ere (is,e(eanor (such as (!C! 14#) by itsel" in insu""icient. (Sims $# Stanton (&th Cir. Jan. 152013) >> B.3r, >> 62013 4.S. App. 78T1S 10$29.) Sims- ho0e.er- con"licts 0ith the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court s reasoning in )eop"e $# Thompson (2005) 3# Cal.3th #11- 0here it 0as hel, that generally- the ,e(arcation line is 0hether the un,erlying o""ense is booFable (e.g.- a (is,e(eanor or abo.e)rather than necessarily re@uiring a "elony. (See *Earrantless entry to arrest a D41 (i.e.- *Dri!ing while #nder the 'nfluence/) suspect-/ abo.e). E!i1ent Circumstances and O''icer Sa'et&: A possible tra""icFer in narcotics- ,ucFing bacF into his resi,ence upon the approach o" peace o""icers- 0hile atte(pting to shut the ,oor an, close the blin,s- is an e?igent circu(stance Custi"ying an i((e,iate- 0arrantless entry. United States $# Are""ano3Ochoa (&th Cir. 2005) 351 B.3r, 1132.) Eith probable cause to belie.e a burglary is in progress- a 0arrantless "orce, entry into a resi,ence 0oul, be appropriate. Io0e.er- un,er circu(stances 0here the o""icers shoul, ha.e Fno0n that the occupant o" a house 0as not a burglar (e.g.- the e?%0i"e o" the person belie.e, to be the resi,ent- 0ith the e?%0i"e ha.ing been gi.en the resi,ence in the ,i.orce- an, un,er circu(stances 0here it 0as not reasonable to belie.e that she 0as burglari;ing the house)- a "orce, entry an, con"ronting the occupant at gunpoint is a Fourth Amendment .iolation subCecting the o""icers to ci.il liability. (Frun5 $# Cit& o' Tacoma (&th Cir. 2005) 35# B.3r, 1131.) Scaling a si? "oot "ence past a locFe, gate-- an, thus entering ,e"en,ant s si,e yar,- 0as la0"ul 0hen necessary to retrie.e a "irear( obser.e, on the groun, 0here the o""icer "eare, "or his o0n sa"ety an, the sa"ety o" a se.en year ol, (inor 0ho 0as suspecte, o" being in the house. ()eop"e $# Cha$e5 (200#) 151 Cal.App.3th 13&3- 1$03.) 533
+he 0arrantless entry an, search o" a resi,ence is la0"ul so long as there is an obCecti.ely reasonable basis "or belie.ing that so(eone insi,e or the o""icer is in serious ,anger- the (anner o" entry is reasonable- an, the scope o" the subse@uent search is reasonable. (United States $# Re&es3 os:ue (&th Cir. 2010) $&5 B.3r, 1012- 102&%1030.) Respon,ing to a &11 call concerning a person cli(bing o.er a "ence into a resi,ential bacFyar,- an, "in,ing ,e"en,ant 0ho (atche, the ,escription0here ,e"en,ant ,i, not resist or atte(pt to "lee an, 0ithout any in,ication o" the presence o" burglar tools or that the house 0as being broFen into- is insu""icient cause to enter the curtilage o" ,e"en,ant s ho(e (i.e.- his "ence,%o"" bacFyar,) nor probable cause to arrest hi( "or atte(pte, burglary or e.en trespass. A gun "oun, on hi( in a search inci,ent to arrest shoul, ha.e been suppresse,. (United States $# Struc(man (&th Cir 2010) 503 B.3, 231- 23&%232: suggesting that the o""icers shoul, asFe, hi( (ore @uestions an, checF his clai(s that he 0as in his o0n bacFyar, be"ore arresting hi(.) Police o""icers (ay (aFe a 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence 0hene.er they ha.e an obCecti.ely reasonable basis "or belie.ing that an occupant or the o""icers are i((inently threatene, 0ith serious inCury. (R&.urn $# 0u'' (Jan. 23- 2012) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S.Ct. &#2: 1#1 7.8,.2n, &559: re.ersing the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal s ,ecision that ha, hel, that un.eri"ie, ru(ors that the plainti""s son ha, threate, to *shoot up/ a high school- along 0ith the son s (other- 0ho 0as generally uncooperati.erunning bacF into the house 0hen asFe, about "irear(s in the house- 0as insu""icient to Custi"y an i((e,iate entry. +he sa(e theory apparently applies to a 0arrantless entry o" a business by ani(al control o""icers "or the purpose o" checFing on the 0el"are o" ani(als in a pet store. +he court hel, that e?igent circu(stances (the strong o,or o" ,ecease, ani(als "lesh) Custi"ie, the o""icers 0arrantless entry into the shop an, sei;ure o" the ani(als pursuant to authority un,er (!C! )"1!1- "in,ing that *the statutory language authori;ing i((e,iate sei;ure 0hen an ani(al control o""icer Ahas reasonable groun,s to belie.e that .ery pro(pt action is re@uire, to protect the health or sa"ety o" others is the e@ui.alent o" the e?igent circu(stances e?ception "a(iliar to search an, sei;ure la0. +hat e?ception allo0s entry 0ithout bene"it o" a 0arrant 0hen a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer con"ronts an e(ergency situation re@uiring s0i"t action to sa.e li"e- property- or e.i,ence./ ( roden $# %arin 0umane Societ& (1&&&) 20 Cal.App.3th 1212- 1220%1221.) ZicFing open an upstairs locFe, be,roo( 0hile checFing "or possibly 0oun,e, .icti(s at a shooting scene- an, "or o""icers sa"ety 0hile they con,ucte, an in.estigation- 0hen it is unFno0n 0hether the shooting 53$
suspect(s) (ight be in the house- 0as reasonable. ()eop"e $# Tro&er (2011) $1 Cal.3th $&&- 513.) Bollo0ing a suspecte, illegal alien to ,e"en,ant s ho(e- an, obser.ing the illegal alien to 0alF to a carport at the si,e o" the house- hel, not to Custi"y an 0arrantless entry o" the carport by Gor,er Patrol agents- 0here ,e"en,ant an, the alien 0ere arreste,. (United States $# )erea3Re& (&th Cir. 2012) 5#0 B.3r, 112&- 11#3%11#&.) +he *exigency exception/ assists o""icers in the per"or(ance o" their la0 en"orce(ent "unction by per(itting police to co((it a 0arrantless entry 0here *necessary to pre.ent . . . the ,estruction o" rele.ant e.i,ence- the escape o" the suspect- or so(e other conse@uence i(properly "rustrating legiti(ate la0 en"orce(ent e""orts./ Stopping a *"leeing "elon/ is an *e?igent circu(stance./ Io0e.er- 0hen balancing la0 en"orce(ent s interest in stopping a "leeing suspect 0ith the ho(eo0ner s right to pri.acy 0ithin their ho(e- the latter 0ins out 0hen the un,erlying o""ense is but a (is,e(eanor *e?cept in rare circu(stances./ (Sims $# Stanton (&th Cir. Jan. 15- 2013) >> B.3r, >> 62013 4.S. App. 78T1S 10$299 what might constitute Hrare circumstancesN is ne!er discussed20 Sims- ho0e.er- con"licts 0ith the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court s reasoning in )eop"e $# Thompson (2005) 3# Cal.3th #11- 0here it 0as hel, that generally- the ,e(arcation line is 0hether the un,erlying o""ense is booFable (e.g.- a (is,e(eanor or abo.e)rather than necessarily re@uiring a "elony. (See *Earrantless entry to arrest a D41 (i.e.- *Dri!ing while #nder the 'nfluence/) suspect-/ abo.e). Emer1enc& E!ception and the Odor o' Ether: 1n cases 0here the o,or o" ether is apparent- co(ing "ro( a particular location in,icating the presence o" an illicit ,rug lab an, creating a ha;ar,ous- potentially e?plosi.e- situation- the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has hel, that although the o,or by itsel" is not probable cause- it is a ,angerous situation nee,ing i((e,iate action. +here"ore- so long as (1) the police ha.e reasonable groun,s to belie.e that there is an e(ergency at han, an, an i((e,iate nee, "or their assistance "or the protection o" li"e or property- (2) their assistance is not pri(arily (oti.ate, by the intent to arrest a person or sei;e e.i,ence- and (3) there is so(e reasonable basis*approximating probable cause-/ to associate the e(ergency 0ith the area or place to be entere,- then the *emergency doctrine/ 0ill allo0 "or a 0arrantless entry to neutrali;e the e(ergency. (United States $# Cer$antes (&th Cir. 2000) 21& B.3r, ##2.)
535
An, then- any plain sight obser.ations (a,e 0hile la0"ully in the house neutrali;ing the ,anger can pro.i,e the necessary probable cause to secure the house- arrest the occupants- an, obtain a search 0arrant "or the rest o" the house. ()eop"e $# 0i"" (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, 231.) State authority is in apparent agree(ent) +he o,or o" ether is an e?igent circu(stance- gi.en the potential .olatility o" ether- to Custi"y an i((e,iate 0arrantless entry to *neutralize/ the ,angerous situation. ()eop"e $# %essina (1&#$) 15$ Cal.App.3r, &31: )eop"e $# Osuna (1&#2) 1#2 Cal.App.3r, #3$.) +he o,or o" ether plus other circu(stances 0hich corroborate the suspecte, presence o" an illicit substance will nor(ally establish probable cause. ()eop"e $# Ste1man (1&#$) 153 Cal.App.3r, &35: )eop"e $# )atterson (1&2&) &3 Cal.App.3r, 3$5: )eop"e $# Torres (1&#1) 121 Cal.App.3r, Supp. &.) E!ecutin1 an Arrest -arrant: An arrest 0arrant constitutes legal authority to enter the suspect s resi,ence an, search "or hi(. ()eop"e $# 2e "anc (1&&2) 50 Cal.App.3th 1$2- 153.) Si(ilarly- police are authori@ed to enter a house +ithout a +arrant
+here the sus(ect is a (arolee +ho had no le.itimate ex(ectation of (ri)ac* a.ainst +arrantless arrests. ('eo(le v. +e,is (1999) 74 Cal.4((.4th 662! 6712 In re Fran( S# (2005) 132 Cal.App.3th
13$- 1$1.) Surroun,ing a barrica,e, suspect in his ho(e is in e""ect a 0arrantless arrestCusti"ie, by the e?igent circu(stances. +he passage o" ti(e ,uring the ensuing stan,o"" ,oes not ,issipate that e?igency to 0here o""icers are e?pecte, to seeF the authori;ation o" a Cu,ge to taFe the suspect into physical custo,y. (Fisher $# Cit& o' San *ose (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, 105&: o.erruling its prior hol,ing (at $0& B.3r, &$2) 0here it 0as rule, that "ailure to obtain an arrest 0arrant ,uring a 12 hour stan,o"" resulte, in an illegal arrest o" the barrica,e, suspect.) 8ntry o" a resi,ence to e?ecute a bench warrant- issue, by a neutral (agistrate upon a ,e"en,ant s "ailure to appear in court- is la0"ul ,espite the "act that the bench 0arrant 0as issue, 0ithout a "in,ing o" probable cause. (United States $# Gooch (&th Cir. 2002) $05 B.3r, 11$5.) $ut- be"ore a police o""icer (ay enter a ho(e- absent consent to enter- the o""icer (ust ha.e a reasonable belief- "alling short o" 532
probable cause to belie.e- the suspect li.es there an, is present at the ti(e. ()eop"e $# Do,ne& (2011) 1&# Cal.App.3th 5$2- 5$2% 552.) Gut see prior ,ecisions "in,ing that *probable cause/ to belie.e the person 0ho is the subCect o" the arrest 0arrant is actually insi,e at the ti(e is the correct stan,ar,. ()eop"e $# *aco.s (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, 322: United States $# Gorman (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 110$: )eop"e $# )hi""ips (&th Cir. 1&23) 3&2 B.2n, 1131: United States $# Dia5 (&th Cir. 2002) 3&1 B.3r, 1023: United States $# Gooch- supraat p. 11$&"n. 2: Cue$as $# De Roco (&th Cir. 200#) $31 B.3r, 225: United States $# %a&er (&th Cir. 200#) $30 B.3r, 10&&1103%1103.) See * ufficiency of E!idence to $elie!e the uspect is 'nside-/ belo0. *Gecause an arrest 0arrant authori;es the police to ,epri.e a person o" his liberty- it necessarily also authori;es a li(ite, in.asion o" that personDs pri.acy interest 0hen it is necessary to arrest hi( in his ho(e./ (Stea1a"d $# United States (&#1) 3$1 4.S. 203- 213%21$- "n. 2 65# 7.8,.2n, 3#- 359.) *+hus- "or Fourth Amendment purposes- an arrest 0arrant "oun,e, on probable cause i(plicitly carries 0ith it the li(ite, authority to enter a ,0elling in 0hich the suspect li.es 0hen there is reason to belie!e the suspect is 0ithin./ (1talics a,,e,: )a&ton $# Ne, Yor( (1&#0) 33$ 4.S. $23- 503 653 7.8,.2n, 53&- 5519.) *1t is not ,ispute, that until the point o" GuieDs arrest the police ha, the right- base, on the authority o" the arrest 0arrant- to search any0here in the house that Guie (ight ha.e been "oun,- . . ./ (%ar&"and $# uie (1&&0) 3&3 4.S. 32$- 330 610# 7.8,.2n, 225- 2#39.) 1" the person is in a third party)s homeabsent consent to enter- a search warrant "or the resi,ence (ust be obtaine, in a,,ition to the arrest 0arrant. (Stea1a"d $# United States- supraat pp. 211%222 65# 7.8,.2n, at pp. 3$%$29: )eop"e $# Codinha (1&#2) 13# Cal.App.3r, 152: see (!C! 1)24+a,+2,) Su''icienc& o' E$idence to e"ie$e the Suspect is Inside: +he a(ount o" e.i,ence a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer (ust ha.e in,icating that a cri(inal suspect is in "act presently insi,e his o0n resi,ence in or,er to Custi"y a non%consensual entry- 0ith or 0ithout an arrest 0arrant- has been ,ebate, o.er the years)
53#
+he 4nite, States Supre(e Court- in )e&ton $# Ne, Yor( (1&#0) 33$ 4.S. $23 653 7.8,.2n, 53&9- (erely states that a police o""icer (ust ha.e a *reason to belie!e/ the suspect is insi,e his resi,ence- 0ithout ,e"ining the phrase. An early Cali"ornia lo0er appellate court "oun, that the o""icers nee,e, only a *reasonable belief-/ or *strong reason to belie!e-/ the suspect 0as ho(e. ()eop"e $# -hite (1&#5) 1#3 Cal.App.3r, 11&&- 1203%120&: reCecting the ,e"ense argu(ent that "ull *probable cause/ to belie.e the subCect 0as insi,e is re@uire,: see also United States $# %a1"uta (11th Cir. 1&&$) 33 B.3r, 1$30- 1$3$- using a *reasonable belief/ stan,ar,.) !ther authority in,icates that a "ull (easure o" *probable cause/ is re@uire,. (See Dorman $# United States (D.C. Cir. 1&20) 33$ B.2n, 3#$3&3: see also )eop"e $# )hi""ips (&th Cir. 1&23) 3&2 B.2n, 1131: a locFe, co((ercial establish(ent- at night: an, United States $# Gorman (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 110$: ,e"en,ant in his girl"rien, s house 0ith 0ho( he 0as li.ing.) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court- interpreting the language o" (!C! #44 (i.e.- *reasonable grounds for belie!ing him to be (inside)/)- has "oun, that any arrest- 0ith or 0ithout an arrest 0arrant- re@uires probable cause to belie.e the subCect is insi,e in or,er to Custi"y a non%consensual entry into a resi,ence. ()eop"e $# *aco.s (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, 322- 32#%32&: butsee belo0.) 1n or,er to con,uct a Fourth Eai.er search o" a resi,ence- an o""icer (ust ha.e probable cause to belie.e that the resi,ence to be searche, is in "act the parolee s (or probationer s) resi,ence. %ot"e& $# )ar(s (&th Cir. 200$) 332 B.3r, 1022- 10#0%10#2: United States $# Fran("in (&th Cir. 2010) 503 B.3r, 5$2: United States $# o"i$ar (&th Cir. 2012) 520 B.3r, 10&1- 10&3% 10&$.) Howe!er- noting that "i.e other "e,eral circuits ha.e rule, that so(ething less than probable cause is re@uire,- an, that the Jinth Circuit is a (inority opinion- the Bourth District Court o" Appeal (Di.. 2) "oun, instea, that an o""icer e?ecuting an arrest 0arrant or con,ucting a probation or parole search (ay enter a ,0elling i" he or she has only a *reasonable belief-/ "alling short o" probable cause to belie.e- the suspect li.es there an, is present at the ti(e. 8(ploying that stan,ar,- the entry into ,e"en,ant s apart(ent to con,uct a probation search 0as la0"ul base, on all o" the in"or(ation Fno0n to the o""icers. Accor,ingly- the court uphel, the trial court s conclusion that the o""icers ha, obCecti.ely reasonable groun,s to conclu,e the ,e"en,antNprobationer li.e, at the subCect apart(ent an, 0as present at the ti(e- an, there"ore the o""icers 53&
ha, the right to enter the apart(ent to con,uct a 0arrantless probation search. ()eop"e $# Do,ne& (2011) 1&# Cal.App.3th 5$2- 5$2%552.) Also arguing that the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court- in )eop"e $# *aco.s- supra (pg. 32&- "n. 3)- ,i, not "in, that probable cause 0as re@uire,- contrary to popular belie". (Id.- at p. 552: see abo.e.) +ote) +he *present at the time/ re@uire(ent apparently only applies to e?ecuting an arrest 0arrant. 1t has ne.er been re@uire, that a person on a Fourth 0a.ier be ho(e at the ti(e o" a 0arrantless entry an, search. (See )eop"e $ 2i"ientha" (1&2#) 22 Cal.3r, #&1- &00.) Eithout (entioning Do,ne&- the Jinth Circuit cites %ot"e& $# )ar(s- supra- 0ith appro.al- "or the proposition that "ull probable cause to belie.e that the target o" a Fourth Eai.er search resi,es in the place to be searche, is necessary. (United States $# o"i$ar (&th Cir. 2012) 520 B.3r, 10&1- 10&3%10&$.) !""icers Fne0 ,e"en,ant ha, li.e, at the suspect resi,ence at one ti(e but also ha, ne0er in"or(ation that he ha, (o.e, else0here- although there 0as still so(e in,ication that he 0as (aybe .isiting the prior resi,ence or that the occupants Fne0 0here he coul, be locate,: insu""icient to establish probable cause. (Cue$as $# De Roco (&th Cir. 200#) $31 B.3r, 225.) 1n"or(ation "ro( a neighbors an,- separately- an anony(ous in"or(antall in,icating that ,e"en,ant ha, returne, to his reporte, a,,ress an, 0as selling (ariCuana at that resi,ence- establishe, probable cause to belie.e he 0as li.ing there again. (United States $# %a&er (&th Cir. 200#) $30 B.3r, 10&&- 1103%1103.) Third )arties Enterin1 ,ith )o"ice) 1t is a Fourth Amendment .iolation to allo0 thir, parties (e.g.: the ne0s (e,ia) into a constitutionally protecte, areasuch as the ,e"en,ant s ho(e- 0ithout the occupant s per(ission- e.en 0hen the o""icers the(sel.es are entering legally (e.g.: ser.ing a search 0arrant). (-i"son $# 2a&ne (1&&&) $25 4.S. 503 6133 7.8,.2n, #1#9: creating "e,eral ci.il liability.) Io0e.er- it 0as not error to ,eny ,e"en,ants (otions to suppress the physical e.i,ence sei;e, "ro( their property 0here the (e,ia 0ere present on the "ront yar, o" the ,e"en,ants co(poun,- but that their presence ,i, not .iolate the Fourth Amendment because the "ront yar, 0as not curtilage- an, there 0as no basis to "in, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the "ront yar,. Gut the Fourth Amendment 0as .iolate, by escorting certain (e(bers o" the (e,ia into the bacFyar,. Jonetheless- it 0as not necessary to suppress any e.i,ence resulting "ro( the e?ecution 530
o" the 0arrant because the police con,ucte, the search 0ithin the para(eters o" the 0arrant- an, there 0as no suggestion that any (e(ber o" the (e,ia ,isco.ere, or ,e.elope, any e.i,ence sei;e, "ro( the property. (United States $# Duenas (&th Cir. 2012) 5&1 B.3r, 1020- 102&% 10#3.) */noc( and Notice)/ Any ti(e a police o""icer (aFes entry into the resi,ence o" another to arrest ((!C! #44) or to ser.e a search 0arrant ((!C! 1)31)- the o""icer (ust "irst co(ply 0ith the statutory *?noc? and notice/ rules. (See abo.e.) +he sa(e rule applies to entries for *in!estigati!e purposes/ as 0ellalthough arguably not co(ing 0ithin the pro.isions o" (!C! #44 or 1)31. ()eop"e $# %i""er (1&&&) 5& Cal.App.3th 1&0- 201.) ZnocF an, notice re@uire(ents also apply to entries (a,e "or purposes o" con,ucting a *Fourth =ai!er search./ ()eop"e $# Constancio (1&23) 32 Cal.App.3r, $33- $32: )eop"e $# 2i"ientha" (1&2#) 22 Cal.3r, #&1- &00: )eop"e $# %a&s (1&&#) 52 Cal.App.3th &5&- &23- "n. 3: )eop"e $# %urph& (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th $35- $$3.) Io0e.er- recent authority has note, that .iolating FnocF an, notice rules shoul, not result in the suppression o" any resulting e.i,ence- at least absent aggra.ating circu(stances. (0udson $# %ichi1an (2005) $32 4.S. $#5 615$ 7.8,.2n, $59.) +his rule applies 0hether e?ecuting a search 0arrant (i.e.- 0udson) or to (aFe an arrest. (In re Fran( S# (2005) 132 Cal.App.3th 13$.) See *Anoc? and +otice-/ un,er * earches =ith a earch =arrant./ abo.e.
531
Chapter 11
Ne, 2a, En'orcement Techno"o1&) The )ro."em) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court (in /&""o $# United States (2001) $33 4.S. 22 61$0 7.8,.2n, &39.)- as 0ell as the "e,eral Congress an, Cali"ornia s 7egislature- has in,icate, a concern 0ith ,e.eloping sur.eillance technology 0hich (ay be use, to ea.es,rop upon an, ,ecipher acti.ities in constitutionally protecte, areas. See also United States $# 0i"" (&th Cir. 2005) 3$& B.3r, &55- &2&- 0here it 0as note, that) *+echnology is rapi,ly e.ol.ing an, the concept o" 0hat is reasonable "or Fourth Amendment purposes 0ill liFe0ise ha.e to e.ol.e./ +he Supre(e Court has pointe, out that a physical trespassory intrusion (physically entering a protecte, area or property) is not al0ays re@uire, to create a Fourth Amendment search issue. Per the Court: *(s)ituations in.ol.ing (erely the trans(ission o" electronic signals 0ithout trespass 0oul, re(ain subCect to /at5 analysis/ (re"erring to /at5 $# United States (1&52) 3#& 4.S. 332- 3512 61& 7.8,.2n, $25- $##9.): i.e.- 0hether a *reasonable expectation of pri!acy/ 0as .iolate,. (United States $# *ones (Jan. 23- 2012) $5$ 4.S. >>- >> 6132 S.Ct. &3$- &$3: 1#1 7.8,.2n, &119.) Therma" Ima1in1 De$ice) +he use o" a *thermal imaging de!ice/ (also Fno0n as a *("'R-/ "or *(orward "oo?ing 'nfra Red./) to rea, the a(ount o" heat co(ing "ro( a person s ho(e- 0ithout prior Cu,icial authori;ation- is an unconstitutional in.asion o" one s right to pri.acy in the ho(e. (/&""o $# United States (2001) $33 4.S. 22 61$0 7.8,.2n, &39.) *+o 0ith,ra0 protection o" this (ini(u( e?pectation (o" pri.acy in one s ho(e) 0oul, be to per(it police technology to ero,e the pri.acy guarantee, by the Fourth Amendment. Ee thinF that obtaining by sense%enhancing technology any in"or(ation regar,ing the interior o" the ho(e that coul, not other0ise ha.e been obtaine, 0ithout physical Aintrusion into a constitutionally protecte, area- 6Citation9 constitutes a searchPat least 0here (as here) the technology in @uestion is not in general public use. +his assures preser.ation o" that ,egree o" pri.acy against go.ern(ent that e?iste, 0hen the Fourth Amendment 0as a,opte,. !n the basis o" this criterion- the in"or(ation obtaine, by the ther(al i(ager in this case 0as the pro,uct o" a search. 6"ootnote o(itte,9/ (Id#- at p. 33 61$0 7.8,.2n, at p. 1029.) As a *search-/ a search 0arrant is necessary be"ore a ther(al i(agining ,e.ice can be use, to ,e,uce the heat co(ing "ro( a person s ho(e. (I.id.) 532
Cali"ornia s li(ite, authority also hol,s that use o" such a ,e.ice is an unreasonable in.asion o" one s e?pectation o" pri.acy- at least 0hen use, to (easure heat "ro( a person s pri.ate ,0elling. ()eop"e $# Deutsch (1&&5) 33 Cal.App.3th 1223.) $ut- e.i,ence "ro( the use o" a ther(al i(aging ,e.ice- 0hen la0"ully obtaine, 0ith Cu,icial authori;ation (i.e.- a search 0arrant)- (ay be use, as a part o" the probable cause "or a secon, search 0arrant. (United States $# 0u11ins (&th Cir. 2002) 2&& B.3r, 103&.) Howe!er- a search 0arrant authori;ing the use o" a ther(al i(aging ,e.ice (ust be supporte, by probable cause- or such a 0arrant 0ill be hel, to be in.ali,. ()eop"e $# Got'ried (2003) 102 Cal.App.3th 2$3.) A uster) 4se o" a *$uster/ on a .ehicle at the Oe?icoN4.S. bor,er- gi.en the lacF o" any proo" that the ,e"en,ant 0as e?pose, to any ,anger "ro( the ra,ioacti.ity in the ,e.ice- ,oes not re@uire any suspicion in a bor,er search. (United States $# Camacho (&th Cir. 2003) 35# B.3r, 11#2.) A *$uster/ is *a han,hel, portable ,ensity gauge. . . . 1t contains a tiny bea, o" ra,ioacti.e (aterial calle, bariu( 133 that s insi,e a seale, container. . . . (E)hen the actuating trigger is pushe,- the container rolls to an open slot an, e?poses the ra,iation in a "or0ar, ,irection (pro.i,ing a rea,ing on the ,ensity o" an obCect./ A higher rea,ing than nor(al in,icates that so(ething not nor(ally there is hi,,en in the obCect being e.aluate,- such as in the spare tire in this case. (Id.- at p. 11#3.) +ote that the Court in Camacho ,i""erentiate, the $uster "ro( ?%rays o" a person 0hich- per the court- does re@uire a *heightened le!el of suspicion/ (i.e.- a *reasonable suspicion./ See United States $# Camacho- supra- p. 11#5- "n. 1) to use in a bor,er search situation gi.en the potential personal health issues o" e?posing a person s bo,y to ?%rays. (See also United States $# I( (&th Cir. 1&#2) 525 B.2n, 32&- 3#2.) *lso note that using the $uster on a .ehicle or other container in other than a bor,er search situation 0oul, liFely re@uire "ull%blo0n *probable cause/ un,er the theory o" /&""o- supra- an, the "act that it is in "act inspecting ite(s containe, 0ithin the .ehicle or container itsel" an, not Cust heat e(anating "ro( the .ehicle or other container. Io0e.er- there is no case la0 on this issue as o" yet. Spi(e %i(e) +he 0arrantless use o" a *spi?e mi?e-/ 0hich- though contact 0ith a heating ,uct- 0as able to picF up ,e"en,ant s con.ersations 0hile insi,e his ho(e- 0as hel, to be a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (Si"$erman $# United States (1&51) 35$ 4.S. $0$ 6$ 7.8,.2n, 2339.) 533
Aeria" Sur$ei""ance) .!erflights o.er a suspect s bacFyar, (i.e.- 0ithin the *curtilage/ o" the ho(e)- so long as the obser.ers are in the legal (*na!igable/) airspace- 0hen naFe,%eye obser.ations o" illegal acti.ity belo0 are (a,e- are legal- 0hether the obser.ers are on routine patrol or are respon,ing to a speci"ic tip an,Nor other0ise purposely looFing into the ,e"en,ant s yar,. (Ca"i'ornia $# Cirao"o (1&#5) 325 4.S. 202 6&0 7.8,.2n, 2109.) Cali"ornia s pre.ious rule that obser.ations o" contraban, 0ithin the curtilage o" one s ho(e (i.e.- the yar,) un,er such circu(stances shoul, be suppresse, (see )eop"e $# Coo( (1&#$) 31 Cal.3r, 323: )eop"e $# Cirao"o (1&#3) 151 Cal.App.3r, 10#1.) 0as o.errule, in Ca"i'ornia $# Cirao"osupra. Passage o" (ro-osition # in June- 1&#2- ,ictates that Cali"ornia "ollo0 the "e,eral rule. +he "e,eral 8n.iron(ental Protection Agency s use o" aerial photography"lying at the legal *na!igable altitude-/ 0as hel, to be 0ithin its statutory authority- as a regulatory an, en"orce(ent agency re@uires no e?plicit authori;ation to e(ploy (etho,s o" obser.ation a.ailable to the public. A,,itionally- the taFing o" photographs o" petitionerDs co(ple? "ro( na.igable airspace 0as not a search prohibite, by the Fourth Amendment. (Do, Chemica" Co# $# United States (1&#5) 325 4.S. 222 6&0 7.8,.2n, 2259.) !.er"lights con,ucte, by o""icers o" a greenhouse situate, 12$ yar,s "ro( a t0o%story resi,ence ,i, not constitute a search re@uiring a 0arrant un,er the Fourth Amendment. (United States $# roadhurst (&th Cir. 1&#5) #0$ B.2n, #3&- #3&%#$0- #$5%#$2.) E"ectronic Trac(in1 De$ices +Transmitters,) <eneral Rule) Electronic trac?ing de!ices are la0"ul to use in tracFing- so long as the route use, is other0ise open to .ie0 an, so long as the installation o" the tracFing ,e.ice itsel" 0as not acco(plishe, in .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment. (United States $# /notts (1&#3) 350 4.S. 225 62$ 7.8,.2n, $$9: but see United States $# *ones. infra.) Io0e.er- the act o" putting a tracFing ,e.ice (e.g.- a *Llobal Positioning Syste(-/ or *LPS/) onto a .ehicle- e.en the e?terior or un,ercarriage- is a Fourth Amendment search. (United States $# *ones (Jan. 23- 2012) $5$ 4.S. >> 6132 S.Ct. &3$: 1#1 7.8,.2n, &119.) +he Court in *ones ,i, not in,icate- ho0e.er- 0hether a search 0arrant 0oul, be necessary- ,eclining to rule on 0hether such a search- e.en i" 0arrantless- 0as *reasonable/ un,er the circu(stances because that argu(ent ha, been *"or"eite,/ 0hen 533
not raise, at the trial court le.el. (United States $# *ones- supra- at 132 S.Ct.- at p. &$3.) +ote) +he in"erence is that a la0"ul e?ception to the search 0arrant re@uire(ent (ight apply- ,epen,ing upon the circu(stances. 1n /notts- supra- the tracFing ,e.ice (i.e.- a *beeper/) 0as alrea,y containe, in a "i.e%gallon ,ru( 0hen gi.en to the ,e"en,ant 0ho put it in his car. +here being no installation o" the ,e.ice onto or into ,e"en,ant s car by la0 en"orce(ent- there 0as no *search/ in.ol.e,. United States $# *ones- supra- speci"ically ,i, not rule 0hether the act o" tracFing a .ehicle through the use o" a LPS 0as a Fourth Amendment issue re@uiring a search 0arrant (132 S.Ct.- at p. &$3) although the (inority opinion argue, that the use o" a LPS "or an e?ten,e, perio, o" ti(e (e.g.- a (onth) 0oul, re@uire a 0arrant. (132 S.Ct. at p. &53.) +he Si?th Circuit Court o" Appeal has rule, that using ,ata e(anating "ro( a suspect s pay%as%you%go cell phone to ,eter(ine its real%ti(e location as he transporte, ,rugs along public thorough"ares 0as la0"ul. Agents locate, ,e"en,ant at a rest stop0ith a (otorho(e "ille, 0ith (ariCuana- by *pinging/ his phone. +here 0as no Fourth Amendment .iolation since ,e"en,ant ,i, not ha.e a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the LPS ,ata an, location o" his cell phone because authorities tracFe, a Fno0n nu(ber that 0as .oluntarily use, 0hile tra.eling on public thorough"ares: no e?tre(e co(prehensi.e tracFing 0as present in his case. (United States $# S(inner (5th Cir. 2012) 5&0 B.3r, 222.) Also- lea.ing the tracFing ,e.ice on a"ter it ,isappears into a house (at least 0hen ,one 0ithout a search 0arrant) is an in.asion o" pri.acy- an, unla0"ul. (United States $# /aro (1&#3) 35# 4.S. 20$ 6#2 7.8,.2n, $309.) Ehen the trans(itter is containe, insi,e property 0hich has been stolen,e"en,ant s possession o" the stolen property in his .ehicle (United States $# *ones (3th Cir. 1&&3) 31 B.3r, 1303- in a stolen (ail bag.) or in a (otel roo( ()eop"e $# Er,in (1&&2) $$ Cal.App.3th 1$- in a stolen banF bag.) ,oes not (a,e the 0arrantless *search/ unla0"ul. +ote) 1n /aro- the trans(itter 0as "ollo0e, 0hile it 0as (o.e, about insi,e a pri.ate resi,ence- then to t0o ,i""erent storage "acilitiesan, into a secon, resi,ence: a circu(stance not present in the Bourth Circuit s *ones or in Er,in. 53$
1n "ollo0ing stolen stereo speaFers containing tracFing ,e.ices into a ho(e- e?igent circu(stances o" a "resh cri(e an, the possibility that the speaFers 0oul, be ,estroye, i" o""icers 0aite, "or a 0arrant- Custi"ie, an i((e,iate entry to secure the house. (See )eop"e $# 0u"" (1&&$) 33 Cal.App.3th 133#- 13$2- 13$$%13$2.) Also- the Si?th Circuit Court o" Appeal has "oun, that tracFing a user s cellphone location 0ithout a 0arrant using LPS technology (by *pinging/ it "ro( .arious cell to0ers) is ,i""erent than putting a LPS tracFing ,e.ice on a (otorist s .ehicle 0ithout a 0arrant. +he Court uphel, the ,rug con.iction o" a (an locate, by pinging his cell phone- sei;ing as a result o.er 1-000 poun,s o" (ariCuana "oun, in his (otor ho(e. Gecause he ha, no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy concerning the location o" his cellphone- the court rule,- there 0as no Fourth Amendment .iolation. (United States $# S(inner (5th Cir. 2012) 5&0 B.3r, 222- 222%2#1.) 1n a post%*ones case- the 8ight Circuit Court o" Appeal conclu,e, that a police ,etecti.e ,i, not co((it a trespass 0hen he locate, a suspect s car in a parFing lot by using the suspect s Fey "ob to trigger the carDs alar(. +he court reasone, that the ,etecti.e ha, la0"ully sei;e, the Fey "ob an, the *(ere trans(ission o" electric signals alone/ through the Fey "ob 0as not a trespass on the car. (United States $# Co,an (#th Cir. 2012) 523 B.3r, &32- &$5.) 1n a case prior to the ,ecision in *ones- the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal initially "oun, that the placing o" an electronic trans(itter onto the un,ercarriage o" ,e"en,ant s .ehicle 0hile the .ehicle is in his ,ri.e0aywithin the curtilage o" the ho(e- an, 0ithout a 0arrant- 0as la0"ul (See United States $# )ineda3%oreno (&th Cir. 2010) $&1 B.3r, 1212- certiorari grante,.). Ehen reconsi,ere, in light o" *ones- the &th Circuit re.erse, itsel""in,ing it to be a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (United States $# )ineda3%oreno (&th Cir. 2012) 5## B.3r, 10#2.) +he Courtho0e.er- a""ir(e, ,e"en,ant s con.iction again. Ehile noting that un,er *ones- the attaching o" a LPS onto ,e"en,ant s .ehicle 0hile in parFe, 0ithin the curtilage o" ,e"en,ant s resi,ence 0as in,ee, illegal- the o""icers- in goo, "aith- 0ere (erely "ollo0ing e?isting prece,ent. As such- ,e"en,ant 0as not entitle, to the suppression o" the resulting e.i,ence per the 4.S. Supre(e Court s rule that the 8?clusionary Rule ,oes not apply un,er such circu(stances. (I.id.- citing Da$is $# United States (June 15- 2011) >> 4.S. >> 6131 S.Ct. 231&: 1#0 7.8,.2n, 2#$9.)
535
F"ash"i1hts: +he use o" "lashlights to illu(inate the interior o" a han,bag hel, to be o" no constitutional signi"icance. ()eop"e $# Capps (1&#&) 21$ Cal.App.3r, 1112- 1123.) !""icers stan,ing in an open "iel,- using a "lashlight to looF insi,e a barnhel, to be la0"ul. (United States $# 9e"a (E.D. +e?. 200$) 3#5 B.Supp.2n, $#2- $&0.) inocu"ars: 4sing binoculars "ro( $0 yar,s a0ay to 0atch ,e"en,ant loa, bo?es into his car uphel,. (United States $# Grimes ($th Cir. 325 B.2n, 205- 20#.) 4sing binoculars ,uring sur.eillance o" a chicFen house "ro( a pasture 0as la0"ul. (0od1es $# United States ($th Cir. 1&$2) 233 B.2n, 2#1- 2#2.) Ni1ht 9ision Go11"es) +he use o" night .ision goggles to obser.e areas 0ithin the curtilage o" ,e"en,ants resi,ence 0as hel, to be irrele.ant. ()eop"e $# 2ien1 (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 1213- 1222%122#.) A Contro""ed Tire De'"ation De$ice +*CTDD/,) +he use o" a *controlled tire deflation de!ice/ to stop a .ehicle suspecte, o" being use, to s(uggle controlle, substances o.er the 4SNOe?ico bor,er hel, to be a ,etention only (thus re@uiring only a reasonable suspicion) an, not e?cessi.e "orce un,er the circu(stances. (United States $# Gu5man3)adi""a (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, #5$.) 4se o" this ,e.ice by Gor,er Patrol agents to stop a .ehicle "or 0hich there 0as a reasonable suspicion to belie.e that it 0as in.ol.e, in s(uggling people or contraban, across the bor,er 0as hel, to be la0"ul- an,- un,er the circu(stances- not an e?cessi.e use o" "orce. (I.id.) +ote) +he *controlled tire deflation de!ice-/ or *&TDD-/ is an accor,ion%liFe tray containing s(all- hollo0 steel tubes that puncture the tires o" a passing .ehicle an, cause a gra,ual release o" airbringing the .ehicle to a halt 0ithin a @uarter to hal" a (ile.
532
9ideotapin1 and )hoto1raphin1) *Ui,eo sur.eillance ,oes not in itsel" .iolate a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy. Ui,eotaping o" suspects in public places- such as banFs- ,oes not .iolate the Fourth Amendment: the police (ay recor, 0hat they nor(ally (ay .ie0 0ith the naFe, eye. (Citation)/ (United States $# Ta(eta (&th Cir- 1&&1) &23 B.2n, 55$- 552.) Io0e.erin a place 0here a person has a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy- to .i,eotape hi( 0ithout a court s authori;ation (i.e.- a search 0arrant) is illegal. (Id.- at pp. 52$%522.) See (!C! 232) 1llegal ea.es,ropping on con"i,ential co((unications. Io0e.er- a hi,,en security .i,eo ca(era that taFes pictures- but 0ith no soun,- is not a .iolation o" section 232but only because o" the lacF o" a soun,%recor,ing capability. ()eop"e $# Dremmam (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 133&.) A 0arrantless .i,eotape sur.eillance in the (ailroo( o" a hospital- open to so(e #00 hospital e(ployees but not o" the ,e"en,ant s pri.ate 0orFspace- ,i, not .iolate the ,e"en,ant s e?pectation o" pri.acy an, 0as there"ore la0"ul. (United States $# Gon5a"e5 (&th Cir. 2003) 32# B.3r, $33.) 1n a ho(ici,e in.estigation 0here ,e"en,ant 0as the pri(ary suspect- *the police sur.eillance an, photographing o" ,e"en,ant entering an, e?iting the ,rop%o"" point is not a subCect o" Fourth Amendment protection since ,e"en,ant Fno0ingly e?pose, his 0hereabouts in public./ )eop"e $# %aur& (2003) 30 Cal.3th 332- 3#3%3#$.) A person 0ho e?poses his "acial "eatures- an,Nor bo,y in general- to the public- in a public place- has no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in his appearance. ()eop"e $# enedict (1&5&) 2 Cal.App.3r, 300.) 1t is notthere"ore- a constitutional .iolation to photograph hi(- so long as he is not ,etaine, "or that purpose. +he Fourth AmendmentJs protections ,o not e?ten, to in"or(ation that a person .oluntarily e?poses to a go.ern(ent agent- inclu,ing an un,erco.er agent. A ,e"en,ant generally has no pri.acy interest in that 0hich he .oluntarily re.eals to a go.ern(ent agent. +here"ore- a go.ern(ent agent (ay (aFe an au,io recor,ing o" a suspect s state(ents e.en in the suspect s o0n ho(e- an, those au,io recor,ings- (a,e 0ith the consent o" the go.ern(ent agent- ,o not re@uire a 0arrant. (United States $# -ahchum,ah (&th Cir. Jo.. 22- 2012) >> B.3r, >> 62012 4.S. App. 78T1S 232&59: an in.estigation in.ol.ing the illegal sale o" eagle "eathers un,er the &ald and 9olden ?a5le (rotection Act an, the =aceA Act.) 53#
$ut- see )eop"e $# Rodri1ue5 (1&&3) 21 Cal.App.3th 232- 23&: stopping an, ,etaining gang (e(bers for the purpose of photographing the( is illegal 0ithout reasonable suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity. Oerely being a (e(ber o" a gang- by itsel"- is not cause to ,etain. *lso- a pri.ate citi;en has a First Amendment right to .i,eotape public o""icials (i.e.- police o""icers) in a public place- an, the arrest o" the citi;en "or a Oassachusetts state 0iretapping .iolation- .iolate, the citi;en s First an, Fourth Amendment rights. (G"i( $# Cunni''e (1st Cir. 2011) 5$$ B.3r, 2#- #2%#3.) %eta" Detectors) +he use o" (etal ,etectors (or *magnetometers/) constitute a search- but are la0"ul 0ithout a search 0arrant or in,i.i,uali;e, suspicion 0hen) ;n chool &ampuses) Ran,o( (etal ,etector searches o" stu,ents0ithout any in,i.i,uali;e, suspicion- are Custi"ie, by the *special needs/ o" Feeping 0eapons o"" ca(puses. +he Fourth Amendment is not .iolate, by such searches 0here the go.ern(ent nee, is great- the intrusion on the in,i.i,ual is li(ite,- an, a (ore rigorous stan,ar, o" suspicion is un0orFable. (In re 2atasha -# (1&&#) 50 Cal.App.3th 1$23.) *t *irports) As an *administrati!e search-/ not inten,e, to be a part o" a cri(inal in.estigation to secure e.i,ence- but to insure that ,angerous 0eapons 0ill not be carrie, onto an airplane an, to ,eter potential hiCacFers "ro( atte(pting to boar,- pre%,eparture screening proce,uresinclu,ing the use o" a (agneto(eter- is la0"ul ,espite the lacF o" any particulari;e, suspicion or a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# 0&de (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, 1$#.) +he legality o" such searches ,epen,s upon the balancing o" society s interest in sa"e air tra.el 0ith the right o" the in,i.i,ual passenger to be "ree "ro( unnecessary go.ern(ent intrusions. Airport searches are reasonable 0hen) (1) +hey are no (ore e?tensi.e or intensi.e than necessary- in light o" current technology- to ,etect 0eapons or e?plosi.es: (2) they are con"ine, in goo, "aith to that purpose: an, (3) passengers are gi.en the opportunity to a.oi, the search by electing not to "ly. (United States $# %ar:ue5 (&th Cir. 200$) 310 B.3r, 512: A secon,- (ore intense- yet ran,o( screening o" passengers as a part o" airline boar,ing security proce,ures- hel, to be constitutional.)
Do1s: 53&
Dogs #sed to earch) <eneral Rule) Ehen properly traine,- ,ogs (ay be use, to sni"" pacFages- cars- etc. As a general rule (,epen,ing upon its location)- there is no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy aroun, a container sni""e, by a ,og. ()eop"e $# %a&.err& (1&#2) 31 Cal.3r, 33$: United States $# Dia5 (5th Cir. 1&&3) 2$ B.3r, 3&2- 2&5.) A sni"" by a traine, ,rug ,etection ,og in a public place is not a *search/ 0ithin the (eaning o" the Fourth Amendment. (United States $# )"ace (1&#3) 352 4.S. 5&5202 622 7.8,.2n, 110- 1219: )eop"e $# H6F,L1G (1&&2) $# Cal.App.3th 1$02- 1$1$%1$15.) 4se o" a ,og to sni"" a (otel roo( 0as la0"ul 0here the o""icers an, the ,og 0ere .oluntarily a,(itte, by the ,e"en,ant into the roo( an, the ,og 0as hel, on a si?%"oot leash. +he ,og 0as 0here it ha, a la0"ul right to be. (United States $# Es:ui"in (1st Cir. 2000) 20# B.3r, 31$.) *(A) canine sni"" is not a Asearch un,er the Fourth Amendment an, thus Aneither a 0arrant- nor probable cause- nor reasonable suspicion is re@uire, "or its use. United States $# 2in1en'e"ter &&2 B.2, 532- 53& (&th Cir. 1&&3)./ (United States $# Todhunter (&th Cir. 2002) 2&2 B.3r, ##5- #&1.) +he Fourth Amendment is not i(plicate, 0hen only the e?ternal "eatures o" a pacFage- liFe the a,,ress label- are e?a(ine,. (United States $# 0oan1 (&th Cir. 2002) 3#5 B.3r, 11$5- 1150.) *A ,og alert can pro.i,e the probable cause nee,e, "or a search 0arrant./ ()eop"e $# autista (2003) 11$ Cal.App.3th 22&- 235: citing United States $# Spet5 (&th Cir. 1&#3) 221 B.2n, 13$2- 1353: Estes $# Ro,"and (1&&3) 13 Cal.App.3th $0#- $32.) !nly 0hen the police con,uct a canine sni"" in a pri.ate place- or in a (anner 0hich other0ise .iolates a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy- is the resulting intrusion a search. (Romo $# Champion (10th Cir. 1&&$) 35 B.3r, 1013- 1015% 1012.)
5$0
Running a properly traine, narcotics%sni""ing ,og aroun, a .ehicle that is other0ise la0"ully stoppe, "or a tra""ic in"raction ,oes not i(plicate the Fourth Amendment- an, is there"ore not a search. As such- the ,e"en,ant s e?pectation o" pri.acy is not .iolate,. Assu(ing the ,og is properly traine, an, that the tra""ic stop is not unla0"ully prolonge,- probable cause is la0"ully establishe,Custi"ying a 0arrantless search- 0hen the ,og alerts on a part o" the car. (I""inois $ Ca.a""es (200$) $33 4.S. 30$ 6150 7.8,.2nd 842&! re6ectin. the ar.ument that to do so
7un6ustifiabl* enlar.e(s) the sco(e of a routine traffic sto( into a dru. in)esti.ation.3)
An, shoul, a ,og *instincti.ely/ Cu(p into the car- 0ithout assistance- "acilitation- or other intentional act by the ,og s han,ler- alertin. once inside the car! no search or Fourth
Amendment )iolation has occurred. (United States v. 'ierce (/rd Cir. 2010) 622 1./rd 209.)
*+he postal%inspector s Ause o" a +ell5trained narcotics

detection do. . . . "did& not im(licate le.itimate (ri)ac* interests.,3 (United States v. Je##erson (9th Cir. 2009) %66 1./rd 928! 9//.)
+hreatening to use a ,rug%sni""ing ,og- 0hen such use ,oes not re@uire the suspect s consent an, is other0ise la0"ul0ill also not in.ali,ate the resulting consent to search. (United States $# Todhunter (&th Cir. 2002) 2&2 B.3r, ##5#&1.) A properly certi"ie, ,rug%,etection ,og s alert on a container in a .ehicle establishes probable cause (as oppose, to (erely a reasonable suspicion) to search that container e.en though it is ne.er .eri"ie, that the ite( actually contains so(ething the ,og is traine, to ,etect. +he "act that the ,og sni""e, into the open be, o" a picFup trucF ,oes not (aFe the ,og s acts a search. An, e.en i" it is- a ,og s instincti.e acts ,one 0ithout an o""icer s instigation ,oes not .iolate the Fourth Amendment. ()eop"e $# Sti"",e"" et a"# (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th &&5.) Io0e.er- the Blori,a Supre(e Court recently hel, that 0hen a ,rug%,etection ,og alerts- the "act that the ,og has been traine, an, certi"ie,- by itsel"- is not enough to establish probable cause to search the interior o" the .ehicle an, the person. +he Court hel, that the State- 0hich bears the bur,en o" establishing probable cause- (ust present all 5$1
recor,s an, e.i,ence that are necessary to allo0 the trial court to e.aluate the reliability o" the ,og. +he "act that the ,og has been properly traine, an, certi"ie, is a starting point in this analysis- but is not enough by itsel". (0arris $# State (Bla. 2011) 21 So.3r, 2$5.) +ote) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has grante, certiorari in this case- (aFing it una.ailable "or citation pen,ing a ,ecision by the Supre(e Court. (F"orida $# 0arris (Oar. 25- 2012) 2012 4.S. 78T1S 233$.) Sni""s o" a person- being (ore intrusi.e- is consi,ere,- at least by the Be,eral Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal- to be a search controlle, by the Fourth Amendment- an, there"ore re@uire probable cause. ( #C# $# )"umas (&th Cir. 1&&&) 1&2 B.3r, 1250.) 1n a school setting- ho0e.er- 0ith stu,ents ha.ing a ,i(inishe, right to pri.acy- only a *reasonable suspicion/ is re@uire, to Custi"y the sni"" o" the stu,ent s person. (I.id.) An, it is the opinion o" the Cali"ornia Attorney Leneral that a policy o" unannounce,- ran,o(- neutral ,og sni""ing o" stu,ents personal belongings- such as bacFpacFspurses- CacFets- an, outer gar(ents- a"ter or,ering stu,ents to lea.e these ite(s in a classroo( an, re(ain in another area- 0oul, be unconstitutional absent so(e suspicion or probable cause to support the search. (#3 Opn#Ca"#Att&#Gen# 2$2 (2000)) Oo.e(ent o" containers to be sni""e,- 0ithout taFing the containers "ro( the ,e"en,ant (United States $# 0ar$e& (#th Cir. 1&&2) &51 B.2n, 1351- 1353%1353.)- or other0ise inter"ering 0ith the ,e"en,ant s possessory interests (United States $# *ohnson (&th Cir. 1&&3) &&0 B.2n, 112&- 1132%1133.)- ,oes not i(plicate the Fourth Amendment. A consent to search- unless speci"ically li(ite,- ,oes not preclu,e the use o" a ,rug ,etection ,og- at least 0here the ,e"en,ant shoul, ha.e been a0are that the ,og (ay be use, an, "aile, to obCect 0hen it 0as. ()eop"e $# e"" (1&&5) 33 Cal.App.3th 2$3: United States $# )ere5 (&th Cir. 1&&3) 32 B.3r, $10- $15.)
5$2
An *alert/ by *a certi"ie,- reliable narcotics ,etector ,og-/ 0ith nothing (ore- is su""icient to establish probable cause to arrest. (United States $# Cedano3Are""ano (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, $5#.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court is presently consi,ering 0hether the 0arrantless use o" a narcotics ,og at the "ront ,oor is a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (See F"orida $# *ardines (2011) 23 So.3r, 33: ,og s alert at the "ront ,oor- ,one as a result o" an anony(ous tip- 0as use, as a part o" the o""icers probable cause to obtain a search 0arrant "or the resi,ence.) Dogs #sed to Trac?) <eneral Rule) +he use o" a properly traine, ,og to tracF a suspect is la0"ul- an, the e.i,ence o" canine tracFing is a,(issible in court. ()eop"e $# Crai1 (1&2#) #5 Cal.App.3r, &0$: *(E)e choose to re@uire each particular ,og s ability an, reliability to be sho0n on a case%by%case basis./ (Id.- at pp. &15%&12.) See also )eop"e $# %a"1ren (1&#3) 13& Cal.App.3r, 233: ,og tracFe, suspect "or 3$ (inutes o.er about se.en%tenths o" a (ile. Per %a"1ren- the "ollo0ing (ust be sho0n be"ore ,og trailing e.i,ence is a,(issible) +he ,og s han,ler 0as @uali"ie, by training an, e?perience in the use o" the ,og: +he ,og 0as a,e@uately traine, in tracFing hu(ans: +he ,og has been "oun, to be reliable in tracFing hu(ans: +he ,og 0as place, on the tracF 0here circu(stances in,icte, the guilty party to ha.e been: and +he trail ha, not beco(e stale or conta(inate,.
4se o" a ,og to tracF ,e"en,ant s scent "ro( a stolen .ehicle to 0here ,e"en,ant 0as being ,etaine, hel, to supply the necessary *fair probability/ 0hich- 0ith other e.i,ence- Custi"ie, the ,e"en,ant s search an, subse@uent arrest "or the the"t o" the .ehicle. (In re 2ennies 0# (200$) 125 Cal.App.3th 1232- 123&.) +here is so(e authority re@uiring the corroboration o" ,og%tracFing e.i,ence- but the corroborati.e e.i,ence nee, not necessarily 5$3
in,epen,ently linF the accuse, to the cri(e. *+he corroborati.e e.i,ence nee, only support the accuracy o" the tracFing itsel"./ ()eop"e $# Gon5a"es (1&&0) 21# Cal.App.3r, 303- 313.) 4se o" a *scent transfer unit-/ 0hich e?tracts scents "ro( an obCect- trans"erring the scents to a sterile gau;e pa, "ro( 0hich a ,og (ay obtain the suspect s scent- re@uires proo" o" the unit s reliability an, acceptability in the scienti"ic co((unity- per */e""&LFr&e-/ an, that it 0as properly use, by the han,ler- to be a,(issible in court. ()eop"e $# %itche"" (2003) 110 Cal.App.3th 222: )eop"e $# -i""is (2003) 11$ Cal.App.3th 32&.) Re"erring to the stan,ar,s "or the a,(ission into e.i,ence o" ne0 scienti"ic techni@ues- per )eop"e $# /e""& (1&25) 12 Cal.3r, 23: an, Fr&e $# United States (D.C. Cir. 1&23) 2&3 B. 1013.) #se of Dogs in ,a?ing *rrests) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal ha, pre.iously hel, that *deadly force-/ 0hen e.aluating the use o" "orce by a la0 en"orce(ent agency through the use o" a police ,og- shoul, be ,e"ine, as) *(orce which is reasonably li?ely to cause (or which Ghad a reasonable probability of causing)) death./ (9era Cru5 $# Cit& o' Escondido (&th Cir. 1&&2) 13& B.3r, 5$&- 553: use o" a police ,og is not ,ea,ly "orce.) 8.g.) 4se o" a police ,og to bite an, hol, a potentially ,angerous "leeing "elon "or up to a (inute- until the arresting o""icer coul, insure that the situation 0as sa"e- ,i, not constitute the use o" *deadly force-/ an, 0as there"ore not a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment (sei;ure),espite the "act that the suspect s ar( 0as se.erely inCure, by the ,og. (%i""er $# C"ar( Count& (&th Cir. 2003) 330 B.3r, &$&.) +he abo.e- ho0e.er- 0as a (inority opinion. As a resultthe Jinth Circuit has recently change, its (in,- a,opting the (aCority rule- agreeing that e.en in the use o" a police ,og- *deadly force/ shoul, be ,e"ine, as *force that creates a substantial ris? of death or serious bodily in%ury./ (Smith $# Cit& o' 0emet (&th Cir. 200$) 3&3 B.3r, 5#&.) *Deadly (orce as Defined by the Bodel (enal Code 3!11+2, (1&52)) *Borce that the actor uses 0ith the purpose o" causing or that he Fno0s to 5$3
create a substantial risF o" causing death or serious bodily in%ury./ (Emphasis added.) +ote) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal "urther hel, in Smith that the ,e"en,ant plea,ing guilty to resisting arrestper (!C! 14#+a,+1,- ,oes not preclu,e hi( "ro( suing the o""icers "or using unreasonable "orce so long as the o""icer s legal actions can be separate, "ro( his use o" unreasonable "orce. +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court later rule, in Yount $# Cit& o' Sacramento (200#) 33 Cal.3th ##$that it is not necessary to "in, the o""icers la0"ul actions ,i.isible "ro( their use o" unreasonable use o" "orce in or,er "or the cri(inal ,e"en,ant to be guilty o" resisting arrest an, still sue. Gase, upon this theory- the Jinth Circuit "oun, that a cri(inal ,e"en,ant- e.en a"ter plea,ing guilty to resisting arrest per (!C! 14#+a,+1,- (ay sue the o""icer "or using unreasonable "orce in a continuous course o" action so long as at least part o" the o""icer s actions 0ere la0"ul. (0ooper $# Count& o' San Die1o (&th Cir. 2011) 52& B.3r, 1122.) Goth Smith an, 0ooper are ,og bite cases. Io0e.er- the use o" a police ,og ,oes not necessarily constitute the use o" ,ea,ly "orce. 1t ,epen,s upon the circu(stances o" the case in @uestion. 1n such a case- the issue "or a ci.il Cury is to (erely ,eter(ine 0hether the "orce use, 0as reasonable un,er the circu(stances. (Thompson $# Count& o' 2os An1e"es (2005) 132 Cal.App.3th 1$3.)
5$$
Chapter 18
Open Fie"ds) Genera" Ru"e) +he constitutional protections relating to ho(es do not apply to open fields beyon, the curtilage o" the ho(e. (O"i$er $# United States (1&#3) 355 4.S. 120 6#0 7.8,.2n, 2139.) +he Fourth Amendment- by its ter(s- protects only *persons, houses, papers and effects./ !pen "iel,s ,o not co(e 0ithin these "our protecte, categories. (United States $# Dunn (1&#2) 3#0 4. S. 2&3- 300 6&3 7. 8,. 2, 3259: see also United States $# *ones (Jan. 23- 2012) $5$ 4.S. >> 6132 S.Ct. &3$- &$3: 1#1 7.8,.2n, &119.) +here"ore- trespassing onto ,e"en,ant s open lan, ,oes not i(plicate the Constitution- an, any obser.ations (a,e 0hile ,oing so are a,(issible. (I.id: 0ester $# United States (1&23) 25$ 4.S. $2 65# 7.8,. #&#9.) Jarcotics o""icers entere, the ,e"en,ant s lan,- past *Jo +respassing/ signs an, barbe, 0ire "encing. 8ntry into such an area- not part o" the cartilage o" any ho(e- 0as not conteste,. (United States $# ara;as3 A$a"os (&th Cir- 2003) 3$& B.3r, 1203.) A 0arrantless airplane search- acting on a tip- at altitu,es o" bet0een 300 to 200 "eet- resulting in obser.ation o" ,e"en,ant s hal"%"ootball%"iel,% si;e, (ariCuana gro0- 0as la0"ul. (Dean $# Superior Court (1&23) 3$ Cal.App.3r, 112.) Si(ilarly- obser.ation o" a (ariCuana patch "ro( 1-$00 to 2-000 "eet.isible to the naFe, eye (an, then enhance, through the use o" binoculars),i, not .iolate the ,e"en,ant s pri.acy rights. ( ur(ho"der $# Superior Court (1&2&) &5 Cal.App.3r, 321: see also )eop"e $# St# Amour (1&#0) 103 Cal.App.3r, ##5- obser.ations (a,e "ro( 1-000 to 1-$00 "eet- again enhance, through the use o" binoculars- hel, to be la0"ul: an, )eop"e $# *ou.ert (1&#1) 11# Cal.App.3r, 532.) O.ser$ations made into pri$ate areas 'rom an Gopen 'ie"dH beyon, the curtilage o" the ho(e are la0"ul. (United States $# Dunn (1&#2) 3#0 4.S. 2&3 6&3 7.8,.2n, 3259.) Cali"ornia e?pressly "ollo0s the "e,eral rule. ()eop"e $# Channin1 (2000) #1 Cal.App.3th &#$.) !bser.ations (a,e "ro( a co((on ,ri.e0ay use, by other resi,ents an, the public into the curtilage o" ,e"en,ant s ho(e (i.e.- his garage) 0ere 5$5
la0"ul- an, properly use, in the a""i,a.it "or a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# 2ien1 (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th 1213- 1221%1222.) 4se o" night .ision goggles ,oesn t change the result. (Id.- at pp. 1222%122#.)
5$2
Chapter 1<
Searches o' Containers) Genera" Ru"e: As a general rule- a search 0arrant 0ill be re@uire, in or,er to search a container o" any type. *+he Fourth Amendment o" the 4nite, States Constitution prohibits the go.ern(ent "ro( engaging in unreasonable searches an, sei;ures o" a person s Ae""ects. / ()eop"e $# )ereira (2002) 1$0 Cal.App.3th 1105- 1111: see also United States $# %on1hur (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, &2$.) Although there is so(e authority "or the proposition that: *(t)he rationale Custi"ying a 0arrantless search o" an auto(obile that is belie.e, to be transporting contraban, arguably applies 0ith e@ual "orce to any (o.able container that is belie.e, to be carrying an illicit substance/ (United States $# Ross (1&#2) 3$5 4.S. 2&#- #0& 622 7.8,.2n, $22- $#3.)- the courts ha.e not yet speci"ically e?ten,e, this rationale to obCects in containers other than 0hen the container is in a .ehicle or sei;e, inci,ent to a suspect s arrest. (See Justice Ste.ens ,issent in Ca"i'ornia $# Ace$edo (1&&1) $00 4.S. $5$- $&# 6113 7.8,.2n, 51&- 5359- pointing out that this is the ne?t step.) *lso, property in the possession or un,er the control of a sub%ect who is boo?ed into custo,y is subCect to search) *!nce articles ha.e la0"ully "allen into the han,s o" the police they (ay e?a(ine the( to see i" they ha.e been stolen- test the( to see i" they ha.e been use, in the co((ission o" a cri(e- return the( to the prisoner on his release- or preser.e the( "or use as e.i,ence at the ti(e o" trial. ()eop"e $# Ro.ertson 230 Cal.App.2, && (1&55) 10$%105 . . . .) During their perio, o" police custo,y an arreste, person s personal e""ects- liFe his person itsel"are subCect to reasonable inspection- e?a(ination- an, test. ()eop"e $# Chai1"es 232 J.K. 1&3 6132 J.8. $#3- 32 A.7.R. 5259- Car,o;o- J.)/ ()eop"e $# Ro1ers (1&55) 231 Cal.App.2n, 3#3- 3#&: see also ()eop"e $# >inos (2011) 1&2 Cal.App.3th 532- 552%553: search o" a .ehicle s sensing an, ,iagnostic (o,ule (SDO).) Gut note that the 0arrantless ,o0nloa,ing o" the ,igital ,ata o" a .ehicle s SDO ,epen,s upon the continuing e?istence o" probable cause Custi"ying the search. (I.id.) As the la0 stan,s to,ay- ho0e.er- a search 0arrant 0ill still generally be re@uire, un,er these circu(stances. (Smith $# Ohio (1&&0) 3&3 4.S. $31$32 610# 7.8,.2n, 353- 3529.) A person has an e?pectation o" pri.acy in his or her pri.ate close, containers. (United States $# -e"ch (&th Cir. 1&&3) 3 B.3r, 251253: a 0o(an s purse.) 5$#
Car,boar, bo?es belonging to a ho(eless person- being a place 0here the ho(eless person stores his or her (ost pri.ate belongings- (ay not be searche, 0ithout a 0arrant or consent. (United States $# Fu"t5 (&th Cir. 1&&#) 135 B.3r, 1102.) 1"- ho0e.er- the container is stolen property- or property obtaine, by "rau,- then the ,e"en,ant has no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in that property an, 0ill not ha.e stan,ing to obCect to the 0arrantless search o" that property. (8.g.: United States $# -on1 (&th Cir. 2003) 333 B.3r, #31: stolen co(puter: United States $# Ca&men (&th Cir. 200$) 303 B.3r, 11&5- 1200: co(puter obtaine, by "rau,.) Ehile seizure o" a pacFage "ro( 0hich the o,or o" (ariCuana is e(anating (ay be la0"ul- a 0arrantless search o" that pacFage absent e?igent circu(stances is not la0"ul. (Ro.e& $# Superior Court 6)eop"e7 (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 1: container not searche, until taFen to a police station.) Petition "or re.ie0 0as grante, by the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court in this case (Jan. 1#- 2012)- 0ith the ,ecision being ,epublishe,- (aFing Ro.e& no longer a.ailable "or citation. E!ceptions to the -arrant Re:uirement: +here are a nu(ber o" legal theories Custi"ying a 0arrantless search o" containers. Bor instance) 'ncident to *rrest) Ehen a person is la0"ully arreste,- the police ha.e a right to (aFe a conte(poraneous 0arrantless search (i.e.- a search *incident to arrest/) o" the ,e"en,ant s person (-ee(s $# United States (1&13) 232 4.S. 3#3 6$# 7.8,. 5$29.) and things under his immediate control. (Carro"" $# United States (1&2$) 252 4.S. 132 65& 7.8,.2n, $339.) Transportation Re@uired) +his rule- ho0e.er- only applies 0hen the ,e"en,ant is to be transporte, so(e0here. 1" cite, an, release, at the scene- no searchabsent probable cause to belie.e the container contains so(e sei;able contraban, or e.i,ence- is allo0e,. (See * earches 'ncident to *rrest-/ *Transportation Re@uirement-/ abo.e: an, )eop"e $# risendine (1&2$) 13 Cal.3r, $2#: an, United States $# Ro.inson (1&23) 313 4.S. 21# 63# 7.8,.2n, 3229.) Gut- i" the arrestee has been secure, (i.e.- han,cu""e, an, place, into a patrol car) in preparation to being transporte,the 4.S. Supre(e Court has hel, the lunging area aroun, hi( is no longer subCect to being searche,- at least 0hen 5$&
arreste, out o" the arrestee s .ehicle. (Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9: see *Vehicle earches-/ abo.e- an, *'ncident to *rrest, 'n a Vehicle-/ belo0.) 1t is arguable that Gant applies as 0ell to an arrest in other situations. (e.g.- see )eop"e $# 2ea" (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th 1021: arrest in a resi,ence.) Property in the possession o" a subCect 0ho is booFe, into custo,y is subCect to search) A person 0ho is to be booFe,- an, 0ho has obCects in his possession- (ay be subCecte, to an in!entory search ,espite the lacF o" probable cause. (I""inois $# 2a'a&ette (1&#3) 352 4.S. 530 622 7.8,.2n, 5$9.) +he right to con,uct a 0arrantless booFing search inclu,es the right to search containers (e.g.- purse- 0allet- cellphone etc.) *immediately associated with the person of an arrestee./ (I""inois $# 2a'a&ettesupra: )eop"e $# 0ami"ton (1&##) 35 Cal.3r, 123- 132: see also )eop"e $# Dia5 (2011) $1 Cal.3th #3: searches o" containers *i((e,iately associate, 0ith the person./) 'ncident to *rrest, 'n a Vehicle) Ehen arresting an occupant o" a (otor .ehicle- the o""icer (ay search the person arreste, and the passenger areas o" the .ehicle- and any containers within the passenger area of the !ehicle. (Ne, Yor( $# e"ton (1&#1) 3&$ 4.S. 2$2 65& 7.8,.2n, 22$9.) +his inclu,es containers belonging to passengers other than- an, in a,,ition to- the person arreste,. ()eop"e $# %itche"" (1&&$) 35 Cal.App.3th 522: )eop"e $# )rance (1&&1) 225 Cal.App.3r, 1$2$: see also -&omin1 $# 0ou1hton (1&&&) $25 4.S. 2&$ 6133 7.8,.2n, 30#9- (aFing containers le"t in a .ehicle by passengers subCect to search 0hen searching a .ehicle 0ith probable cause to belie.e the .ehicle contains contraban,.) 1"- ho0e.er- the passenger taFes the container (such as a purse) 0ith hi( or her upon being or,ere, out o" a .ehicleis that container subCect to searchM Probably not (see United States $# 9au1han (&th Cir. 1&#3) 21# B.2n, 332.)absent so(e reason to belie.e it (ay contain a 0eapon- in 0hich case a *patdown/ o" the container (ay be appropriate. $ut- re(e(ber that a search inci,ent to an arrest (ust be *contemporaneous in time and place/ 0ith the arrest. ()eop"e $# 550
Sto''"e (1&&2) 1 Cal.App.3th 1521: )eop"e $# oissard (1&&2) $ Cal.App.3th &22.) (See *'ncident to *rrest-/ un,er * earches of Persons-/ abo.e.) Se.erely li(iting the rule o" e"ton- the 4.S. Supre(e Court ,eci,e, in Ari5ona $# Gant (200&) $$5 4.S. 332 6123 7.8,.2n, 3#$9- that a 0arrantless search o" a .ehicle inci,ent to arrest is la0"ul only 0hen the arrestee is unsecure, an, 0ithin reaching ,istance o" the passenger co(part(ent at the ti(e o" the search. As an alternate theory- liFely to be applicable only to searches inci,ent to arrest in a .ehicle- the o""icer (ay search "or e.i,ence rele.ant to the charge o" arrest 0hene.er it is *reasonable to belie!e/ that such e.i,ence is present in the car. )eop"e $# Dia5 (2011) $1 Cal.3th #3- creates an e?ception to Gant"in,ing that containers *immediately associated with the person/ are still subCect to a search inci,ent to arrest- e.en though the suspect has been arreste, an, secure,- an, e.en i" the containerre(o.e, "ro( the ,e"en,ant s person- is not searche, until later. =ith Probable &ause- 'n a Vehicle) Ehen there is probable cause to search a (otor .ehicle encountere, on the street or in public- or any speci"ic containers in that .ehicle- a 0arrantless search o" the containers in the (otor .ehicle is la0"ul. (United States $# Ross (1&#2) 3$5 4.S. 2&# 623 7.8,.2n, $229: Ca"i'ornia $# Ace$edo (1&&1) $00 4.S. $5$- $#0 6113 7.8,.2n, 51&- 5339: )eop"e $# Schun( (1&&1) 23$ Cal.App.3r, 1333- 1330% 1333.) +he ol, rule (see United States $# Chad,ic( (1&22) 333 4.S. 1 6$3 7.8,.2n, $3#9.)- that 0ith probable cause to search a particular container locate, in a .ehicle- a search 0arrant 0oul, be re@uire,is no longer a .ali, rule. (Ca"i'ornia $# Ace$edo- supra.) An, see -&omin1 $# 0ou1hton (1&&&) $25 4.S. 2&$ 6133 7.8,.2n, 30#9- hol,ing that the searching o" a passenger s personal property le"t in a .ehicle- 0ith probable cause to belie.e there is sei;able contraban, somewhere in the .ehicleis la0"ul. Also note that probable cause to belie.e there are controlle, substances somewhere in the .ehicle- e.en i" the a(ount suspecte, is only enough "or one s personal use- Custi"ies a search o" the entire .ehicle inclu,ing the trunF an, engine co(part(ent. ()eop"e $# 0unter (200$) 133 Cal.App.3th 321: )eop"e $# De& (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 131#: "in,ing the United States $# Rosssupra- has- in e""ect- o.errule, prior cases to the contrary. (8.g.: 551
see -im.er"& $# Superior Court (1&25) 15 Cal. 3, $$2: )eop"e $# Gre11 (1&23) 33 Cal. App. 3, 132.) =hen ;ne Person in a Vehicle is ub%ect to a Fourth =ai!er) A search o" the "e(ale ,e"en,ant s purse le"t in the car 0hen an o""icer is con,ucting a parole search o" a (ale parolee- is illegal absent a reasonable suspicion to belie.e that the parolee ha, Coint access- possession or control o.er the purse. ()eop"e $# a(er (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th 11$2.) Gut- a 0arrantless search o" those areas o" the passenger co(part(ent o" a .ehicle 0here an o""icer reasonably e?pects that the parolee coul, ha.e sto0e, personal belongings or ,iscar,e, ite(s 0hen a0are o" police acti.ity- as 0ell as a search o" personal property locate, in those areas i" the o""icer reasonably belie.es that the parolee o0ns those ite(s or has the ability to e?ert control o.er the( (a chip bag an, a pair o" 0o(an s shoes in this case)- is la0"ul. )eop"e $# Schmit5 (2012) $$ Cal.3th &0&- &15%&33.) Ehen o""icers "in, a container (bacFpacF in this case) ,uring a la0"ul Fourth 0a.ier search- they only nee, a *reasonable suspicion-/ as oppose, to probable cause- to belie.e that the container belongs to or is controlle, by the subCect 0ith the Fourth 0a.ier to it. (United States $# o"i$ar (&th Cir. 2012) 520 B.3r, 10&1- 10&3%10&$.) =ith Defendant)s *dmission as to the &ontents) Ehen a suspect (aFes *an une@ui.ocal- conte(poraneous- an, .oluntary ,isclosure (to a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer) that a pacFage or container contains contraban,-/ he 0ai.es any reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy as to the contents o" that containereli(inating the nee, to obtain a search 0arrant. (United States $# %on1hur (&th Cir. 200&) $## B.3r, &2$- &2#%&#1: citing United States $# Cardona Ri$era (2th Cir. 1&&0) &03 B.2n, 113&.) A Cail in(ate talFing o.er a Cail telephone- 0here he is 0arne, that his con.ersations 0ere subCect to (onitoringasFing a "rien, to retrie.e 0hat o""icers un,erstoo, to be a gun (although ,e"en,ant only re"erre, to it as *the thing/) "ro( a container (also ,escribe, in .ague- generic ter(s) in the closet o" his girl"rien, s ho(e- ,oes not 0ai.e any e?pectation o" pri.acy ,e"en,ant ha, in the container that 0as later retrie.e, by la0 en"orce(ent an, illegally 552
searche, 0ithout a search 0arrant. (United States $# %on1hur- supra.) *bandoned Property) Any containers (or any other property) aban,one, by a suspect- thus relin@uishing at least an ob%ecti!ely reasonable expectation of pri!acy- i" not also the subCect s sub%ecti!e expectation of pri!acy- (ay be sei;e, an, searche, 0ithout probable cause an, 0ithout a search 0arrant. (In re ara(a 0# (1&&2) 5 Cal.App.3th 103&.) 8.g.) A (inor- 0ho appeare, to o""icers to be con,ucting narcotics transactions 0ith passing (otorists- retrie.e, controlle, substances "ro( a paper bag ,iscar,e, on the groun, so(e ,istance beyon, the (inor s reach. Ehen ,etaine,- the bag 0as retrie.e, by the o""icers an, searche, an, (ariCuana 0as reco.ere,. Gy ,istancing hi(sel" "ro( the bag- the (inor ga.e up any reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the bag s contents. (In re ara(a 0#supra.) !bser.ations o" ,e"en,ant retrie.ing contraban, "ro( a hole in the groun,- co.ere, by a piece o" 0oo,- in the co((on area o" an apart(ent co(ple?- 0hile the obser.ing o""icers are stan,ing on a,Cacent pri.ate property 0ith the per(ission o" the property s o0ner- 0ere la0"ul- as 0as the 0arrantless retrie.al o" the contraban, "oun, in the hole. ()eop"e $# Sha, (2002) &2 Cal.App.3th #33.) +here is no e?pectation o" pri.acy in a ,u""le bag le"t in an apart(ent laun,ry roo( open to anyone- e.en though place, out o" the 0ay on a high shel". (United States $# Fa& (&th Cir. 200$) 310 B.3r, $#&.) Trash cans) +here is no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the trash containers one places out on the curb "or picF up. (Ca"i'ornia $# Green,ood (1&##) 3#5 4.S. 3$ 6100 7.8,.2n, 309.) 7ea.ing a cell phone at the scene o" a cri(e negates the suspect s e?pectation o" pri.acy in the contents o" that phone- an, is there"ore aban,one, property ,espite the suspect s subCecti.e 0ish to retrie.e it- 0hich he "ails to act on. *Aban,on(ent . . . is not (eant in the strict property%right sense- but rests instea, on 0hether the person so relin@uishe, his interest in the property that he no longer retaine, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in it at the ti(e o" the search./ ()eop"e $# Da11s (200$) 133 Cal.App.3th 351.)
553
Io0e.er- the aban,on(ent (ust be .oluntary. Property aban,one, as a result (i.e.- the *direct product/) o" an unla0"ul ,etention (or unla0"ul arrest) (ay not be la0"ully searche,. (United States $# Stephens (&th Cir. 2000) 205 B.3r, &13.) Io0e.er- shipping a pacFage 0hile using a "ictitious na(e an, return a,,ress does not necessarily (ean that the ,e"en,ant has aban,one, the property shippe,. Aban,on(ent is a @uestion o" "actan, ,epen,s upon the totality o" the circu(stances. +he test is 0hether ,e"en,ant s 0or,s or actions 0oul, cause a reasonable person in the searching o""icer s position to belie.e that the property 0as aban,one,. Ehere ,e"en,ant asFe, "or a routing nu(ber an, (a,e a nu(ber o" telephone in@uiries concerning the status o" the pacFage he ha, shippe,- he 0as properly "oun, to ha.e not aban,one, the pacFage ,espite the use o" a phony na(e an, return a,,ress. ()eop"e $# )ereira (2002) 1$0 Cal.App.3th 1105.) +here is no pri.acy right in the (outhpiece o" the PAS ,e.ice0hich 0as pro.i,e, by the police an, 0here ,e"en,ant aban,one, any e?pectation o" pri.acy in the sali.a he ,eposite, on the ,e.ice 0hen he "aile, to 0ipe it o"". Ehether ,e"en,ant subCecti.ely e?pecte, that the genetic (aterial containe, in his sali.a 0oul, beco(e Fno0n to the police 0as irrele.ant because he ,eposite, it on a police ,e.ice an, thus (a,e it accessible to the police. +he o""icer 0ho a,(inistere, the PAS test testi"ie, that use, (outhpieces 0ere nor(ally ,iscar,e, in the trash. +hus- any subCecti.e e?pectation ,e"en,ant (ay ha.e ha, that his right to pri.acy 0oul, be preser.e, 0as unreasonable. ()eop"e $# Thomas (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 33#.) During a Fourth wai!er search of a Residence) Ehen o""icers "in, a container (bacFpacF in this case) ,uring a la0"ul Fourth 0a.ier search- they only nee, a *reasonable suspicion-/ as oppose, to probable cause- to belie.e that the container belongs to or is controlle, by the subCect 0ith the Fourth 0a.ier to it. (United States $# o"i$ar (&th Cir. 2012) 520 B.3r, 10&1- 10&3%10&$.) pecial +eeds) earch of "uggage in a ubway (acility) 1(ple(ente, in response to terrorist attacFs on sub0ays in other cities- a progra( 0as 553
,esigne, to ,eter terrorists "ro( carrying conceale, e?plosi.es onto the Je0 KorF s sub0ay. +he city progra( establishe, ,aily inspection checFpoints at selecte, sub0ay "acilities 0here o""icers searche, bags that (et si;e criteria "or containing e?plosi.es. Sub0ay ri,ers 0ishing to a.oi, a search 0ere re@uire, to lea.e the station. 1n a bench trial- the ,istrict court "oun, that the progra( co(porte, 0ith the Fourth Amendment un,er the *special needs doctrine./ !n appeal- the court a""ir(e,- "in,ing that the progra( 0as reasonable an, there"ore constitutional. 1n particular- the court "oun, that pre.enting a terrorist attacF on the sub0ay 0as a special nee,- 0hich 0as 0eighty in light o" recent terrorist attacFs on sub0ay syste(s in other cities. 1n a,,ition- the court "oun, that the ,ispute, progra( 0as a reasonably e""ecti.e ,eterrent. Although the searches intru,e, on a "ull pri.acy interest- the court "urther "oun, that such intrusion 0as (ini(al- particularly as inspections in.ol.e, only certain si;e containers an, ri,ers coul, ,ecline inspection by lea.ing the station. (%ac-ade $# /e""& (2n, Cir. 2005) 350 B.3r, 250.) ;ther *Expectation of Pri!acy/ 'ssues) A Cail in(ate talFing o.er a Cail telephone- 0here he is 0arne, that his con.ersations 0ere subCect to (onitoring- asFing a "rien, to retrie.e 0hat o""icers un,erstoo, to be a gun (although ,e"en,ant only re"erre, to it as *the thing/) "ro( a container (also ,escribe, in .ague- generic ter(s) in the closet o" his girl"rien, s ho(e- ,oes not 0ai.e any e?pectation o" pri.acy ,e"en,ant ha, in the container that 0as later retrie.e, by la0 en"orce(ent an, illegally searche, 0ithout a search 0arrant. (United States $# %on1hur (200&) $## B.3r, &2$- &2#%&#1.) %on1hur ,i""erentiate, these "acts "ro( a si(ilar circu(stance 0here ,e"en,ant tol, la0 en"orce(ent o""icers- clearly an, une@ui.ocally- that a particular container containe, contraban,. +he Court in the case "oun, that such a concession 0ai.e, any e?pectation o" pri.acy ,e"en,ant (ight ha.e ha, in the container- thus allo0ing "or a 0arrantless search o" that container. (United States $# Cardona3Ri$era (2th Cir. 1&&0) &03 B.2n, 113&.) earches of &ell Phones, Dis?s, &omputers and ;ther High Tech *&ontainers)/ 'ssue) +he legality o" searching an, retrie.ing in"or(ation "ro( cell phones- co(puter ,isFs- thu(b ,ri.es- co(puters- an, other such high tech *containers/ o" in"or(ation- sei;e, "ro( suspects 55$
or "oun, ,uring the search o" a resi,ence- etc.- 0hen ,one 0ithout a search 0arrant- can be an issue. As a rule- ho0e.er- it shoul, be assu(e, that the general la0 on *containers/ 0ill be applicable- an, that a search 0arrant 0ill be re@uire,. (See Smith $# Ohio (1&&0) 3&3 4.S. $31- $32 610# 7.8,.2n, 3539.) Arguably- e?ceptions to the 0arrant re@uire(ent might be "oun, 0hen the high tech ,e.ice is) Sei;e, "ro( the suspect s person inci,ent to his arrest (Carro"" $# United States (1&2$) 252 4.S. 132 65& 7.8,. $339: United States $# Fin"e& ($th Cir. 2002) 322 B.3rd 2%0! 2%4! 2%%! fn. 2! 2%952602 )eop"e $# Dia5 (Jan. 3- 2011) $1 Cal.3th #3.) Contrary case la0 "ro( another Curis,iction (State $# Smith (!hio 200&) &20 J.8. &3&)- (aFes this issue ripe "or 4nite, States Supre(e Court re.ie0. Io0e.er- the 4S Supre(e Court has ,enie, certiorari. (Dia5 $# Ca"i'ornia (!ct. 3- 2011) 132 S.Ct. &3: 1#1 7.8,.2n, 23.) 1n a car "or 0hich there is alrea,y probable cause to search. (Ca"i'ornia $# Ace$edo (1&&1) $00 4.S. $5$- $#0 6113 7.8,.2n, 51&9.) 1n the person s possession 0hen that person is booFe, into Cail. ()eop"e $# Ro1ers (1&55) 231 Cal.App.2n, 3#3- 3#&.) Ehen the container is sei;e, un,er authori;ation o" a search 0arrant an, to inspect its contents- using *technological ai,s-/ re@uires "urther e?pert assistance. 8.g.- sei;ing an un,e.elope, roll o" "il(- as authori;e, by a 0arrant- ,oes not re@uire a secon, 0arrant to ,e.elop that "il(. (See )eop"e $# Superior Court 6Nasmeh7 (2002) 1$1 Cal.App.3th #$- &#- "n. 3: citing out%o"%state authority "or this theory: State $# )etrone (Eis. 1&&1) 151 Eis.2n, $30.) See also )eop"e $# Ran1e" (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 1310- 1312: 0here it 0as hel, that a cellphone ha.ing been la0"ully sei;e, pursuant to the 0arranta secon, 0arrant authoring the ,etecti.e to search 555
the cellphone is unnecessary. *(A) secon, 0arrant to search a properly sei;e, co(puter (or cellphonein this case) is not necessary 0here the e.i,ence obtaine, in the search ,i, not e?cee, the probable cause articulate, in the original 0arrant./ A suspect s *standing/ shoul, also be consi,ere,: i.e.- is it a ,e.ice in 0hich the suspect has a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acyM (United States $# Ca&men (&th Cir. 200$) 303 B.3r, 11&5: )eop"e $# Da11s (200$) 133 Cal.App.3th 351: cell phone aban,one, at the scene o" the cri(e ,epri.es the ,e"en,ant o" stan,ing to contest its search.) Proo" that ,e"en,ant ha, been recei.ing chil, pornography on his co(puter "ro( t0o tra""icFers in such (aterial- ,espite the lacF o" any e.i,ence that the ,e"en,ant hi(sel" solicite, such (aterial0as hel, to be su""icient probable cause to Custi"y a "in,ing that ,e"en,ant Fno0ingly- an, illegally- possesse, such (aterialCusti"ying the issuance o" a search 0arrant "or ,e"en,ant s resi,ence an, his co(puter. (United States $# /e""e& (&th Cir. 2002) 3#2 B.3r, 1032.) +he sa(e rule is applicable a *mirror port-/ 0hich is si(ilar to a pen register- but 0hich allo0s the go.ern(ent to collect the *to/ an, *"ro(/ a,,resses o" a person s e%(ail (essages- the 1P a,,resses o" the 0ebsites the person .isits- an, notes the total .olu(e o" in"or(ation sent to or "ro( the person s account. (United States $# Forrester (&th Cir. 200#) $12 B.3r, $00.) A search 0arrant authori;ing the search "or speci"ic ,ocu(ents,uring 0hich a co(puter 0as "oun, un,er circu(stances 0here it 0as reasonable to belie.e that the co(puter 0as a container o" those ,ocu(ents- allo0e, "or the sei;ure o" (an, probably search o") the co(puter- e.en though the co(puter 0as not speci"ically liste, in the 0arrant. Also- a co(puter is not entitle, to a heightene, le.el o" proo". (United States $# Gi.erson (&th Cir. 200#) $22 B.3r, ##5%##&.) Do0nloa,ing an, installing onto one s co(puter *7i(eEire-/ a "ile%sharing progra( 0hich allo0s users to search "or an, share 0ith one another .arious types o" "iles- co(pro(ises a participant s e?pectation o" pri.acy in the contents o" the a""ecte, "iles- thus allo0ing "or a 0arrantless search o" those "iles .ia 7i(eEire by la0 en"orce(ent. (United States $# Ganoe (&th Cir. 200#) $3# B.3r, 1112.) 552
1t is irrele.ant that the ,e"en,ant atte(pte, unsuccess"ully to install a progra( inclu,e, 0ith 7i(eEire that i" installe, properly- pre.ents others "ro( accessing his "iles. 1t is also irrele.ant that the in.estigator ,isco.ere, ,e"en,ant s chil, pornography through the use o" a progra( una.ailable to the general public. Jeither circu(stance (eans that ,e"en,ant ha, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in his "iles 0hen he use, a "ile% sharing progra( such as 7i(eEire. (United States $# oro,& (&th Cir. 2010) $&$ B.3r, 103$- 103#.) +he Court in oro,& "urther hel, that the in.estigator ha, probable cause to open up his "iles base, upon ,isco.ering "iles 0ith na(es that 0ere e?plicitly suggesti.e o" chil, pornography an, that they 0ere ,isco.ere, using a search ter( Fno0n to be associate, 0ith chil, pornographyresulting 0ith t0o such "iles being *re,%"lagge,/ by the progra(- in,icating that they containe, chil, pornography. (Id.- at p. 103&.) A properly @uali"ie, e?pert o""icer s opinion- connecting co((on characteristics o" a chil, (olester 0ith Fno0n "acts relate, to a chil, (olest an, the (olester s act o" hi,ing his co(puterestablishes probable cause supporting a search 0arrant "or that co(puter. ()eop"e $# Nicho""s (200#) 1$& Cal.App.3th 203.) Custo(s !""icers at an international bor,er- or the *functional e@ui!alent/ o" a bor,er (e.g.- an international airport) (ay search a person s co(puter 0ithout any reasonable suspicion. (United States $# Arno"d (&th Cir. 200#) $33 B.3r, 1003.) +he Court "urther hel, that a high%tech container- such as a co(puter- does not re@uire a higher stan,ar, o" probable cause "or a 0arrant application- e.en 0hen *expressi!e (i.e.- First Amendment) material/ is in.ol.e,. (Id.- at p. 1010.) Cali"ornia is in accor, 0ith Arno"d- hol,ing that- *(a) computer is entitled to no more protection than any other container./ ()eop"e $# Endacott (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th 1335: suspicionless search o" ,e"en,ant s laptop co(puters upon his arri.al at 7os Angeles 1nternational Airport "ro( +hailan, uphel,.) Endacott "urther hel, that the "act that the co(puter is "urther searche, at so(e ti(e a"ter the initial bor,er crossing is irrele.ant. +he right to ,o a 0arrantless55#
suspicionless search continues in,e"initely. (Id.- at p. 13$0.) +he sei;ure o" ,e"en,ant s co(puter an, all co(puter relate, ite(s (e.g.- co(pact ,isFs- "loppy ,isFs- har, ,ri.es- (e(ory car,s- DUDs- .i,eotapes- an, other portable ,igital ,e.ices)- base, upon no (ore than the ,isco.ery o" one printe,%out photo o" chil, pornography- 0as la0"ul in that it 0as reasonable to conclu,e that the picture ha, co(e "ro( his co(puter an, that si(ilar pictures 0ere liFely to be store, in it. (United States $# ro.st (&th Cir. 200&) $$# B.3r, &#2- &&3.) Bailure to inclu,e the (agistrate s authori;ation to search ,e"en,ant s co(puter- e.en though in the state(ent o" probable cause the a""iant in,icate, a ,esire to search any possible co(puters "oun, in ,e"en,ant s house- 0as a "atal o(ission. Searching ,e"en,ant s co(puter- there"ore- 0ent beyon, the scope o" the 0arrant s authori;ation. (United States $# )a&ton (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, #$&- #51%#53.) +he "act that the issuing (agistrate testi"ie, to an intent to allo0 "or the search o" ,e"en,ant s co(puters- an, that the 0arrant inclu,e, authori;ation to search "or certain liste, recor,s 0hich (ight be "oun, in a co(puter- 0as hel, to be irrele.ant. (Id. at pp. #52%#53.) Gut see United States $# Gi.erson (&th Cir. 200#) $22 B.3r, ##2- 0here it 0as hel, that so(e circu(stances (ight lea, searching o""icers to a reasonable conclusion that ,ocu(entary e.i,ence they are seeFing 0oul, be containe, in co(puters "oun, at the locationauthori;ing the search o" those containers ,espite the "ailure o" the 0arrant to list co(puters as things that (ay be searche,. 1t 0as reco((en,e,- ho0e.er- that the co(puter be sei;e, an, a secon, 0arrant be obtaine,. A city ,i, not .iolate an e(ployee s (a police o""icer) Fourth Amendment rights an, right to pri.acy un,er the Federal Stored Communications Act (1# !S!C! 2131 et se*!) by obtaining an, re.ie0ing transcripts o" the e(ployee s te?t (essages sent .ia a city pager 0here there 0ere reasonable groun,s "or suspecting that the search 0as necessary "or a non%in.estigatory 0orF%relate, purpose because the search 0as ,one in or,er to ,eter(ine 0hether the character li(it on the cityDs contract 0as su""icient to (eet the cityDs nee,s. Also- the city an, a police ,epart(ent ha, a legiti(ate interest in ensuring that e(ployees 0ere not being 55&
"orce, to pay out o" their o0n pocFets "or 0orF%relate, e?pensesor on the other han,- that the city 0as not paying "or e?tensi.e personal co((unications. +he search 0as per(issible in its scope because re.ie0ing the transcripts 0as reasonable because it 0as an e""icient an, e?pe,ient 0ay to ,eter(ine 0hether the e(ployeeDs o.erages 0ere the result o" 0orF%relate, (essaging or personal use. (Ontario $# =uan (2010) 130 S.Ct. 251&: 122 7.8,.2n, 215.) Declining to rule on the application o" an e(ployee s pri.acy rights in the 0orFplace- as they relate to the use o" high%tech ,e.ices- the Court assu(e, "or the saFe o" argu(ent- 0ithout ,eci,ing- that the plainti""Nrespon,ent ha, a right to pri.acy in the contents o" te?t (essages (a,e .ia an e(ployer%issue, pager. Io0e.er- the *special needs/ o" the 0orFplace allo0 "or this intrusion into plainti""Nrespon,ent s pri.acy rights 0hen con,ucte, "or a *nonin.estigatory- 0orF%relate, purpose./ (Id.- 130 S.Ct. at pp. 252&%25309: i.e.- to ,eter(ine 0hether the allotte, nu(ber o" (essages 0as insu""icient- re@uiring e(ployees to pay "or o""ice%relate, (essages- or 0hether e(ployees 0ere using the pagers "or non%0orF relate, purposes.) A single photograph o" a nu,e (inor ("e(ale chil, 0ho is bet0een # an, 10 years ol,)- by itsel"- is insu""icient to establish probably cause "or a search 0arrant. Gut a secon, such photo- un,er the *totality o" the circu(stances-/ is enough. (United States $# attershe"" (&th Cir. 2005) 3$2 B.3r, 103#.) Howe!er- a single photograph o" a nu,e (inor ("e(ale o" about 1$ to 12 years o" age)- 0hen co(bine, 0ith other suspicious circu(stances (e.g.- 1$ co(puters in house "oun, in co(plete ,isarray- 0ith t0o (inors not belonging to the ,e"en,ant- 0here the ,e"en,ant a ci.ilian- is staying in (ilitary housing)- may be enough to Custi"y the issuance o" a search 0arrant. (United States $# /rupa (&th Cir. 2011) 5$# B.3r, 1123- 1122%112&: but see ,issentpp. 11#0%11#$.) +ote) 1t is liFely that a 0hole ne0 set o" rules- uni@ue to the searching o" such high%tech ,e.ices- 0ill e.entually e.ol.e. (See /&""o $# United States (2001) $33 4.S. 22 61$0 7.8,.2n, &39.) +his inclu,es the use o" high%tech ,e.ices in the 0orFplace. (Ontario $# =uan (2010) 130 S.Ct. 251&- 252&%2530: 122 7.8,.2n, 215.) Gut as o" no0- the la0 in the area o" searching high%tech ,e.ices is still in its in"ancy an, yet to be speci"ically analy;e, by the Supre(e Court. 520
Allo0ing another person unrestricte, access to a (utually o0ne, co(puter negates any e?pectation o" pri.acy the "irst person (ight ha.e ha,. A co%o0ner has actual authority to gi.e consent to the police to search. An, i" it turns out that the person is not actually a co%o0ner- the ,octrine o" apparent authority (ay Custi"y the search. (United States $# Stan"e& (&th Cir. 2011) 5$3 B.3r, &35- &$0%&$2.) earch of #nauthorized &ell Phone Reco!ered at &D&R) (!C! 4)12: CDCR (Cali"ornia Depart(ent o" Corrections an, Rehabilitation) shall not access ,ata or co((unications that ha.e been capture, using a.ailable technology "ro( the unauthori;e, use o" a 0ireless co((unication ,e.ice e?cept a"ter obtaining a search 0arrant. A search 0arrant- supporte, by probable cause- authori;e, the police to search ,e"en,antDs house an, sei;e gang in,icia o" any sort. Such in,icia coul, logically be "oun, in ,e"en,antDs cell phone- 0hich ha, the capacity to store people s na(es- telephone nu(bers an, other contact in"or(ation- as 0ell as (usicphotographs- art0orF- an, co((unications in the "or( o" e(ails an, (essages. De"en,antDs phone 0as the liFely container o" (any ite(s that 0ere the "unctional e@ui.alent o" those speci"ically liste, in the 0arrant. +he te?t (essages sei;e, ,uring the search o" ,e"en,antDs phone 0ere relate, to a gang%relate, assault that he 0as suspecte, o" co((itting- an, their suppression 0as thus not re@uire, un,er the e?clusionary rule. L)eop"e $# Ran1e" (2012) 205 Cal.App.3th 1310- 131$%1312.) +he Si?th Circuit Court o" Appeal has "oun, that tracFing a user s cellphone location 0ithout a 0arrant using LPS technology (by *pinging/ it "ro( .arious cell to0ers) is ,i""erent than putting a LPS tracFing ,e.ice on a (otorist s .ehicle 0ithout a 0arrant. +he Court uphel, the ,rug con.iction o" a (an "oun, 0ith his son near a +e?as rest stop 0ith o.er 1-000 poun,s o" (ariCuana in their (otor ho(e. Gecause he ha, no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy concerning the location o" his cellphone- the court rule,- there 0as no Fourth Amendment .iolation. (United States $# S(inner (5th Cir. 2012) 5&0 B.3r, 222- 222%2#1.) =ith &onsent of a Third Person ha!ing &ommon *uthority) Paper bags le"t by ,e"en,ant in an ac@uaintance s garage- 0here the ac@uaintance ha, "ree access to the bags- (ay be la0"ully searche, 0ith consent "ro( the ac@uaintance. Gy lea.ing the bags 521
0ith the ac@uaintance- Fno0ing an, not obCecting to the "act that she (the ac@uaintance) 0oul, go into the bags- ,e"en,ant *assumed the ris?/ that she 0oul, allo0 others to looF into the bags. ()eop"e $# Schmec( (200$) 32 Cal.3th 230- 2#0%2#2.) A business that o0ns the co(pany s co(puters (ay consent to the search o" a co(puter use, by an e(ployeeat least 0hen the e(ployee is on notice that he has no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the contents o" the co(puter he is using. (United States $# 4ie1"er (&th Cir. 2005) 323 B.3r, 11#3.) Allo0ing another person unrestricte, access to a (utually o0ne, co(puter negates any e?pectation o" pri.acy the "irst person (ight ha.e ha,. A co%o0ner has actual authority to gi.e consent to the police to search. An, i" it turns out that the person is not actually a co%o0ner- the ,octrine o" apparent authority (ay Custi"y the search. (United States $# Stan"e& (&th Cir. 2011) 5$3 B.3r, &35- &$0%&$2.) See *&onsent earches-/ belo0.) The * ingle Purpose &ontainer/ Theory) Ehere *so(e containers . . . by their .ery nature cannot support any reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy because their contents can be in"erre, "ro( their out0ar, appearance-/ a 0arrant is not nee,e, to open the container an, inspect its contents. 1n such a case- it is as i" the ite( in the container 0as in *plain sight./ (Ar(ansas $# Sanders (1&2&) 332 4.S. 2$3- 253- "n. 13 651 7.8,.2n, 23$9: o.errule, on other groun,s in Ca"i'ornia $# Ace$edo (1&&1) $00 4.S. $5$ 6113 7.8,.2n, 51&9.) **(1)" the ,istincti.e con"iguration o" a container proclai(s its contents- the contents cannot "airly be sai, to ha.e been re(o.e, "ro( the searching o""icer s .ie0-/ Cust as *i" the container 0ere transparent./ (Ro..ins $# Ca"i'ornia (1&#1) 3$3 4.S. 320- 322 65& 7.8,.2n, 2339: o.errule, on other groun,s in United States $# Ross (1&#2) 3$5 4.S. 2&# 622 7.8,.2n, $229.) Plastic 0rappe, green blocFs "oun, not to be 0ithin this e?ception- in Ro..ins. Per the plurality- "or this rule to apply: *(A) container (ust so clearly announce its contents- 0hether by its ,istincti.e con"iguration- its transparency- or other0ise- that its contents are ob.ious to an obser.er./ (Ro..ins $# Ca"i'orniasupra- at p. 32#.) 522
1t s a @uestion o" 0hether a ,e"en,ant has a *reasonable expectation of pri!acy/ in the contents o" a container. +here is none i" the contents are 0ithin a container that (eets the re@uire(ents o" this rule. (United States $# Gust (&th Cir. 200$) 30$ B.3r, 2&2: a gun case that Cust as easily coul, ha.e containe, a (usical instru(ent. +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal in Gust li(ite, the applicability o" this rule by hol,ing that the nature o" the container (ust be e.aluate, in light o" *the obCecti.e .ie0point o" a layperson- rather than the subCecti.e .ie0point o" a traine, la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- an, 0ithout sole reliance on the speci"ic circu(stances in 0hich the containers 0ere ,isco.ere,./ 1n other 0or,s- the o""icers e?pertise- an, the circu(stances un,er 0hich the container is "oun,- (ust be ignore,. (Citing United States $# %i""er (&th Cir. 1&#$) 25& B.2n, $$3.) An 1nternet subscriber has no e?pectation o" pri.acy in the subscriber in"or(ation he supplies to his 1nternet pro.i,er. ()eop"e $# Stipo (2011) 1&$ Cal.App.3th 553- 55#%55&.) &ontainers earched by +on6"aw Enforcement) Contraban, "oun, by a ci.ilian in a container- such as 0hen a 4nite, Parcel Ser.ice (*4PS/) or Be,eral 8?press e(ployee opens an, inspects the contents o" a pacFage being shippe, through their respecti.e businesses- is not subCect to suppression. Ehen la0 en"orce(ent is subse@uently noti"ie, a"ter such an inspection- the contents o" the pacFage (ay be "iel, teste, by a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer- sei;e,- an, sub(itte, to a la0 en"orce(ent lab "or "urther testing: all 0ithout a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# -arren (1&&0) 21& Cal.App.3r, 51&: see also United States $# *aco.sen (1&#3) 355 4.S. 10& 6#0 7.8,.2n, #$9: United States $# Youn1 (&th Cir. 1&&#) 1$3 B.3r, 102&.) =hyM !nce a pri.ate party (i.e.- non%la0 en"orce(ent) has (a,e a search an, re.eale, his "in,ings to the police- the ,e"en,ant s e?pectation o" pri.acy has been ,estroye, to the e?tent o" the pri.ate search. +hus- 0here e(ployees o" a pri.ate "reight carrier "oun, apparent narcotics ,uring the search o" a pacFage- then returne, the substance to the pacFage an, in"or(e, narcotics agents- the agents re(o.al o" the substance "ro( the pacFage ,i, not constitute a search- because it ,i, not e?cee, the scope o" the earlier pri.ate search. (United States $# *aco.sen- supra- at p. 11511& 6#0 7.8,.2n, at p. &5- &#9 see also )eop"e $# Yac(ee (1&#3) 151 Cal.App.3r, #33: cocaine "oun, by airline agent.) 523
+he Fourth Amendment 0as not i(plicate, by a police o""icer s .ie0 o" property "oun, in ,e"en,ant s .ehicle an, in.entorie, by a pri.ate repossessor. ()eop"e $# She1o1 (1&#5) 1#3 Cal.App.3r, #&&- &02.) A go.ern(ent agent (ay test suspicious substances ,isco.ere, ,uring a search by a pri.ate person 0ithout ha.ing to obtain a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# -arren- supra- at p. 523.) A pri.ate citi;en .ie0ing ,iscs taFen by the citi;en "ro( the ,e"en,ant s be,roo(- an, then sho0ing the sa(e ,iscs to a police o""icer- is not an illegal search. Also- the "act that the o""icer (ay .ie0 i(ages on those ,iscs not pre.iously seen by the citi;en is irrele.ant *i" the police Fne0 0ith substantial certainty/ that the sa(e type o" i(ages 0oul, be "oun,. Gut looFing at other un(arFe, ,iscs not pre.iously .ie0e, by the pri.ate citi;en- not Fno0ing "or sure 0hat (ight be on the(- re@uires a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# -i"(inson (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th 1$$31$5&%1$23.) +ote) +he argu(ent that a container- not alrea,y opene, an, .ie0e, by the pri.ate citi;en- can be opene, by the police o""icer *i" the police Fne0 0ith substantial certainty/ that it contains (ore o" the sa(e- co(es "ro( United States $# Run&an ($th Cir. 2001) 22$ B.3r, 33&- 353.) 1"- ho0e.er- the ci.ilian is acting accor,ing to a go.ern(ental ,irecti.e (e.g.: BAA gui,elines "or searching pacFages at an airport)- the ci.ilian may be hel, to the sa(e stan,ar, as a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer. (United States $ Ross (&th Cir. 1&&3) 32 B.3r, 1131: United States $# Youn1 (&th Cir. 1&&#) 1$3 B.3r, 102&.) 'ndeed- e.en a *tacit agreement/ bet0een a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer an, a ci.ilian that the ci.ilian 0ill con,uct a particular search 0hich the o""icer coul, not la0"ully per"or( 0ill result in the ci.ilian being consi,ere, to be the o""icer s agent- an, suppression o" the e.i,ence "oun, by the ci.ilian. ()eop"e $# North (1&#1) 2& Cal.3r, $0&.) Also- an airline e(ployee 0ho ha, in the past been a pai, in"or(ant "or the Drug 8n"orce(ent A,(inistration (*D8A/)- 0ho opene, a pacFage a"ter being encourage, by the D8A to ,o so on a routine basis- e?pecting a probable re0ar, "ro( D8A because o" ha.ing recei.e, re0ar,s "or opening si(ilar pacFages be"ore- 0as hel, to be a 523
go.ern(ent agent e.en though he ha, not been ,irecte, to open this particular pacFage. (United States $# -a"ther (&th Cir. 1&#1) 5$2 B.2n, 2##.) Jote- ho0e.er- it is ,oubt"ul 0hether (erely ha.ing been in"or(e, by la0 en"orce(ent o" the po0er to open an, inspect pacFages auto(atically turns a ci.ilian into a police agent. (See )eop"e $# -achter (1&25) $# Cal.App.3r, 311&20%&23- "in,ing that e.en a police o""icer- 0hen o"" ,uty an, acting out o" (ere curiosity- (ay not be acting as a la0 en"orce(ent o""icer in con,ucting a search.) See also )eop"e $# )eterson (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, ##3#&3: o""%,uty police trainee searching a container in his apart(ent house garage out o" concern "or his o0n sa"ety. +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal ,ecline, to e?ten, this rule to a hotel roo( an, to a bacFpacF in the hotel roo(- both o" 0hich ha, been looFe, into pre.iously by non%la0 en"orce(ent hotel e(ployees. Ehile the pacFage in United States $# *aco.sen (1&#3) 355 4.S. 10& 6#0 7.8,.2n, #$9- containe, nothing but contraban, (i.e.- cocaine)- ,e"en,ant s hotel roo( an, his bacFpacF in this case containe, other ite(s that 0ere not illegal an, to 0hich the ,e"en,ant (aintaine, a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy. (United States $# Youn1 (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 211220%221.) Exterior of a &ontainer) +here is no e?pectation o" pri.acy in the outsi,e o" a piece o" (ail sent to the ,e"en,ant. *(G)ecause the in"or(ation is "oreseeably .isible to countless people in the course o" a letter reaching its ,estination- Aan a,,ressee or a,,ressor generally has no e?pectation o" pri.acy as to the outsi,e o" (ail. / ()eop"e $# Re&es (200&) 12# Cal.App.3th 11#3- 11#&%11&2: @uoting United States $# Osune1.u (1&#2 $th Cir.) #22 B.2n, 322- 3#0- "n. 3: see also United States $# *e''erson (&th Cir. 200&) $55 B.3r, &2#- &33.) 1n Re&es- an e(ployee o" a pri.ate postbo? co(pany spontaneously han,e, o""icers ,e"en,ant s (ail 0hen the o""icers in@uire, as to 0hether ,e"en,ant ha, rente, a bo? at that "acility e.en though the e(ployees ,i,n t *nor(ally/ han, o.er a clients (ail absent a court or,er. De"en,ant 0as ne.er tol, that his (ail 0oul, be Fept pri.ate. 52$
&ustoms 'nspections) Si(ilarly- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court has hel, that e.i,ence la0"ully obser.e, by a customs inspector- ,uring a 0arrantless bor,er search an, reseale, in its container- (ay later be sei;e, "ro( that container 0ithout a 0arrant by la0 en"orce(ent o""icers a"ter a controlle, ,eli.ery to the ,e"en,ant. *(!)nce a container has been "oun, to a certainty to contain illicit ,rugs- the contraban, beco(es liFe obCects physically 0ithin the plain .ie0 o" the police- an, the clai( to pri.acy is lost. Conse@uently- the subse@uent reopening o" the container is not a Asearch 0ithin the inten,(ent o" the Fourth Amendment./ (I""inois $# Andreas (1&#3) 353 4.S. 25$ 622 7.8,.2n, 10039.) +he Court ,i, note- ho0e.er- that at so(e point a"ter an interruption o" control or sur.eillance o" a container- such as 0hen the ,e"en,ant changes the contents o" the container- the ,e"en,ant (ay regain a legiti(ate pri.acy right. (Id.- at p. 222 622 7.8,.2n, at p. 10119.) See *$order earches-/ belo0. *,anipulating-/ * @ueezing/ or *Poofing/ &ontainers) Ehether or not a container can be *manipulated-/ *s@ueezed-/ or *poofed/ 0ithout i(plicating the Fourth Amendment is subCect to a ,i""erence o" opinionan, ,epen,s upon the circu(stances. Bor instance) *t an *irport) At least 0here there is so(e nee, "or heightene, security- such as 0hen ,ealing 0ith airline luggage- s@uee;ing a pacFage an, noting the o,or o" the e?pen,e, air has been hel, to be la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Santana (1&&#) 53 Cal.App.3th $33: United States $# 2o$e"" ($th Cir. 1&##) #3& B.2n, &10.) Io0e.er- the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal ,isagrees. S@uee;ing a bag checFe, 0ith an airline to "acilitate s(elling its contents is an unconstitutional search. (0ernande5 $# United States (&th Cir. 1&5$) 3$3 B.2n, 523.) *t a $us tation) Although a lo0er "e,eral appellate court has hel, that s@uee;ing one s luggage in a bus is such a (inor intrusion that it coul, not reasonably be consi,ere, a search "or purposes o" the Fourth Amendment (United States $# 9iera ($th Cir. 1&#1) 533 B.2n, $0&.)- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court apparently ,isagreesan, has hel, that the s@uee;ing o" a so"t%si,e, suitcase on a busthus noting the "eel o" a *bric?/ o" contraban,- is a search an, illegal i" ,one 0ithout probable cause. ( ond $# United States (2000) $2& 4.S. 333 6135 7.8,.2n, 35$9.)
525
During a Detention and Patdown) 1" a police o""icer "eels 0hat might be a controlle, substance in the pocFet o" a suspect ,uring a pat,o0n "or 0eapons- an, *manipulates/ (%innesota $# Dic(erson (1&&3) $0# 4.S. 355- 32# 6123 7.8,.2n, 333- 33$9: )eop"e $# Dic(e& (1&&3) 21 Cal.App.3th &$2- &$2.) or *sha?es/ it (United States $# %i"es (&th Cir. 2001) 223 B.3r, 100&.) in an atte(pt to con"ir( or .eri"y his suspicions- the (anipulation or shaFing o" the obCect is a search "or contraban,- ,one 0ithout probable cause- an, illegal. Gut- "eeling a bulge that is belie.e, to be a 0eapon- an, (anipulating it in an atte(pt to .eri"y that it is a 0eapon0hich re@uires no (ore than a reasonable suspicion- is la0"ul. (United States $# %attaro"o (&th Cir. 1&&&) 20& B.3r, 11$3.) See *(ris?s-/ un,er * earches of Persons-/ abo.e. Detention of a &ontainer) A container- 0ith a *reasonable and articulable suspicion/ that it (ay ha.e contraban, or other e.i,ence o" illegal acti.ity insi,e- (ay be detained "or a reasonable perio, o" ti(e to allo0 "or an in.estigation concerning its possible contents. (United States $# 0ernande5 (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 1205: pacFage (aile, to the ,e"en,ant ,etaine, by postal inspectors.) *(E)e conclu,e that 0hen an o""icerDs obser.ations lea, hi( reasonably to belie.e that a tra.eler is carrying luggage that contains narcotics- the principles o" Terr& an, its progeny 0oul, per(it the o""icer to ,etain the luggage brie"ly to in.estigate the circu(stances that arouse, his suspicion- pro.i,e, that the in.estigati.e ,etention is properly li(ite, in scope./ (United States $# )"ace (1&#3) 352 4.S. 5&5- 205 622 7.8,.2n, 110- 1209.) Although the sen,er o" a pacFage through the 4.S. (ails retains little i" any interests a"ter the pacFage is sent (United States $# )"ace- supra- at p. 21#- "n. $ 622 7.8,.2n, at p. 12#9.)- the inten,e, recipient retains possessory an, pri.acy rights in the pacFage s contents. (-a"ter $# United States (1&#0) 332 4.S. 53&- 5$3 65$ 7.8,.2n, 310. 3159: United States $# Gi"" (&th Cir. 2002) 2#0 B.3r, &23- &2&.) Io0e.er- the recipient o" a (aile, pacFage has only a reasonable e?pectation that ,eli.ery 0ill not be ,elaye,. So long as the pacFage is ,eli.ere, on ti(e- the Fourth Amendment is not i(plicate, (erely by a te(porary ,i.ersion o" that pacFage. (United States $# Demoss (#th Cir. 2002) 22& B.3r, 532- 53&: United States $# En1"and (&th Cir. 1&&2) &21 B.2n, 31&- 320%321.) 522
An a,,ressee has both a possessory an, a pri.acy interest in a (aile, pacFage. (United States $# 0ernande5- supraat p. 120&: United States $# 0oan1 (&th Cir. 2002) 3#5 B.3r, 11$5- 11$&: United States $# *e''erson (9th Cir. 2009) %66 1./rd 928! 9//59/%.) +he *possessory interest/ in a (aile, pacFage- ho0e.er- is *solely in the pacFage s ti(ely ,eli.ery. (United States $# 0oan1- supraat p. 1150- citing United States $# En1"andsupra- at pp. 320%321: United States $# *e''erson! supra.) A postal inspector in AlasFa ha, su""icient reasonable suspicion to ,etain ,e"en,ant s pacFage 0hen he 0as tol, that ,e"en,ant 0as beha.ing suspiciously by asFing about Postal Ser.ice ,rug ,etection practices- an, the pacFage liste, a "ictitious sen,er an, a,,ressee an, an inco(plete Cali"ornia return a,,ress- 0as shippe, 0ith ,eli.ery con"ir(ation ser.ice- ha, a han,0ritten label- an, 0as hea.ily tape,. OariCuana an, e?cessi.e (oney ha, also been "oun, in ,e"en,ant s ho(e so(e (onths earlier. +he court 0as satis"ie, that the length o" ,etention bet0een initial sei;ure an, the ,e.elop(ent o" probable cause- 22 hours- 0as not unreasonable- particularly gi.en the ,i""iculty o" tra.el in AlasFa 0ith a ,rug%sni""ing ,og. (United States $# 2o5ano (&th Cir. 2010) 523 B.3r, 10$$.) How long a container (ay be ,etaine, (i.e.- a *reasonable time/) ,epen,s upon the circu(stances. (United States $# 9an 2eeu,en (1&20) 3&2 4.S. 23&- 2$2 62$ 7.8,.2n, 2#2- 2#$9: 2& hours oFay.) United States $# 0ernande5 (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 1205: t0enty%t0o hours hel, to be Custi"iable. United States $# Dass (&th Cir. 1&##) #3& B.2n, 313: pacFages hel, "ro( se.en to t0enty%three ,ays "oun, to be e?cessi.e. United States $# A"da5 (&th Cir. 1&&0) &21 B.2n, 222: three to "i.e ,ay ,etention "oun, to be reasonable un,er the circu(stances. United States $# Gi"" (&th Cir. 2002) 2#0 B.3r, &23- &25%&2&: si?%,ay ,elay- o.er a 0eeFen,- oFay.
52#
United States $# 2o5ano (&th Cir. 2010) 523 B.3r, 10$$: 22 hours- particularly gi.en the ,i""iculty o" tra.el in AlasFa 0ith a ,rug%sni""ing ,og. United States $# %a&omi (2th Cir. 1&#&) #23 B.2n, 103&10$3%10$3) A t0o%,ay ,etention o" t0o letters 0as acceptable because it 0as supporte, by probable cause. *lso note) A ten%(inute ,elay ,oes not signi"icantly inter"ere 0ith the ti(ely ,eli.ery o" a pacFage in the nor(al course o" business- an, there"ore ,oes not e.en nee, a reasonable suspicion to Custi"y. +he pacFage 0oul, ha.e been ,eli.ere, at the sa(e ti(e e.en 0ithout this ,elay. (United States $# 0oan1 (&th Cir. 2002) 3#5 B.3r, 11$5.) $ut see United States $# )"ace (1&#3) 352 4.S. 5&5 622 7.8,.2n, 1109) +he ,etention o" a suspectDs luggage at an airport "or e?posure to a traine, narcotics ,og 0as hel, to e?cee, the boun,s o" a per(issible in.estigati.e ,etention an, 0as unreasonable un,er the Fourth Amendment. +he e.i,ence obtaine, "ro( the subse@uent search o" the luggage 0as hel, to be ina,(issible 0here the luggage 0as ,etaine, "or 4. minutes an, 0here the o""icers "aile, to accurately in"or( the suspect o" the place to 0hich they 0ere transporting his luggage- the length o" ti(e he (ight be ,ispossesse,- an, 0hat arrange(ents 0oul, be (a,e "or the return o" the luggage i" the in.estigation ,ispelle, the suspicion. A Fey "actor in )"ace 0as that the containers (the ,e"en,ant s suitcases) 0ere sei;e, "ro( his person as oppose, to the (ail. Detention o" a pacFage (aile, .ia the 4nite, States postal ser.ice ,uring that ti(e perio, up to 0hen ,eli.ery has been guarantee, is reasonable an, there"ore la0"ul ,espite the lacF o" any suspicion to belie.e it contains contraban,. (United States $# *e''erson (&th Cir. 200&) $55 B.3r, &2#- &33%&3$: ,uring 0hich ti(e a narcotics%sni""ing ,og 0as use, 52&
to alert on the pacFage an, a search 0arrant 0as obtaine,.) Iol,ing onto the pacFage beyon, this ti(e perio,! to be la+ful! re=uires an 7articulable
(reasonable) sus(icion that the (ac;a.e contains contraband or e)idence of ille.al acti)it*.3 (&d.! at (. 9/%.)
5#0
Chapter 16
order Searches) Genera" Ru"e) +he 4nite, States has a go.ern(ental interest in Feeping ,rugs an, un,ocu(ente, aliens- etc.- out o" the country. +here"ore- the search an, sei;ure stan,ar,s are rela?e, a bit at the 1nternational Gor,ers. (Carro"" $# United States (1&2$) 252 4.S. 132- 1$3 65& 7. 8,. $33- $$1%$$29.) *(G)or,er searches ...6are9 consi,ere, to be Areasonable by the single "act that the person or ite( in @uestion has entere, into our country "ro( outsi,e./ (United States $# Ramse& (1&22) 331 4.S. 505- 51& 6$2 7.8,.2n, 512- 52#9.) *(A)t least 0ith respect to the Fourth Amendment.s suspicion re@uire(ents- a routine bor,er search Ais by its .ery nature reasonable. / (United States $# Gu5man3)adi""a (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, #5$- #22: @uoting United States $# Do.son (&th Cir. 1&#5) 2#1 B.2n, 1323- 1325.) *A+he tasF o" guar,ing our country s bor,er is one la,en 0ith i((ense responsibility. United States $# ra$o- 2&$ B.3r, 1002- 100$ (&th Cir. 2002). Gor,er agents ser.e as our "irst line o" ,e"ense in pre.enting people intent on .iolating our la0s "ro( co(ing into our country./ (United States $# 0ernande5 (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 330- 333%333.) Io0e.er- 0hile Gor,er Patrol agents (ay con,uct routine searches *0ithout any articulable le.el o" suspicion-/ they still nee, *probable cause/ to (aFe a 0arrantless arrest. (Id.- at p. 333.) *+he go.ern(ent has (ore latitu,e to ,etain people in a bor,er%crossing conte?t 6Citation9- but such ,etentions are acceptable only ,uring the ti(e o" e?ten,e, bor,er searches 6Citations9./ (United States $# *u$eni"e 6RRA3A7 (&th Cir. 2000) 22& B.3r, 232- 233.) The statutor& arrest and search authorit& "or o""icers an, e(ployees o" the 1((igration an, Jationali;ation Ser.ice (i.e.- Gor,er Patrol) is containe, in # !S!C! 13)1+a,) *Po0ers Eithout a Earrant. Any o""icer or e(ployee o" the Ser.ice authori;e, un,er regulations prescribe, by the Attorney Leneral shall ha.e po0er 0ithout a 0arrant)/ +o interrogate any alien or person belie.e, to be an alien as to his right to be or to re(ain in the 4nite, States. (Su4d! +1,) +o arrest aliens entering- or 0ho ha.e alrea,y entere,- the 4nite, States illegally. (Su4d! +2,) 5#1
+o con,uct 0arrantless searches o" pri.ate lan,s 0ithin 2$ (iles o" the bor,er. (Su4d! +3,.) Io0e.er- pri.ate ,0ellings 0ithin this 2$%(ile area are e?clu,e, un,er the ter(s o" this statute "ro( those areas subCect to a 0arrantless search. Although not speci"ically state, in the statutethe curtilage o" a ho(e (0hich 0oul, typically inclu,e the bacF an, si,e yar,s o" a resi,ence)- by case la0- is inclu,e, 0ithin this e?clusion. (United States $# Romero3 ustamente (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, 1103.)
+o arrest "or "elony .iolations o" the i((igration la0s. (Su4d! +4,) +o arrest "or +A, any o""ense against the 4nite, States- co((itte, in the o""icer s or e(ployee s presence: or +&, any "e,eral "elony. (Su4d! +),) Title # !S!C! 13)1+c, pro.i,es "or the po0er to search the person an, personal e""ects in the possession o" any person seeFing a,(ission to the 4nite, States- 0ith *reasonable cause/ to suspect that groun,s "or ,enial o" a,(ission 0oul, be ,isclose, by such search. Gecause the 4nite, States has (any (iles o" shoreline- the Lo.ern(ent (ust ha.e authority to stop an, search boats o"" the coast in or,er to e""ecti.ely guar, our bor,ers) +he statutory authority "or Custo(s Agents to con,uct boat an, .ehicle searches is containe, in 1" !S!C! 1)#1+a,) *Any o""icer o" the custo(s (ay at any ti(e go on boar, o" any .essel or .ehicle at any place in the 4nite, States . . . or at any other authori;e, place- 0ithout as 0ell as 0ithin his ,istrict- an, e?a(ine the (ani"est an, other ,ocu(ents an, papers- an, e?a(ineinspect- an, search the .essel or .ehicle an, e.ery part thereo" an, any person- trunF- pacFage- or cargo on boar,- an, to this en, (ay hail an, stop such .essel or .ehicle- an, use all necessary "orce to co(pel co(pliance./ 1t has been state, that this statute *re"lects the Ai(pressi.e historical pe,igree o" the Lo.ern(ent s po0er an, interest- 6citation9. 1t is a?io(atic that the 4nite, States- as so.ereign- has the inherent authority to protect- an, a para(ount interest in protecting- its territorial integrity./ (United States $# F"ores3%ontano (2003) $31 4.S. 13&1$3 61$# 7.8,.2n, 311- 3129.) 5#2
+he statutory authority "or the Coast Luar, to search .essels is containe, in 14 !S!C! #"+a,) *+he Coast Luar, (ay (aFe in@uiries- e?a(inations- inspections- searches- sei;ures- an, arrests upon the high seas an, 0aters o.er 0hich the 4nite, States has Curis,iction- "or the pre.ention- ,etection- an, suppression o" .iolations o" la0s o" the 4nite, States. Bor such purposesco((issione,- 0arrant- an, petty o""icers (ay at any ti(e go on boar, o" any .essel subCect to the Curis,iction- or to the operation o" any la0- o" the 4nite, States- a,,ress in@uiries to those on boar,- e?a(ine the ship s ,ocu(ents an, papers- an, e?a(ineinspect- an, search the .essel an, use all necessary "orce to co(pel co(pliance. Ehen "ro( such in@uiries- e?a(ination- inspectionor search it appears that a breach o" the la0s o" the 4nite, States ren,ering a person liable to arrest is being- or has been co((itte,by any person- such person shall be arreste, or- i" escaping to shore- shall be i((e,iately pursue, an, arreste, on shore- or other la0"ul an, appropriate action shall be taFen: or- i" it shall appear that a breach o" the la0s o" the 4nite, States has been co((itte, so as to ren,er such .essel- or the (erchan,ise- or any part thereo"on boar, o"- or brought into the 4nite, States by- such .esselliable to "or"eiture- or so as to ren,er such .essel liable to a "ine or penalty an, i" necessary to secure such "ine or penalty- such .essel or such (erchan,ise- or both- shall be sei;e,./ Interdiction Authorit&: 31 !S!C! )311 pro.i,es Custo(s o""icials 0ith the authority to con,uct inter,iction inspections) Su4d! +4,: *(A) custo(s o""icer (ay stop an, search- at the bor,er an, 0ithout a search 0arrant- any .ehicle- .essel- aircra"t- or other con.eyance- any en.elope or other container- an, any person entering or ,eparting "ro( the 4nite, States./ (See United States $# Se";an (&th Cir 200#) $32 B.3r, &&3- 1001: a currency inter,iction inspection- resulting in the reco.ery o" e.i,ence that ,e"en,ant 0as tra.eling to the Philippines to ha.e se? 0ith un,erage (inors: no suspicion re@uire,.) *(S)earches (a,e at the bor,er- pursuant to the longstan,ing right o" the so.ereign to protect itsel" by stopping an, e?a(ining persons an, property crossing into this country- are reasonable si(ply by .irtue o" the "act that they occur at the bor,er./ (United States $# F"ores3%ontano (2003) $31 4.S. 13&- 1$2%1$3 61$# 7.8,.2n, 3119.) Custo(s !""icers at an international bor,er- or the *functional e@ui!alent/ o" a bor,er (e.g.- an international airport)- (ay search a person s co(puter 0ithout any reasonable suspicion. (United States $# Arno"d (&th Cir. 200#) $33 B.3r, 1003.) 5#3
+he Court "urther hel, that a high%tech container- such as a co(puter- does not re@uire a higher stan,ar, o" probable cause "or a 0arrant application- e.en 0hen *e?pressi.e (i.e.- First Amendment) (aterial/ is in.ol.e,. (Id.- at p. 1010.) Cali"ornia is in accor, 0ith Arno"d. ()eop"e $# Endacott (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th 1335.) Endacott "urther hel, that the "act that the co(puter is "urther searche, at so(e ti(e a"ter the initial bor,er crossing is irrele.ant. +he right to ,o a 0arrantlesssuspicionless search continues in,e"initely. (Id.- at p. 13$0.) Endacott also agrees 0ith United States $# Arno"d- suprain hol,ing that- *(a) co(puter is entitle, to no (ore protection than any other container./ (I.id.) Routine $s# Non3Routine Searches) 1n ,eter(ining 0hat le.el o" suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity is re@uire, to Custi"y any particular search- courts- at one ti(e0oul, breaF ,o0n the searches into *routine/ an, *non6routine-/ 0hich in turn 0oul, be ,eter(ine, by the *le!el of intrusi!eness/ in.ol.e,. (United States $# F"ores3%ontano (2003) $31 4.S. 13& 61$# 7.8,.2n, 3119.) Routine earches (ay be per"or(e, 0ith no specific particularized suspicion- un,er authority o" 1" !S!C! 1)#1+a,- as ,escribe, abo.e. Such searches ha.e been hel, to inclu,e searches o" handbags- luggageshoes- poc?ets an, the passenger compartments of cars. (United States $# %onto&a De 0ernande5 (1&#$) 323 4.S. $31 6#2 7.8,.2n, 3#19: United States $# Ramos3Saen5 (&th Cir. 1&&3) 35 B.3r, $&: United States $# Sando$a" 9ar1as (&th Cir. 1&##) #$3 B.2n, 1132: United States $# )a"mer (&th Cir. 1&2#) $2$ B.2n, 221.) See also United States $# F"ores3%ontano (&th Cir. 200$) 323 B.3r, 1033- applying section 1)#1+a,- reCecting the ,e"en,ant s argu(ent that 1" !S!C! 4#2 (0hich ,oes talF in ter(s o" a necessary reasonable suspicion) applie, to the bor,er searches o" .ehicles. 1n%co(ing international (ail- inclu,ing pacFages- are inclu,e, 0ithin this category. *Gor,er searches o" international (ail are per se Areasonable un,er the Fourth Amendment- 0ithout any nee, to sho0 probable cause./ ()eop"e $# "ardon& (1&&#) 55 Cal.App.3th 2&1- 2&3%2&$: citing United States $# Ramse& (1&22) 5#3
331 4.S 505- 51&%522 6$2 7.8,.2n, 512- 52#%5309: an, United States $# Ani (&th Cir. 1&&#) 13# B.3r, 3&0- 3&2.) +he re@uire(ent un,er 1" !S!C! 1)#2 that there be a *reasonable suspicion/ Custi"ying the search o" in%co(ing (ail is not constitutionally re@uire,- an, a .iolation o" this re@uire(ent 0ill not result in suppression o" any e.i,ence. ()eop"e $# "ardon&- supraat p. 2&3: United States $# Anisupra.) T%ray e?a(ination o" luggage- bags- an, other containers at a bor,er is routine an, re@uires neither a 0arrant nor in,i.i,uali;e, suspicion. (United States $# O(a'or (&th Cir. 2002) 2#$ B.3r, #32.) +he taFing o" a gas tanF out o" a .ehicle to inspect its contentsgi.en the (ini(al intrusi.eness o" such an act- is consi,ere, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court to be a *routine/ search- not re@uiring any articulable suspicion to Custi"y. (United States $# F"ores3%ontano (2003) $31 4.S. 13& 61$# 7.8,.2n, 3119: o.erruling the Jinth Circuit s conclusion to the contrary in United States $# %o"ina3Tara5on (2002) 22& B.3r, 20&.) 4se o" a *$uster/ on a .ehicle- gi.en the lacF o" any proo" that the ,e"en,ant 0as e?pose, to any ,anger "ro( the ra,ioacti.ity in the ,e.ice- ,oes not re@uire any suspicion in a search at the bor,er. (United States $# Camacho (&th Cir. 2003) 35# B.3r, 11#2.) A *$uster/ is *a han,hel, portable ,ensity gauge. . . . 1t contains a tiny bea, o" ra,ioacti.e (aterial calle, bariu( 133 that s insi,e a seale, container. . . . (E)hen the actuating trigger is pushe,- the container rolls to an open slot an, e?poses the ra,iation in a "or0ar, ,irection (pro.i,ing a rea,ing on the ,ensity o" an obCect)./ A higher rea,ing than nor(al in,icates that so(ething not nor(ally there is hi,,en in the obCect being e.aluate,- such as the spare tire in this case. (I.id.) +he search o" a passenger s cabin on a cruise ship- upon returning "ro( a "oreign port- is a *routine bor,er search/ an, ,oes not re@uire any suspicion. ()eop"e $# 2a.orde (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th #20.) +on6Routine earches re@uire a *reasonable suspicion/ the person or thing to be searche, contains so(ething illegal- an, ha.e been hel, to inclu,e body ca!ity searches- strip searches- patdowns an, in!oluntary x6 ray searches. (United States $# %onto&a De 0ernande5 (1&#$) 323 4.S. 5#$
$31 6#2 7.8,.2n, 3#19: United States $# 9ance (&th Cir. 1&&$) 52 B.3r, 11$2.) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal- in United States $# %o"ina3 Tara5on- supra- "oun, three "actors 0hich- 0hen present- 0arrant the "in,ing that a particular search is non%routine: i.e.- (1) the use o" "orce- (2) ,anger- an, (3) "ear. +he Court- perhaps stretching its cre,ibility a bit- "oun, e.i,ence o" each in the re(o.al o" a .ehicle s gas tanF. +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court o.errule, %o"ina3 Tara5on- so "ar as it relate, to the intrusi.eness o" taFing a gas tanF out o" a .ehicle- "in,ing instea, that to ,o so does not re@uire any articulable suspicion. (United States $# F"ores3%ontano (2003) $31 4.S. 13& 61$# 7.8,.2n, 3119.) See also United States $# Cedano3Are""ano (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, $5#: a certi"ie, ,etection ,og s alert on ,e"en,ant s gas tanF- plus ,e"en,ant s ner.ousnesse.asi.eness an, suspicious responses- su""icient *reasonable suspicion/ to Custi"y the re(o.al o" his gas tanF. O6Rays of the Person) An ?%ray search re@uires a *heightened le!el/ o" suspicion because it is potentially har("ul to the health o" the suspect. (United States $# E( (&th Cir. 1&#2) 522 B.2n, 32&3#2.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court in United States $# %onto&a De 0ernande5- supraat pp. $30%$31- critici;e, the use o" the phrase *heightened le!el of suspicion-/ pre"erring to use the stan,ar, *reasonable suspicion/ re@uire(ent. 4se o" a *$uster-/ ho0e.er- on a .ehicle- gi.en the lacF o" any proo" that the ,e"en,ant 0as e?pose, to any ,anger "ro( the ra,ioacti.ity in the ,e.ice- ,oes not re@uire any suspicion in a search at the bor,er. (United States $# Camacho (&th Cir. 2003) 35# B.3r, 11#2.) Extended detentions at the bor,eran, all stops or detentions away from the border- are also non%routine. (United States $# %onto&a De 0ernande5- supra- an, )eop"e $# Superior Court (1&23) 33 Cal.App.3r, $23.)
5#5
Cutting open luggage- i" per(anent ,a(age is cause,- is liFely to be hel, to be a non%routine search- ,epen,ing upon the e?tent o" the ,a(age. (United States $# O(a'or (&th Cir. 2002) 2#$ B.3r, #32.) Destructi!eness of the earch) Oore recent authority has critici;e, the practice o" classi"ying bor,er searches as routine or non%routine. Ratherthe *destructi!eness/ o" the search is the (ore i(portant "actor to consi,er. (United States $# Corte53Rocha (&th Cir. 2003) 3#3 B.3r, 10&3citing United States $# F"ores3%ontano (2003) $31 4.S. 13& 61$# 7.8,.2n, 3119.) 1n Corte53Rocha- supra- the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal- in a split- t0o%to%one ,ecision- hel, that cutting open a spare tire o" a .ehicle is not so ,estructi.e as to re@uire a "in,ing o" a reasonable suspicion in or,er to Custi"y. Re(o.al o" a gas tanF is not so ,estructi.e as to re@uire a reasonable suspicion to Custi"y. (United States $# F"ores3%ontanosupra: o.erruling the Jinth Circuit Court s opinion to the contrary. Drilling a $N15%inch hole into the be, o" a picFup trucF- the ,a(age being (ini(al an, not a""ecting the security an, sa"ety o" its passengers- ,oes not re@uire a reasonable suspicion to Custi"y. (United States $# Chaudhr& (&th Cir. 200$) 323 B.2n, 10$1.) 4nscre0ing an, pulling apart the insi,e ,oor panels to a .ehicle0here the panels coul, be reinstalle, 0ithout any ,a(age to the .ehicle- ,oes not re@uire a reasonable suspicion. (United States $# 0ernande5 (&th Cir. 200$) 323 B.3r, 10$5.) Reasonableness of the earch) 8.en a bor,er search 0hich (ay be con,ucte, 0ith no suspicion (ust be reasonable in its (anner an, scope. (United States $# Se";an (&th Cir. 2002) 3&2 B.3r, 1032- 1032%103$: a currency inter,iction search- as authori;e, by 31 !S!C! )311+4,- o" an out%boun, en.elope resulting in ,isco.ery o" e.i,ence that ,e"en,ant tra.ele, to the Philippines "or illicit purposes- 0here letters 0ere initially (erely scanne, an, not rea,.) A t0o%,ay ,etention o" ,e"en,ant s laptop co(puters an, ca(eratransporting the( so(e 120 (iles "ro( the bor,er "or a "orensic e?a(ination- 0as reasonable gi.en the co(ple?ity o" the technology in.ol.e,- an, thus still a bor,er search re@uiring no suspicion. (United States $# Cotterman (&th Cir. 2011) 532 B.3r, 105#- 1025%10#3: "in,ing that a *heightene, suspicion/ is not necessary (erely to transport the co(puters.) 5#2
+ote) +his ,ecision 0as .acate, 0hen the Jinth Circuit grante, a (otion "or an en banc hearing on Oarch 1&2012- (aFing it una.ailable "or citation pen,ing a rehearing. The GFunctiona" E:ui$a"ent o' a order:H GGor,er searches nee, not occur at an actual bor,er- but (ay taFe place at the Afunctional e@ui!alent o" a bor,er- or at an Aextended border (see belo0). / (United States $# Gu5man3)adi""a (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, #5$- #22: citing United States $# Cardona (&th Cir. 1&#$) 25& B.2n, 52$- 52#.) An 1nternational Airport- recei.ing "lights "ro( a "oreign country- is the *functional e@ui!alent of a border./ !pening luggage there"ore re@uires no suspicion- 0hile cutting open the luggage- ,a(aging it- re@uires a reasonable suspicion- to be la0"ul. (United States $# O(a'or (&th Cir. 2002) 2#$ B.3r, #32.) +he "irst port 0here a .essel ,ocFs on arri.al "ro( a "oreign country is the "unctional e@ui.alent o" an international bor,er. ()eop"e $# 2a.orde (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th #20- #23.) Si(ilarly- a regional sorting hub "or e?press consign(ent ser.ices- liFe those o""ere, by 4PS- is the *functional e@ui!alent of a border/ an, not an *extended border./ (See belo0). +he test "or ,eter(ining the ,i""erence is 0hether the "acility (at 7ouis.ille- ZentucFy- in this case) is 0here pacFages are searche, *at the last practicable opportunity be"ore its passage o.er the international bor,er./ (United States $# A..ouchi (&th Cir. 2002) $02 B.3r, #$0.) See also United States $# Se";an (&th Cir. 200#) $32 B.3r, &&30here the Court hel, the sa(e "or a Be,8? regional sorting "acility in !aFlan,- Cali"ornia- 0here ,e"en,ant s (ail- boun, "or the Philippines- 0as la0"ully subCecte, to 0arrantless inspections by 4.S. Custo(s Ser.ice inspectors. The GE!tended order Search Doctrine:H Ehile a search at the 1nternational bor,er or the *functional e@ui!alent of a border/ (see abo.e)- ,one un,er authority o" 1" !S!C! 1)#2- ,oes not re@uire any suspicion to Custi"y- a search un,er the *extended border search doctrine-/ ,one upon containers that ha.e alrea,y been i(porte, an, are searche, *where!er found-/ are authori;e, by 1" !S!C! 4#2an, re@uire the presence o" a *reasonable cause to suspect/ (i.e.- a *reasonable suspicion/)- to be la0"ul. (United States $# Ramse& (1&22) 331 4.S. 505- 512%513 6$2 7.8,.2n, 5129: United States $# Ta1hi5adeh (&th 5##
Cir. 1&&3) 31 B.3r, 1253- 125$: United States $# Cardona (&th Cir. 1&#$) 25& B.2n, 52$- 522: United States $# Sahana;a (&th Cir. 200$) 330 B.3r, 103&.) 8?ten,e, bor,er searches base, upon less than probable cause are la0"ul so long as) (1) +he totality o" the circu(stances- inclu,ing the ti(e an, ,istance elapse, as 0ell as the (anner an, e?tent o" sur.eillance- con.ince the "act "in,er 0ith reasonable certainty that any contraban, in or on the .ehicle at the ti(e o" search 0as aboar, the .ehicle at the ti(e o" entry into the 4nite, States: and (2) +he go.ern(ent agents con,ucing the search ha.e a reasonable suspicion that the search (ay unco.er contraban, or e.i,ence o" cri(inal acti.ity. (United States $# 9i""asenor (&th Cir. 2010) 50# B.3r, 352- 321%322.) +his rule applies to pacFages that are being sent from the 4nite, States to a "oreign country- e.en though it has not yet le"t the country- at least 0here it has been put into the han,s o" the (ail ser.ice an, is *all but certain/ that it 0ill be lea.ing the country. (A"e!ander $# United States (&th Cir. 1&55) 352 B.2n, 32&- 3#2.) An e?ten,e, bor,er search- 0hich occurs a"ter the actual entry into the 4nite, States has been (a,e- ten, to intru,e (ore on an in,i.i,ual s nor(al e?pectation o" pri.acy. 1t (ust there"ore be Custi"ie, by a *reasonable suspicion/ that the subCect o" the search 0as in.ol.e, in cri(inal acti.ity. (United States $# Gu5man3)adi""a (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, #5$- #22./) An e?ten,e, bor,er search re@uires that la0 en"orce(ent possess a *reasonable certainty/ that a bor,er has been crosse,- either by the .ehicle in @uestion or by contraban, suspecte, to be 0ithin the .ehicle. (Id#- at p. #2#- #2&%##1.) A Gor,er Patrol Agent obser.e, ,e"en,ant s picFup trucF so(e 20 (iles north o" the 4.S.SOe?ico bor,er on 1nterstate 20- 0ith Oe?ican license plates- tra.eling at &0 (iles%per%hour 0hile the other .ehicles 0ere ,ri.ing bet0een 20 an, #0 (iles%per%hour. Also- ,e"en,ant 0as 0ea.ing in an, out o" tra""ic an, ,i, not (aFe eye contact 0ith the agent a"ter the pulle, his police car alongsi,e the passenger si,e o" his trucF. Ie there"ore a""ecte, a tra""ic stop. 5#&
De"en,ant consente, to a search o" his trucF resulting in eight Filogra(s o" cocaine being reco.ere,. Despite the agent s testi(ony that his Custi"ication "or the stop 0as his belie" that ,e"en,ant s beha.ior 0as consistent 0ith the beha.ior o" alien an, ,rug s(ugglers 0ho encounter la0 en"orce(ent o""icers in that area- the court hel, that the totality o" the circu(stances ,i, not Custi"y a reasonable suspicion to belie.e that ,e"en,ant 0as s(uggling ,rugs or aliens. +he totality o" the circu(stances 0as suggesti.e o" no (ore than a ,ri.er 0ith Oe?ican license plates co((itting tra""ic in"ractions on an interstate 20 (iles north o" the bor,er. (United States $# 9a"des39e1a (&th Cir. 2012) 5#$ B.3r, 113#.) 4se o" a *controlled tire deflation de!ice/ (or *C+DD/) by Gor,er Patrol agents to stop a .ehicle "or 0hich there 0as a reasonable suspicion that it 0as in.ol.e, in s(uggling people or contraban, across the bor,er 0as hel, to be la0"ul an,- un,er the circu(stances- not an e?cessi.e use o" "orce. (United States $# Gu5man3)adi""a (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, #5$.) Bollo0ing ,e"en,ant a"ter seeing his car on the 4nite, States si,e but near the bor,er- a"ter 0hich a (unicipal police o""icer 0as tol, to stop ,e"en,ant- an, 0here a ,rug sni""ing ,og alerte, on ,e"en,ant s .ehicle0as a .ali, e?ten,e, bor,er search supporte, by a reasonable suspicionbase, upon in"or(ant in"or(ation an, ,e"en,ant s unusual beha.ior a"ter crossing the bor,er. (United States $# 9i""asenor (&th Cir. 2010) 50# B.3r, 352.) +he search 0as uphel, in 9i""asenor ,espite a 3$ (inute ,etention 0hile a0aiting the arri.al o" a ,rug%sni""ing ,og- a"ter a 20 (inute sur.eillance- an, 0here ,e"en,ant 0as not seen crossing the bor,er but 0here it 0as apparent that he , Cust co(e "ro( Oe?ico. A t0o%,ay ,etention o" ,e"en,ant s laptop co(puters an, ca(eratransporting the( so(e 120 (iles "ro( the bor,er "or a "orensic e?a(ination- 0as reasonable gi.en the co(ple?ity o" the technology in.ol.e,- an, thus still a bor,er search (thus not an *e?ten,e, bor,er search/) re@uiring no suspicion. (United States $# Cotterman (&th Cir. 2011) 532 B.3r, 105#- 1025%10#3: "in,ing that a *heightene, suspicion/ is not necessary (erely to transport the co(puters.) Suppression 0as not 0arrante, because (1) the bor,er search ,octrine applie, an, the Lo.ern(ent ,i, not nee, to categorically ,e(onstrate so(e heightene, suspicion to transport property to a secon,ary site "or inspection- (2) the reasonableness o" the search 0as better analy;e, on a case%by%case basis to ,eter(ine 0hether the scope or ,uration o" the intrusion 0as constitutionally 5&0
unreasonable- an, (3) the Lo.ern(entDs con,uct 0as not so egregious as to ren,er the search unreasonable since the property 0as su""iciently co(ple? to per(it its relocation- an, the t0o%,ay sei;ure o" the property 0as reasonable. (I.id.) +ote) +his ,ecision 0as .acate, 0hen the Jinth Circuit grante, a (otion "or an en banc hearing on Oarch 1&- 2012- (aFing it una.ailable "or citation pen,ing a rehearing. Immi1ration Chec(points A,a& 'rom the order) 8stablishe, checFpoints locate, a0ay "ro( the bor,er- such as at San Cle(ente- on 1nterstate $- an, BallbrooF- on 1nterstate 1$- 0ere- at one ti(e- consi,ere, to be the *functional e@ui!alent/ o" a bor,eran, there"ore subCect to the sa(e rules- e.en though these t0o points are (iles "ro( the 4.S.NOe?ican bor,er. (See United States $# %artine53Fuerte (1&25) 32# 4.S. $33 63& 7.8,.2n, 11159.) At the ti(e- a checFpoint 0as thought to be the *functional e@ui!alent of the border/ only 0hen the go.ern(ent has pro.en to a *reasonable certainty that the tra""ic passing through the checFpoint is international in character. 6Citation9 1n practical ter(s- this test (eans that bor,er e@ui.alent checFpoints intercept no (ore than a negligible nu(ber o" ,o(estic tra.elers./ (United States $# *ac(son ($th Cir. 1&#2) #2$ B.2n, #$3- #50.) Actual *border chec?points/ i(plicate the broa,er po0ers o" the "e,eral go.ern(ent to con,uct searches an, sei;ures o" persons "or immigration- drug interdiction- or other purposes at the bor,er or its "unctional e@ui.alent. (See United States $# %onto&a de 0ernande5 (1&#$) 323 4.S. $31- $31%$32 6#2 7.8,.2n, 3#1- 3&1%3&29: United States $# Ramse& (1&22) 331 4.S. 505- 515 6$2 7.8,.2n, 512- 5259.) Oore recent authority- ho0e.er- recogni;es that such checFpoints are (erely *immigration chec?points-/ an, not the e@ui.alent o" an international bor,er. (United States $# Fran5en.er1 (S.D.Cal. 1&&0) &32 B.Supp. 1313: United States $# %achuca3 arrera ($th Cir. 2001) 251 B.3r, 32$- 332- "n. 1$.) +here"ore- it has been hel, that stops at such points "or i((igration purposes is la0"ul ,espite the lacF o" *reasonable suspicion-/ re@uiring only that such stops be *selecti!e./ (United States $# %artine53Fuerte- supra.)
5&1
Gut the search o" a .ehicle at an i((igration checFpointa0ay "ro( the bor,er- (ay re@uire *probable cause/ to Custi"y. (United States $# Orti5 (1&2$) 322 4.S. #&1 63$ 7.8,.2n, 5239.) Ro$in1 )atro"s) Gor,er Patrol .ehicle stops- a0ay "ro( the bor,er- are hel, to the sa(e Fourth Amendment stan,ar,s as any other ,o(estic la0 en"orce(ent agency. (A"meida3Sanche5 (1&23) 313 4.S. 255 632 7.8,.2n, $&59: United States $# ri1noni3)once (1&2$) 322 4.S. #23 63$ 7.8,.2n, 5029.) An in.estigatory stop o" a .ehicle (ay be base, upon a reasonable suspicion that cri(inal acti.ity is a"oot- base, upon an e.aluation o" the *totality of the circumstances./ +he "act that the circu(stances- taFen in,i.i,ually an, in isolation- (ay all ha.e so(e reasonable- non%cri(inal e?planation- ,oes not (ean that a bor,er patrol agent ,oes not ha.e legal cause to stop an, in.estigate a possible ,rug s(uggler. (United States $# Ar$i5u (2002) $33 4.S 255 61$1 7.8,.2n, 2309.) +he non%e?clusi.e list o" "actors a court (ay use in ,eter(ining 0hether a stop an, ,etention is la0"ul inclu,e) +he characteristics o" the area in 0hich a .ehicle is encountere,. Pro?i(ity to the bor,er. Recent illegal bor,er crossings in the area. 8rratic or e.asi.e ,ri.ing beha.ior. Aspects o" the .ehicle. +he beha.ior or appearance o" the ,ri.er. (United States $# ri1noni3)once- supra- at pp. ##3%##$ 63$ 7.8,.2n, at pp. 51#%51&9.) See also United States $# er.er3Tinoco (&th Cir. 2002) $10 B.3r, 10#3a,,ing) 4sual patterns o" s(uggling in the area: Pre.ious alien or ,rug s(uggling in the area: Geha.ior o" the ,ri.er- inclu,ing *ob.ious atte(pts to e.a,e o""icers:/ Appearance or beha.ior o" passengers: Oo,el an, appearance o" the .ehicle: and !""icer e?perience.
See United States $# Dia53*uare5 (&th Cir. 2002) 2&& B.3r, 113#: Dri.ing late at night in a high cri(e area- near the 1nternational Gor,er- apparently 5&2
looFing "or so(ething- in a .ehicle "ro( another area an, 0ith a (o,i"ie, suspension- hel, in this case su""icient to Custi"y a stop an, ,etention. Also- state (inclu,ing local) la0 en"orce(ent o""icers ha.e li(ite, statutory authority to ,etain an, @uestion in,i.i,uals regar,ing their i((igration status i") +he person is illegally present in the 4nite, States: +he person has pre.iously been con.icte, o" a "elony in the 4nite, States an, since le"t the country or 0as ,eporte,: +he state or local la0 en"orce(ent o""icial obtains *appropriate confirmation/ "ro( the 1JS o" the i((igration status o" the in,i.i,ual: +he state or local la0 en"orce(ent o""icial only ,etains the in,i.i,ual "or as long as is reasonably re@uire, "or the 1JS to assu(e "e,eral custo,y o" the in,i.i,ual "or the purposes o" ,eportation or re(o.al. (# !S!C! 12)2c+a,: United States $# 9as:ue53A"$are5 (10th Cir. 1&&&) 125 B.3r, 12&3- 12&5.) +ote the Jinth Circuit s unsupporte, conclusion that absent *a particularized reasonable suspicion that an in,i.i,ual is not a citi;en-/ it is a Fourth Amendment .iolation to asF hi( or her about the subCect s citi;enship (see %ena $# Cit& o' Semi 9a""e& (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, 12$$- 1253%125$.) 0as re.erse, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court (Certiorari grante,- 2003) +he 4.S. Supre(e Court reCecte, this reasoning in the %ena casere.ersing %ena 0hile hol,ing that it is not an unconstitutional e?pansion o" the original reasons "or the ,etention (erely to (aFe in@uiry as to a person s citi;enship status. %ueh"er $# %ena (200$) $33 4.S. &3 6151 7.8,.2n, 2&&9: speci"ically re.ersing the Jinth Circuit on this issue.) Search o' a Residence: Search o" a resi,ence- a0ay "ro( the bor,er- a"ter "ollo0ing a suspecte, illegal alien to the resi,ence- re@uires "ull probable cause an, a search 0arrant- absent an e?igency. Although police o""icers are allo0e, to approach a ho(e to contact in,i.i,uals insi,e an, con,uct a *FnocF an, talF-/ in this case- the e.i,ence ,i, not support the Gor,er Patrol Agents 5&3
argu(ent that they entere, ,e"en,ant s property to initiate a consensual encounter 0ith hi(. +he court conclu,e, that it 0as not obCecti.ely reasonable- as part o" a FnocF%an,%talF- "or the agent to bypass the "ront ,oor- 0hich he ha, seen ,e"en,ant open in response to a FnocF by a suspecte, illegal alien (o(ents earlier- an, intru,e into an area o" the curtilage 0here an unin.ite, .isitor 0oul, not be e?pecte, to appear (i.e.carport attache, to the si,e o" the house). Gy trespassing onto the curtilage an, ,etaining ,e"en,ant- the agent .iolate, ,e"en,ant s Fourth Amendment rights. (United States $# )erea3Re& (&th Cir. 2012) 5#0 B.3r, 112&- 11#3%11#&.) The San Ysidro )ort o' Entr&- in San Diego- is state lan, an, not "e,eralalthough the attache, "acilities belong to the "e,eral go.ern(ent. A "e,eral 1((igration an, Jaturali;ation Agent at that location (ay there"ore la0"ully (aFe a citi;en s arrest "or a state cri(inal .iolation (e.g.- ,ri.ing 0hile un,er the in"luence) an, turn hi( o.er to state an, local la0 en"orce(ent o""icers. ()eop"e $# Crusi""a (1&&&) 22 Cal.App.3th 131.)
5&3
Chapter 1G
Fourth -ai$er Searches) G)rior Consents:H Search I Sei5ure @GFourth -ai$erHA Conditions) <eneral Rule) All parolees- an, so(e probationers- are subCect to 0hat is co((only re"erre, to as a *Fourth =ai!er:/ i.e.- 0here the subCect has agree,- prior to the "act- to 0ai.e any obCections to being subCecte, to searches an, sei;ures 0ithout the necessity o" the la0 en"orce(ent o""icer (eeting the stan,ar, Fourth Amendment re@uire(ents o" probable cause an, a search warrant. (See 9anden.er1 $# Superior Court (1&20) # Cal.App.3r, 103#- 10$3.) Searches o" a parolee an, his property are reasonable- so long as the paroleeDs status is Fno0n to the o""icer an, the search is not arbitrary- capricious- or harassing. ()eop"e $# Schmit5 (2012) $$ Cal.3th &0&- &15%&33: ,iscussing the search o" a non%parolee s .ehicle an, its contents 0hen the parolee is a passenger in the car.) A 0arrantless search o" those areas o" the passenger co(part(ent o" a .ehicle 0here an o""icer reasonably e?pects that the parolee coul, ha.e sto0e, personal belongings or ,iscar,e, ite(s 0hen a0are o" police acti.ity- as 0ell as a search o" personal property locate, in those areas i" the o""icer reasonably belie.es that the parolee o0ns those ite(s or has the ability to e?ert control o.er the(- is la0"ul. (I.id.) +he courts an, the 7egislature (ay- un,er certain li(ite, circu(stances- con,ition the "ree,o( o" parolees- so(e probationers- an, (in so(e cases) e.en pretrial ,etainees- upon an agree(ent that la0 en"orce(ent- probation o""icers an,Nor parole agents- be allo0e, to search an, sei;e a subCect s person an, possessions 0ithout probable cause an, 0ithout a search 0arrant. ()eop"e $# ra$o (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, 500- 510: In re Yor( (1&&$) & Cal.3th 1133- 11$0.) 1t is the prosecution s bur,en o" pro.ing that the ,e"en,ant 0as on parole (or probation)- an, there"ore subCect to the con,itions o" a Fourth 0a.ier- at the ti(e o" the 0arrantless search. ()eop"e $# )ear" (200&) 122 Cal.App.3th 12#0.) Although i(pose, as a con,ition o" the subCect s parole or probation- such a 0ai.er- albeit coerce, at least to so(e e?tent- is 5&$
o"ten consi,ere, by so(e courts to be a "or( o" *prior consent./ (In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#- 2&%#0- o.errule, on other groun,s.) +ote) In re T&re"" *#- supra- has been speci"ically o.errule, by the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court in In re *aime )# (2005) 30 Cal.3th 12#- on the issue o" 0hether an o""icer ha, to Fno0 o" the probation con,ition prior to the search. T&re"" *# is cite, in this outline "or its other still%.ali, legal points. See * earching =hile 'n 'gnorance of a earch &ondition-/ belo0. Parole !2 Probation) &onsent) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court (ost recently note, that 0hile probationers consent to the i(position o" search an, sei;ure con,itions- typically to a.oi, "urther incarceration- si(ilar search an, sei;ure con,itions are i(pose, on parolees upon their release on parole 0ithout their consent since the parole statutes (e.g.- (!C! 3321) 0ere a(en,e, to eli(inate the a nee, "or parolee s consent (Stats! 2312, ch! 43, 4"). A parolee s lacF o" consent is there"ore irrele.ant. ()eop"e $# Schmit5 (2012) $$ Cal.3th &0&&1&%&21- an, "n. &.) +he a(en,(ent to (!C! 3321- eli(inating the re@uire(ent that the in(ate agree in 0riting to search an, sei;ure con,itions- 0as e""ecti.e as o" 5N22N12. Parole) A con,ition o" all paroles- a"ter the parolee has been release, "ro( prison- is that the parolee sub(it to searches by his or her parole o""icer- or *other peace officer at any time of the day or night, with or without a search warrant and with or without cause./ (Cal! Code of 8e5s, Title 1), 2)11E (!C! 3321+a,: )eop"e $# 0ernande5 (1&53) 22& Cal.App.2n, 133.) tatutory *uthorization) +he (enal Code pro.i,es that: *+he 7egislature "in,s an, ,eclares that the perio, i((e,iately "ollo0ing incarceration is critical to success"ul reintegration o" the o""en,er into society an, to positi.e citi;enship. 1t is in the interest o" public sa"ety "or the state to pro.i,e "or the super.ision an, sur.eillance o" parolees . . ./ ((!C! 3333+a,+1,) (!C! 3321 applies- by its ter(s (su4d! +c,)- to any parolee 0hose o""ense "or 0hich he or she is parole, occurre, on or after January 5&5
1- 1&&2- as 0ell as prison in(ates release, on 0hat is no0 Fno0n as *postrelease community super!ision./ !ther0ise- the language o" Cal! Code of 8e5s, Title 1), 2)11 controls) Bor parolees 0hose o""ense "or 0hich he or she is on parole occurred before /J/J/441) *Kou an, your resi,ence an, any property un,er your control (ay be searche, 0ithout a 0arrant at any ti(e by any agent o" the Depart(ent o" Corrections or any la0 en"orce(ent o""icer./ (Cal! Code of 8e5s, Title 1) 2)11) Bor parolees 0hose o""ense "or 0hich he or she is on parole occurred on or after /J/J/441 an, prison in(ates release, on *postrelease community super!ision./ Any in(ate release, on parole or postrelease co((unity super.ision (ust agree in 0riting *to be subCect to search or sei;ure by a parole o""icer or other peace o""icer at any ti(e o" the ,ay or night- 0ith or 0ithout a search 0arrant an, 0ith or 0ithout cause./ ((!C! 3321+a,) Oost "elons release, "ro( state prison on an, a"ter !ctober 1- 2011- or other0ise sentence, un,er the *(ostrelease CommunitA Su-er:ision Act of 2311-/ are subCect to *postrelease co((unity super.ision/ (PRCS) instea, o" state parole. +hey 0ill be super.ise, by a county agency ,esignate, by the boar, o" super.isors. 1n (ost- i" not allcounties- this 0ill be the county s probation ,epart(ent. (See the *(ostrelease CommunitA Su-er:ision Act of 2311-/ (!C! 34)3 et se*!) See (!C! 3321) 1n(ates release, "ro( prison on *postrelease co((unity super.ision/ are a,,e, to those in(ates (i.e.- those release, on parole) 0ho str subCect to search an, sei;ure by a parole o""icer or other peace o""icer at any ti(e o" the ,ay or night0ith or 0ithout a search 0arrant- an, 0ith or 0ithout cause. (!C! 34)3) A postrelease co((unity super.ision agree(ent inclu,es the "ollo0ing a(ong it s con,itions) +f,) +he person- an, his or her resi,ence an, possessions- shall be subCect to search at any ti(e o" the ,ay or night- 0ith or 0ithout 5&2
a 0arrant- by an agent o" the super.ising county agency or by a peace o""icer. +ote United States $# Caseres (&th Cir. 200#) $33 B.3, 1053- at pp. 102$%1025- 0hich erroneously hel, that an o""icer con,ucting a parole search (ust ha.e been a0are prior to the search that (!C! 3321+a, 0as applicable to the ,e"en,ant- i.e.- that the prior con.iction lea,ing to his parole status occurre, on or a"ter January 1- 1&&2. Cali"ornia case la0 appears to be to the contrary. (See )eop"e $# So"or5ano (2002) 1$3 Cal.App.3th 1025- 1030%1032: citing )eop"e $# %idd"eton (200$) 131 Cal.App.3th 232.: it is not necessary that the searching o""icer 0as a0are o" the e?istence o" a signe, parole search agree(ent- as re@uire, by (!C! 3321- so long as he Fne0 that the subCect 0as on parole.) +ote) 1n that the language o" (!C! 3321+a, is substantially si(ilar to that o" Cal! Code of 8e5s, Title 1) 2)11- the arresting o""icers Fno0le,ge o" the ,ate o" the prior con.iction shoul, be irrele.ant on the issue o" the legality o" ,e"en,ant s Fourth 0ai.er search. Probation) A con,ition o" some (but not all) probationary ter(s is that the probationer sub(it to searches by a probation o""icer or any la0 en"orce(ent o""icer 0ithout probable cause or a 0arrant. ()eop"e $# %ason (1&21) $ Cal.3r, 2$&- 253%253.) tatutory *uthorization) A court (ay i(pose any *reasonable con,itions- as it (ay ,eter(ine are "itting an, proper to the en, that Custice (ay be ,one- . . . (an,) "or the re"or(ation an, rehabilitation o" the probationer./ ((!C! 1233!1+K,) *(A) court 0hen granting probation (ay i(pose Areasonable con,itions as it (ay ,eter(ine are "itting an, proper to the en, that Custice (ay be ,one- that a(en,s (ay be (a,e to society "or breach o" the la0- "or any inCury ,one to any person resulting "ro( that breach- an, generally an, speci"ically "or the re"or(ation an, rehabilitation o" the probationer. / ()eop"e $# 2eon (2010) 1#1 Cal.App.3th &33- &3#%&3&.)
5&#
A Fourth =a!ier con,ition o" probation 0ill be uphel, unless) +he 0a.ier has no relationship to the cri(e "or 0hich the o""en,er 0as con.icte,: and +he 0a.ier relates to con,uct that is not in itsel" cri(inal: and +he 0ai.er is not reasonably relate, to pre.enting "uture cri(inality. (See )eop"e $# Shime( (1&##) 20$ Cal.App.3r, 330- 332: )eop"e $# 2ent (1&2$) 1$ Cal.3r, 3#1- 3#5: In re Fran( 9# (1&&1) 233 Cal.App.3r, 12232- 1232: )eop"e $# %oret (200&) 1#0 Cal.App.3th #3&- #3$.) +ote) +he Supre(e Court- in )eop"e $# %ason (1&21) $ Cal.3r, 2$&- erroneously liste, these criteria in the dis%uncti!e- 0hen in "act they are to be consi,ere, in the con%uncti!e. ()eop"e $# 2ent- supraat p. 3#5- "n. 1.) 1n other 0or,s- all three con,itions ha.e to apply be"ore a probation con,ition is subCect to being strucF. +ote) Li.en the abo.e "actors- probationary search an, sei;ure con,itions are co((only applie, to narcotics an, the"t%relate, o""enses- an, so(eti(es cri(es o" .iolence 0here the use o" a 0eapon 0as in.ol.e,. Ehen the probationer is a Cu.enile- because the purpose o" Cu.enile la0 is to rehabilitate (See /&I 232+4,)- the third o" the abo.e "actors is perhaps the (ost i(portant. (In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#- #2- o.errule, on other groun,s: see also In re onnie )# (1&&2) 10 Cal.App.3th 102&- 10#&.) *8.en i" a con,ition o" probation has no relationship to the cri(e o" 0hich a ,e"en,ant 0as con.icte, an, in.ol.es con,uct that is not itsel" cri(inal- the con,ition is .ali, as long as the con,ition is reasonably relate, to pre.enting "uture cri(inality./ ()eop"e $# O"1uin (200#) 3$ Cal.3th 32$- 32&%3#0: uphol,ing a probation con,ition re@uiring ,e"en,ant- con.icte, o" D41%relate, charges- to noti"y the probation o""icer o" the presence o" any pets in his ho(e.)
5&&
The language of the specific Fourth =ai!er condition (ust be consi,ere,. +here being no statutorily%re@uire, stan,ar, languagea court is "ree to li(it the search an, sei;ure con,itions as it ,ee(s to be appropriate un,er the circu(stances. A Cu,ge 0ho 0ishes to i(pose so(e unusual restrictions on la0 en"orce(ent o""icers po0ers to con,uct Fourth Eai.er searches has the legal authority to ,o so. ()eop"e $# ra$o (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, 500- 502- "n. 5.) Any li(itations in the con,itions are bin,ing on the searching o""icers. Bor instance- a search an, sei;ure con,ition speci"ically li(ite, to narcotics cannot be use, to Custi"y a search "or stolen property. ()eop"e $# 0o,ard (1&#3) 152 Cal.App.3r, #.) Io0e.erso long as the area being searche, coul, contain ite(s allo0e, to be searche, "or un,er the ter(s o" the Fourth Eai.er- the o""icer s subCecti.e intent (e.g.searching "or stolen property 0here only a search "or narcotics 0as authori;e,) is irrele.ant- an, the search 0ill be uphel,. ()eop"e $# Gome5 (200$) 130 Cal.App.3th 100#.) So(e Fourth Eai.ers inclu,e language authori;ing a 0arrantless search only *upon re@uest-/ *as re@uested-/ or *whene!er re@uested./ 8.en though or,inarily the ,e"en,ant nee, not be present ,uring the search ()eop"e $ 2i"ientha" (1&2#) 22 Cal.3r, #&1- &00.)- courts ha.e interprete, the abo.e language to (ean that the probationer (ust either be present- or at least be noti"ie, be"orehan, about an i(pen,ing search. 1" he is not- the resulting e.i,ence 0ill be suppresse,. (See )eop"e $# %ason (1&21) $ Cal.3r, 2$&- 253: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6Ste$ens7 (1&23) 12 Cal.3r, #$#- #51.) Parole !s2 Probation) Although there is so(e authority "or the argu(ent that the rules are the sa(e- 0hether ,iscussing the issue o" a parole search or a probation search- 0hen a Fourth Eai.er is the issue (see )eop"e $# 0oenin1haus (2003) 120 Cal.App.3th 11#0- 11&2%11&#.)- the 4nite, States Supre(e Court has in,icate, that parolees ha.e "e0er e?pectations o" pri.acy than probationers- hinting that they (i.e.- parolees) there"ore (ay be subCect to stricter controls. (Samson $# Ca"i'ornia (2005) $32 4.S. #33 615$ 7.8,.2n, 2$09.) * * pecial +eeds/ earch) 1n either case (i.e.- parole or probation)- such a con,ition o" parole or probation- co((only re"erre, to as a *Fourth 200
=ai!er-/ is an i(portant .ariance "ro( the nor(al search an, sei;ure rules. *(+)he go.ern(ent (ay ,ispense 0ith the 0arrant re@uire(ent in situations 0hen A*special nee,s- beyon, the nor(al nee, "or la0 en"orce(ent- (aFe the 0arrant an, probable cause re@uire(ent i(practicable./ / (In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#- 22o.errule, on other groun,s- citing Gri''in $# -isconsin (1&#2) 3#3 4.S. #5#- #23 6&2 7.8,.2n, 20&- 2129.) A *Fourth =ai!er-/ at least 0hen applie, to an a,ult probationeris in e""ect a prior consent gi.en by the probationer to sub(it his or her person- ho(e- .ehicle an, other possessions to search or sei;ure by any probation o""icer or other la0 en"orce(ent o""icerany ti(e- ,ay or night- 0ithout re@uiring the searching probation o""icer or police o""icer to obtain a search 0arrant- or to ,e(onstrate the e?istence o" probable cause. 1t is a 0ai.er o" the subCect s Fourth Amendment rights against unreasonable searches an, sei;ures. (See In re T&re"" *#- supraat pp. 2&%#0o.errule, on other groun,s: 9anden.er1 $# Superior Court (1&20) # Cal.App.3r, 103#- 10$3: )eop"e $# ra$o (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, 50050#%510: In re Yor( (1&&$) & Cal.3th 1133- 113&: )eop"e $# 0ernande5 (1&53) 22& Cal.App.2n, 133.) As a result- consi,ering the i(portant go.ern(ental interest in operating probation or parole syste(s- as 0ell as the nee, to protect the public- 0hen balance, 0ith the ,i(inishe, e?pectation o" pri.acy enCoye, by probationers an, parolees- Fourth =ai!er searches are no0 co((only classi"ie, as * pecial +eeds/ searches 0hich (ay be reasonable ,espite the lacF- in so(e instances- o" any particulari;e, suspicion Custi"ying the search. (Gri''in $# -isconsin (1&#2) 3#3 4.S. #5#- #2$ 6&2 7.8,.2n, 20&- 21#9: In re T&re"" *#- supraat pp. 25%22- o.errule, on other groun,s: )eop"e $# Re&essupra- at pp. 23#- 2$1%2$2.) See * pecial +eeds earches-/ un,er *=arrantless earches-/ abo.e.) +ote) Ehile a probationer is gi.en a choice 0hether to accept the probation con,itions (the alternati.e being incarceration)- parolees an, Cu.eniles typically are not. +he *prior consent/ theory- there"ore (ay be har, to Custi"y 0ith parolees an, Cu.eniles. +here"ore- in such cases- the theory that one 0ho has .ali,ly 0ai.e, his or her Fourth Amendment rights has a diminished expectation of pri!acy as a result- as a *special needs/ searchis perhaps a 201
stronger Custi"ication. (In re T&re"" *#- supraat p. #5o.errule, on other groun,s: )eop"e $# Re&es (1&&#) 1& Cal.3th 233- 23&%2$0.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court- in Gri''in $# -isconsin- supraat p. #25 6&2 7.8,.2n, at p. 21&9- "oun, three reasons supporting the conclusion that the operation o" a probation syste( presente, such *special needs)/ A 0arrant re@uire(ent 0oul, inter"ere to an appreciable ,egree 0ith the probation syste(- setting up a (agistrate rather than the probation o""icer as the Cu,ge o" ho0 close the super.ision the probationer re@uires. +he ,elay inherent in obtaining a 0arrant 0oul, (aFe it (ore ,i""icult "or probation o""icials to respon, @uicFly to e.i,ence o" (iscon,uct. A 0arrant an, probable cause re@uire(ent 0oul, re,uce the ,eterrent e""ect that the possibility o" e?pe,itious searches 0oul, other0ise create.
ee also the concurring opinion in United States $# Cra,'ord (&th Cir. 2003) 322 B.3r, 103#- at pages 1055%1022- ,escribing a parole Fourth Eai.er search as a *special needs/ search. +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court- in (Samson $# Ca"i'ornia (2005) $32 4.S. #33- #$2- "n. 3 615$ 7.8,.2n, 2$09.) ,ecline, to ,eci,e 0hether a parole Fourth Eai.er in.ol.e, a *special need./ :u!enile probationers (ay also be subCecte, to a Fourth =ai!er re@uire(ent. (In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#- #2- o.errule, on other groun,s.) /el! & Inst! Code 133+4,: *+he court (ay i(pose an, re@uire any an, all reasonable con,itions that it (ay ,eter(ine are "itting an, proper to the en, that Custice (ay be ,one an, the re"or(ation an, rehabilitation o" the 0ar, enhance,./ +he *special needs/ o" the Cu.enile probation syste(- 0ith its *goal o" rehabilitating youngsters 0ho ha.e transgresse, the la0- a goal that is arguably stronger than in the a,ult conte?t-/ allo0s "or stricter controls. (In re T&re"" *#- supra- o.errule, on other groun,s.) 202
So long as the con,itions i(pose, are tailore, speci"ically to (eet the nee,s o" the Cu.enile concerne,- taFing into account not only the circu(stances o" the cri(e but the Cu.enile s entire social history- probationary con,itions- e.en 0hich other0ise in"ringe upon the constitutional rights o" the Cu.enile- 0ill be uphel,. (In re inh 2# (1&&2) $ Cal.App.3th 1&3- 203%20$.) /&I 1"3 et se*!- 0hich pro.i,es "or a post%plea ,i.ersion progra(- (an,ates a Fourth Amendment 0ai.er as a con,ition in e.ery grant o" ,e"erre, entry o" Cu,g(ent (/&I 1"4). Di.ersion in a pre%plea situation pursuant to /&I 2)4 an, 2)4!2- ho0e.er- placing a Cu.enile on in"or(al probation- ,oes not pro.i,e "or the i(position o" a Fourth 0ai.er. Absent statutory authority to ,o so- a court- there"ore- is prohibite, "ro( i(posing a Fourth 0a.ier on a Cu.enile un,er such circu(stances. (Deric( # $# Superior Court 6)eop"e7 (200&) 1#0 Cal.App.3th 2&$.) Pre6Trial) Si(ilar Fourth =ai!ers (ay also be i(pose, as a con,ition o" an *;2R2/ (i.e.- *;wn Recognizance/) release pen,ing trial- an, ha.e been hel, to be la0"ul i" reasonably relate, un,er the circu(stances o" a particular case to the pre.ention an, ,etection o" "urther cri(e an, to the sa"ety o" the public. (In re Yor( (1&&$) & Cal.3th 1133.) +he Jinth Circuit ,isagrees- hol,ing that a Fourth =a!ier cannot be i(pose, on a pretrial ,e"en,ant as a con,ition o" release. (United States $# Scott (&th Cir. 200$) 3$0 B.3r, #53.) &onstitutionality) +he a,.ance, 0ai.er o" Fourth Amendment rightsi(pose, as a con,ition o" accepting probation or parole- has been hel, to be constitutional. (4ap $# United States (1&35) 32# 4.S. 523 6&0 7.8,. 13229: )eop"e $# %ason (1&21) $ Cal.3r, 2$&- 253%25$.) Expectation of Pri!acy) Ehile a nu(ber o" legal theories- inclu,ing *prior consent/ an, *special needs/ (see abo.e)- ha.e Custi"ie, the uphol,ing the legality o" Fourth Eai.er searches o.er the years- another theory espouse, by so(e courts is that persons subCect to a Fourth Eai.er ha.e a reduced expectation of pri!acy- ,epri.ing the( o" any *standing/ to obCect to the search. ()eop"e $# 9a"as:ue5 (1&&3) 21 Cal.App.3th $$$$$#: )eop"e $# 9iers (1&&1) 1 Cal.App.3th &&0- &&3: )eop"e $# iddin1er (1&&5) 31 Cal.App.3th 121&: )eop"e $# Ramos (2003) 33 Cal.3th 3&3- $03% $05: Samson $# Ca"i'ornia (2005) $32 4.S. #33 615$ 7.8,.2n, 2509: )eop"e $# Smith (200&) 122 Cal.App.3th 13$3- 1350%1351.) Standard o' )roo' Re:uired) 203
Probation) A probation search 0ith no warrant- probable cause- or e.en reasonable suspicion- so long as it ,oes not e?cee, the scope o" the consent gi.en- an, is not ,one "or purposes o" harass(ent or so(e arbitrary or capricious reason- (eets- in the opinion o" the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court- both "e,eral (Fourth Amendment) an, state (Art! 1, 13) constitutional re@uire(ents. ()eop"e $# ra$o (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, 500: )eop"e $# ro,n (1&#2) 1&1 Cal.App.3r, 251: see also )eop"e $# Re&es (1&&#) 1& Cal.3th 233.) +his inclu,es Cu.enile probation. (In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#- o.errule, on other groun,s.) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has- as a rule- assu(e, that- at the .ery least- a *reasonable suspicion/ o" rene0e, cri(inal acti.ity is re@uire, "or both parole an, probation Fourth Eai.ers. (See United States $# Sto(es (&th Cir. 2002) 2&2 B.3r, &53: *reasonable suspicion/ "oun,- so the issue not ,iscusse,.) Io0e.er- (ost recently- the Jinth Circuit has conce,e, that this issue is really not yet settle,- at least su""iciently to hol, an o""icer ci.illy liable. (%ot"e& $# )ar(s (&th Cir. 200$) 332 B.3r, 102210#3%10##: o""icers entitle, to @uali"ie, i((unity on this issue. See belo0.) +he Supre(e Court has speci"ically le"t open the @uestion 0hether or not a probationer on a Fourth Eai.er (ay be searche, on less than a reasonable suspicion. (United States $# /ni1hts (2001) $33 4.S. 112- 120- "n. 5. 61$1 7.8,.2n, 3&29.) 4ntil the 4.S. Supre(e Court ,oes rule on this issue- it is acFno0le,ge, that the Cali"ornia rule is that no suspicion is nee,e, to con,uct a Fourth 0a.ier search on a probationer. ()eop"e $# %edina (2002) 1$# Cal.App.3th 1$21: probationers ha.ing *consented/ to 0arrantless- suspicionless searches.) Gut in Samson $# Ca"i'ornia (2005) $32 4.S. #33 615$ 7.8,.2n, 2509- the Supre(e Court hinte, strongly that although a suspicionless search o" a parolee is constitutional- probationers probably ha.e (ore rights than parolees an, (ay re@uire a higher (i.e.- a *reasonable suspicion/) stan,ar,. Parole) !l,er Cali"ornia case authority to the e""ect that a police o""icer nee,s a *reasonable suspicion/ o" rene0e, cri(inal acti.ity be"ore con,ucting a parole Fourth Eai.er search (See )eop"e $# ur1ener (1&#5) 31 Cal.3r, $0$- $33%$3$.) 0as o.errule, in )eop"e $# Re&es (1&&#) 1& Cal.3th 233. 203
1n Re&es- the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court a,opte, the reasoning o" In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5# (o.errule, on other groun,s)an,- o.erruling ur1ener- ,eter(ine, that as 0ith Cu.enile probationers- parolees ,o not retain a reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy- an, (ay there"ore be searche, e.en 0ithout e.en a *reasonable suspicion/ o" rene0e, cri(inal acti.ity or other parole .iolation. +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal a.oi,e, ,eci,ing the issue in a nu(ber o" recent cases. (See United States $# Cra,'ord (2003) 322 B.3r, 103#: %oreno $# aca (&th Cir. 200$) 331 B.3r, 533: an, %ot"e& $# )ar(s (&th Cir. 200$) 332 B.3r, 1022- 10#3%10##.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court has no0 une@ui.ocally settle, the rule- agreeing 0ith Cali"ornia s analysis o" this issue- at least as it relates to parolees. (Samson $# Ca"i'ornia (2005) $32 4.S. #33 615$ 7.8,.2n, 2509: search o" a parolee s person.) See also United States $# 2ope5 (&th Cir. 2002) 323 B.3r, 120#- 1212%1213.) 0here the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal "ollo0e, Samson in "in,ing that a suspicionless parole Fourth Eai.er search o" a parolee s resi,ence 0as .ali,. 2imitation) Searches Con,ucte, "or Purposes of Harassment) A probationer (or parolee) subCect to a search con,ition retains the right to be "ree "ro( a search that is arbitrary- capricious or harassing. A search is arbitrary *0hen the (oti.ation "or the search is unrelate, to rehabilitati.e- re"or(ati.e or legiti(ate la0 en"orce(ent purposes- or 0hen the search is (oti.ate, by personal ani(osity to0ar, the parolee./ A search is a "or( o" harass(ent 0hen its (oti.ation is a (ere *whim or caprice./ ()eop"e $# Re&es (1&&#) 1& Cal.3th 233- 2$3: )eop"e $# %edina (2002) 1$# Cal.App.3th 1$21- 1$22.) *1t is only 0hen the (oti.ation "or the search is 0holly arbitrary0hen it is base, (erely on a 0hi( or caprice or 0hen there is no reasonable clai( o" a legiti(ate la0 en"orce(ent purpose- e.g.- an o""icer ,eci,es on a 0hi( to stop the ne?t re, car he or she seesthat a search base, on a probation search con,ition is unla0"ul./ ()eop"e $# Cer$antes (2002) 103 Cal.App.3th 1303- 130#.) Fourth =ai!er searches ha.e been hel, to be unreasonable i" con,ucte, too often- at an unreasonable time- 0hen it is unreasonably prolonged- or "or any other reasons establishing arbitrary or oppressi!e conduct by the searching o""icers. A search is arbitrary or oppressi.e 0hen the 20$
(oti.ation "or the search is unrelated to a rehabilitati!e, reformati!e or legitimate law enforcement purpose- or 0hen the search is moti!ated by personal animosity to0ar, the parolee or probationer. ()eop"e $# Re&essupra- at pp. 2$3%2$3: see also )eop"e $# C"o,er (1&&3) 15 Cal.App.3th 1232- 1231: United States $# Fo""ette (S.D.J.K. 1&5#) 2#2 B.Supp. 10- 13: an, In re Anthon& S# (1&&2) 3 Cal.App.3th 1000- 1003.) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court "oun, Cali"ornia s restrictions on arbitrary- capricious or harassing searches as an i(portant ingre,ient in uphol,ing the constitutionality o" a suspicionless Fourth Eai.er search o" a parolee. (Samson $# Ca"i'ornia (2005) $32 4.S. #33 615$ 7.8,.2n, 2509.) +he "act that a particular o""icer searche, ,e"en,ant t0ice 0ithin a 23%hour perio,- ,i, not establish by itsel" that he 0as harassing the ,e"en,ant. +he legiti(ate la0 en"orce(ent purpose o" the secon, search (a"ter ha.ing "oun, nothing illegal on ,e"en,ant- in his .ehicle- or in his car- less than 23 hours earlier) 0as substantiate, by the "act that the o""icer Fne0 ,e"en,ant 0as on parole "or a narcotics .iolation- that he associate, 0ith ,rug users- an, because he 0as obser.e, at the ti(e o" the secon, search in a high% narcotics area so(e 3H to 3 (iles "ro( his ho(e 0ithout any real reason "or being there. ()eop"e $# Sardinas (200&) 120 Cal.App.3th $3$.) A public strip search o" a probationer or parolee (ay in "act be unreasonable- an, groun,s "or suppression o" the resulting e.i,ence. Io0e.er- 0here the parolee is (o.e, to a location 0here he cannot be seen by (e(bers o" the general public (behin, the patrol car- 0ith police o""icers blocFing anyone s .ie0)- his pants lo0ere, an, the ban, on his un,er0ear pulle, bacF only to the e?tent necessary to see into his crotch areasuch is not a strip search con,ucte, in public. 4n,er the circu(stancessuch a search 0as consi,ere, to be reasonable. ()eop"e $# Smith (200&) 122 Cal.App.3th 13$3.) -ho %a& Conduct a Fourth -ai$er SearchM &alifornia Rule) Cali"ornia la0 is clear- as in,icate, by the ter(s o" the stan,ar, Fourth =a!ier con,itions- probation an, parole searches are not li(ite, to probation an, parole o""icers. *ny law enforcement officer is typically authori;e, to con,uct such searches. ()eop"e $# %ason (1&21) $ Cal.3r, 2$&- 255 6probation9: )eop"e $# Re&es (1&&#) 1& Cal.3th 233 6parole9.) (ederal Rule) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal s theory that Fourth =ai!er searches are a rehabilitati.e tool "or use by probation o""icers only205
0ith local la0 en"orce(ent s atte(pt to use a Fourth =a!ier to Custi"y a 0arrantless search as being no (ore than a *ruse/ "or con,ucting a ne0 cri(inal in.estigation an, a .iolation o" the Fourth Amendment (e.g.see United States $# Oo"e& (&th Cir. 1&&2) 115 B.3r, 320.)- has been o.errule, by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court. (United States $# /ni1hts (2001) $33 4.S 112 61$1 7.8,.2n, 3&29: see also United States $# Sto(es (&th Cir. 2002) 2&2 B.3r, 1153.) A probation o""icer con"ronte, 0ith an uncooperati.e- irate in,i.i,ual 0ho 0as present in the house o" a Cu.enile probationer ,uring a Fourth 0a.ier search- 0hen the ,etaine, .isitor appeare, to be a gang (e(ber an, 0ho 0as o.erly ,resse, "or the 0eatheran, 0ho atte(pte, to turn a0ay an, co.er his sto(ach 0hen or,ere, not to ,o so- la0"ully patte, ,o0n the suspect "or 0eapons. ()eop"e $# Rios (2011) 1&3 Cal.App.3th $#3- $&#%500.) +he Court "urther ,eter(ine, that a probation o""icer has the legal authority to ,etain an, pat,o0n a non%probationer pursuant to (!C! #33!)+a,+4, (i.e.: en"orcing *.iolations o" any penal pro.isions o" la0 0hich are ,isco.ere, 0hile per"or(ing the usual or authori;e, ,uties o" his or her e(ploy(ent./) (Id- at p. 500.) Need to See( )ermission 'rom the )ro.ation or )aro"e O''icer: Probation) 1t has long been the rule- at least in probation searches- that a local la0 en"orce(ent o""icer nee, not e.en seeF the per(ission o" a probation o""icer. (See )eop"e $# %ason (1&21) $ Cal.3r, 2$&.) Jote "e,eral la0 is to the contrary- base, on the ter(s o" the Federal (ro4ation Act- 0hich is not applicable to state cases. (See United States $# Consue"o3Gon5a"e5 (&th Cir. 1&2$) $21 B.2n, 2$&.) Parole) Prior Cali"ornia authority to the e""ect that in a parole situation a local la0 en"orce(ent o""icer (ust "irst recei.e authori;ation "ro( the parole o""icer (e.g.- see )eop"e $# Co''man (1&5&) 2 Cal.App.3r, 5#1- 5##% 5#&: )eop"e $# Nata"e (1&2#) 22 Cal.App.3r, $5#- $23.) has arguably been o.errule, by )eop"e $# Re&es (1&&#) 1& Cal.3th 233- 0hich "in,s the stan,ar,s "or probation an, parole searches to be the sa(e. 8.en prior to Re&essupra- there 0as so(e Cali"ornia authority that at least 0here seeFing the prior appro.al o" the parole o""icer 0oul, be a *meaningless formality-/ such as 0hen *any parole o""icer 0ho re"use, to authori;e a search gi.en an articulable reasonable suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity A0oul, ha.e been ,erelict 202
in his ,uties- / calling the parole o""icer is unnecessary. ()eop"e $# ro,n (1&#&) Cal.App.3r, 1#2- 1&2.) +ote) Despite the lacF- un,er Cali"ornia la0- o" any legal re@uire(ent to contact the appropriate parole o""icer or o""ice be"ore un,ertaFing a parole search- the Cali"ornia Depart(ent o" Correction re@uests an, reco((en,s- in instances in.ol.ing the search o" a paroleeDs residence or business- that you ,o so any0ay- "or operational reasons as 0ell "or reasons o" sa"ety an, cooperation. (ederal authority- at least "ro( the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal(ay still be hol,ing onto the theory that parole is a tool "or parole authorities "or controlling parolees- an, not so(ething that local la0 en"orce(ent is entitle, to use. (See United States $# *arrad (&th Cir. 1&#$) 2$3 B.2n, 13$1- 13$3: re"erring to a parole o""icer 0ho authori;es a search at the re@uest o" the police as the police o""icers agent- or *stal?ing horse:/ see also 2atta $# Fit5harris (&th Cir. 1&2$) $21 B.2n, 235- 232- an, United States $# 0a""man (3r, Cir. 1&55) 35$ B.2n, 2#&.) Searchin1 -hi"e In I1norance o' a Search Condition) Ehether a police o""icer (ust personally Fno0 o" a probation or parole search an, sei;ure con,ition (i.e.- a *Fourth =ai!er/) before con,ucting a search in or,er "or the search to be later ,eclare, *lawful/ has been the subCect o" so(e ,ebate. 'ssue) Ehen a police o""icer con,ucts a 0arrantless search of a person or that person s property or residence- 0hich- as it turns out- is not supporte, by probable cause an,Nor e?igent circu(stances- an, then belatedly ,isco.ers that the person being searche, is subCect to a probation or parole%i(pose, Fourth Eai.er- may the search still be uphel,M Earlier &ase "aw ten,e, to lean to0ar,s "in,ing such searches to be la0"ul- at least i" base, upon a probation Fourth Eai.er. (In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#- #$: )eop"e $# 9a"as:ue5 (1&&3) 21 Cal.App.3th $$$.) Ehen ,ealing 0ith a *parole search and seizure condition-/ the courts 0ere not so prone to e?cusing the o""icer s "ailure to Fno0 o" the e?istence o" a Fourth Ea.ier. (See In re %artine5 (1&20) 1 Cal.3r, 531.) Also- there 0as authority that an illegal arrest o" so(eone subCect to probationary search an, sei;ure con,itions ,oes not result in suppression o" any e.i,ence reco.ere, inci,ent to the arrestin that the subCect has 0ai.e, any right to seeF suppression o" the e.i,ence sei;e,. ()eop"e $# 9a"as:ue5- supraat p. $$&.) 20#
Ju.enile probationers ha.e been hel, to the sa(e stan,ar,s as are a,ults (In re %arce""us 2# (1&&1) 22& Cal.App.3r, 133 133%135: In re T&re"" *#- supra- o.errule, on other groun,s.)- althoughperhaps- "or ,i""erent reasons. Present tate of the Rule) +he Cali"ornia Supre(e Court rule, as recently as 1&&3 that a Cu.enile probationer- on the street- (ay be la0"ully searche, e.en though the o""icer ,oes not ,isco.er until a"ter the "act that he 0as on probation an, subCect to search an, sei;ure con,itions. (In re T&re"" *# (1&&3) # Cal.3th 5#.) See )eop"e $# 2e,is (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 552- at pages 55#%55&- using In re T&re"" *# to uphol, the 0arrantless entry into a resi,ence an, arrest o" a parolee%at% largeNrobbery suspect in his ho(e- hol,ing that the arresting o""icer s lacF o" Fno0le,ge o" the arrestee s probation Fourth Eai.er is irrele.ant. Howe!er- the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court re"use, to e?ten, the rule o" In re T&re"" *# to the search o" a resi,ence 0hen it 0as belate,ly ,isco.ere, that the suspect s brother (an, co%occupant) 0as subCect to a Fourth Ea.ier- attaching (ore .alue to the pri.acy rights o" a co%tenant 0ho is not subCect to search con,itions. ()eop"e $# Ro."es (2000) 23 Cal.3th 2#&.) (inally- recogni;ing that they (ight ha.e gone too "ar in In re T&re"" *#- supra- a (aCority o" the Supre(e Court in.ali,ate, the search o" a resi,ence as to both the co%tenant (0ho 0as not on a Fourth Eai.er)- an, the suspect 0ho 0as ,isco.ere,- a"ter the "act- to be on parole- an, thus subCect to search an, sei;ure con,itions. ()eop"e $# Sanders (2003) 31 Cal.3th 31#.) Ehile re"using to speci"ically o.errule In re T&re"" *#- the Court note, the *chilly reception/ the ,ecision has recei.e,- an,- at the .ery least- li(ite, it to its "acts: i.e.the search o" a Cu.enile s person- as oppose, to the search o" a resi,ence in an a,ult case. +he Birst District Court o" Appeal- in )eop"e $# o,ers (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th 1251- rea, Sanders as li(iting the rule o" In re T&re"" *# to Cu.enile cases- gi.en the uni@ue *special needs/ o" the Cu.enile court probation syste(. 1n an a,ult prosecution- 0hether o" a parolee or a probationer- an, irrespecti.e o" 0hether it is the 20&
subCect s ho(e or person (or- presu(ably- his .ehicle or other personal possessions) that is being searche,- not Fno0ing o" a Fourth Amendment search an, sei;ure con,ition 0ill preclu,e the use o" such a 0ai.er to sa.e an other0ise illegal search. ()eop"e $# o,erssupra- at pp. 125#%125&.) %&ers $# Superior Court (2003) 123 Cal.App.3th 1232- is in accor,- noting the T&re"" *# is li(ite, to probation searches o" a Cu.enile. Gut the Bi"th District Court o" Appeal 0ent e.en "urther an, tooF it upon itsel"- in e""ect (0ithout speci"ically stating so)- to o.errule T&re"" *# an, hol, that a Cu.enile probationer- searche, illegally- is protecte, by the rule o" Sanders) An o""icer cannot rely upon a Fourth Ea.ier that he ,i,n t Fno0 about at the ti(e o" the search. (In re *oshua *# (200$) 12& Cal.App.3th 3$&.) Since Sanders- courts ha.e consistently rule, against the legality o" searches ,one 0hen the prosecution atte(pte, to .ali,ate the search un,er the theory that the o""icer belate,ly ,isco.ere, that the ,e"en,ant 0as subCect to either probation or parole search an, sei;ure con,itions) Searching la0 en"orce(ent o""icers (ust be a0are o" a Cu.enile s 0ai.er o" his or her probationary search an, sei;ure rights 0hen searche, a"ter being stoppe, in a (otor .ehicle. ()eop"e $# 0ester (2003) 11& Cal.App.3th 3253&2%30$.) An other0ise illegal search o" a resi,ence is not sa.e, by a belate,ly ,isco.ere, probation Fourth Eai.er search an, sei;ure con,ition. ()eop"e $# o,ers (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th 1251: see also )eop"e $# 2a5a"de (2003) 120 Cal.App.3th #$#: a ,ecision out o" the Si?th Appellate District- in.ol.ing an a,ult probationer an, a (otel roo(.) +he illegal search o" an a,ult on the street- 0here it 0as belate,ly ,isco.ere, that he 0as on a probation Fourth 0a.ier- is not (a,e retroacti.ely .ali,. ()eop"e $# 0oenin1haus (2003) 120 Cal.App.3th 11#0.) 1t is irrele.ant 0hether the Fourth Eai.er is base, upon a probationary- or a parole- search an, sei;ure con,ition. +he rule is the sa(e. (Id.- at pp. 11&2% 11&#.) 210
+he sa(e rule has been hel, to apply to the person o" a parolee 0ho is "oun, in public. ()eop"e $# *ordan (2003) 121 Cal.App.3th $33- $$2%$$3: see also )eop"e $# o,erssupra.) Ehere the issue o" the o""icer s Fno0le,ge- or lacF thereo"o" a search an, sei;ure con,ition 0as not resol.e, in the trial court (Sanders being ,eci,e, a"ter the hearing)- a re(an, to the lo0er court "or "urther e.i,ence on this issuean, not re.ersal o" the Cu,g(ent- is the proper re(e,y "or an appellate court. ()eop"e $# %oore (2005) 3& Cal.3th 15#.) 1"- ho0e.er- the trial court recor, sho0s the o""icer s lacF o" prior in"or(ation about the ,e"en,ant s Fourth Ea.ier status- there is no nee, "or a re(an, to the trial court "or "urther hearings. ()eop"e $# %i""er (2002) 135 Cal.App.3th $3$.) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal is in accor,- noting that -hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #&9- uphol,ing *pretext stops-/ cannot be use, to Custi"y a ,etention or search base, upon a belate,ly ,isco.ere, search con,ition. Per the Jinth Circuit- the theory o" -hren is li(ite, to those circu(stances 0here a police o""icer is a0are o" "acts that 0oul, support an arrest. *(A)lthough -hren stan,s "or the proposition that a prete?tual sei;ure base, on the illegiti(ate subCecti.e intentions o" an o""icer (ay be per(issible- it ,oes not alter the "act that the prete?t itsel" (ust be a constitutionally su""icient basis "or the sei;ure an, the "acts supporting it (ust be Fno0n at the ti(e it is con,ucte,./ (%oreno $# aca (&th Cir. 200$) 331 B.3r, 533- 530.) (inally- recogni;ing that the case la0 an, legal co((entary 0as uni"or(ly in opposition to the rule o" In re T&re"" *#- the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court "inally re.erse, itsel" an, hel, that a ,etention an, search o" a (inor on probation 0ith search an, sei;ure con,itions coul, not be Custi"ie, by the belate,ly ,isco.ere, Fourth 0ai.er. (In re *aime )# (2005) 30 Cal.3th 12#.) Exceptions) 1t is not necessary that the searching o""icer 0as a0are o" the e?istence o" a signe, parole search agree(ent- as re@uire, by (!C! 3321- so long as he Fne0 that the subCect 0as on parole. ()eop"e $# So"or5ano (2002) 1$3 Cal.App.3th 1025- 1030%1032: citing )eop"e $# %idd"eton (200$) 131 Cal.App.3th 232.) 211
$ut note United States $# Caseres (&th Cir. 200#) $33 B.3, 1053- at pp. 102$%1025- 0hich erroneously (in this author s opinion) hel, that an o""icer con,ucting a parole search (ust ha.e been a0are prior to the search that (!C! 3321+a, 0as applicable to the ,e"en,ant- i.e.- that the prior con.iction lea,ing to his parole status occurre, on or a"ter January 1- 1&&2. Deter(ining that a person is on parole is enough in"or(ation to Custi"y a police o""icer s assu(ption that he or she is subCect to a Fourth 0a.ier. ()eop"e $# %idd"eton (200$) 131 Cal.App.3th 232.) Ehere an o""icer is erroneously tol, that the ,e"en,ant is on parole- only to "in, out later that he 0as subCect to a probationary Fourth 0ai.er instea,- the search 0ill be uphel,. 1t is not rele.ant 0hat type o" Fourth 0a.ier applies to the ,e"en,ant. ()eop"e $# 0i"" (2003) 11# Cal.App.3th 1333.) A suspect subCect to search an, sei;ure con,itions is estoppe, "ro( co(plaining about being searche, by an o""icer 0ho 0as una0are o" the search con,itions 0hen the o""icer s "ailure to Fno0 o" the con,itions 0as because ,e"en,ant (isi,enti"ie, hi(sel". ()eop"e $# -at(ins (200&) 120 Cal.App.3th 1303.) *rresting and earching in 'gnorance of an Existing =arrant of *rrest) +he sa(e theory (ay be use, to "in, unla0"ul a search base, upon a ,e "acto arrest on less than probable cause 0hen trying to Custi"y the arrest (or a ,etention) by a belate,ly%,isco.ere, e?isting arrest 0arrant. (%oreno $# aca (&th Cir. 200$) 331 B.3r, 533.) Parole Hearings) Despite the abo.e- e.i,ence reco.ere, in an illegal parole search is a,(issible in a parole re.ocation procee,ing. ()enns&"$ania oard o' )ro.ation and )aro"e $# Scott (1&&#) $23 4.S. 3$2 6131 7.8,.2n, 3339.) +he nee, to use illegally sei;e, e.i,ence- "ro( both Fourth an, Fifth Amendment .iolations- in parole re.ocation hearingsout0eighs the policy consi,erations un,erlying the 8?clusionary Rule (i.e.- ,eterring illegal police con,uct.)- an, there"ore is a,(issible in such circu(stances. (In re %artine5 (1&20) 1 Cal.3r, 531- 53#%5$0.)
212
Probation Hearings) +he sa(e theory use, in %artine5 has been use, to allo0 the a,(ission o" illegally sei;e, e.i,ence in probation re.ocation hearings. ()eop"e $# 0a&(o (1&20) 2 Cal.App.3r, 503.) Enterin1 a ResidenceE )ro.a."e Cause or Reasona."e SuspicionM +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has rule, that in or,er to con,uct a Fourth Eai.er search o" a resi,ence- an o""icer (ust ha.e probable cause to belie.e that the resi,ence to be searche, is in "act the parolee s (or probationer s) resi,ence. %ot"e& $# )ar(s (&th Cir. 200$) 332 B.3r, 102210#0%10#2: United States $# Fran("in (&th Cir. 2010) 503 B.3r, 5$2: United States $# o"i$ar (&th Cir. 2012) 520 B.3r, 10&1- 10&3%10&$.) Joting that "i.e other "e,eral circuits ha.e rule, that so(ething less than probable cause is re@uire,- an, that the Jinth Circuit is a (inority opinion (see United States $# Gorman (&th Cir. 2002) 313 B.3r, 110$.)- the Bourth District Court o" Appeal (Di.. 2) has "oun, that an o""icer e?ecuting an arrest 0arrant or con,ucting a probation or parole search (ay enter a ,0elling i" he or she has only *a reasonable belief-/ "alling short o" probable cause to belie.e- the suspect li.es there an, is present at the ti(e. 8(ploying that stan,ar,- the entry into ,e"en,ant s apart(ent to con,uct a probation search 0as la0"ul base, on all o" the in"or(ation Fno0n to the o""icers. Accor,ingly- the court uphel, the trial court s conclusion that the o""icers ha, obCecti.ely reasonable groun,s to conclu,e the ,e"en,antNprobationer li.e, at the subCect apart(ent an, 0as present at the ti(e- an, there"ore the o""icers ha, the right to enter the apart(ent to con,uct a 0arrantless probation search. ()eop"e $# Do,ne& (2011) 1&# Cal.App.3th 5$2- 5$2%552.) Also noting that the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court- in )eop"e $# *aco.s- supra (pg. 32&- "n. 3)- ,i, not "in, that probable cause 0as re@uire,- contrary to popular belie". (Id.- at p. 552.) +ote) +he *present at the time/ re@uire(ent apparently only applies to e?ecuting an arrest 0arrant. 1t has ne.er been re@uire, that a person on a Fourth 0a.ier be ho(e at the ti(e o" a 0arrantless entry an, search. (See )eop"e $ 2i"ientha" (1&2#) 22 Cal.3r, #&1- &00.) Eithout (entioning Do,ne&- the Jinth Circuit cites %ot"e& $# )ar(s- supra- 0ith appro.al- "or the proposition that "ull probable cause to belie.e that the target o" a Fourth Eai.er search resi,es in the place to be searche, is necessary. (United States $# o"i$ar (&th Cir. 2012) 520 B.3r, 10&1- 10&3%10&$.) Searchin1 a ContainerE )ro.a."e Cause or Reasona."e SuspicionM 213
Ehen o""icers "in, a container (bacFpacF in this case) ,uring a la0"ul Fourth 0a.ier search- they only nee, a *reasonable suspicion-/ as oppose, to probable cause- to belie.e that the container belongs to or is controlle, by the subCect 0ith the Fourth 0a.ier to it. (United States $# o"i$ar (&th Cir. 2012) 520 B.3r, 10&1- 10&3%10&$.) Duration o' a Fourth -a$ier: A parole Fourth Eai.er continues until he has ha, his "or(al parole hearing 0here he has the opportunity to contest the propose, re.ocation an, parole is "or(ally re.oFe,. Geing arreste, an, incarcerate, on a parole hol, pen,ing a re.ocation hearing ,oes not- in itsel"- negate a Fourth Eai.er. ()eop"e $# 0unter (2005) 130 Cal.App.3th 1132.) A probationer on a Fourth Eai.er is also subCect to 0arrantless searches an, sei;ures until he has been accor,e, the right to a probation re.ocation hearing- e.en i" in custo,y 0hile a0aiting that hearing- an, e.en thoughpen,ing his hearing- a court has *su((arily re.oFe,/ his probation. ()eop"e $# ar(ins (1&2#) #1 Cal.App.3r, 30.) Good Faith e"ie' in the E!istence o' a Search Condition) +he 4nite, States Supre(e Court recently rule, (in a $%to%3 ,ecision) that an o""icer s goo, "aith reliance on erroneous in"or(ation 0ill not in.ali,ate an arrest e.en 0hen that in"or(ation co(es "ro( a la0 en"orce(ent source- so long as the error 0as base, upon non%reoccurring negligence only. Deliberate illegal acts- or a recFless ,isregar, "or constitutional re@uire(ents- or reoccurring or syste(atic negligence0ill not e?cuse the resulting unla0"ul arrest. (0errin1 $# United States (200&) $$$ 4.S. 13$ 6122 7.8,.2n, 3&59.) See *,ista?en $elief 2 2 2 that a (ourth =ai!er Exists, 2 2 2 -/ un,er **rrests-/ *Problems-/ abo.e. Ri1hts o' Third )ersons not subCect to the Fourth =ai!er- but 0ho happen to li.e 0ith a person 0ho is subCect to search and seizure con,itions) &ommon *reas) 8.en o.er the obCection o" the person 0ho is not subCect to a Fourth Ea.ier- the police (ay search the Fourth Ea.ier subCect s pri.ate areas an, all co((on areas. !nly the non% Fourth Eai.er subCect s pri.ate areas are protecte, "ro( being searche,. (Russi $# Superior Court (1&23) 33 Cal.App.3r, 15015#%121.)
213
1n e?ten,ing the rule o" -hren $# United States (1&&5) $12 4.S. #05 613$ 7.8,.2n, #& (i.e.- that the o""icer s subCecti.e intent is irrele.ant) to the Fourth Eai.er situation- the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court uphel, the search o" the co((on areas o" a resi,encelooFing "or e.i,ence against Suspect A- 0hile using Suspect G s Fourth Ea.ier as the legal Custi"ication- e.entually resulting in reco.ery o" e.i,ence ten,ing to incri(inate Suspect C (i.e.,e"en,ant Eoo,s). ()eop"e $# -oods (1&&&) 21 Cal.3th 55#.) *1t long has been settle, that a consent%base, search is .ali, 0hen consent is gi.en by one person 0ith co((on or superior authority o.er the area to be searche,: the consent o" other intereste, parties is unnecessary. ()eop"e $# o&er (1&#&) 3# Cal.3r, 232- 225 . . . : )eop"e $# 0as(ett (1&#2) 30 Cal.3r, #31- #$5 . . . )eop"e $# 9ie1a (1&#&) 213 Cal.App.3r, #12- #2# . . . see )eop"e $# C"ar( (1&&3) $ Cal.3th &$0- &2& . . . 6search o" a car9.) Earrantless consent searches o" resi,ences ha.e been uphel, e.en 0here the un(istaFable purpose o" the search 0as to obtain e.i,ence against a non%consenting cohabitant. (8.g.- United States $# %at"oc( (1&23) 31$ 4.S. 153- 120 6 . . . 3& 7.8,.2n, 2329 6roo((ateDs consent- obtaine, a"ter ,e"en,ant 0as arreste, an, re(o.e, "ro( the scene- su""icient9: )eop"e $ 0as(ett supra- 30 Cal.3r, at pp. #$5%#$2.)/ )eop"e $# -oodssupra- at pp. 52$%525.) $ut- see the li(itations put on such searches 0hen the atte(pte, use o" another s search an, sei;ure con,itions 0as not ,isco.ere, until after the search "or e.i,ence against a co%habitant 0ho 0as not on a Fourth Eai.er. ()eop"e $# Ro."es (2000) 23 Cal.3th 2#&: )eop"e $# Sanders (2003) 31 Cal.3th 31#: In re *aime )# (2005) 30 Cal.3th 12#: see abo.e.) Recently- the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court ,i""erentiate, Fourth 0ai.er searches o" resi,ences "ro( those o" .ehicles. Li.en the higher e?pectation o" pri.acy in.ol.e, in a resi,ence- it has been hel, that o""icers generally (ay only search those portions o" the resi,ence they reasonably belie.e the Fourth 0ai.er suspect has co(plete or Coint control o.er. +hose areas that are e?clusi.ely possesse, or controlle, by others are o"" li(its. Co((on areas are subCect to being searche,. 1n the case o" a .ehicle- 0ith its lo0er e?pectation o" pri.acy- a 0arrantless search o" those areas o" the passenger co(part(ent 0here an o""icer reasonably e?pects that the parolee coul, ha.e sto0e, personal belongings or ,iscar,e, ite(s 0hen a0are o" police acti.ity- as 0ell as a search o" personal 21$
property locate, in those areas i" the o""icer reasonably belie.es that the parolee o0ns those ite(s or has the ability to e?ert control o.er the(- is la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Schmit5 (2012) $$ Cal.3th &0&&15%&33.) *(A) 0arrantless search- Custi"ie, by a probation search con,ition(ay e?ten, to co((on areas- share, by non%probationers- o.er 0hich the probationer has Acommon authority. (United States $# %at"oc( (1&23) 31$ 4.S. 153- 121 63& 7. 8,. 2n, 232- 2$0- . . .9.) +he Acommon authority theory o" consent rests Aon (utual use o" the property by persons generally ha.ing Coint access or control "or (ost purposes- so that it is reasonable to recogni;e that any o" the co%inhabitants has the right to per(it the inspection in his o0n right an, that the others ha.e assu(e, the risF that one o" their nu(ber (ight per(it the co((on area to be searche,. (Id. at p. 121- "n. 2 63& 7. 8,. 2n,- at p. 2$0)/ ()eop"e $# Smith (2002) &$ Cal.App.3th &12- &15.) +he "act that a parolee or probationer li.es 0ith a thir, person 0ho is not subCect to search an, sei;ure con,itions cannot be use, to i((uni;e the one 0ho is subCect to a Fourth Ea.ier "ro( go.ern(ent scrutiny. ()eop"e $# /anos (1&21) 13 Cal.App.3r, 5325$0%5$1: Russi $# Superior Court- supraat pp. 155%152.) Gut- there (ust be at least *probable cause/ to belie.e that the person subCect to the Fourth Eai.er ,oes in "act li.e there- as oppose, to (erely staying 0ith the resi,ent on an occasional basis. (United States $# 0o,ard (&th Cir. 2005) 332 B.3r, 12$2: see also %ot"e& $# )ar(s (&th Cir. 200$) 332 B.3r, 1022- 10#0%10#2: United States $# o"i$ar (&th Cir. 2012) 520 B.3r, 10&1- 10&3%10&$.) Gut see )eop"e $# Do,ne& (2011) 1&# Cal.App.3th 5$25$2%552- abo.e- 0here it 0as hel, that only a *reason to belie!e-/ being a stan,ar, less than probable cause- that the subCect li.es there is necessary. Any e.i,ence la0"ully sei;e, ,uring a parole or probation search (ay be use, in court against 0ho(e.er the circu(stances ten, to connect it to. +hat (ay turn out to be the cotenant 0ho 0as not on probation or parole. (Russi $# Superior Court- supraat pp. 152% 15#: )eop"e $# -oodssupra.) +his rule is not con,itione, upon the thir, person s Fno0le,ge o" the e?istence o" the Fourth Ea.ier to 0hich his or her cotenant 0as subCect. (Russi $# Superior Court- supraat p. 120.) 215
Also- it (atters not 0hether the cotenant is the parolee or probationer s 0i"e- li.e%in *signi"icant other-/ or Cust so(e *,rinFing bu,,y./ ()eop"e $# Triche (1&$2) 13# Cal.App.2n, 1&#203.) earch and eizure &onditions Disco!ered *fter the (act) 1t is @uite clear no0 that 0hen the search an, sei;ure con,itions o" one co%tenant are belate,ly ,isco.ere, (i.e.- a"ter an other0ise illegal0arrantless search)- gi.en the i(portance o" the non%0ai.er subCect s pri.acy rights in a resi,ence- any e.i,ence "oun, as a result 0ill not be a,(issible against that person. ()eop"e $# Ro."es (2000) 23 Cal.3th 2#&: )eop"e $# Sanders (2003) 31 Cal.3th 31#: In re *aime )# (2005) 30 Cal.3th 12#: see abo.e.) Pri!ate *reas) A Fourth Eai.er i(pose, on one cotenant 0ill not Custi"y the search o" areas or property exclusi!e to a thir, person. ()eop"e $# 9eronica (1&#0) 102 Cal.App.3r, &05.) *Jeither reason nor authority support the proposition that police (ay con,uct a general search o" the pri.ate belongings o" one 0ho li.es 0ith a probationer./ +o Custi"y searching the property e?clusi.e to a non%probationer or non%parolee- the o""icers 0ill nee, *some cause/ to belie.e the person subCect to search an, sei;ure con,itions has secrete, contraban, in the property o" a thir, person. (1talics a,,e,: )eop"e $# A"ders (1&2#) #2 Cal.App.3r, 313- 312%31#.) +he searching o""icers nee, only entertain a *reasonable suspicion-/ base, upon an e.aluation o" all the surroun,ing circu(stances- that the ite( to be searche, 0as either o0ne,- or (at least Cointly) controlle, by- the person subCect to the Fourth Eai.er. ()eop"e $# o&d (1&&0) 223 Cal.App.3r, 235- 23$%33523&%2$0.) Ehile so(e ol,er cases ha.e re@uire, that an o""icer ha.e "ull *probable cause/ to belie.e that a place or ite( to be searche, is o0ne,- controlle,- or Cointly possesse, by the Fourth Eai.er suspect (e.g.- see )eop"e $# %onto&a (1&#1) 113 Cal.App.3r, $$5- $52.)- the (ore recent cases- an, the 0eight o" authority- ha.e hel, that so long as the searching o""icers ha.e a *reasonable suspicion-/ the resulting search 0ill be uphel,. ()eop"e $# )a"m:uist (1&#1) 123 Cal.App.3r, 1- 12: )eop"e $# o&d- supraat p. 2$0.) 212
See )eop"e $# Smith (2002) &$ Cal.App.3th &12: search o" ,e"en,ant- non%probationer s purse- un,er the theory that the person subCect to the search an, sei;ure con,itions (a (ale) ha, Coint authority o.er her purse- 0as uphel,. A search o" the "e(ale ,e"en,ant s purse le"t in the car 0hen an o""icer is con,ucting a parole search o" a (ale parolee- is illegal absent a reasonable suspicion to belie.e that the parolee ha, Coint access- possession or control o.er the purse. ()eop"e $# a(er (200#) 153 Cal.App.3th 11$2.) A 0arrantless search o" those areas o" the passenger co(part(ent o" a .ehicle 0here an o""icer reasonably e?pects that the parolee coul, ha.e sto0e, personal belongings or ,iscar,e, ite(s 0hen a0are o" police acti.ity- as 0ell as a search o" personal property locate, in those areas i" the o""icer reasonably belie.es that the parolee o0ns those ite(s or has the ability to e?ert control o.er the(- is la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Schmit5 (2012) $$ Cal.3th &0&- &15% &33.) +he Court "urther note, that Fourth 0ai.er "or probationers is a (atter o" choice- such a person agreeing to the gi.ing up his or her Fourth Amendment search an, sei;ure protections in e?change "or a.oi,ing a Cail sentence. Parolees- on the other han,- at least since the applicable statute (i.e.- (!C! 3321) 0as a(en,e, (e""ecti.e 5N22N12)aren t gi.en a choice. Fourth 0a.ier con,itions are in.oluntarily i(pose, upon the(. As a result- *parolees ha.e "e0er e?pectations o" pri.acy than probationersbecause parole is (ore aFin to i(prison(ent than probation is to i(prison(ent./ +here"ore- the "act that ,e"en,ant s passenger 0as a parolee- as oppose, to a probationeris a *salient circu(stance/ in setting out the rule o" this case. Gut the Court ne.er in,icates that the general rule is any ,i""erent bet0een cases in.ol.ing probationers an, parolees. (Id.- at pp. &21%&22.) Also- the Court note, that ,e"en,ant s (.ehicle ,ri.er or o0ner) lacF o" Fno0le,ge that his passenger 0as subCect to search an, sei;ure con,itions is irrele.ant to the legality o" the parole search. (Id.- at pp. &22%&23.) +he "actors to consi,er in ,eter(ining 0hat areas an, ite(s in a .ehicle are subCect to search inclu,e the nature o" that area or ite(- ho0 close an, accessible the area or ite( is to the parolee- the pri.acy interests at staFe- an, the 21#
go.ern(entDs interest in con,ucting the search. (Id.- at p. &23.) Also- because *cause/ is not re@uire, to Custi"y such a search- an o""icer ,oes not ha.e to articulate "acts ,e(onstrating that the parolee actually place, personal ite(s or ,iscar,e, contraban, in the open areas o" the passenger co(part(ent. +he issue in court is going to be 0hether- 0hen .ie0e, obCecti.ely- it 0as reasonable "or the o""icer to assu(e that any particular area or ite( (ight contain the parolee s personal property or be so(e0here that he (ight be e?pecte, to secret ite(s he ,i,n t 0ant the police to "in,. (Id.- at p. &25.) =hen it is #n?nown =ho ;wns the Property *bout to be earched) Ehere the o""icers ,o not Fno0 0ho o0ns or possesses a place or ite( to be searche,- an, such in"or(ation can be easily ascertaine,- it may- ,epen,ing upon the circu(stances- be incu(bent upon the( to atte(pt to ,eter(ine o0nership in or,er to protect the pri.acy interests o" the thir, persons in.ol.e,. *1" it is ob%ecti!ely unreasonable "or o""icers to belie.e that the resi,ence or ite( "alls 0ithin the scope o" a search con,ition- any e.i,ence sei;e, 0ill be ,ee(e, the pro,uct o" a 0arrantless search absent other consi,erations./ (1talics a,,e,: )eop"e $# Tida"1o (1&#1) 123 Cal.App.3r, 301- 305%302.) Io0e.er- the o""icers (ay still act upon appearances- so long as they act reasonably. Ehile so(e courts argue that o""icers (ay ha.e a ,uty to in@uire as to the o0nership or control o" certain ite(s (see )eop"e $# %onto&a (1&#1) 113 Cal.App.3r, $$5- $52%$53.)- other (ore reasone, court ,ecisions recogni;e that *an o""icer coul, har,ly e?pect that a parolee (or probationer) 0oul, clai( o0nership o" an ite( 0hich he Fne0 containe, contraban,./ ()eop"e $# ritton (1&#3) 1$5 Cal.App.3r, 5#&- 201.) 1" an o""icer reasonably belie.es he 0ill not recei.e an honest ans0er- there appears to be no legal reason 0hy he or she (ust either in@uire- or accept the ans0er as true i" in@uiry is in "act (a,e. ()eop"e $# o&d (1&&0) 223 Cal.App.33, 235- 235% 21&
2$0: see also United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 1&&1) &32 B.2n, 2$2- 250.) Detention of Third Persons) Police (ay la0"ully ,etain .isitors to a probationer s ho(e 0hile e?ecuting a *Fourth =ai!er/ search "or purposes o" i,enti"ying the .isitors (as possible "elons) an, "or the o""icers sa"ety. ()eop"e $# %ate"s(i (2000) #2 Cal.App.3th #32.) +hir, party occupants o" a ho(e searche, un,er the con,itions o" a Fourth 0a.ier (ay la0"ully be ,etaine, ,uring the search. +he Custi"ications "or such a ,etention inclu,e) +he nee, to pre.ent "light in the e.ent incri(inating e.i,ence is "oun,: Oini(i;ing the risF o" har( to the o""icers- and Bacilitating the or,erly co(pletion o" the search 0hile a.oi,ing the use o" "orce. (Sanche5 $# Cana"es (&th Cir. 200&) $23 B.3r, 115&- citing %ueh"er $# %ena (200%) %44 U. . 9/ "161 #.$d.2nd 299&2 a
search +arrant case.)
'n a Vehicle) A search an, sei;ure con,ition Custi"ies a ,etention 0ithout a reasonable suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity- inclu,ing 0hile in a .ehicle- an, a search o" the car un,er the ter(s o" the ,e"en,ant s Fourth 0a.ier. (See )eop"e $# 9iers (1&&1) 1 Cal.App.3th &&0&&3%&&3: ,e"en,ant stoppe, in his .ehicle.) 9iers "urther hel, that it 0as irrele.ant that the o""icers 0ere una0are o" ,e"en,ant s probation status 0hen the search 0as con,ucte,: a conclusion that has since been abrogate, by )eop"e $# Sanders (2003) 31 Cal.3th 31#. (See %&ers $# Superior Court (123 Cal.App.3th 1232.) See *Searchin1 -hi"e In I1norance o' a Search Condition-/ abo.e. A 0arrantless search o" those areas o" the passenger co(part(ent o" a .ehicle 0here an o""icer reasonably e?pects that the parolee coul, ha.e sto0e, personal belongings or ,iscar,e, ite(s 0hen a0are o" police acti.ity- as 0ell as a search o" personal property locate, in those areas i" the o""icer reasonably belie.es that the 220
parolee o0ns those ite(s or has the ability to e?ert control o.er the(- is la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Schmit5 (2012) $$ Cal.3th &0&- &15% &33.) +he Court "urther note, that Fourth 0ai.er "or probationers is a (atter o" choice- such a person agreeing to the gi.ing up his or her Fourth Amendment search an, sei;ure protections in e?change "or a.oi,ing a Cail sentence. Parolees- on the other han,- at least since the applicable statute (i.e.- (!C! 3321) 0as a(en,e, (e""ecti.e 5N22N12)aren t gi.en a choice. Fourth 0a.ier con,itions are in.oluntarily i(pose, upon the(. As a result- *parolees ha.e "e0er e?pectations o" pri.acy than probationersbecause parole is (ore aFin to i(prison(ent than probation is to i(prison(ent./ +here"ore- the "act that ,e"en,ant s passenger 0as a parolee- as oppose, to a probationeris a *salient circu(stance/ in setting out the rule o" this case. Gut the Court ne.er in,icates that the general rule is any ,i""erent bet0een cases in.ol.ing probationers an, parolees. (Id.- at pp. &21%&22.) Also- the Court note, that ,e"en,ant s (.ehicle ,ri.er or o0ner) lacF o" Fno0le,ge that his passenger 0as subCect to search an, sei;ure con,itions is irrele.ant to the legality o" the parole search. (Id.- at pp. &22%&23.) +he "actors to consi,er in ,eter(ining 0hat areas an, ite(s in a .ehicle are subCect to search inclu,e the nature o" that area or ite(- ho0 close an, accessible the area or ite( is to the parolee- the pri.acy interests at staFe- an, the go.ern(entDs interest in con,ucting the search. (Id.- at p. &23.) Also- because *cause/ is not re@uire, to Custi"y such a search- an o""icer ,oes not ha.e to articulate "acts ,e(onstrating that the parolee actually place, personal ite(s or ,iscar,e, contraban, in the open areas o" the passenger co(part(ent. +he issue in court is going to be 0hether- 0hen .ie0e, obCecti.ely- it 0as reasonable "or the o""icer to assu(e that any particular area or ite( (ight contain the parolee s personal property or be so(e0here that he (ight be e?pecte, to secret ite(s he ,i,n t 0ant the police to "in,. (Id.- at p. &25.) /noc( and Notice) 221
+he *?noc? and notice/ pro.isions o" (enal Code #44 an, 1)31 apply to searches con,ucte, pursuant to a probation or parole con,ition. (See (!C! 3321: )eop"e $# Rosa"es (1&5#) 5# Cal.2n, 2&&- 303%303: )eop"e $# /anos (1&21) 13 Cal.App.3r, 532- 5$1%5$2: )eop"e $# Constancio (1&23) 32 Cal.App.3r, $33- $32: )eop"e $# 2i"ientha" (1&2#) 22 Cal.3r, #&1- &00: )eop"e $# %a&s (1&&#) 52 Cal.App.3th &5&- &23- "n. 3: )eop"e $# Ur5iceanu (200$) 132 Cal.App.3th 232- 2#&%2&2: )eop"e $# %urph& (200$) 32 Cal.3th 3&0.) See *Anoc? and +otice-/ un,er * earches =ith a earch =arrant-/ abo.e. +his inclu,es the ,octrine o" *substantial compliance-/ 0here "orce, entry (ay be (a,e so long as the *policies and purposes/ (i.e.- respecting the right to pri.acy 0ithin the ho(e an, a.oi,ing .iolent con"rontations) o" the FnocF%notice rules ha.e been satis"ie,. ()eop"e $# %ontene1ro (1&#$) 123 Cal.App.3r, &#3- &##%&#&.) Io0e.er- a court may not i(pose a 0ai.er o" the FnocF an, notice re@uire(ents as a con,ition o" probation. ()eop"e $# Freund (1&2$) 3# Cal.App.3r, 3&- $5%$#.) Detentions, )atdo,ns and Arrests) Detentions) A search an, sei;ure con,ition Custi"ies a ,etention 0ithout a reasonable suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity. ()eop"e $# 9iers (1&&1) 1 Cal.App.3th &&0- &&3%&&3.) 9iers "urther hel, that it 0as irrele.ant that the o""icers 0ere una0are o" ,e"en,ant s probation status 0hen the search 0as con,ucte,: a conclusion that has since been abrogate, by )eop"e $# Sanders (2003) 31 Cal.3th 31#. (See %&ers $# Superior Court (123 Cal.App.3th 1232.) See *Searchin1 -hi"e In I1norance o' a Search Condition-/ abo.e. Patdowns) ;ld Rule) Ehen the rule 0as that a parole search re@uire, at least a *reasonable suspicion/ o" rene0e, cri(inal acti.ity- a police o""icer coul, not Custi"y a pat,o0n ("risF) search o" a ,etaine, suspect "or 0eapons base, upon the ,etainee s status as a parolee alone- in the absence o" other suspicious circu(stances "urnishing groun,s to belie.e he (ay be ar(e,- unless- perhaps- it 0as Fno0n that his prior o""ense in.ol.e, the use o" 0eapons. ()eop"e $# 222
-i""iams (1&&2) 3 Cal.App.3th 1100- 110$- 110#: )eop"e $# %ontene1ro (1&#$) 123 Cal.App.3r, &#3.) +ew Rule) 1n that un,er the present state o" the la0- a parolee or probationer (ay be searche, 0ithout any cause (See )eop"e $# Re&es (1&&#) 1& Cal.3th 233.)- this rule (re@uiring a reasonable suspicion) is probably no longer .ali,- at least pen,ing re.ie0 o" the necessary stan,ar,s by the 4nite, States Supre(e Court. (See * tandard of Proof Re@uired-/ abo.e.) *rrests) +he "act that a person is a parolee%at%large- an, subCect to search or sei;ure 0ithout a 0arrant or probable cause- Custi"ies a 0arrantless entry into the subCect s house "or the purpose o" arresting hi(. ()eop"e $# 2e,is (1&&&) 23 Cal.App.3th 552.) +here is no authority- ho0e.er- allo0ing "or a non%consensual transportation o" a parolee or probationer- absent probable cause to arrest the subCect. 1n that a non%consensual transportation o" a subCect is generally consi,ere, to be an arrest (Duna,a& $# Ne, Yor( (1&2&) 332 4.S. 200- 205%215 650 7.8,.2n, #23- #32%#3#9: see *Detentions./ abo.e)- an, thus illegal absent probable cause to arrest the subCect- it is liFely that the use o" a Fourth Eai.er con,ition as an e?cuse to transport the subCect- absent probable cause to arrest hi(- 0oul, not be uphel,. Out3o'3State )ro.ationer or )aro"ee) +he .ali,ity o" a search o" a probationer or parolee "ro( another state- super.ision "or 0ho( has been trans"erre, to Cali"ornia pursuant to (enal Code 1111) et se*. ( niform Act for Iut<of< State (arolee +and (ro4ationer, Su-er:ision)- is to be ,eter(ine, by Cali"ornia 7a0. ()eop"e $# Reed (1&&3) 23 Cal.App.3th 13$.) AIDS I 0I9) A parole or probation o""icer seeFing the assistance o" la0 en"orce(ent to apprehen, or taFe into custo,y a parolee or probationer 0ho has a recor, o" assault on a peace o""icer- must- by statute- in"or( the o""icers o" the suspect s in"liction 0ith A1DS or I1U. ((!C! 1)21)
223
Chapter 1D
Consent Searches) Ru"e: A .ali, consent is a la0"ul substitute "or both a search 0arrant an, probable cause. (United States $# %at"oc( (1&23) 31$ 4.S. 153- 15$%155 63& 7.8,.2n, 232- 2359: 9anden.er1 $# Superior Court (1&20) # Cal.App.3r, 103#10$3: United States $# Russe"" (&th Cir. 2012) 553 B.3r, 122&- 12#1.) *1t is 0ell settle, that a search con,ucte, pursuant to a .ali, consent is constitutionally per(issible./ (Citation o(itte,: United States $# Soriano (&th Cir 2003) 351 B.3r, 3&3- $01.) *(A) search con,ucte, pursuant to a .ali, consent is constitutionally per(issible./ (Schnec("oth $# ustamonte (1&23) 312 4.S. 21#- 222 635 7.8,.2n, #$3- #509.) -h& do peop"e consentM Eoul, a person 0ho has so(ething to hi,e really consent to being searche,M FesM So(e persons are (ore concerne, 0ith 0hat they percei.e to be the appearance of guilt- an, "eel they (ust consent to a.oi, such an appearance- hoping the la0 en"orce(ent o""icer 0ill either lose interest or "ail to "in, 0hate.er it is the person hopes to Feep conceale,. Consent un,er these circu(stances- ho0e.er- i" the person reasonably shoul, ha.e "elt liFe he or she ha, the option o" re"using- is still a .ali, consent. (See )eop"e $# *ames (1&22) 1& Cal.3r, &&- 113.) 2imitation: A consent- to be la0"ul- (ust be *freely and !oluntarily/ gi.en. ( umper $# North Caro"ina (1&5&) 3&1 4.S. $33- $3# 620 7.8,.2n, 2&2- #029: )eop"e $# Smith (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th $22- $25%$22: United States $# Russe"" (&th Cir. 2012) 553 B.3r, 122&- 12#1.) $urden of Proof) +he prosecution bears the bur,en o" sho0ing that the ,e"en,ant s consent to search is .oluntary an, una""ecte, by coercion. (Schnec("oth $# ustamonte (1&23) 312 4.S. 21# 635 7.8,.2n, #$39: Estes $# Ro,"and (1&&3) 13 Cal.App.3th $0#- $22: United States $# autista (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $#3.) *Ehether consent to search 0as .oluntarily gi.en is Ato be ,eter(ine, "ro( the totality of all the circumstances. / (1talics a,,e,: United States $# Soriano (&th Cir. 2003) 351 B.3r, 3&3- $01: citing Schnec("oth $# ustamonte- supra: see also )a$ao $# )a1a& (&th Cir. 2002) 302 B.3r, &1$- &1&: United States $# Crapser (&th Cir. 2002) 322 B.3r, 1131- 113&.) 223
*(+)he go.ern(ent s bur,en to sho0 .oluntariness cannot be ,ischarge, by sho0ing no (ore than ac@uiescence to a clai( o" la0"ul authority./ (United States $# )ere532ope5 (&th Cir. 2003) 33# B.3r, #3&- #35: see also United States $# autista (&th Cir. 2003) 352 B.3r, $#3- $#&.) *!n appeal- e.i,ence regar,ing the @uestion o" consent (ust be .ie0e, in the light (ost "a.orable to the "act%"in,er s ,ecision./ (United States $# /ap"an (&th Cir. 1&&0) #&$ B.2n, 51#- 522.) (actors) As ,escribe, in )eop"e $# Ramire5 (1&&2) $& Cal.App.3th 1$3#at page 1$$#- the "ollo0ing are a(ong the "actors that 0ill be taFen into consi,eration in ,eter(ining the .ali,ity o" a consent to search- although none o" these "actors are necessarily ,ispositi.e in an, o" itsel") Ehether the person consenting 0as in custo,y. Ehether the arresting o""icers ha, their guns ,ra0n. Ehether %iranda 0arnings ha, been gi.en. ($ut- see %irandabelo0.) Ehether the person consenting 0as tol, that he or she ha, a right not to consent. Ehether the person consenting 0as tol, that a search 0arrant coul, be obtaine,. (See also United States $# Soriano- supraat pp. &5#%&5&: United States $# Rodri1ue53)reciado (&th Cir. 200$) 3&& B.3r, 111#- 1125: United States $# Crapser (&th Cir. 2002) 322 B.3r, 1131- 13&: United States $# Rodri1ue5 (&th Cir. 2005) 353 B.3r, 1022- 1022: United States $# ro,n (&th Cir. 200&) $53 B.3r, 310- 31$: United States $# 9on1!a& (&th Cir. 2010) $&3 B.3r, 1111- 111&%1120: (2i.era" $# Estrada (&th Cir. 2011) 532 B.3r, 1053- 10#2%10#3: United States $# Russe"" (&th Cir. 2012) 553 B.3r, 122&- 12#1.) &ircumstances *ffecting Voluntariness) #nder *rrest) +he "act alone that the suspect is under arrest is not enough to ,e(onstrate coercion. (United States $# -atson (1&25) 323 4.S. 311 635 7.8,.2n, $&#9: )eop"e $# 2"amas (1&&1) 23$ Cal.App.3r, 331- 332.) #se of (irearms) Atte(pting to obtain a consent "ro( a suspect 0hile firearms are being ,isplaye, 0ill ine.itably result in a "in,ing that the consent 0as coerce,. ()eop"e $# %c/e"$& (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, 1022- 1033) *(J)o (atter ho0 politely the o""icer (ay ha.e phrase, his re@uest "or the obCect- it is apparent that 22$
,e"en,ant s co(pliance 0as in "act un,er co(pulsion o" a ,irect co((an, by the o""icer. . . . +he e.i,ence establishe, Ano (ore than ac@uiescence to a clai( o" la0"ul authority. /) 1n %c/e"$&- the ,e"en,ant 0as stan,ing in a police spotlight- surroun,e, by "our police o""icers- all o" 0ho( 0ere ar(e, 0ith either a shotgun or a carbine. Ian,ing o.er contraban, to the o""icers un,er these circu(stances 0as hel, not to be a consensual act. 8.en an implied assertion of authority by the police o""icer (ay be enough to in.ali,ate a consent to search. ()eop"e $# Fie"ds (1&2&) &$ Cal.App.3r, &22- &25: Amos $# United States (1&21) 2$$ 4.S. 313- 312 65$ 7.8,.2n, 5$3- 5$59.) Threatening to ;btain a earch =arrant) Ehile telling a suspect that o""icers 0ill obtain a 0arrant in.ali,ates a consensual search un,er circu(stances 0here the o""icers do not actually ha.e the necessary probable cause to obtain a 0arrant- threatening to get a 0arrant 0hen the o""icers do ha.e the necessary probable cause is la0"ul. ()eop"e $# Ro.inson (1&$2) 13& Cal.App.2n, 2#2- 2#5: )eop"e $# Go"d.er1 (1&#3) 151 Cal.App.3r, 120- 1##: umper $# North Caro"ina (1&5#) 3&1 4.S. $33 620 7.8,.2n, 2&29 United States $# Soriano (&th Cir. 2003) 351 B.3r, 3&3- &21: )eop"e $# -i""iams (2002) 1$5 Cal.App.3th &3&- &51.) Ehether or not the threat to get a 0arrant is ,one in a threatening (anner is also a "actor to consi,er. (United States $# Rodri1ue5 (&th Cir. 2005) 353 B.3r, 1022- 102#.) Eith o""icers approaching an, asFing ,e"en,ant at the airport i" they coul, search hi(- 0hile also telling hi( that he ha, the right to re"use but that he 0oul, be ,etaine, until a search 0arrant coul, be obtaine, although it 0as uncertain 0hether one coul, be obtaine,- a"ter 0hich ,e"en,ant respon,e,- *Kou (ay as 0ell search (e no0-/ resulte, in a .oluntary search. De"en,ant s search 0as not obtaine, as the result o" threats or coercion. (United States $# )ariseau (&th Cir. 2012) 5#$ B.3r, 112&.) Threatening to #se a Drug6 niffing Dog) +hreatening to use a ,rug%sni""ing ,og- 0hen such use ,oes not re@uire the suspect s consent an, is other0ise la0"ul- 0ill also not in.ali,ate the resulting consent to search. (United States $# Todhunter (&th Cir. 2002) 2&2 B.3r, ##5- #&1.) 225
'mplying <uilt) 1t is i(proper to purposely put a subCect in the position 0here he "eels that by e?ercising his right to re"use- he 0oul, be incri(inating hi(sel" or a,(itting participation in illegal acti.ity. (Cro'oot $# Superior Court (1&#1) 121 Cal.App.3r, 21222$.) Bor e?a(ple) *Fou don)t ha!e anything in your poc?ets you don)t want me to see, do youM/ (Jegati.e response) *Then you wouldn)t mind me loo?ing, would youM/ (See I.id.) *(1)(plicit in the o""icer
s statement is the threat that b* exercisin. his ri.ht to refuse the search (the sus(ect) +ould be incriminatin. himself or admittin. (artici(ation in ille.al acti)it*.3 (I.id.)
#sing a Ruse) A "ree an, .oluntary consent- as a general rule- (ay not be obtaine, by- or as the pro,uct o"- a ruse. ()eop"e $# Re&es (2000) #3 Cal.App.3th 2- 13: )eop"e $# Ree$es (1&53) 51 Cal.2n, 25#- 223: )eop"e $# %i""er (1&52) 23# Cal.App.2n, 231.) Gut- 0here the ruse is only partial- an, ,oes not ,isguise the scope o" the propose, search- then the resulting search may be uphel,. ()eop"e $# A$a"os (1&&5) 32 Cal.App.3th 1$5#.) Threats to Ta?e *way ;ne)s &hildren) +hreatening to ta?e away one)s children- letting social ser.ices taFe the(- i" the person ,oes not cooperate- 0ill negate a consent to search. (United States $# Soriano (&th Cir. 2003) 335 B.3r, &53.) 1n Soriano- the consent 0as sa.e, 0hen a "e,eral agent i((e,iately interrupte, the police o""icer 0ho (a,e the threat- an, assure, the "e(ale subCect that she 0as not then a suspect- nor liFely to be arreste,- an, there"ore nee, not 0orry about ha.ing her chil,ren taFen a0ay. Io0e.er- the ,ecision 0as a split ,ecision- 0ith the ,issent arguing that the 0o(an s consent 0as still not "ree an, .oluntary ,espite the agent s atte(pt to sa.e it. (See pp. &2$%&2&.) ee also 2&num $# I""inois (1&53) 322 4.S. $2#- $33 6& 7.8,.2n, &22- &259: an, United States $# Tin1"e (&th Cir. 1&#1) 5$# B.2n, 1332- 1335: t0o con"ession cases 0here state(ents 0ere ren,ere, in.oluntary ,ue to threats to taFe the chil,ren a0ay i" the subCects ,i, not cooperate. 222
An, see In re Rud& F# (2003) 112 Cal.App.3th 1123- 0here a consent to search 0as negate, by the threat to *boo?/ the person s chil,ren: the issue not e.en being conteste, on appeal. ;ther 'nducements) +elling ,e"en,ant that the o0ner o" the house ha, alrea,y consente, to the search- a truth"ul state(ent- resulting in ,e"en,ant gi.ing his o0n consent to the search o" his roo( in that house- ,i, not in.ali,ate ,e"en,ant s consent. ()eop"e $# %onterroso (2003) 33 Cal.3th 233- 2$#%2$&.) Per De"ia $# Cit& o' Ria"to (2010) 2010 4.S. App. 78T1S 25&5#- threatening an e(ployee 0ith the loss o" his Cob i" he ,i,n t retrie.e certain ite(s "ro( his ho(e 0as not a .oluntary consent an, a Fourth Amendment search .iolation. Io0e.er- because the 4.S. Supre(e Courtha.ing grante, certiorari- hel, that the attorney hire, by the city to in.estigate the plainti"" an, 0ho (a,e the threat ha, @uali"ie, i((unity- the issue o" the .oluntariness o" the plainti"" s consent 0as ne.er reache,. (Fi"ars(& $# De"ia (2011) >> 4.S. >> 6132 S.Ct. 15$2: 1#2 7.8,.2n, 5529.) &ombination of (actors) Geing un,er arrestin han,cu""s- 0ithout ha.ing recei.e, his %iranda rights an, 0ithout ha.ing been tol, o" his right to re"use a consent search- hel, not to be enough to pre.ent ,e"en,ant "ro( consenting to the search o" his roo(. ()eop"e $# %onterroso- supra- at pp. 2$2%2$&.) +ote) Gut this co(bination o" "actors certainly (a,e it an issue that coul, ha.e gone either 0ay. During a &onsensual Encounter) AsFing a person "or consent to search his person ,oes notby itsel"- con.ert a consensual encounter into a ,etention *as long as the police ,o not con.ey a (essage that co(pliance 0ith their re@uests is re@uire,./ (United States $# -ashin1ton (&th Cir. 2002) 3&0 B.3r, 25$- 220.) A"ter ,e"en,ant- 0ho ha, prior ,rug an, "irear(%relate, con.ictions- pai, cash "or a last%(inute- one%0ay ticFet 0ithout checFing any luggage- an o""icer asFe, ,e"en,ant "or per(ission to search his bag an, his person. De"en,ant consente, t0ice an, sprea, his ar(s an, legs to "acilitate 22#
the search. +he o""icer "elt so(ething har, an, unnatural in ,e"en,antDs groin area an, arreste, hi(. +he appellate court ,eter(ine, that ,e"en,ant .oluntarily consente, to a pat,o0n search because he 0as not in custo,y- o""icers tol, hi( he 0as "ree to lea.e- an, o""icers ,i, not tell hi( that they coul, obtain a search 0arrant i" he re"use, to consent. +he scope o" the search 0as reasonable because it 0as reasonable "or the o""icer to assu(e the consent inclu,e, the groin area since the o""icer speci"ically a,.ise, ,e"en,ant that the o""icer 0as looFing "or narcotics- ,e"en,ant li"te, his ar(s an, sprea, his legs- ,e"en,ant ne.er obCecte, or re.oFe, consent- the search ,i, not e?ten, insi,e the clothing- an, the o""icer (etho,ically 0orFe, his 0ay up ,e"en,antDs legs be"ore searching the groin. (United States $# Russe"" (&th Cir. 2012) 553 B.3r, 122&.) ,anner of 'n@uiry) 1t is not so (uch 0hat the o""icer is asFing- but rather the *manner or mode/ in 0hich it is put to the citi;en 0hich ,eter(ines 0hether the response is .oluntary or not. ()eop"e $# Fran("in (1&#2) 1&2 Cal.App.3r, &3#- &31.) Reasonable Person Test) Bor a consent search to be .ali,- the suspect (ust reasonably belie.e- un,er the circu(stances- he has a choice. ()eop"e $# *ames (1&22) 1& Cal.3r, &&- 115.) +ote) AsFing "or consent to search in a (anner i(plying (e.en i" not e?pressly stating) that the suspect is being o""ere, a choicehelps to pro.e that a positi.e response 0as .oluntary. Bor instance) * ir, do you mind if ' loo? in your carM/ !r- * ir, may ' loo? in your carM/ Jot: *')m going to search your carX/ Product of a &onstitutional Violation) A suspect s consent to search gi.en i((e,iately (i.e.- 0ithout su""icient inter.ening "actors) a"ter each o" the "ollo0ing 0ill liFely be hel, to be in.ali,) 'llegal entry, detention or arrest. ()eop"e $# 0a$en (1&53) $& Cal.2n, 213- 21&: )eop"e $# )oo"e (1&#5) 1#2 Cal.App.3r, 10031012: )eop"e $# H6F,L1G United States Currenc& (1&&2) $# Cal.App.3th 1$02: United States $# -ashin1ton (2003) 3#2 B.3r, 1050: )eop"e $# /rohn (2002) 13& Cal.App.3th 12&3: )eop"e $# -erner (2012) 202 Cal.App.3th 11&$- 1210%1212.) Gut- note that the "act that a suspect is being illegally detained ,oes not necessarily (ean- by itsel"- that the consent is in.oluntary. (See )eop"e $# 2"amas (1&&1) 23$ Cal.App.3r, 331: noting- but not a,,ressing the issue 22&
0hether being illegally ,etaine, in.ali,ate, a consent un,er the *fruit of the poisonous tree/ ,octrine.) 4n,er the *fruit of the poisonous tree/ ,octrinesubse@uent e.ents (ay ,ispel the coerci.e taint o" the initial illegality- (aFing a subse@uent consent la0"ul. (See United States $# I.arra (10th Cir. 1&&2) &$$ B.2n, 130$- 1311- "n. #.) *Ehere an illegal ,etention occurs- unless Asubse@uent e.ents a,e@uately ,ispel the coerci.e taint o" the initial illegality- i.e.- 0here there is no longer causality- the subse@uent consent is ine""ecti.e. (Citations.)/ ()eop"e $# 4amudio (200#) 33 Cal.3th 322- 331.) 'llegal Detention) As a *sei;ure/ o" one s person- the pro,ucts o" an illegal ,etention are also subCect to being suppresse, un,er the 8?clusionary Rule. (See )eop"e $# /rohn- supra: ,etaining ,e"en,ant "or ,rinFing in public0hen he 0as not in a public place- is an illegal ,etention an, re@uires the suppression o" the controlle, substances "oun, on his person in a subse@uent consensual search.) *Ehere an illegal ,etention occurs- unless Asubse@uent e.ents a,e@uately ,ispel the coerci.e taint o" the initial illegality- i.e.- 0here there is no longer causality- the subse@uent consent is ine""ecti.e./ )eop"e $# 4amudio (200#) 33 Cal.3th 322- 330: citing )eop"e $# H6F,L1G United States Currenc& (1&&2) $# Cal.App.3th 1$02- 1$13.) An,- an illegal ,etention (or arrest) 0ill not ser.e to in.ali,ate a pre!iously obtained- other0ise la0"ulconsent. ()eop"e $# H6F,L1G United States Currenc&- supra, at pp. 1$13%1$1$.) Lenerally- a consent to search obtaine, ,uring an unla0"ully prolonge, ,etention 0ill re@uire the suppression o" any e.i,ence ,isco.ere, ,uring the resulting search. (See United States $# Cha$e53 9a"en5ue"a (&th Cir. 2001) 25# B.3r, 21&.) Io0e.er- the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has hel, that a (ini(ally prolonge, ,etention (e.g.- a couple o" (inutes)- at least 230
0hen (oti.ate, by other ne0ly ,isco.ere, in"or(ation e.en though that ne0 in"or(ation by itsel" (ight not constitute a reasonable suspicion- ,oes not (aFe the prolonging o" the ,etention unreasonable. 4n,er such circu(stances- a (ini(ally prolonge, ,etention is not unla0"ul. A consent to search obtaine, ,uring that ,ispute, ti(e perio, is la0"ul. (United States $# Tur$in et a"# (&th Cir. 200#) $12 B.3r, 10&2.) See *&onsent During a Prolonged Detention-/ belo0. 'llegal search. ()eop"e $# 2a,"er (1&23) & Cal.3r, 1$5- 153: urro,s $# Superior Court (1&23) 13 Cal.3r, 23#- 2$1.) $ut- a search ,one un,er the authority o" a search 0arrant that is hel, only to be partially in.ali, (ay not re@uire the suppression o" e.i,ence reco.ere, "ro( a consensual search o" another property obtaine, ,uring the e?ecution o" the 0arrant. (See United States $# SDI Future 0ea"th, Inc# (&th Cir. 200&) $5# B.3r, 5#3- 202%20#.) 'llegal interrogation. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6/eith"e&7 (1&2$) 13 Cal.3r, 305- 310: "ollo0ing the .iolation o" the suspect s %iranda rights.) Eithout in"or(ing a charge, ,e"en,ant s la0yer in !iolation of the sub%ect)s Si!th Amendment rights (i.e.- a"ter his arraign(ent). (Tid,e"" $# Superior Court (1&21) 12 Cal.App.3r, 2#0- 2#&.) Gut see United States $# /on Yu2eun1 (2n, Cir. 1&&0) &10 B.2n, 33- 3#%30 (consent .ali, ,espite ha.ing been in,icte,): an, United States $# 0ida"1o (11th Cir. 1&&3) 2 B.3r, 1$551$20- both hol,ing that obtaining a ,e"en,ant s consent to search is not a critical stage o" the procee,ings protecte, by the Si@th Amendment.) Consent Durin1 an I""e1a""& )ro"on1ed Detention: <eneral Rule) Prolonged Detentions are 'llegal) A tra""ic stop (or any other ,etention) 0hich is reasonable in its inception (ay beco(e unreasonable i" prolonge, beyon, that point reasonably necessary "or the 231
o""icer to co(plete the purposes o" the stop or ,etention. ()eop"e $# %cGau1hran (1&2&) 2$ Cal.3r, $22.) 4n,er the theory o" %cGau1hran- a consent obtaine, ,uring an unconstitutionally prolonge, ,etention (ay be subCect to suppression as the pro,uct o" that illegal ,etention. (See )eop"e $# 2"amas (1&&1) 23$ Cal.App.3r, 331- 332: an, )eop"e $# 9a"en5ue"a (1&&3) 2# Cal.App.3th #12- #33.) An other0ise la0"ul *?noc? and tal?-/ 0here o""icers continue, to press the ,e"en,ant "or per(ission to enter his apart(ent a"ter his ,enial o" any illegal acti.ity- con.erte, the contact into an unla0"ully *extended/ ,etentioncausing the Court to conclu,e that a later consent%to%search 0as the pro,uct o" the illegal ,etention- an, thus in.ali,. (United States $# -ashin1ton (&th Cir. 2003) 3#2 B.3r, 1050.) "awfully Prolonged Detentions) +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has hel, that a (ini(ally prolonge, ,etention (e.g.- a couple o" (inutes)- at least 0hen (oti.ate, by other ne0ly ,isco.ere, in"or(ation e.en though that ne0 in"or(ation by itsel" (ight not constitute a reasonable suspicion- ,oes not (aFe the prolonging o" the ,etention unreasonable. 4n,er such circu(stances- a (ini(ally prolonge, ,etention is not unla0"ul. (United States $# Tur$in et a"# (&th Cir. 200#) $12 B.3r, 10&2.) De.eloping ne0 in"or(ation to the e""ect that a .ehicle s passenger (ight be an un,er%age prostitute an, that the ,e"en,ant ,ri.er her pi(p- a continue, ,etention "or the purpose o" in.estigating that possibility 0as la0"ul. (United States $# Rod1ers (&th Cir. Sep. 2- 2011) 5$5 B.3r, 1023- 1022: 8?ten,ing a tra""ic stop "or the purpose o" in.estigating other cri(es "or 0hich there is no suspicion constitutes an illegal ,etention. Gut it is also a rule that *(a) Aperio, o" ,etention 6(ay be9 per(issibly e?ten,e, 60here9 ne0 groun,s "or suspicion o" cri(inal acti.ity continue . . . to un"ol,. / (Citing U#S# $# %a&o (&th Cir. 200$) 3&3 B.3r, 1221.) *fter Detention Ends) 1" the person .oluntarily consents to ha.ing his .ehicle searche, a"ter he is "ree to lea.e- there is no prolonge, ,etention. +he o""icer is un,er no obligation to a,.ise hi( that he is no longer being ,etaine, (or that he has a right to re"use to allo0 the o""icer to search). (Ro.inette $# Ohio (1&&5) $1& 4.S. 33 6135 7.8,.2n, 3329.) 232
Howe!er: the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal belie.es that a consent search- obtaine, a"ter the purposes o" the tra""ic stop ha, been satis"ie,- is in.ali, as a pro,uct o" an illegally prolonge, ,etentionthe e?ten,e, ,etention being the result o" the o""icer s unnecessary in@uiries (a,e ,uring the tra""ic stop. (United States $# Cha$e53 9a"en5ue"a (&th Cir. 2001) 25# B.3r, 21&- a(en,e, at 22& B.3r, 1052.) Ro.inette 0as not ,iscusse, by the Court. +he Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal is o" the belie" that an o""icer (ust be able to *articulate suspicious "actors that are particulari;e, an, obCecti.e/ in or,er to *broa,en the scope o" @uestioning/ beyon, the purposes o" the initial tra""ic stop./ (United States $# %uri""o (&th Cir. 2001) 2$$ B.3r, 115&- 1123.): a @uestionable rule in light o" Ro.inette.) Gut see the ,issenting opinion in the ,enial "or a rehearing en banc in United States $# Cha$e53 9a"en5ue"a- supra- pointing out the absur,ity o" 0hat Justice ! Scannlain re"ers to as the *se!en minute rule-/ noting this ,ecision s con"lict 0ith Ro.inette an, other Supre(e Court authority. (2#1 B.3r, #&2.) +he Jinth Circuit s argu(ent on this issue is si(ilar to that (a,e by the !hio Supre(e Court- an, reCecte, by the 4.S. Supre(e Court- in Ro.inette) Per the !hio Supre(e Court) *Ehen the (oti.ation behin, a police o""icer s continue, ,etention o" a person stoppe, "or a tra""ic .iolation is not relate, to the purpose o" the originalconstitutional stop- an, 0hen that continue, ,etention is not base, on any articulable "acts gi.ing rise to a suspicion o" so(e separate illegal acti.ity Custi"ying an e?tension o" the ,etention- the continue, ,etention constitutes an illegal sei;ure. (23 !hio St.3r, at p. 5$0.)/ Contrary to the Jinth Circuit s publishe, opinions on this issue- the Supre(e Court has hel,) *8.en 0hen la0 en"orce(ent o""icers ha.e no basis "or suspecting a particular in,i.i,ual- they (ay pose @uestions- asF "or i,enti"ication- an, re@uest consent to search luggageP pro.i,e, they ,o not in,uce cooperation by coerci.e (eans./ (United States $# Dra&ton (2002) $35 4.S. 1&3 61$3 7.8,.2n, 232.): citing F"orida $# ostic( (1&&1) $01 4.S. 32&- 333%33$ 611$ 7.8,.2n, 3#&- 3&#%3&&9.) 233
Oost recently- in I""inois $ Ca.a""es (200$) $33 4.S. 30$ 6150 7.8,.2nd 842&! the U. . u(reme Court re6ected the
ar.ument that allo+in. a narcotics5sniffin. do. to sniff around the outside of a )ehicle that +as la+full* sto((ed for a traffic offense 7un6ustifiabl* enlar.e(s) the sco(e of a routine traffic sto( into a dru. in)esti.ation.3 8er the u(reme Court9 :o ex(ectation of (ri)ac* is )iolated b* this (rocedure! and therefore does not im(licate the Fourth Amendment.
Also- the 4.S. Supre(e Court recently reCecte, the Jinth Circuit s unsupporte, conclusion that- absent *a particularized reasonable suspicion that an in,i.i,ual is not a citi;en-/ it is a Fourth Amendment .iolation to asF hi( or her about the subCect s citi;enship (see %ena $# Cit& o' Simi 9a""e& (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, 12$$- 1253%125$: re.erse, by the 4.S. Supre(e Court in %ueh"er $# %ena (200$) $33 4.S. &3 6151 7.8,.2n, 2&&9.) Cali"ornia courts see( to be in line 0ith these latest Supre(e Court pronounce(ents on the issue) *Yuestioning ,uring the routine tra""ic stop on a subCect unrelate, to the purpose o" the stop is not itsel" a Fourth Amendment .iolation. Oere @uestioning is neither a search nor a sei;ure. 6Citation.9 Ehile the tra""ic ,etainee is un,er no obligation to ans0er unrelate, @uestions- the Constitution ,oes not prohibit la0 en"orce(ent o""icers "ro( asFing. 6Citation.9/ ()eop"e $# ro,n (1&&#) 52 Cal.App.3th 3&3- 3&&%$00: see also )eop"e $# Ga""ardo (200$) 130 Cal.App.3th 233- 23&: asFing "or consent to search ,uring the ti(e it 0oul, ha.e taFen to 0rite the citation that 0as the original cause o" the stop is legal,espite the lacF o" any e.i,ence to belie.e there 0as so(ething there to search "or.) Despite the abo.e authority- the Jinth Circuit continues to insist that @uestioning a ,etainee about possible cri(inal acti.ity not relate, to the cause o" the ,etention- an, 0ithout a *particularized suspicion/ to support a belie" that the ,etainee is in.ol.e, in that acti.ity- is a Fourth Amendment .iolation. (United States $# %ende5 (&th Cir. 2005) 352 B.3r, 1152.)
The Scope o' the Consent: i.e.- 0hat areas (ay be searche, base, upon the consent gi.enM 233
$urden of Proof) +he prosecution bears the bur,en to pro.e that a 0arrantless search 0as 0ithin the scope o" the consent gi.en. ()eop"e $# Cantor (2002) 13& Cal.App.3th &51- &5$.) Test) +he scope o" the consent is (easure, by a stan,ar, o" ob%ecti!e reasonableness base, upon all the surroun,ing circu(stances) *Ehat 0oul, the typical reasonable person ha.e un,erstoo, by the e?change bet0een the o""icer an, the suspectM/ (F"orida $# *imeno (1&&1) $00 4.S. 23#- 2$1 6113 7.8,.2n, 2&2- 3039: ()eop"e $# Tu""& (2012) $3 Cal.3th &$2&#3%&#3.) 1n ,eter(ining the reasonableness o" a searching o""icer s con,uct in a consensual search o" a resi,ence- a court (ust balance the e?tent o" the intrusion into ,e"en,ant s pri.acy rights 0ith the go.ern(ental interest Custi"ying it. ()eop"e $# Smith (2010) 1&0 Cal.App.3th $22- $22%$#0: uphol,ing the opening o" the ,oor to a noisy clothes ,ryer so that the o""icers coul, (aintain control o" a potentially ,angerous situation an, to co((unicate 0ith subCects in the house.) Ehen ,e"en,ant turne, aroun, an, raise, his ar(s in response to the o""icer s state(ent: *Iey- 1 , liFe to shaFe you ,o0n real @uicF- i" you ,on t (in,-/ this 0as hel, to be a consent to a pat,o0n onlyan, not to a "ull bo,y search. ()eop"e $# Tu'ono (1&&2) $2 Cal.App.3th 1$33- 1$32%1$33: reco.ery o" a .ial ,uring a "ull search hel, to be illegal.) Consenting to being searche, "or 0eapons ,i, not allo0 "or the o""icer reaching into his pocFet an, retrie.ing (ariCuana. ()eop"e $# Rice (1&5#) 2$& Cal.App.2n, 3&&- 303.) An, gi.ing an o""icer per(ission to enter his ho(e "or the purpose o" "in,ing so(eone 0ho ha, run into the house ,i, not authori;e the search "or a cro0bar use, in a burglary an, "oun, in a be,roo( closet. ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6Ar(eta7 (1&20) 10 Cal.App.3r, 122.) *(J)either a general consent to search a particular pre(ises nor a consent to search "or speci"ic ite(s inclu,es the right to intercept telephone calls to the pre(ises in.ol.e,./ ()eop"e $# 0ar,ood (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, 350- 35#.) Io0e.er- the rule o" *imeno- supra- 0as applie, to uphol, a car search that in.ol.e, re(o.ing a plastic .ent co.er on a ,oor post 0hich ,isplaye, striation (arFs in,icating recent re(o.al or 23$
ta(pering. ()eop"e $# Crensha, (1&&2) & Cal.App.3th 13031313.) Stepping asi,e 0hile s0inging the ,oor open to an o""icer 0ho 0as respon,ing to an inco(plete &11 call "or help- 0as hel, to be a consent to enter. ()a$ao $# )a1a& (&th Cir. 2002) 302 B.3r, &1$.) Uoluntarily consenting to the search o" his .ehicle- ,uring 0hich only (oney 0as "oun,- an, then later that ,ay a,(itting that (etha(pheta(ine 0as hi,,en in a particular place in the .ehicle0as su""icient to reasonably cause the o""icers to belie.e that they ha, consent to go bacF into the .ehicle to reco.er the (eth. (United States $# Rodri1ue53)reciado (&th Cir. 200$) 3&& B.3r, 111#- 1131- as a(en,e, at 315 B.3r, &3&.) +he test is) *(E)hat 0oul, the typical reasonable person ha.e un,erstoo, by the e?change bet0een the o""icer an, the suspectM/ *(A)n o""icer ,oes not e?cee, the scope o" a suspect s consent by Asearching 0hen the o""icer asFe, only i" he or she coul, AlooF. / ChecFing un,er the trunF s carpet lining in the suspect s .ehiclethere"ore- 0as no (ore than part o" an other0ise la0"ul search base, upon the ,e"en,ant s consent to *looF/ "or anything that they 0ere *not suppose, to ha.e./ (United States $# %c-eene& (&th Cir. 2005) 3$3 B.3r, 1030- 1033%103$.) Eith ,e"en,ant agreeing to the o""icer s re@uest to *checF (,e"en,ant s car) real @uicF an, get you on your 0ay-/ the scope o" that consent 0as e?cee,e, at so(e point be"ore the search ha, continue, "or "i"teen (inutes 0ithout "in,ing anything- an, certainly 0hen the o""icer later pulle, a bo? "ro( the trunF an, re(o.e, the bacF panel to the bo? by unscre0ing so(e scre0s. ()eop"e $# Cantor (2002) 13& Cal.App.3th &51.) Ehen asFe, "or consent to search his person- a reasonable person 0oul, e?pect that an o""icer 0ill then asF hi( to e?it his .ehicle "or the purpose o" con,ucting that search. (United States $# -ashin1ton (&th Cir. 2002) 3&0 B.3r, 25$- 220%221.) Consent to search ,e"en,ant s trucF "oun, to e?ten, to a secon, search absent any e.i,ence to in,icate that ,e"en,ant 0as li(iting his consent to the "irst search only. ()eop"e $# 9a"encia (2011) 201 Cal.App.3th &22.) A"ter ,e"en,ant- 0ho ha, prior ,rug an, "irear(%relate, con.ictions- pai, cash "or a last%(inute- one%0ay ticFet 0ithout checFing any luggage- an o""icer asFe, ,e"en,ant "or per(ission to 235
search his bag an, his person. De"en,ant consente, t0ice an, sprea, his ar(s an, legs to "acilitate the search. +he o""icer "elt so(ething har, an, unnatural in ,e"en,antDs groin area an, arreste, hi(. +he appellate court ,eter(ine, that ,e"en,ant .oluntarily consente, to a pat,o0n search because he 0as not in custo,y- o""icers tol, hi( he 0as "ree to lea.e- an, o""icers ,i, not tell hi( that they coul, obtain a search 0arrant i" he re"use, to consent. +he scope o" the search 0as reasonable because it 0as reasonable "or the o""icer to assu(e the consent inclu,e, the groin area since the o""icer speci"ically a,.ise, ,e"en,ant that the o""icer 0as looFing "or narcotics- ,e"en,ant li"te, his ar(s an, sprea, his legs- ,e"en,ant ne.er obCecte, or re.oFe, consent- the search ,i, not e?ten, insi,e the clothing- an, the o""icer (etho,ically 0orFe, his 0ay up ,e"en,antDs legs be"ore searching the groin. (United States $# Russe"" (&th Cir. 2012) 553 B.3r, 122&- 12#1%12#3.) 'n contrast, see United States $# Sanders (#th Cir. 200$)-323 B.3, 25#- 225- 0here the suspect consente, to a search o" his person but then 0ith,re0 consent by acti.ely shiel,ing his groin area "ro( the o""icerDs search. ,ultiple earches $ased #pon a ingle &onsent) A *single grant o" consent/ ,oes not- as a (atter o" la0- prohibit (ore than one search ,epen,ing upon the "acts an, circu(stances. ()eop"e $# 9a"encia (2011) 201 Cal.App.3th &22- &2#%&32.) Io0e.er- the general rule is that *a consent to search usually in.ol.es an Aun,erstan,ing that the search 0ill be con,ucte, "orth0ith- an, that only a single search 0ill be (a,e. / (Id.- at p. &32- @uoting )eop"e $# 2o1sdon (1ll. Ct. App. 1&&1) $52 J.8.2n, 235- 23#.) +he non%e?clusi.e list o" "actors to consi,er 0hen assessing the reasonableness o" con,ucting (ore than one search base, upon a single grant o" consent inclu,e- but is not li(ite, to- the "ollo0ing) (1) Ehether the ,e"en,ant place any li(itations on the scope o" the initial consent. (2) +he a(ount o" ti(e that passe, bet0een the grant o" consent an, the conteste, search. (3) Ehether police re(aine, in control o" the area being searche, prior to con,ucting the secon, search. (3) Ehether the o""icers 0ere searching a resi,ence or other area that is entitle, to a heightene, e?pectation o" pri.acy. 232
($) Ehether the suspect 0as arreste, bet0een the initial search an, the subse@uent search. (5) Ehether the searches 0ere part o" a continuous cri(inal in.estigation ha.ing a single obCecti.e. (2) Ehether the ,e"en,ant ha, a,.ance Fno0le,ge o"- an, an opportunity to obCect to- a subse@uent search. (Id.- at pp. &35%&32.) 1n 9a"encia- the Court hel, that a secon, search o" ,e"en,ant s .ehicle base, upon an earlier consent 0as la0"ul gi.en the "act that ,e"en,ant s e?pectation o" pri.acy 0ith respect to his .ehicle 0as not ,i(inishe, by the secon, search- it 0as ,e"en,ant s .ehicle an, not his resi,ence being searche,- there 0as no e.i,ence that ,e"en,ant 0as arreste,- or e.en ,etaine,- bet0een the t0o searches- the ti(e perio, bet0een searches 0as .ery (ini(al- an, ,e"en,ant ,i, not li(it his consent to a particular ti(e or place. (Id.- at pp. &3#%&30.) 'mplied &onsent to Pro!ide $lood ample as a &ondition of the Pri!ilege to Dri!e: 0!C! 23212+a,+1,)) 1t is an unsettle, issue in Cali"ornia as to 0hether bloo, e?tracte, "ro( one inci,ent to an arrest "or ,ri.ing un,er the in"luence o" ,rugs an,Nor alcohol allo0s "or the use o" that sa(e bloo, "or other purposes: e.g.- DJA testing. !ther Curis,ictions ha.e hel, that the use o" bloo, taFen pursuant to such an i(plie, consent is li(ite, to the purpose o" testing one s bloo,Nalcohol only- there being no consent- e?press or i(plie,- to use it "or other purposes. (See State $# inner (!re. 1&&3) 131 !re.App. 522- 5#2%5#3: State $# Gerace (La. 1&&3) 210 La.App. #23- #2$%#25 6332 S.8.2n, #52- #53.) +esting o" ,eo?yribonucleic aci, (DJA) "ro( sali.a that ,e"en,ant ,eposite, on the (outhpiece o" a preli(inary alcohol screening (PAS) ,e.ice- connecting ,e"en,ant 0ith a series o" resi,ential burglaries 0here genetic (aterial ha, been le"t- 0as not an illegal search. +he court reasone, in part that the breath sa(ple 0as use, only to (easure any bloo, alcohol in ,e"en,antDs bo,y- consistent 0ith 0!C! 23212+h, & +i,- 0hile the sali.a- in 0hich ,e"en,ant coul, clai( no right to pri.acy- 0as a (ere inci,ent to the PAS test. +he subse@uent testing o" the sali.a 0as thus not ,epen,ent on ,e"en,antDs e?press or i(plie, consent un,er 0!C! 23212+a, +1,. ()eop"e $# Thomas (2011) 200 Cal.App.3th 33#- 333%333.)
23#
E!press $s# Imp"ied Consent: A person s consent (ay be *express/ or *implied./ (Tor.et $# United Air"ines, Inc# (&th Cir. 2002) 2&# B.3r, 10#2- 10#& ()eop"e $# )anah (200$) 3$ Cal.3th 3&$- 355%352.) Express &onsent) Ans0ering in the a""ir(ati.e 0hen asFe, "or consent to search is the (ost ob.ious e?a(ple o" an *express consent./ Also- ho0e.eran a""ir(ati.e hea,%no, (a,e by ,e"en,ant to his son in response to an o""icer s re@uest "or per(ission "or his son to retrie.e a gun "ro( ,e"en,ant s tent- hel, to be an e?press consent. (United States $# asher (&th Cir. 2011) 52& B.3r, 1151- 115#% 115&.) An *implied consent/ e?ists 0hen- consi,ering the *totality of the circumstances-/ a reasonable person 0oul, ha.e un,erstoo, that he is agreeing to a search. (United States $# *en(ins (3th Cir. 1&&3) &#5 B.2n, 25- 2&.) Raising one s ar(s into the air a"ter being asFe, by a police o""icer "or consent to search his person 0as hel, to be the ,e"en,ant s i(plie, consent to such a search. (United States $# 9on1!a& (&th Cir. 2010) $&3 B.3r, 1111- 111&%1120.) *(!)nly in narro0 circu(stances (ay consent be i(plie, by actions an, in (ost i(plie, consent case it is the suspect hi(sel" (as oppose, to a thir, party) 0ho taFes an action 0hich i(plies consent./ Espinosa $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&# B.3r, $2#- $35.) Examples) 4pon sub(ission to ha.ing one s ?%raye, luggage (Tor.et $# United Air"ines, Inc#- supra.) an,Nor by 0alFing through a (agneto(eter (United States $# Au(ai (&th Cir.- 2002) 3&2 B.3r, &$$.) at an airport. See *=arrantless earches-/ **irport earches-/ abo.e. 4pon entering a (ilitary base 0here signs are poste, 0arning that persons on the base are subCect to being searche,. (United States $# E""is ($th Cir. 1&22) $32 B.2n, #53- Ja.al base: United States $# *en(ins- supra: %or1an $# United States (&th Cir. 2003) 323 B.3r, 225.) A ci.ilian staying in the on%base housing o" a (ilitary ser.ice(an has possibly i(plie,ly 0ai.e, his right to pri.acy 0hen his 23&
property (e.g.- co(puters) is searche,. (United States $# /rupa (&th Cir. 2011) 5$# B.3r, 1123- 112&%11#0-) De"en,ant .isiting a county Cail .isitor center is subCect to searchparticularly 0here signs are poste, 0arning hi( that he 0as subCect to search. +his inclu,es outsi,e locFers on the Cail property 0here .isitors coul, ,eposit ite(s not allo0e, in the Cail. *1(plie, consent/ applies to a,(inistrati.e searches o" closely regulate, businesses- inclu,ing a county Cail. ()eop"e $# ou"ter (2011) 1&& Cal.App.3th 251.) A co%o0ner o" a laptop co(puter has actual authority to gi.e consent to the police to search. An, i" it turns out that the person is not actually a co%o0ner- the ,octrine o" apparent authority (ay Custi"y the search 0hen it reasonably appears un,er the circu(stances that she ,i, ha.e such authority. (United States $# Stan"e& (&th Cir. 2011) 5$3 B.3r, &35- &$0%&$2.) Consent (ay be i(plie, as ,eter(ine, by the totality of all the circumstances. Bor instance- in the case o" a (ilitary base- one i(plie,ly consents to the search o" his or her .ehicle 0hen ,ri.ing upon the base an, noting) +he barbe,%0ire "ence: +he security guar,s at the gate: +he sign 0arning o" the possibility o" search: and A ci.ilian s co((on%sense a0areness o" the nature o" a (ilitary base. (United States $# *en(ins- supra- at p. 2#: %or1an $# United States- supraat pp. 2#2%2##.) Issues: Oay a suspect withdraw consent once it s gi.enM Fes. ()eop"e $# %artine5 (1&5#) 2$& Cal.App.2n, Supp. &33- &3$: United States $# %c-eene& (&th Cir. 2005) 3$3 B.3r, 1030- 103$: see also (United States $# /rupa (&th Cir. 2011) 5$# B.3r, 1123.) $ut see )eop"e $# Schomer (1&21) 12 Cal.App.3r, 322- 0here an unli(ite, search "or a runa0ay (inor o" the ,e"en,ant s apart(ent 0as allo0e, "or so(e t0enty (inutes until ,e"en,ant reali;e, that the o""icers 0ere getting close to his (ariCuana at 0hich ti(e he trie, to 0ith,ra0 the consent. +he (ariCuana 0as seen in plain sight. De"en,ant testi"ie, that he ,i, not obCect to the o""icers 230
searching "or a person- but obCecte, to the( looFing "or narcotics. +he atte(pte, 0ith,ra0al o" consent 0as hel, to be ine""ecti.e un,er these circu(stances 0here the ,e"en,ant later testi"ie, that he ha, not obCecte, to the o""icers searching "or a person- but only to searching "or contraban,. *nd see *=arrantless earches-/ **irport earches-/ abo.e0here by sub(itting one s carryon luggage an,Nor his person to the initial ?%ray an,Nor (agneto(eter screening at an airport- a person loses his right to re.oFe per(ission 0hen asFe, to sub(it to a secon,ary screening. (Tor.et $# United Air"ines, Inc# (&th Cir. 2002) 2&# B.3r, 10#2: United States $# Au(ai (&th Cir. 2005) 330 B.3r, 115#.) Ehere o""icers *create, a setting in 0hich the reasonable person 0oul, belie.e that he or she ha, no authority to li(it or 0ith,ra0 their consent-/ the resulting consent search (ay be in.ali,ate,. (United States $# %c-eene&- supraat pp. 1035%1032.) Per the Court in %c-eene& (at p. 1032)- "actors to consi,er in e.aluating this issue inclu,e- but are not li(ite, to) +he language use, to instruct the suspect: +he physical surroun,ings o" the search: +he e?tent to 0hich there 0ere legiti(ate reasons "or the o""icers to preclu,e the suspect "ro( obser.ing the search: +he relationship bet0een the (eans use, to pre.ent obser.ation o" the search an, the reasons Custi"ying the pre.ention: +he e?istence o" any changes in circu(stances bet0een 0hen consent is obtaine, an, 0hen the o""icers pre.ent the suspect "ro( obser.ing the search: an, +he ,egree o" pressure applie, to pre.ent the suspect either "ro( obser.ing the search or .oicing his obCection to its procee,ing "urther.
Oay a suspect limit the consent to certain areasM Fes. (I.id!) Gut- i" he ,oes not li(it the consent to a speci"ic area- the o""icer (ay search the 0hole thing reasonably belie.e, to be inclu,e, in the re@uest. 8.g.: A consent to search one s car- unless speci"ically li(ite,- inclu,es the 0hole car an, any containers in the car. ()eop"e C"ar( (1&&3) $ Cal.3th &$0- &22%&#0.) 231
Oay a drug6sniffing dog be use, 0ithout obtaining any (ore than a general consent to searchM Fes: at least 0hen it is a .ehicle (as oppose, to a resi,ence) being searche,- the ,e"en,ant shoul, ha.e been a0are that a ,og 0as a.ailable- an, he "aile, to obCect 0hen the ,og 0as use,. ()eop"e $# e"" (1&&5) 33 Cal.App.3th 2$3.) See also )eop"e $# H6F,L1G United States Currenc& (1&&2) $# Cal.App.3th 1$02- 1$1$%1$15) *AA *sniff/ by a traine, ,rug% sni""ing ,og in a public place is not a *search/ 0ithin the (eaning o" the Fourth Amendment at all. Accor,ingly- no consent is nee,e, "or participation o" the ,og. (Citation)/ (See also United States $# Todhunter (&th Cir. 2002) 2&2 B.3r, ##5- #&1.) (See *Dogs #sed to earch-/ abo.e.)
Oay a suspect place conditions on the searchM (8.g.: *Kes o""icer- but only i" 1 (ay be present./) Arguably: Fes. 1" a person (ay li(it the areas to be searche,- it 0oul, see( that he coul, also i(pose any con,itions he chooses. ( See )eop"e C"ar(- supra- recogni;ing the .ali,ity o" a con,itional consent e.en though not ,iscussing the issue.)
Oay an o""icer use a ruse or deception in obtaining a consentM Lenerally+o. Consent has to be gi.en "reely an, .oluntarily- 0ith a Fno0le,ge o" the right to re"use. 1" the suspect reasonably (isconstrues- ,ue to an o""icer s (isrepresentations- the purpose o" the search- it 0ill probably be hel, to be in.oluntary. (See )eop"e $# Ree$es (1&53) 51 Cal.2n, 25#- 223: )eop"e $# %esaris (1&20) 13 Cal.App.3r, 21.) $ut- a ruse is but one "actor to consi,er. 1"- un,er the totality o" the circu(stances- a suspect is not (aterially (isle, as to the pri.acy rights he is gi.ing up by consenting- the search 0ill be hel, to be .ali,. ()eop"e $# A$a"os (1&&5) 32 Cal.App.3th 1$5&.)
Can a suspect 0ho is under arrest .ali,ly consent to being searche,M Fes. +he "act that the ,e"en,ant is in custo,y at the ti(e is but one "actor to consi,er 0hen ,eter(ining 0hether that ,e"en,ant ga.e a "ree an, .oluntary consent. (United States $# Crapser (&th Cir. 2002) 322 B.3r, 1131- 113&.)
232
Does a consensual search o" a resi,ence ha.e to be base, upon so(e le.el o" suspicion. +o. Con,ucting a *?noc? and tal?-/ an, asFing the ho(eo0ner "or consent to con,uct a search o" the resi,ence- "ollo0s the sa(e rules as in the case o" a *consensual encounter/ o" a person on the street- an, nee, not be supporte, by e.en a *reasonable suspicion./ ()eop"e $# Ri$era (2002) 31 Cal.3th 303: contact initiate, ,ue to an uncorroborate, anony(ous tip.)
Other E"ements o' a Consent Search) The Right to Refuse) +here is no legal re@uire(ent that a suspect be tol, that he has a right to re"use to consent. (Ohio $# Ro.inette (1&&5) $1& 4.S. 33 6135 7.8,.2n, 3329: Schnec("oth $# ustamonte (1&23) 312 4.S. 21# 635 7.8,.2n, #$39: United States $# Dra&ton (2002) $35 4.S. 1&3 61$3 7.8,.2n, 2329: )eop"e $# %onterroso (2003) 33 Cal.3th 233- 2$2%2$&: )eop"e $# -i""iams (2002) 1$5 Cal.App.3th &3&- &51.) +he "act he has been asFe, "or consent shoul, in,icate to a reasonable person that he has a right to re"use. Io0e.er- shoul, an o""icer tell a suspect he has the right to re"usethis "act a,,s to the 0eight o" the argu(ent that his consent 0as .oluntary. A person s re"usal to consent to a search is not a,(issible in court against that person to sho0 a consciousness of guilt- e.en 0here the o""icers ha, a legal right to (aFe a 0arrantless entry. +o use a person s re"usal *(erely ser.es to punish the e?ercise o" the right to insist upon a 0arrant./ 1.e.: *(A) penalty i(pose, by courts "or e?ercising a constitutional right./ ()eop"e $# -ood (2002) 103 Cal.App.3th #03- #0#: )eop"e $ /eener (1&#3) 13# Cal.App.3r, 232&.) %iranda) +here is no re@uire(ent that a suspect be a,.ise, o" his %iranda rights (per %iranda $# Ari5ona (1&55) 3#3 4.S. 335 615 7.8,.2n, 5&39.) prior to gi.ing a .ali, consent. ()eop"e $# re,er (2000) #1 Cal.App.3th 332: )eop"e $# %onterroso- supra.) Jor is it rele.ant that the subCect ha, alrea,y in.oFe, his %iranda rights. (United States $ /on Yu 2eun1 (2n, Cir. 1&&0) &10 B.2n, 33- 3#: United States $# 0ida"1o (11th Cir. 1&&3) 2 B.3r, 1$55: United States $# Sh"ater (2th Cir. 1&&5) #$ B.3r, 12$1- 12$$%12$5.) 233
Re@uesting a consent to search is not an interrogation- ,oes not i(plicate the Fifth Amendment- an, ,oes not re@uire a %iranda a,(onish(ent. ()eop"e $# Ruster (1&25) 15 Cal.3r, 5&0- 200: )eop"e $# -oo"se& (1&2&) &0 Cal.App.3r, &&3: )eop"e $# Ramire5 (1&&2) $& Cal.App.3th 1$3#- 1$$&: Doe $# United States (1&##) 3#2 4.S. 201 6101 7.8,.2n, 1#39: United States $# 0en"e& (&th Cir. 1&&3) &#3 B.2n, 1030- 1032%1033: United States $# 0ida"1o (11th Cir. 1&&3) 2 B.3r, 1$55: United States $# /on Yu 2eun1 (2n, Cir. 1&&0) &10 B.2n, 33- 3#: United States $# Sh"ater (2th Cir. 1&&5) #$ B.3r, 12$1- 12$$%12$5: United States $# Russe"" (&th Cir. 2012) 553 B.3r, 122&- 12#1%12#2.) Gut see United States $# Rei""& (&th Cir. 2000) 223 B.3r, &#5&&3- 0here it 0as erroneously hel, that a ,e"en,ant s in.ocation o" his right to an attorney preclu,e, o""icers "ro( asFing hi( "or his consent to search. An a,.isal o" one s %iranda rights be"ore asFing "or consent to search is some e.i,ence- ho0e.er- that his consent is gi.en "reely an, .oluntarily- in that the gi.ing o" a %iranda a,(onish(ent in"ers that he is not 0ithout rights. (United States $# %ornin1 (&th Cir. 1&&$) 53 B.3r, $31- $33.) Jote also- ol,er authority in,icating that illegally continuing an interrogation a"ter the suspect in.oFes his %iranda rights"ollo0e, by a re@uest "or a consent search- will liFely result in the consent being hel, to be in.ali, ()eop"e $# Superior Court 6/eith"e&7 (1&2$) 13 Cal.3r, 305- 310.)- 0hich is @uestionable authority in light o" the rule that the *fruit of the poisonous tree/ ,octrine ,oes not apply to %iranda .iolations. (Ore1on $# E"stad (1&#$) 320 4.S. 2&# 6#3 7.8,.2n, 2229: Dic(erson $# United States (2000) $30 4.S. 32#- 331 6132 7.8,.2n, 30$- 31#9: United States $# )atane (2003) $32 4.S. 530 61$& 7.8,.2n, 5529.) An, the Jinth Circuit Court o" Appeal has recently calle, into @uestion 0hether the gi.ing o" a %iranda a,(onish(ent is really a "actor that shoul, be consi,ere, at all 0hen ,eter(ining the .ali,ity o" a consent to search. (United States $# )ere532ope5 (&th Cir. 2003) 33# B.3r, #3&- #35%#32- critici;ing its o0n contrary ,ecision in United States $# %ornin1- supra.) =ritten &onsent) +here is no legal re@uire(ent that a consent to search be obtaine, in 0riting. Io0e.er- obtaining a suspect s consent in 0riting ten,s to help to con.ince a court o" the .oluntariness o" the resulting consent. (United States $# Rodri1ue5 (2005) 353 B.3r, 1022- 102#.) 233
Ans,erin1 the Te"ephone: Consent to enter a resi,ence ,oes not inclu,e an i(plie, consent to ans0er the telephone 0hile there. ()eop"e $# 0ar,ood (1&2#) 23 Cal.App.3r, 350.) Howe!er- 0hile la0"ully in a resi,ence- probable cause to belie.e that a caller (ight be the "ugiti.e ,e"en,ant- o""icers (ay ans0er the telephone an, preten, to be a resi,ent 0hen ,one "or the purpose o" atte(pting to locate the ,e"en,ant. ()eop"e $# 2edesma (2005) 3& Cal.3th 531- 203.) Consent .& Others) <eneral Rule) Police (ay rely upon the consent o" 0hoe.er they *reasonably belie!e-/ un,er the circu(stances- possesses co((on authority o.er the pre(ises. (I""inois $# Rodri1ue5 (1&&0) 3&2 4.S. 122 6111 7.8,.2n, 13#9: )eop"e $# Reed (1&52) 2$2 Cal.App.2n, &&3- &&5: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6-a"(er7 (2005) 133 Cal.App.3th 11#3- 11&#% 1201.) +he person gi.ing consent (ust ha.e either the *actual authority-/ or the *apparent authority-/ to gi.e consent) **ctual *uthority:/ Ehere the o0ner o" property has e?pressly grante, authority "or a person to gi.e consent- or 0here it is Fno0n that the person has (utual use or Coint access- then he or she is sai, to ha.e *actual authority/ to consent to a search o" that property. (United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, 1153- 115&: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6-a"(er7- supraat pp. 120$%120# .) **pparent *uthority)/ A ,eter(ination (a,e base, upon the circu(stances an, 0hether the o""icers reasonably belie.e that the person gi.ing consent ha, the authority to ,o so. (United States $# Fiori""o (&th Cir. 1&&&) 1#5 B.3r, 1135: )eop"e $# Superior Court 6-a"(er7- supraat pp. 120#%1213.) +o establish *apparent authority-/ the prosecution (ust sho0) +he police belie.e, an untrue "act that they use, to assess the consenter s control o.er the area to be searche,: 1t 0as obCecti.ely reasonable "or the o""icers to belie.e that the "act 0as true: and 23$
1" that "act 0ere true- the consenter 0oul, ha.e ha, actual authority to gi.e that consent. (United States $# Reid (&th Cir. 2000) 225 B.3r, 1020- 102$: United States $# Ens"in (&th Cir. 2003) 31$ B.3r, 120$- 121$: United States $# Rui5 (&th Cir. 200$) 32# B.3r, #22: Espinosa $# Cit& and Count& o' San Francisco (&th Cir. 2010) $&# B.3r, $2#- $35% $32.)
Ehere 4.S. Oarshals Fne0 that the person gi.ing consent 0as a resi,ent o" the ho(e- an, ha, no reason to Fno0 that ,e"en,ant 0as occupying a bacF be,roo(- the o""icers coul, reasonably assu(e the consenterNresi,ent ha, the authority to authori;e entry into that bacF be,roo(. (United States $# Ens"in- supra.) Paper bags le"t by ,e"en,ant in an ac@uaintance s garage- 0here the ac@uaintance ha, "ree access to the bags- (ay be la0"ully searche, 0ith consent "ro( the ac@uaintance. Gy lea.ing the bags 0ith the ac@uaintance- Fno0ing an, not obCecting to the "act that she (the ac@uaintance) 0oul, go into the bags- ,e"en,ant *assumed the ris?/ that she 0oul, allo0 others to looF into the bags. ()eop"e $# Schmec( (200$) 32 Cal.3th 230- 2#0%2#2.) Apparent authority "oun, 0here the resi,ent o" a house ga.e consent to search a container set out in plain sight an, no one obCecte, 0hen such consent 0as re@ueste,. (United States $# Rui5supra.) Io0e.er- the search o" a purse base, upon the consent o" the purse o0ner s boy"rien, 0as hel, to be unla0"ul because it 0as unreasonable "or the o""icers to thinF that the boy"rien, ha, the necessary authority. (See United States $# -e"ch (&th Cir. 1&&3) 3 B.3r, 251.) *(A) guest 0ho has the run o" the house in the occupant s absence has the apparent authority to gi.e consent to enter an area 0here a .isitor nor(ally 0oul, be recei.e,./ ()eop"e $# 2edesma (2005) 3& Cal.3th 5$2- 203%203.) An,- although recei.ing consent to enter a resi,ence does not in"er a consent to ans0er the telephone 0hile in the resi,ence ()eop"e $# 0ar,ood (1&22) 23 Cal.App.3r, 3503$#.)- the telephone (ay be ans0ere, 0here the o""icers ha.e probable cause to belie.e ,e"en,ant 0ill be calling 235
an, taFing the ti(e to get a 0arrant 0oul, co(pro(ise the o""icer s ability to @uicFly locate an, apprehen, hi(. ()eop"e $# 2edesma- supraat p. 203.) A business that o0ns the co(pany s co(puters (ay consent to the search o" a co(puter use, by an e(ployeeat least 0hen the e(ployee is on notice that he has no reasonable e?pectation o" pri.acy in the contents o" the co(puter he is using. (United States $# 4ie1"er (&th Cir. 2002) 323 B.3r, 11#3.) Examples) "andlord) A lan,lor, (ay not gi.e a .ali, consent "or police to search a renter s ho(e- the renter ha.ing a superior right to possession at least "or the ,uration o" the agree, rental perio,. (Chapman $# United States (1&51) 35$ 4.S. 5106$ 7.8,.2n, #2#9: )eop"e $# Roman (1&&1) 222 Cal.App.3r, 523.) Io0e.er- a lan,lor, has a right to inspect the ho(e "or .iolations o" the rental agree(ent- 0ith notice to the renter an, at a reasonable ti(e- an, un,er other li(ite, circu(stances. (Ci:il Code 1")4) Anything they obser.e in the process (ay ser.e as probable cause to obtain a 0arrant "or a search by la0 en"orce(ent. Sa(e rule applies to the (anager or clerF in a hotel or (otel. (Stoner $# Ca"i'ornia (1&53) 325 4.S. 3#3 611 7.8,.2n, #$59: )eop"e $# ur(e (1&52) 20# Cal.App.2n, 13&- 150%151.) An, 0ith an apartment manager. ()eop"e $# Ro.erts (1&$5) 32 Cal.2n, 323- 322.) ,ilitary personnel- li.ing o"" base in a (otel- but 0ith the housing pai, "or by the (ilitary as an alternati.e to li.ing in the on%base barracFs- retain the sa(e pri.acy protections as anyone else in the ci.ilian 0orl,. ()eop"e $# Rodri1ue5 (1&55) 232 Cal.App.2n, 233.) +he sa(e rule applies to any o""%base (ilitary housing- at least 0hen the case is a state case being in.estigate, by state la0 en"orce(ent o""icers "or 232
presentation in state court. ()eop"e $# %i""er (1&#2) 1&5 Cal.App.3r, 302.) Io0e.er- on the base- a co((an,ing o""icer (ay authori;e a 0arrantless search o" propertyinclu,ing the ser.ice(an s locFer ()eop"e $# Shepard (1&53) 212 Cal.App.2n, 5&2- 200.) an, his roo( in the barracFs. ()eop"e $# *asmin (200#) 152 Cal.App.3th &#.) 8.i,ence properly sei;e, pursuant to a ser.ice (e(ber s co((an,ing o""icer s (or *co(petent (ilitary authority/) oral or 0ritten authori;ation to search a person or an area- "or speci"ie, property or e.i,ence or "or a speci"ic person (see BilitarA 8ules of ?:idence, 8ule 31)+a, & +4,)- the results (ay be use, in state court. ()eop"e $# *asminsupra- at p. 110.) Parent) A parent (ay gi.e consent to search the ho(e an, e.en the chil, s roo( o.er the chil, s obCection- except areas e?clusi.e to the chil, (e.g.: a "ootlocFer 0hich 0as locFe, by the chil,). (In re Scott /# (1&2&) 23 Cal.3r, 3&$- 303% 30$.) +he search o" an a,ult chil, s be,roo( in his parents ho(e- (a,e 0ith the consent o" a parentis reasonable *absent circu(stances establishing the son has been gi.en e?clusi.e control o.er the be,roo(./ ()eop"e $# Danie"s (1&21) 15 Cal.App.3r, 35.) Parents o" an 1#%year%ol, a,ult son 0ere hel, to ha.e *actual/ authority to gi.e consent to search the son s roo( 0hen the son ,i, not pay rent- an, there 0as no e.i,ence o" any agree(ent on the part o" the parent not to enter the son s roo(. (United States $# Rith (10th Cir. 1&&&) 153 B.3r, 1323.) Bather- 0ith the apparent authority to allo0 police o""icers to search his entire resi,ence- inclu,ing the be,roo( o" his a,ult son- un,er circu(stances 0here the "ather an, ,e"en,ant son ha, apparent "ree access to each other s 23#
roo(- .ali,ly authori;e, police to enter the son s roo(. ()eop"e $# Oodham (2000) #1 Cal.App.3th 1.) Euery) 1" the a,ult chil, is paying rent an, there is nothing else to suggest that the parents ha.e "ree access to the chil, s roo(- 0oul, not the lan,lor,% tenant rules (See Ci:il Code 1#"!3- 1")4) be applicableM Parents ha.e to ha.e access to their (inor chil, s be,roo( an, the po0er to gi.e consent to the search o" the be,roo( to the police in or,er to properly e?ecute their ,uty o" super.ision an, control o.er the chil,. *1n the absence o" e.i,ence suggesting a parent has ab,icate, this role to0ar, his or her chil,- police o""icers (ay reasonably conclu,e that a parent can .ali,ly consent to the search o" a (inor chil,Ds be,roo(./ (In re D#C# (2010) 1## Cal.App.3th &2#.) +he Court rea""ir(e, the Cali"ornia Supre(e Court s ,ecision in In re Scott /#- supra- noting that a (inor (ay retain the right to e?clu,e others "ro( areas that are e?clusi.e to the (inor (a "ootlocFer 0hich 0as locFe, by the chil,). (In re D#C#- supraat pp. &#2%&##.) +he Court also reCecte, the contrary rule o" United States $# -hit'ie"d (D.C. Cir. 1&&1) 2&1 4.S. App. D.C. 233 6&3& B.2n, 10219- 0hich hel, that a parent ,oes not ha.e the authority to consent to the search o" their a,ult son s be,roo(. (Id.- at pp. &#5%&#2 .) &hild) Ehether or not a chil, (ay .ali,ly allo0 police into the "a(ily resi,ence ,epen,s upon a ,eter(ination 0hether- un,er the circu(stances- it is reasonable to belie.e that the chil, ha, the authority to ,o so. An 11%year%ol, step%,aughter- baby sitting in the ,e"en,ant s absence- 0as hel, not to ha.e the authority to a,(it the police. ()eop"e $# *aco.s (1&#2) 33 Cal.3r, 322.) Gut- 0here a 12%year%ol, abuse .icti( le, police to her aunt s house an, 0here- in her aunt s absence- the .icti( 0as in charge o" the house- li.ing an, 0orFing there- the .icti( coul, .ali,ly gi.e consent to search "or i(ple(ents use, to abuse her 0hen the aunt ha, initially in.ite, police insi,e- an, a"ter the aunt 0as arreste, an, re(o.e, "ro( 23&
the house. ()eop"e $# Santia1o (1&&2) $$ Cal.App.3th 1$30.) +he 15%year%ol, ,aughter o" the ,e"en,ant ha, the apparent authority to allo0 the o""icers the right to enter ,e"en,ant s resi,ence. ()eop"e $# 0o!ter (1&&&) 2$ Cal.App.3th 305.) &o6;ccupants (Roommates or Husband and =ife)) Ehen t0o or (ore people ha.e e@ual access to a resi,ence (e.g.: roo((ateshusban, an, 0i"e- etc.)- the rules regar,ing one co%occupant gi.ing consent .ary ,epen,ing upon the circu(stances) +he a,ult sister sharing an apart(ent 0ith her a,ult brothers ,oes not ha.e apparent authority to consent to the search o" the brothers be,roo(. ( each $# Superior Court (1&20) 11 Cal.App.3r, 1032- 1033S103$.) Ehen a,ult roo((ates ha.e separate roo(s- e?clusi.e control by each o" the in,i.i,uals o.er his or her o0n roo( is presu(e,- absent e.i,ence to the contrary. (United States $# A"meida3)ere5 (#th Cir. 200#) $3& B.3r, 11521122: U#S# $# arrera3%artine5 (J.D. 1ll. 2003) 223 B.Supp.2n, &$0- &52.) Lenerally- consent to a search gi.en by so(eone 0ith authority cannot be re.oFe, by an absent co5occu(antAs
denial of consent! e)en if that denial is clear and contem(oraneous +ith the search. (United States v. Matlock (1974) 41% U. . 164! 172 "/9 #.$d.2nd 242&9 -he mutual use of (ro(ert* carries +ith it the ris; that 6ust one of the occu(ants mi.ht (ermit a search of the common areas.)
De"en,ant in Matlock +as in a (atrol car out front

of the residence. 1or (ur(oses of this rule! he +as deemed to be 7absent.3 (see also )eop"e $#
0as(ett (1&#2) 30 Cal.3r, #31- #$$%#$2: 0ith ,e"en,ant outsi,e in a police car- obCecting- but his 0i"e- in the resi,ence- saying oFay- the entry 0as hel, to be la0"ul. Gut- 0hen t0o e@ually%situate, cotenants- both present at the scene- are asFe, "or per(ission to enter an,Nor search a resi,ence- 0ith one saying *yes/ but the other saying *no-/ entry an,Nor search (ay not be (a,e absent an e?igent circu(stance or a search 0arrant. (Geor1ia $# Rando"ph (2005) $32 4.S. 103 6153 7.8,.2n, 20#9.) 2$0
Cali"ornia authority to the contrary (e.g.- see )eop"e $# -i"(ins (1&&3) 13 Cal.App.3th 251- 25&%225.) is no longer .ali, in light o" this Supre(e Court opinion. Rando"ph liste, a nu(ber o" e?ceptions to this rule) Ehere there is a *recognized hierarchy/ (e.g.- parent .s. chil,)- obCections "ro( the one 0ith the in"erior status (ay be ignore,. Eith a reasonable (articulable) "ear "or the sa"ety o" the person in.iting o""icers insi,eor anyone else insi,e- entry (ay be (a,e to checF the .icti( s 0el"are an,Nor to stop pen,ing .iolence. An obCection "ro( an absent cotenant (e.en i" han,cu""e, in a patrol car i((e,iately out "ront) (ay be ignore,- at least so long as he is not le, a0ay "ro( the scene "or the purpose o" Custi"ying an entry into the resi,ence. 1t is not necessary to solicit possible obCections "ro( a cotenant- e.en i" that person is insi,e an,Nor a.ailable an, e.en i" it coul, be e?pecte, that that person 0oul, obCect. Any other e?igent circu(stance (sa"ety o" the occupants- protection o" possible physical e.i,ence- etc.) (ay Custi"y an i((e,iate entry- at least until the scene is secure, an,Nor the suspects ,etaine, pen,ing the obtaining o" a search 0arrant. 8ntering 0ith the .icti( o" ,o(estic .iolence- at her re@uest- "or the purpose o" protecting her as she collects her belongings. +he consenting cotenant (ay retrie.e e.i,ence an, bring it out to the police. Eith probable cause- a search 0arrant (ay be obtaine, "or the search o" the resi,ence.
+he Supre(e Court in Rando"ph speci"ically hel, that an o""icer has no ,uty to seeF out other cotenants to see i" anyone obCects. An obCecting co% tenant (ust be at the scene to obCect. (Id.- at p. 122: 2$1
see also )eop"e $# Fernande5 (-./-0 -.D &al2*pp23th /..- 122.) +he rule o" Rando"ph ,oes not go.ern 0hen a (inor obCects to the search o" his roo( but is o.errule, by his (other. Rando"ph applies only to ,isagree(ents bet0een Coint adult occupants ha.ing apparently e@ual authority o.er a resi,ence. (In re D#C# (2010) 1## Cal.App.3th &2#&##%&#&.) +he Jinth Circuit has rule, that 0hen an obCecting cotenant is taFen to Cail be"ore the consenting cotenant sho0s up at the scene an, gi.es his consent- the rule o" Rando"ph still applies. 1t is not necessary- ,espite the speci"ic language in Rando"ph- that the obCecting party be taFen a0ay *for the purpose of/ a.oi,ing the rule o" Rando"ph. (United States $# %urph& (&th Cir. 200#) $15 B.3r, 1112- 1123%112$.) +he Court tooF it e.en a step "urther- setting out a ne0 rule) *!nce a co%tenant has registere, his obCection- his re"usal to grant consent re(ains e""ecti.e barring so(e obCecti.e (ani"estation that he has change, his position an, no longer obCects./ (I.id.) At least "our other "e,eral circuits an, t0o state Supre(e Courts ,isagree 0ith the %urph& on this issue. (See United States $# 0udspeth (#th Cir. 200#) $1# B.3r, &$3: United States $# 0enderson (2th Cir. 200#) $35 B.3r, 225: United States $# Shrader (3th Cir. Apr. 3- 2012) 52$ B.3r, 300: United States $# Coo(e ($th Cir. 2012) 523 B.3r, 3&13&&: )eop"e $# Stimp"e (Colo. 2012) 252 P.3r, 121&1221%1225: State $# St# %artin (2011) 333 Eis.2n, 2&0- 305%310.) Subse@uent to %urph&- the Jinth Circuit ,eci,e, United States $# ro,n (&th Cir. 200&) $53 B.3r, 310- 0hich ree(phasi;e, the rule that a cotenant (ust ha.e been re(o.e, *"or the purpose o"/ a.oi,ing a possible obCectionruling that there (ust be so(e e.i,ence that that 0as the purpose o" the police in taFing the ,e"en,ant "ro( the scene. 1t 0as also note, that there is no ,uty to asF the absent cotenant "or consent.
2$2
Cali"ornia s Secon, District Court o" Appeal has a,,e, its .oice to those courts ,isagreeing 0ith the Jinth Circuit s ,ecision in United States $# %urph&- supra (see abo.e)hol,ing that a ,e"en,ant s obCection to a consensual search (ay be ignore, 0hen he is la0"ully arreste, an, re(o.e, "ro( the scene- an, that 0hile absent- o""icers asF "or an, recei.e a cotenant s per(ission to search the apart(ent. ()eop"e $# Fernande5 (-./-0 -.D &al2*pp23th /..- 112% 122.) Ehen a cotenant- 0ho is absent "ro( the scene- consents to a la0 en"orce(ent entry into a resi,ence- but another cotenant 0ho is present at the scene obCects- an entry is unla0"ul. (Tomp(ins $# Superior Court (1&$&) $& Cal.2n, 5$.) Gut note- shoul, the present cotenant "ail to obCectconsent "ro( the absent cotenant allo0s the entry. ()eop"e $# 9ie1a (1&#&) 213 Cal.App.3r, #12.) An, also note United States $# Rith (10th Cir. 1&&&) 153 B.3r, 1323- 0here the absent parents per(ission to enter the house tooF prece,ence o.er the present 1#%year%ol, son s obCection to the o""icers entry. Eith roo((ates- the consenting co%occupant (ay only consent to entry o" his personal roo( an, any co((on areas. Ie (ay not gi.e a .ali, consent to another co% tenant s pri.ate roo(. ()eop"e $# o&er (1&#&) 3# Cal.3r, 232- 225: United States $# Da$is (&th Cir. 2003) 332 B.3r, 1153.) Ehen the estrange, 0i"e retains property 0ithin the resi,ence- re(ains liable "or rent- ci.il liability "or acci,ents- etc.- an, has not establishe, a per(anent resi,ence else0here- she still has the apparent authority to allo0 police into her resi,ence 0here the husban, still li.es. ()eop"e $# ishop (1&&5) 33 Cal.App.3th 220.) +he "act that the husban, ha, change, the locFs is only in,icati.e o" the le.el o" antagonis(- an, is not a li(itation o" the 0i"e s authority to allo0 the police to enter an, search. (I.id.) E$idence o' a De'endant?s Re'usa" to Consent to a -arrant"ess Search: 2$3
1t is i(proper "or a prosecutor to intro,uce e.i,ence o"- or co((ent to a Cury about- a ,e"en,ant s re"usal to consent to a 0arrantless search o" his property. ()eop"e $# -ood (2002) 103 Cal.App.3th #03: )eop"e $# /eener (1&#3) 13# Cal.App.3r, 23- 2&: *Presenting e.i,ence o" an in,i.i,ual s e?ercise o" a right to re"use to consent to entry in or,er to ,e(onstrate a consciousness o" guilt (erely ser.es to punish the e?ercise o" the right to insist upon a 0arrant./ Sanctions 'or 9io"ations: 1" the consent is hel, to be in.oluntary- then all the ,irect pro,ucts o" that *consent/ 0ill be suppresse, un,er the *fruit of the poisonous tree/ ,octrine. (See cases cite, abo.e.) 1" an other0ise .oluntary consent is the ,irect pro,uct o" so(e other illegal police act (e.g.: illegal arrest- ,etention- etc.)- then the consent an, the resulting ,irect pro,ucts o" the consent (ay also be suppresse,. ()eop"e $# 9a"en5ue"a (1&&3) 2# Cal.App.3th #12- #33.) A consent to search that is the pro,uct o" an illegal ,etention is also subCect to suppression- as are the pro,ucts o" that search. ()eop"e $# /rohn (2002) 13& Cal.App.3th 12&3.) Ian,cu""ing a person suspecte, o" possible in.ol.e(ent in a narcotics transaction- but 0here the o""icer testi"ie, only that he 0as *unco("ortable/ 0ith the "act that ,e"en,ant 0as tall (5 5/) an, that narcotics suspects so(eti(es carry 0eapons (although the o""icer ,i, not con,uct a pat hi( ,o0n "or 0eapons)- con.erte, a ,etention into an arrest(aFing the subse@uent consent to search in.oluntary. ()eop"e $# Stier (200#) 15# Cal.App.3th 21.)
2$3

The Fourth Amendment and Search &amp; Seizure

Cargado por

Información del documento

Derechos de autor

Formatos disponibles

Compartir este documento

Compartir o incrustar documentos

Opciones para compartir

¿Le pareció útil este documento?

¿Este contenido es inapropiado?

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

The Fourth Amendment and Search &amp; Seizure

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

SAN DIEGO DISTRICT ATTORNEY

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

(ederal ;fficers) 1$5

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

*-he )iolation of a state statute! standin. alone! does not

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

States v. !uckes (9th Cir. 2009) %86 1./rd 71/! 7165719.)

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

$# Ro.inson (2012) 20# Cal.App.3th 232- 231.)

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

+4, to an* natural (erson desi.nated b* it as a.ent

+c, if the cor(oration has desi.nated a cor(orate

Goth the California In(asion of #ri(ac) Act and the

+he necessity re@uire(ent o" 32$

Progress has not been (a,e- and 3#1

1s per(itte, by (!C! 22"!#2.

(!C! 232: 8a.es,ropping- Co(pare,) 3&&

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

Io0e.er- see 'eo(le v. Turner (1994) 8 Cal.4th 1/7!

*+he postal%inspector s Ause o" a +ell5trained narcotics

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

< 2013 Robert C. Phillips. All rights reser.e,

De"en,ant in Matlock +as in a (atrol car out front

También podría gustarte

The Fourth Amendment and Search & Seizure

The Fourth Amendment and Search & Seizure