Elseviei Euitoiial System(tm) foi }ouinal of Anthiopological Aichaeology

Nanusciipt Biaft


Nanusciipt Numbei: Y}AAR-B-1S-uuu12R2

Title: Wiuespieau uiffusion of technical innovations aiounu Suu,uuu yeais ago in Euiope as a ieflection
of anthiopological anu social tiansfoimations. New compaiative uata fiom the westein Neuiteiianean
sites of 0ignac (Fiance) anu Cave uall'0lio (Italy)

Aiticle Type: Reseaich papei

Keywoius: Southein Euiope; Naiine Isotopic Stage 9; technical behavioi; Levallois ubitage; laminai
ubitage; Eaily Niuule Palaeolithic; social inteiactions

Coiiesponuing Authoi: Bi. Feueiica Fontana, Ph.B.

Coiiesponuing Authoi's Institution: 0niveisity of Feiiaia

Fiist Authoi: Feueiica Fontana, Ph.B.

0iuei of Authois: Feueiica Fontana, Ph.B.; Naiie-Blene Noncel; uabiiele Nenzioni; uiuseppe
0noievoli; Cailo Peietto; }ean Combiei

Abstiact: Buiing NIS (Naiine Isotope Stage) 9 anu the tiansition to NIS 8 - aiounu SSu-Suu,uuu yeais
ago - some lithic assemblages in Euiope ieflect maikeu tiansfoimations in technical behavioi. These
tiansfoimations involveu the stanuaiuization of piouucts anu the uevelopment of uiveisifieu anu
elaboiateu ubitage methous which aie consiueieu to be maikeis of the tiansition fiom the Lowei to
the Niuule Palaeolithic i.e. fiom Noue 2 to Noue S. Taking the analysis of the sites of 0ignac S
(Aiueche, Fiance) anu Cave uall'0lio (Emilia Romagna, Italy) as a staiting point, this papei uiscusses
the vaiiability of these assemblages in Southein Euiope as well as the social anu anthiopological
implications of the emeigence of new technical behavioi. It also aims to show that common featuies
existeu both in Noithein anu Southein Euiope. The uevelopment of moie complex technical systems
on a piogiessively wiuei teiiitoiy anu at an incieasingly eailiei age aigues in favoi of the hypothesis of
a close connection with the piocess of "Neanueithalisation", possibly accompanieu by the tiansmission
of iueas thiough extensive social netwoiks.




uear LdlLor,
The submitted paper entitled 1he emergence of new Lechnlcal behavlours around 300,000 years ago ln
SouLhern Lurope aL Crgnac (lrance) and Cave dall'Cllo (lLaly): anLhropologlcal and soclal lmpllcaLlons is
Lhe resulLs of a long-lasLlng lnLernaLlonal con[olnL research acLlvlLy beLween Lhe dlfferenL research
lnsLlLuLlons Lo whlch Lhe AuLhors respecLlvely belong. More speclflcally lL orlglnaLes from Lhe analyLlcal
revision of the assemblages from the key sites of Orgnac and Cave dallOlio carrled ouL by Lwo of Lhe
AuLhors, Marle-Pelene Moncel and lederlca lonLana, and by Lhe comparlson of Lhelr mosL slgnlflcanL
Lechnlcal feaLures. 1he relevance of developlng Lhls comparlson work ls sLrlcLly connecLed Lo Lhe cenLral
role occupled by Lhe Lwo SouLhern Luropean slLes for Lhe reconsLrucLlon of one of Lhe mosL slgnlflcanL
phases of pasL human hlsLory, Lhe LranslLlon from Lower Lo Mlddle alaeollLhlc. 1he works also represenLs
an opporLunlLy Lo updaLe Lhe model of correlaLlons beLween Lhe llLhosLraLlgraphlc and allosLraLlgraphlc
unlLs ln Lhe area of Lmllla 8omagna used for the definition of the chronology of the site of Cave dallOlio,
carrled ouL by Cluseppe Cnorevoll.
AcLually Lhe Larly-Mlddle alaeollLhlc LranslLlon phase ls beLLer known ln norLhern Lhan ln SouLhern Lurope
and Lhe posslblllLy Lo add new elemenLs Lo Lhe knowledge of Lechnologlcal evenLs ln Lhls parL of Lhe
conLlnenL opens new research perspecLlves. SLarLlng from Lhe descrlpLlve analyLlcal work carrled ouL on Lhe
Lwo slLes and Lhrough a comparlson wlLh oLher coeval deposlLs across Lhe conLlnenL AuLhors open a
dlscusslon on llLhlc Lechnologlcal behavlors durlng Lhls cruclal phase as well as on Lhelr soclal and
anLhropologlcal lmpllcaLlons.
We speclfy LhaL Lhls paper ls here presenLed for Lhe flrsL Llme.
!"##$%&"'()'* ,-./"#: lederlca lonLana, e-mall address: federlca.fonLana[unlfe.lL, lull osLal Address:
unlverslLa dl lerrara, ulparLlmenLo dl SLudl umanlsLlcl - Sezlone dl Sclenze AnLropologlche,Corso Lrcole l
d'LsLe 32, l1 - 44100 lerrara, hone numbers: +39 0332 293704, +39 392 3918787
1he names of poLenLlal revlewers are lndlcaLed ln an aLLached flle along wlLh Lhelr full conLacL deLalls.
We Lhank you ln advance for Lhe aLLenLlon you would llke Lo glve Lo our paper,
?ours slncerely,
1he AuLhors

*Cover Letter
1. The word 'modailty' is often used in the text. A better translation might be 'form'

We have modified sometimes this word according to the meaning of the sentence.



2. Page 11. The discussion could be divided into more paragraphs. It's currently quite dense.

It has been done.


3. Page 11. Baume Bonne is in south-east France not south-west.

Corrections of the mistake are made. Sorry for that.


4. Page 12. Hoxne and probably Schoningen date to MIS 11 and therefore are not good examples of the
persistence of Acheulian tyechnology. A better example would be Pontnewydd Cave in Wales, where handaxes
and Levallois are found at c. 230 ka.

We have modified and specified this aspect. We have deleted Schningen and Hoxne. Thanks to the reviewer to
remind us this site which is a key-site for this topic.


5. Would it be possible to provide direct comparisons between tables 1 and 2. I understand they will have been
recorded by different people at different times, so might be difficult. The same applies to tables 3 and 4, where
data from Orgnac would styrengthen the comparisons. I understand that this might not be possible
.
The two assemblages were collected in different archeological situations and all the possible direct comparisons
have been already carried out.

6. Table 6 is a useful addition. Some of the locational information should be standardised - some are just given as
sites, others with river valley added, while others have country as well. This also applies to the dates, e.g.
Korolevo VI. A more up to date reference for Crayford is B. Scott 2011. 'Becoming Neanderthals', Oxbow Books.

Table 6 has been standardized and the reference added.

7. Better percentage scales should be added to base of Figure 5. The same applies to Figure 11.

Scales have been added to figures 5 and 11.


*Response to Reviewers
Highlights:
1) Lithic assemblages in Europe reflect marked transformations of technical behavior from
MIS 9 onwards
2) Transformations involve the standardization of products and the development of more
elaborate dbitage methods
3) These are considered as markers of the transition from the Lower to the Middle Palaeolithic
4) Orgnac 3 and Cave dallOlio in southern Europe also reflect these technical changes
5) The emergence of new behavior across the whole European territory has anthropological
and social implications
6) The hypothesis of a connection with the process of Neanderthalisation and the
development of extensive social networks is advanced

*Highlights (for review)
Widespread diffusion of technical innovations around 300,000 years ago in Europe as
a reflection of anthropological and social transformations? New comparative data
from the western Mediterranean sites of Orgnac (France) and Cave dall'Olio (Italy)

Fontana F.
1
, Moncel M.-H.
2
, Nenzioni G.
3
, Onorevoli G.
4
, Peretto C.
1
, Combier J.
5,
,

1
Universit di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici - Sezione di Scienze Antropologiche,
Corso Ercole I d'Este 32, IT - 44100 Ferrara; e-mail: federica.fontana@unife.it
2
Dpartement de Prhistoire, CNRS/MNHN, UMR 7194, Institut de Palontologie Humaine,
1 rue Ren Panhard, 75013 Paris, France
3
Museo della Preistoria "Luigi Donini" , Via Fratelli Canova 49, IT-40068 San Lazzaro di
Savena (BO)

4
Universit di Bologna, Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e Geologico-ambientali, Via
Zamboni 67, IT 40126 Bologna; e-mail: giuseppe.onorevoli@unibo.it

5
Macon, 5 rue Saint-Jean, 71000 Macon

Corresponding Author: Federica Fontana, e-mail address: federica.fontana@unife.it; Full Postal
Address: Universit di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici - Sezione di Scienze
Antropologiche, Corso Ercole I d'Este 32, IT - 44100 Ferrara; Phone numbers: +39 0532
293704; +39 392 3918787


Summary

During MIS (Marine Isotope Stage) 9 and the transition to MIS 8 - around 350-300,000 years
ago - some lithic assemblages in Europe reflect marked transformations in technical
behavior. These transformations involved the standardization of products and the
development of diversified and elaborated dbitage methods which are considered to be
markers of the transition from the Lower to the Middle Palaeolithic i.e. from Mode 2 to Mode
3. Taking the analysis of the sites of Orgnac 3 (Ardche, France) and Cave dallOlio (Emilia
Romagna, Italy) as a starting point, this paper discusses the variability of these assemblages
in Southern Europe as well as the social and anthropological implications of the emergence
of new technical behavior. It also aims to show that common features existed both in
Northern and Southern Europe. The development of more complex technical systems on a
progressively wider territory and at an increasingly earlier age argues in favor of the
hypothesis of a close connection with the process of Neanderthalisation, possibly
accompanied by the transmission of ideas through extensive social networks.

Keywords: Southern Europe; Marine Isotopic Stage 9; technical behavior; Levallois
dbitage; laminar dbitage; Early Middle Palaeolithic; social interactions

Introduction

Palaeoanthropological and genetic studies indicate that the first Neanderthal features across
Europe appear in Homo heidelbergensis populations between 600,000 and 450,000 years
ago (Krings et al., 1997; Hublin and Pbo, 2005; Bischoff et al., 2007; Hublin, 1998, 2009;
Orlando et al., 2006; Rightmire, 2008; Endicott et al., 2010; Green et al., 2010; Stringer,
2012). As far as material culture is concerned, evidence of modifications in behavioral
strategies is recorded around 400,000 years ago in organized hunting strategies (for instance
at Schningen, Thieme, 1997). At the same time, important transformations are reflected by
lithic assemblages, resulting in the implementation of more complex flaking strategies and a
higher standardization of products between MIS 9 (Marine Isotope Stage 9) and MIS 7
starting around 350-300,000 years ago. These transformations took place at different times
in diverse areas, either progressively and gradually or by episodic phases among a human
*Manuscript
Click here to view linked References
population considered to be genetically homogeneous (Moncel, 2003; Monnier, 2006; Premo
and Hublin, 2009; Moncel et al., 2012).
These technical changes are considered as the markers of the transition from the Lower to
the Middle Palaeolithic, i.e. from Mode 2 to Mode 3 (Clark, 1969), and several lithic
assemblages provide the opportunity to examine these transformations in detail. Most of
these sites are located in the north-western and central part of the European continent while
only a few southern sites dated to the same time range have yielded similar evidence in
Spain, Southern France and Italy.
The oldest record of the development of Levallois dbitage in Europe is currently considered
to be related to the site of Cagny-la Garenne in northern France (450 ka, Tuffreau, 1987) and
the earliest evidence of laminar reduction is attributed to deposits in north-western Europe
(MIS 8, Revillon, 1995). Even the Levant was involved in this extensive wave of technical
changes with the development of laminar dbitage between 400 and 200 ka (Barkai et al., 2005;
Verri et al., 2005), while sporadic evidence of blade technology appears in East Africa around
500 ka (Roure Johnson and McBrearty, 2010). At the same time, other deposits across the
European continent indicate the persistence of Acheulean features and/or a lack of a clear
technical development (Carbonell et al., 2007).
In this paper, we wish to discuss the contribution of southern Europe to this large-scale
technical event and to show that similar technological changes occurred on the whole
continent. The assemblages of Orgnac 3 (Ardche, France) and Cave dallOlio (Emilia
Romagna, Italy) (Fig. 1) (Moncel, 1999, 2003; Fontana et al., 2009) in particular, dated to the
transition between MIS 9 and MIS 8, will be the focus of a detailed comparative analysis.
These sites currently present the opportunity to examine the emergence of new technological
strategies in a geographical area considered to have been continuously inhabited, in contrast
to the northern parts of the continent (Soriano, 2005; Hublin and Roebroeks, 2009). By
establishing a series of technical criteria for the description of dbitage - reduction methods,
ramification of reduction sequences, preparation/maintenance of convexities and recurrence,
standardization of debitage objectives and productivity, management of flaking platforms -
the transformations reflected by these assemblages are analyzed and a discussion of their
social and anthropological implications is developed by attempting a comparison with other
coeval European sites. This study mainly focuses on dbitage systems which appear more
diversified and elaborate than during previous phases but it also assesses faonnage,
although this appears less developed in both analyzed assemblages and tends to assume a
secondary role.

Orgnac 3: a cave sequence recording the emergence of Middle Palaeolithic-type
behavior

Stratigraphy of the cave site

The site of Orgnac 3 is situated on the Ardche plateau on the right bank of the Rhne Valley
(France) to the south of the Ardche River gorges (Fig. 1). It was excavated from 1959 to
1972 by Jean Combier and ten occupation layers were identified (Combier, 1967) (Fig. 2). The
site morphology has changed over time. When human groups initially arrived, it was a closed
cave (aven). As the cave roof slowly receded, humans sought shelter in a depression under
the remaining rock escarpment, a sink hole measuring 600 m
2
, oriented S/SW. The sequence
consists of an accumulation of layers of stony red clays with no hiatus, mixed with elements
from the collapsed ceiling, a typical karstic phenomenon in the region. Over time, exterior
elements, such as wind transported sands gradually increased, in relation with the collapse of
the ceiling and the opening up of the entrance of the cave. The effects of water run-off
resulted in the deposition of carbonates and the desilicification of flint artefacts. The layers at
the bottom of the sequence are more or less weathered heterometric gravels, in an abundant
brownish-red sandy-clay matrix which filled in the spaces between the fallen blocks, some of
which are one cubic meter in size. Layer 1 indicates water run-off and the import of abundant
exterior elements due to the opening up of the cave. Spatial distribution does not indicate a
change in the organization of activities over time, in spite of the opening up of the cave
(Moncel, 1998-1999; Moncel et al., 2005).

Age of the sequence and biostratigraphy

The archaeological sequence is dated from isotopic stage 9 by ESR, U/Th, (layers 5 and 6)
and the beginning of stage 8 by volcanic minerals (from Green clinopyroxene from Mont-Dore-
Sancy Volcano) (Shen, 1985; Falgures, et al., 1988; Debard, 1988; Debard and Pastre,
1988; Laurent, 1989; Khatib, 1989, 1994; Masaoudi, 1995). Pre-Neanderthal human remains
were discovered in the bottom layers (Lumley, 1981).
Biostratigraphical studies (mammal remains, microfauna, fossil pollen) suggest that the base
of the sequence was deposited in a temperate context, contemporary with the human
occupation and more or less humid according to the layers (Mourer-Chauvir, 1975; Tillier and
Vandermeersch, 1976; Guerin, 1980; Gauthier, 1992; El Hazzazi, 1998; Aouraghe, 1999). The
Orgnac 3 sequence is a reference for understanding the evolution of large mammal fauna
during a Middle Pleistocene transitional period. The lower layers are rich in carnivores: this
faunal horizon is characterized by the appearance of the small-sized Canis lupus, Crocuta
crocuta spelaea and the Tibetan bear (Ursus thibetanus) in Western Europe, associated with
Vulpes vulpes, Panthera (Leo) spelaea, Ursus deningeri, Ursus arctos and Mustelids. Macaca
sylvanus, Dama clactoniana, Hemitragus bonali and Equus mosbachensis, associated with
Sus scrofa, Cervus elaphus, Capreolus sp., Bison priscus, Bos primigenius and
Stephanorhinus hemitoechus represent species characteristic of the Middle Pleistocene
(Gurin, 1980; Aouraghe, 1992).
Throughout time, the environmental context became gradually cooler. The top of the infilling
was probably deposited during a cold and dry phase (Khatib, 1994). The uppermost
stratigraphical unit (layers 2 and 1) is mainly characterized by a predominance of species
typical of an open landscape (equids and large bovids), and by the replacement of Equus
mosbachensis by Equus steinheimensis (Forsten and Moigne, 1988). The increase of rodents
related to a dry and continental climate indicates a climatic change in layer 1 (Jeannet, 1981).
Hemitragus bonali and Ursus deningeri suggest an age no younger than MIS 8. This increase
illustrates the passage from an inter-glacial period corresponding to MIS 9 to a generally dry
phase of MIS 8. On the Ardche plateau, this transition corresponds to a reduction of forested
areas, which gradually gave way to a prairie and steppe landscape.

Composition of the lithic assemblage

The lithic assemblages of Orgnac 3 are from 10 different layers, the richest one being layer 1
at the top of the sequence. Flaking and shaping systems have been reconstructed (Tab. 1)
and Levallois flaking appears in the mid part of the sequence (layers 4b and 4a) (Moncel and
Combier, 1992; Moncel, 1999, 2003).
Flint slabs and large flint flakes and pebbles were extensively exploited in all occupation
phases. Flint slabs were collected from the Oligocene formations located 2 to 5 km south of
the site. In the bottom layers they account for 90 % of all collected raw materials and nearly 99
% in the top layers. The proportion of flint pebbles collected along the Rhne valley (15 km to
the east) decreases throughout time (Moncel and Combier, 1992; Moncel, 1999; Combier,
1967). In the top layers flint selection appears to be governed by quality criteria, especially in
relation to Levallois reduction. Flint slabs were used for knapping and shaping and were
selected on the basis of thickness.
Other raw materials were used on an occasional basis (1 to 2 %): quartz, quartzite,
limestone, granite, basalt and other volcanic rocks, schist and sandstone pebbles. They were
collected in the Cze River valley to the south, the Ardche River valley to the north and the
Rhne River valley to the east, i.e. within a radius of 15 km at the most. This material was
probably gathered on the way to the site as suggested by the fact that it was mostly shaped
inside the site (presence of flakes and debris from the shaping).
Most of the raw materials were thus procured in the vicinity of the site. Behavioral change in
procurement strategies is observed between layers 3 and 2 with a marked increase in the
use of local flint.


Cave dallOlio: an open-air site documenting the early appearance of elaborate
dbitage systems

Stratigraphy of the open-air site within the Quaternary geological framework

The site of Cave dallOlio is located along the Northern Apennine slope near the village of
San Lazzaro di Savena to the east of the town of Bologna (Fig. 1). The lithic assemblage
was recovered in the 1970s along a stratigraphic profile brought to light by quarry activities,
at a depth of about 20 m beneath the present soil in the gravel deposits of the Idice River
altered at the top by a pedogenetic event (fersiallitic soil) (Fig. 3).
The geological setting of the area consists of the superposition of the apical portions of
different alluvial fans and lies within the intersection belt of the older alluvial terraced deposits
of the Idice valley. The dating of the gravels and the soil containing the lithic industry of Cave
dallOlio, as well as their palaeo-environmental interpretation, are based on the integration of
data derived from the study of the profile of S. Mamante (Faenza) (22 shallow marine to
continental Quaternary units produced by the long-term activity of a right transcurrent fault;
Farabegoli and Onorevoli, 1992, 1996) with various outcrop segments distributed across a
sector of the Emilia-Romagna Apennines edge for a total length of more than 150 km.
Correlations between the lithostratigraphic and allostratigraphic units of this area and the
palaeoclimatic curves defined from the analysis of oceanic cores calibrated according to
orbital parameters were then carried out (V28-238, V28-239 and ODP 677) (Farabegoli and
Onorevoli, 1996, 1997; Fontana et al., 2004) (Fig. 4).Within the reconstructed scheme, the
first continental units are dated to the Upper Matuyama chron reverse period and to the
Bruhnes direct palaeomagnetic chron. The latter contains the earliest evidence of human
occupation in this area (on a stratigraphic basis Bel Poggio and Romanina Bianca are
considered to be of the same age as Ca Belvedere di Montepoggiolo, Peretto et al., 1998)
with mode 1 assemblages. The sediments of the continental units correspond in most cases
to the glacial-interglacial transition periods and are intercalated with 8 fersiallitic soils typical
of warm interglacial phases. Correlations have been established between the different
portions of the outcropping terraced deposits which are recognizable upstream along the
valley flanks. These have allowed the fersiallitic paleosoil identified at Cave dallOlio to be
referred to as the Molino Unit of the Apennine-Po plain Quaternary stratigraphic framework,
dated to MIS 9 (Farabegoli and Onorevoli, 1996, 1997). The lithic assemblage of Cave
dallOlio thus represents the first evidence of human occupation along the Southern Po plain
area after a documentary hiatus of some hundred thousand years and it is followed by
copious evidence recording the intense exploitation of this area between MIS 7 and MIS 6
(Peverella serie alpha, Due Pozzi, Ca San Carlo) (Fontana et al., 2010).
As a whole, the Apennine-Po plain river terraces and soils sequence shows consistent
analogies with the stratigraphy of the lower Rhine Valley - Germany (Farabegoli and
Onorevoli, 1996, 1997; Brunnacker et al., 1982), Netherlands (Farabegoli and Onorevoli,
1996, 1997; Cohen and Gibbard, 2011) and French fluvial basins (Somme basin, Seine and
Yonne Valley; Antoine et al., 2007, 2010).

Composition of the lithic assemblage

The assemblage collected at Cave dallOlio amounts to a total of 494 lithic artefacts, among
which there are 71 cores, 403 blanks (retouched and unretouched), 5 pebble tools and 15
bifaces. The distribution of the artefacts by category shows that cores are over-represented
in comparison to flakes and that bifaces dominate over faonnage flakes (Tab. 2), (Fontana
et al., 2009). Due to river transport most artefacts are characterized by rounded surfaces and
traces of concassage with variable degrees of alteration. The technological analysis aimed to
assess dbitage objectives and the identification of volumetric conceptions was aided by the
presence in the assemblage of cores at different stages of exploitation (Tab. 3) along with
blanks issued from diverse steps of the reduction process (including primary flakes, cortical
and semi-cortical blades, semi-cortical flakes, blades and laminar flakes, plunging and
dbordant blades etc.) (Tab. 4).
Most implements are obtained from a dark-colored silicified siltstone (locally known as
ftanite) which is very abundant locally and available as large-sized nodules and pebbles (10
to 40 cm) in the river deposits of the eastern sector of the Northern Apennines, namely the
Idice valley (Bisi et al., 1982; Lenzi and Biagioli, 1996; Fontana et al., 2004, 2009). The use
of other rocks, possibly from the same river deposits (radiolarite, red jasper, flint and
chalcedony) is occasional and only amounts to a few implements (5%). Generally, large-
sized nodules of different shapes were selected according to the diverse volumetric
conceptions adopted.
On the whole, raw material provisioning at Cave dallOlio reflects the occupation of the river
banks running across this sector of the Apennines according to a strategy which seems to be
closely related to the availability of a rich variety of mineral, vegetal and animal resources
(Fontana et al., 2004, 2010).

Description and quantification of technical features at the two sites: the core
technology (Tab. 5)

Reduction methods

The stratigraphic series of Orgnac 3 displays consistent changes in the application of reduction
methods according to the layers considered (Fig. 5). In the bottom layers (layers 7 to 5a),
dbitage is mostly related to centripetal cores (cf. Bordes, 1961) resulting from the reduction of
flint slabs along with some large and thick flakes (Fig. 6).
In the mid part of the sequence (layers 4b and 4a) at least 40 % of the cores can be defined as
Levallois cores (according to Boda, 1994, with evidence of predetermined flakes, preparation
of distal and lateral convexities, use of hard hammer, distinction between striking platform and
flaking surface). The most widely applied methods are unipolar and bipolar but removals on
Levallois flakes also attest the application of other methods. The size and thickness of some
cores suggest the use of cortical flakes as knapping blanks. These flakes may possibly come
from knapping larger cores inside and outside the site. They are associated with some
centripetal cores (30 %). The quantity of Levallois flakes in the assemblages is low, possibly as
a consequence of the fact that some of them were brought outside the site. In the top layers
(layers 3 to 1), Levallois cores dominate (95 %) while centripetal cores undergo a significant
decrease (Fig. 7).
The lithic assemblage of Cave dallOlio records the presence of several reduction methods,
some of which involve a hierarchisation between the core platform and the dbitage surface,
core convexity control and a good level of predetermination. The latter aspects are especially
testified by the presence of Levallois cores (39.1 %) (Fig. 8), accompanied by some prismatic
types resulting from the application of a laminar sensu lato scheme (7.8%) - also referred to
as a direct non-Levallois reduction sequence (Rvillon, 1995) (Fig. 9). A small group of
cores seems to indicate mixed Levallois and laminar reduction features (4.7 %).The
variability of the methods identified in this assemblage is completed by some Kombewa (14.1
%) and opportunistic cores (21.9 %), while the presence of a discoid reduction sequence
remains uncertain due to the difficulty to distinguish it from recurrent centripetal reduction
(Tab. 4).

Ramification of reduction sequences

At Orgnac 3, the first evidence of a ramification of the reduction sequence is attested in the mid
part of the sequence (layers 4b and 4a) through the use of both flint slabs and smaller flakes as
flaking blanks.
In the top layers (layers 3 to 1), most of the knapping (about 75 % of cores) took place using the
ventral surfaces of flakes as supports (Fig. 10). Most of these flakes were obtained during the
early stages of flint slab and pebble reduction. Some large flakes were probably knapped before
being transported to the site. The high quantity of cores on flakes distinguishes these top layers
from the middle and lower levels. However the widespread use of flakes for Levallois flaking is
already documented from layers 4b and 4a onwards.
Three groups of layers may be distinguished in terms of dbitage types by the proportion of
long and complex reduction sequences: layers 8-5a, layers 4b-4a and layers 2-1. Two
groups of layers are differentiated in terms of the ratio of cores on flakes and evidence of a
branching out of the reduction sequence: layers 8-5a and layers 4b-1.
At Cave dallOlio, evidence for ramification of reduction sequences is much less diffuse than
at Orgnac and mostly concerns the Kombewa cores. Levallois cores only seem to be very
rarely obtained from the reduction of flakes (3.1 % of the total amount of cores). As for
Kombewa cores, large thick flakes issued from the preparation and maintenance of other
cores are used as supports. Only a few products are struck from these cores, mostly from
their ventral faces, so that the original shape of the blank is still easily recognizable.

Preparation/maintenance of convexities and recurrence

At Orgnac 3, no evidence of the preparation of Levallois convexities can be clearly observed
on cores from the lower layers (layers 6 to 5a) and we consider that Levallois core
technology is not mastered in the bottom layers, apart perhaps from the management of a
striking platform on one surface of certain bifacial discoid-type cores. The general use of
slabs for flaking involved the production of a short series of non-invasive removals on cortical
plane surfaces. No rejuvenation is observed and the core is abandoned before being
exhausted. Removals are dependent on the available angles between the flaking surfaces. In
layers 4b and 4a, knappers began to gain independence in relation to support morphology.
We can note some flaking surfaces on cores with a preparation of convexities. Levallois
flakes never cover the flaking surface and the technology is still poorly mastered. Bifaces do
not provide any evidence of technical relationships with the emergence of Levallois flaking in
these layers as it has been suggested for other European sites (Bar-Yosef and Dibble, 1995;
White and Ashton, 2003).
Levallois core flaking surfaces from layers 2 and 1 suggest that at least two distinct methods
were used for slab cores and only one for cores on flakes. The centripetal method is the
most common, followed by invasive, unipolar, bipolar or orthogonal removals (Fig. 11, 12).
The preferential flake method is quite frequent, especially in the final stage of core
exploitation. In the final knapping stages, recurrent uni- and bipolar methods were sometimes
applied. The latter produced semi-long removal scars which cover the entire knapping
surfaces. This technique optimizes the process of maintenance of the surface convexities
with no need to re-prepare them and produces flakes of various shapes and sizes from a
single core (Fig. 13). Many were abandoned at different stages and sizes of the ramified
Levallois chane opratoire. For more than 50 % of the pieces, the final chane opratoire
was followed by a series of very small (often hinged) removals, whatever the technique used.
At Cave dallOlio Levallois reduction is dominated by unidirectional recurrent schemes which
may be either parallel or convergent and a recurrent crossed scheme. Lineal types and
recurrent parallel bidirectional and centripetal schemes are rarer (Fig.8, 14) (Table 3). In the
recurrent unidirectional parallel method, core convexities are essentially maintained by the
removal of backed blades (lames dbordantes). Unlike for the recurrent convergent method,
both dbordant and orthogonal removals contribute to the preparation and maintenance of
core convexities, whereas for the recurrent crossed method surface, convexities are auto-
maintained by the removal of blanks from two orthogonal platforms. In the lineal method,
which is only represented by a few exhausted cores (four), convexities are obtained either by
centripetal or an association of orthogonal and longitudinal removals (Fig. 8). It has not been
possible to ascertain whether these cores were exploited with the same method throughout
the reduction process or if they just represent the final exploitation stage of cores previously
knapped according to other schemes.
The laminar method takes advantage of the natural convexities of the selected blocks and
cores do not usually show any evidence of shaping (Fig. 9 and 15). After the preparation of
the striking platform/s at the shortest edge/s of the nodule, the initiation of the flaking surface
occurred with the removal of a totally cortical blade (Fig. 16-A). Dbitage then continued with
the extraction of semi-cortical elongated blanks and then of blades (Fig. 16 and 17). The only
exception is a large thick crested-blade which could attest the existence of a non-Levallois
reduction sequence of Upper Palaeolithic style (Fig. 17-E) (Rvillon, 1995). All cores issued
from the laminar reduction scheme with a single striking platform were abandoned after the
removal of a few, mostly cortical blades (Fig. 15-A). For this reason, we cannot exclude that
these cores may only represent the first exploitation phase of this laminar reduction
sequence which, in the following steps, would have proceeded by opening an opposite
platform. In most documented cases the second striking platform is slightly twisted in
relation to the first one and blades are essentially struck from two different lateral
independent sides of the core (Fig. 15-B). Nonetheless, in some cases, opposite platforms
also serve to maintain distal convexities over the same surface. The presence of some
blades with a triangular section (lames de cintrage sur arte) and of backed blades struck
from the edge of laminar cores (Fig. 17-B) shows that during the reduction process, while
edges served to restart the production of a new series of blades cores progressively
assumed a semi-tournant rhythm. Processes of self-maintenance of the longitudinal core
convexity are shown by the presence of several plunging laminar blanks and distal
maintenance flakes characterized by the presence of a Y-shaped scar on the dorsal face
(Fig. 16, 17 and 18).

Standardization of dbitage objectives and productivity

At Orgnac 3, double secant flaking surface cores are covered by a low number of removals in
the bottom layers using the natural convexities present on the flat cortical surfaces of the flint
slabs. Over time, flaking surfaces show more and more removals, suggesting higher
productivity and improved knapping management (preparation of convexities and flaking
platforms) (Fig. 19).
Irregular flakes from the bottom layers are increasingly standardized, especially when Levallois
knapping was practiced in layers 3 to 1 and when recurrent methods were used to produce oval
and triangular thin flakes (centripetal method) and elongated flakes (uni-bipolar methods). In the
lower layers, low core productivity explains the high frequencies of thick cortical flakes with
diverse morphologies.
In the assemblage of Cave dallOlio, dbitage objectives are represented by a wide variety of
products with different morphologies depending on the methods applied (Fig. 17 and 18)
(Tab. 5). End products of the lineal Levallois method are represented by oval-shaped, small-
middle sized flakes while small oval and sub-triangular flakes are extracted with centripetal
and Kombewa dbitage. The unidirectional parallel and bidirectional methods (both Levallois
and laminar) aim at the production of elongated blanks with parallel edges which are
frequently characterized by a backed edge. The objective of the recurrent unidirectional
convergent scheme is the production of products with convergent lateral margins. End
products issued from this scheme are frequently djts, i.e. their morphological axes do not
correspond to the dbitage axis. Altogether, Levallois products represent 9.6 % of the
assemblage while elongated blanks and plunging blades account for 5.7 %. Most cores
seem to have been intentionally abandoned at a stage of exploitation corresponding to a
desired threshold. Most products range in length from 40 to 90 mm (sometimes reaching 120
mm) and blank negatives on cores record similar dimensions, with only some cases of
products shorter than 40 mm. Laminar cores always appear to have been abandoned at an
early stage of reduction.

Management of flaking platforms

At Orgnac 3, platforms are more and more carefully prepared over time (Fig. 20). Frequencies
of facetted platforms reach 30 % in layer 5b and over 50 % at the top of the sequence. Some
chapeau de gendarme platforms exist in the upper part of the sequence. This management
suggests a higher mastery of flaking parameters alongside the dominant application of Levallois
flaking. This is also observed on core striking platforms which display facetted preparation.
This greater attention to striking platform preparation is associated with a change in the
location of direct percussion marks on whole pebbles. In the lower layers, traces are located
on one or more than two areas, whereas such impact traces are always located on a single
area, on the edge of small oval shaped granite, basalt, limestone or more often, quartzite
pebbles in layers 2 and 1.
Core platforms at Cave dallOlio are mostly flat and quite oblique in relation to dbitage
surfaces (Fontana et al., 2009). Facetted platforms only account for 7 % of the cores
(corresponding to two implements on 29 Levallois products, one of which is characterized by
a chapeau de gendarme ).
As for the recurrent methods, striking platforms are variably organized according to the
preparation modality of the flaking surface and the position of the extraction of end products.
Striking platforms are usually only prepared on core zones from which end products are
struck (Fig. 8-D,F and 14-B). The volumetric shape of these cores is very similar to that of
laminar cores, but the surface does not tend to invade the lateral edges as with the latter,
although in some cases trimmed limits separate the two groups.


The tool-kit

Flake-tools

In layers 7 to 4a of Orgnac 3, most retouched flakes are issued from core reduction and
shaping. In layers 3 to 1, only flakes from core reduction are selected. Links between flaking
and shaping thus no longer exist in the upper layers, even from the point of view of raw material
provisioning (Moncel and Combier, 1992). Scrapers and points are the main tools and product
shape is selected according to tool type (Fig. 21). Part of the denticulates and notches are made
on products issued from pebble-tool shaping in the lower layers.
Layers 2 and 1 are distinguished from the others by the low ratio of tools, the homogeneity of
the tool kit, a decrease in the diversity of types (high ratio of scrapers) and non-invasive retouch.
This trend begins in the lower layers but is clearly observed when bifaces disappear from the
assemblages and when the scraper and point ratio was over 70 % of the flake-tool kit. Unlike in
the underlying layers, knapping activity was intense in layer 1 and supplied most of the tool
blanks selected from all knapping phases. Selection criteria for flake-blanks were above all
based on dimensions. The very small flakes (more than 25,000) and the largest ones (80-120
mm) are non-modified, except for a few pieces. Each tool type is linked to a blank category: 1)
flakes were obtained for Levallois knapping, scraper making and convergent edged tools, and
double and multiple tools (Fig. 22), 2) angular fragments and cores were preferred for notches,
borers, denticulates, end scrapers and awls. The first group is mainly associated with blanks
with pre-determined and reproducible shapes (knapping product). The second group used
products from either waste, residues from the secondary chane opratoire or recycled
products (cores), and suggests opportunistic local tool fabrication.
Two groups of layers may be distinguished through the flake-tool kit; layers 8-3 and layers 2-1. If
we take account of blank selection for retouch, another limit may be established between layers
8-4a and layers 3-1, with a selection of flakes from knapping sequences in the top layers.
At Cave dallOlio the preservation conditions of the assemblage, especially the rounded aspect
of surfaces and the presence of concassage, prevent an objective evaluation based on the
presence of flake tools. Nonetheless, around 30 possible retouched blanks were identified
which were obtained from different categories of products/by-products: flakes, backed flakes
and Levallois flakes, blades, cortical blades and natural ridges. The main flake tools are
represented by scrapers, particularly simple lateral types, more rarely double, djets and
transversal (Fig. 23). An evaluation of the presence of denticulated types appears even more
difficult although some items belonging to this category seem to be present.

Shaping of large-sized tools

At Orgnac 3, bifaces (n = 86) display diversified ratios in the different assemblages. The layers
with the highest proportion of bifaces are 5b, 5a and 3. In layers 2 and 1, the frequency is lower
than 1 % (Fig. 24).
Flint and thin slabs are the main blanks, associated with flint, basalt and limestone flakes and
flint and other stones pebbles when bifaces are more frequent. In layers 7 to 3, shaping is
diversified with a high proportion of tools with a plano-convex section. The convergent edges
are retouched and most of the bifaces can be referred to as bifacial tools with distinct functional
areas. Some of these tools are sometimes used as hammers (Moncel, 1995).
In layers 2 and 1, bifaces have practically disappeared. These levels contain bifacial tools on
flint slabs, made by alternating semi-long peripheral removals to shape a rounded point, and a
high number of scrapers.
Shaping took place at the site, at least in the layers with the most bifaces. It is important to take
into account the mobility hypothesis as the presence of broken tools and the lack of refitting
imply that some pieces were moved out of the site.
Pebble-tool types are diversified in the lower and middle layers and are made with pebbles of
varying sizes and diverse raw materials (Moncel, 1995). In layers 2 and 1, tool type diversity
decreases for unifacial and pointed tools, which are only made from large and heavy quartzite
and limestone pebbles.
Shaping modes do not change over time, except for the large quartzite pebbles which are
worked by both a fracture and removals. Cutting edges are also sometimes re-worked and
heavy-duty tool management changes in the top layers. On the other hand, provisioning
strategies remain unchanged from the base to the top of the sequence. Layers 2 and 1 differ
from the lower part of the sequence through the presence of rare bifacial tools on flint slabs and
heavy and large unifacial tools. The diversity of tool types and raw materials decreases in these
layers suggesting another type of management.
At Cave dallOlio, some pebble tools with bifacial removals from silicified siltstone and some
bifaces are part of the assemblage (Fig. 25). Both are represented by a few implements,
respectively 5 and 15. Bifaces are mostly obtained from large flakes through the application
of branched chanes opratoires. They always bear a low number of deep removals obtained
by the use of a hard hammerstone. Cortical surfaces are frequent as well as plano-convex
and bi-convex sections. A trihedral implement is also present. Biface typology is varied with a
predominance of amygdaloid and lanceolated morphologies.

Orgnac 3 and Cave dallOlio: synthesis and comparison of technical features in south-
western Europe

The development of Mode 3 technology in Europe raises two main closely connected topics,
namely : a) the chronology of this event and the possible contemporaneity between Mode 2
and Mode 3 assemblages (Carbonell et al., 2001); b) the origin of new technical behavior
(i.e. European vs. exogenous) and the form of this emergence (i.e. sporadic vs. diffused). In
order to discuss these aspects we focused on the lithic assemblages from two southern
European key-sites, respectively located in France (Orgnac 3) and Italy (Cave dallOlio). The
analysis of these assemblages resulted in the description of the common technical changes
which occurred at the transition from the late Acheulean to the early Middle Palaeolithic in
southern Europe in a cave and an open-air site (Tuffreau et al., 1995; Lumley and Barsky,
2004; Barsky and Lumley, 2005; Colonge, 2005; Moncel et al., 2012), by the identification of
a series of qualitative criteria (i.e. reduction methods, ramification of reduction sequences,
preparation/maintenance of convexities, organization of removals and recurrence,
predetermination of dbitage objectives and productivity, management of flaking platforms).
At Orgnac 3, the appearance of new technical behavior has been diachronically analyzed
thanks to the presence of a deep stratigraphic series which is well positioned from both a
chronological and palaeo-environmental viewpoint. In contrast ,the assemblage from Cave
dallOlio, although characterized by obvious traces of river transport and therefore from a
secondary position, was recovered within a single layer for which a chronological marker is
available (older than MIS 8). The raw materials exploited at both sites are of local origin -
mostly flint slabs of different sizes and thickness at Orgnac 3 and large-sized
rounded/irregular blocks at Cave dallOlio and thus adhere to the preferential management
of rocks typical of the Middle Palaeolithic (Geneste, 1988; Gamble and Roebroeks, 1999;
Grgoire et al., 2006; Moncel et al., 2011). The predominance of core reduction sequences
in contrast to shaping schemes and of flake-tools in relation to bifaces and pebble-tools, as
well as the presence of branched chanes opratoires (Bourguignon et al., 2004) represents
a common feature to these two sites although the latter is more diffused at Orgnac 3.
Reduction schemes reflected by both assemblages indicate that knappers achieved a high
technical threshold in the management of the parameters leading to the standardization of
production and the control of core volumes.
At Orgnac 3, changes appear starting from layers 4b and 4a - in the mid part of the sequence
- and Levallois dbitage appears before MIS 8. The presence of a group of associated layers
on the basis of technical parameters suggests the existence of stages within the
development process of the new strategies. However, no secure element allows us to
ascertain the existence of a genetic link between the different occupation phases in this site
(Moncel, 2006; Menendez-Granda, 2009; Moncel et al., 2011; Moncel et al., 2012). The
productivity of cores increases throughout time while the preparation of percussion platforms
becomes more curated and the management of dbitage surfaces leads to the
predetermination of production which becomes more and more mastered. The intense
production of small flakes which ends the exploitation of Levallois surfaces is also
noteworthy.
At Cave dallOlio the management of the parameters leading to the standardization of
production is reflected by the adoption of a high variety of dbitage schemes. Some follow a
laminar volumetric conception, whereas others fit the variability of the Levallois concept.
These schemes are accompanied by some examples of Kombewa and discoid reduction. A
careful selection of blocks according to the volumetric conception applied is documented: in
the laminar scheme the opening of the flaking surface is based on the presence of natural
convexities and/or edges while striking platforms are positioned at the shortest sides of the
cores; Levallois reduction schemes are dominated by unidirectional parallel and convergent,
bidirectional and orthogonal recurrent methods, while centripetal recurrent and lineal
schemes play a secondary role. The shaping of flaking convexities and platforms is reduced
to simple actions which are strictly dependent on the original block morphology and the
different objectives planned. Core preparation and maintenance are pragmatic with rare
centripetal preparation; usually orthogonal/distal negatives of removals are associated with
predetermining dbordant/backed longitudinal scars on the Levallois cores. Percussion
platforms are partially prepared and very rarely facetted while dbitage objectives appear
varied in relation to the dbitage methods adopted. End products consist of a wide range of
blanks, including blades and laminar flakes. Among blades, issued from the laminar method,
plunged and backed items are frequent.


Discussion: technological behavior in Europe during MIS 9

A survey on available data

The results obtained from the study of the assemblages of Orgnac and Cave dallOlio are
coherent with data from other regions around the Mediterranean and Northern Europe. The
features described are present over a vast territory extending from north-western Europe to
the Near East, including the central regions of the European continent (Goren-Inbar, 1988;
Chase, 1990; Golovanova, 2000; Elston and Khn, 2002; Olle et al., 2005; Dibble and
McPherron, 2006; Hovers, 2006; Bourguignon et al., 2008; Brenet et al., 2008) (Tab. 6).
Some sites from this area exhibit an early development of Levallois schemes, often
accompanied by a trend towards the production of elongated blanks (see for instance:
Kozlowski, 2001; Meignen, 1994, 1998; Moncel, 2001; Rvillon, 1995). From MIS 9 onwards,
these complexes start to diffuse in the loess and river sequences of north-western Europe
(Rvillon, 1995) from southern Britain (see for instance Botany Pit, Purfleet, dated from
terminal MIS 10 to early MIS 8 or late stage 9/early stage 8, White and Ashton, 2003, and La
Cotte Saint-Brelade, layers C-D, dated to 238+-35 ka, Callow and Cornford,1986) to northern
France, where the Somme valley sites reveal evidence of Levallois dbitage starting around
400 ka (and well mastered use of this technique during MIS 9) (Tuffreau et al., 1995). Among
the most significant sites are Cagny lEpinette (MIS 9, Tuffreau et al., 1995; Lamotte and
Tuffreau, 2001), Argoeuves-Lower Terrace Complex of the Somme (MIS 8, Tuffreau 1982,
1987) and Gentelles base (MIS 9, Goval, 2005). The coexistence of Levallois dbitage and the
production of some bifacial objects is also documented in the central area of France, in the
Cher valley in different layers of the Morandire alluvial formation, dated to 370110ka at
Givres, and in the Loire valley (site of Bonneval) in the more recent terraces at 240 ka
(Desprie et al., 2009; Sun et al., 2010). In Dordogne, the principles of Levallois dbitage are
applied starting from MIS 9 at Petit-Bost (recurrent uni-bipolar method) and become
permanent and diffused at MIS 8/7 (see for example Vaufrey rock-shelter) (Rigaud, 1988;
Bourguignon et al., 2008). Other modalities are also developed with the presence of some
trifacial artefacts at Cantalouette 1 and Combe Brune 3 and Barbas C4 base, for example
(Brenet et al., 2008; Brenet, 2011). These are interpreted as matrices to be further
exploited for faonnage and dbitage; an aspect previously referred to as Meridional
Acheulean after F. Bordes definition (1961). In southern France, other important deposits
are la Baume Bonne (Ensemble II-III, end of MIS 8-mid of MIS6; Gagnepain and Gaillard,
2005; Hong, 1993) and Arago cave (stratigraphic unit III 0.45-0.41 ka, Barsky and De
Lumley, 2005, Hernandez, 2011). In the central-eastern sector of Europe several MIS 10
complexes with Levallois dbitage do not seem to show any evidence of an Acheulean
origin, such as Korolevo VI (360.00050.000 ka TL, Ukraine) (Koulakovska, 2001; Kozlowski,
2001) and Becov I and IV (MIS 8, Czech Republic, Wisniewski and Fridrich, 2010, Fridrich
and Fridrichova, 2010). Other sites with Levallois debitage are Rheindahlen (Saalian,
Germany, Bosinski et al., 1995), Markkleeberg (MIS 8, Germany, Mania, 1988, Svoboda, 1989),
Mesvin IV (MIS 8, Belgium, Otte, 1994).
In southern Europe, Cueva del Bolomor in the Iberian peninsula shows the implementation of
standardized unipolar and centripetal dbitage methods with the preparation of percussion
platforms during MIS 10-9 (Peris, 2007; Blasco and Peris, 2012). At the same time, layer
TD11 at Gran Dolina (Atapuerca) dated to an age of 337 29 ka by ESR and U-series
testifies an early transition to Mode 3 with dominating centripetal exploitation strategies
(Carbonnell et al., 2001; Mennendez-Granda, 2009), while during MIS 9 Ambrona and
Torralba yield evidence of Levallois core technology (Santonja and Perez-Gonzales, 2005;
Falgures et al., 2006). In Italy the series from layer m at Torre in Pietra, (Rome) dated
between 400 and 200 ka, indicates the application of discoid schemes associated with the
Levallois reduction method (Piperno and Biddittu, 1978; Grimaldi, 1988). This production
appears well adapted to the local flint pebbles and seems to involve neither a preparation of
the distal convexity nor a management of lateral convexities and is associated with the
production of bifaces in limestone. Most other Italian coeval complexes, which are relatively
numerous in Emilia Romagna (Bisi et al., 1982, Cremaschi and Peretto, 1977), Veneto
(Peretto, 1980), Tuscany (Giunti, 2004), Abruzzo and Puglia (Radmilli, 1965; Palma di
Cesnola and Zorzi, 1961; Palma di Cesnola, 1967, 2001), have not yet undergone detailed
studies aiming to reconstruct the reduction sequences. Although the available descriptions
seem to indicate some common characteristics with the series from Cave dallOlio, the level
and variability of predetermination of the technical objectives in these assemblages still
remains to be explored. Furthermore, a lack of data still biases an accurate reconstruction of
these aspects, especially the absence of a secure chronology for most deposits and
invariably their secondary stratigraphic context (Palma di Cesnola, 2001; Bietti and
Castorina, 1992).
Blade reduction schemes appear in various regional centers of the Old World at a rather
early stage. Indeed, both in Africa (Kapthurin formation) and the Near East (Amudian
assemblages, i.e.Quesem and Tabun Cave in Israel), these are documented at least from
MIS 9 onwards and sometimes even earlier (500 ka) (Barkai et al., 2005; Gopher et al.,
2005; Goren-Inbar, 2011 ; Kozlowski, 2001; Meignen, 1994, 1998; Moncel, 2001; Rvillon,
1995; Roure Johnson and McBrearty, 2010; Rvillon and Tuffreau 1994) with the extraction of
blades from unprepared sub-volumetric cores. In Europe, before the study of the assemblage
of Cave dallOlio, early evidence of this technology was exclusively recorded in north-western
Europe around MIS 8 where it has been defined as direct non-Levallois dbitage (Otte,
1994; Revillon, 1995; Heinzelin and Haesaerts,1983). Due to the development of blade
reduction in various centers and at different stages, some authors consider the origin of this
technology to be independent and polycentric (Kozlowski, 2001).

Common technical behaviors

To summarize, it has been ascertained that several technical features are common to the
assemblages of Orgnac, Cave dallOlio and some coeval industries in Europe and the Near
East where an early appearance of complex core technology is documented. In particular,
the main shared aspects of Levallois reduction schemes are described as follows: a) flaking
is organized around a plane of intersection; b) flaking surfaces on cores show simple
preparations and reduced maintenance; c) butts are usually plain, only occasionally dihedral
and facetted; d) unipolar and bipolar schemes dominate over centripetal and lineal ones e)
the sequence of Orgnac reflects a gradual emergence of this method of dbitage with
progressive diversification and standardization while several affinities seem to characterize
the assemblages from the Purfleet site, those of Cave DallOlio and the bottom of layer 5b at
Orgnac, namely the unrefined form of prepared-core technology geared towards attaining
greater control over cores and their products (White and Ashton, 2003, p. 599).
As far as laminar debitage is concerned, the following features are shared by the
assemblages of north-western Europe, the Near East and Cave dallOlio (cfr. supra): a) the
absence of any specific core shaping and the direct extraction of the first cortical blade by the
exploitation of the natural convexities of the nodules with direct production of elongated
products; b) the management of the transversal convexities of laminar surfaces by the
removal of backed blades and of distal convexities by plunging blades; c) the use of hard
hammer-stones which involves the production of thick blades with extended cortical patches
(Heinzelin and Haesaerts,1983; Otte, 1994; Rvillon and Tuffreau, 1994; Rvillon, 1995;
Moncel, 2001, 2005). Cave dallOlio thus attests that laminar technology was mastered as
early in southern Europe as in the northern part of the continent.
During the same period, some deposits across the continent still indicate the persistence of
Acheulean features and/or a lack of clear technical changes (for instance the microlithic
industry of the Taubachian, Moncel, 2003; Galeria II at Atapuerca, Spain, , Rozunice 3 in
Poland). Large cutting tools and Levallois reduction are attested across the western and
central side of the continent, as in Great-Britain (Pontnewydd Cave in Wales at 230 ka,
Green et al., 1981, Scott et al., 2011a,b), France (La Micoque, layer L2/3, end of MIS 8
Rolland, 1995; Falgures et al., 1997; White and Ashton, 2003; Bourguignon et al., 2008 and
Soucy, MIS 9 Lhomme et al., 2000, 2003, 2004), Spain (Galeria II base, MIS 9 and Cueva
del Angel, Oll et al., 2005, Wymer et al., 1993; Barroso Ruiz et al., 2011) and Italy (Valle
Giumentina, MIS 6, Bietti and Castorina, 1992, Le Svolte di Popoli, Radmilli, 1965, Grotta
Paglicci external shelter, Castel di Guido, MIS 9, Radmilli and Boschian, 1996, Malagrotta,
Radimilli, 1984, Sedia del Diavolo and Monte delle Gioie, Taschini, 1967 and La Polledrara,
MIS 9, Anzidei, 2001), as well as in Hungary (Vertesszls, MIS 9, Kretzoi and Dobosi,
1990).


On the emergence of new technical behaviors

Considerations concerning the disparate distribution of evidence around 0.3 My lead us to
the question of the emergence of new technical behavior regardless of the environment and
the topography. Two main hypotheses have been advanced, respectively implying an African
and a European origin. According to the first, the introduction of prepared-core technologies
in Europe from Africa was part of a major dispersal event by Homo heldelbergensis,
considered to be the most recent common ancestor of Neanderthals and anatomically
modern Homo (Foley and Lahr, 1997; Hublin, 2009; Stringer, 2012). By contrast, the
European hypothesis proposes at least two different alternatives: the first considers the origin
of Levallois technology in Europe and the Near East as an in situ evolution of handaxe
technology (Tuffreau, 1995; Rolland, 1995; White and Pettitt, 1995; Mellars, 1996; Debono
and Goren-Inbar, 2001, 2011) whereas the second purports that prepared core technologies
originated in situ within north-western Europe (at least) through a gradual transformation of
existing core technologies and a fusion of elements of both faonnage (bifaces) and dbitage
(discoidal and centripetal cores), i.e. as an elaboration of dbitage brought about by the
systematic application of concepts (i.e. plane of intersection and hierarchical interdependent
surfaces) that had previously been most common, if not quite unique, to faonnage(White
and Ashton, 2003; p. 605). Based on this consideration, the authors interpret Levallois
technology in Europe as a progressive phenomenon preceded by a preparation phase, i.e. a
proto-stage.
The hypothesis of a proto-Levallois phase directs us to the problem of the original attribution
of the assemblage of Cave dallOlio to the phylum of the ancient Clactonian and proto-
Levallois industries (Lenzi and Biagioli, 1996) of the Italian peninsula after the original
definition by Palma di Cesnola (1967). According to this author the ancient Clactonian and
proto-Levallois phylum ...show an indefinite predetermination both in the shape of the
blades, which are thick and more or less elongated, and the flakes which are characterized
by medium dimensions (emphasis by authors). Nonetheless Palma di Cesnolas definition
does not completely overlap the proto-Levallois stage hypothesis of White and Ashton
(2003), since it also includes the presence of pyramidal and prismatic cores characterized by
unidirectional and bidirectional removals in these Italian assemblages. It thus contains the
idea of the presence of a proto-laminar reduction associated with a proto-Levallois
technology (Palma di Cesnola, 2001 p. 79-80).


Conclusions

The analysis of the assemblages from Cave DallOlio and Orgnac 3 confirms that the
emergence of the new technical systems (Levallois and laminar) in Europe was not limited to
north-western and central Europe, but also involved the southwestern sector of the continent
and was thus much more widespread than previously believed. In particular, at Orgnac 3, it is
reflected by the appearance of Levallois technology while the assemblage of Cave dallOlio
displays a higher variability of reduction schemes which also include a laminar sensu lato
method. In both cases the chronology of the assemblages is coherent with that attested for
north-western Europe and the Levant, corresponding to an age of around 300,000 years, i.e.
the MIS 9 to MIS 8 transition, while by stage 7, Levallois technology was widespread and all
the current documented variation was in place (Tuffreau, 1995, White and Ashton, 2003, p.
598; Rvillon and Tuffreau, 1994; Rvillon, 1995; Shimelmitz et al., 2011). Nonetheless,
Acheulean features seem to have persisted in other assemblages across the continent and,
in spite of possible problems of chronology for some deposits, the partial coexistence of
Mode 3 and Mode 2 assemblages seems to indicate that there was no linear evolution
between the two in Europe (Carbonnel et al., 2001). In fact, evidence of the early emergence
of laminar technology (as old as in Northern Europe) associated with Levallois reduction at
Cave dallOlio seems to refute both the hypothesis of a Middle Palaeolithic being ingrained
everywhere in the Acheulean (Tuffreau, 1995) and of an in situ evolution via at least a proto-
stage (White and Ashton 2003), thus rendering the idea of the independent and polycentric
origin of the new technologies more difficult to accept. Therefore we could also envisage a
specific local origin with dispersals of these innovations.
Moreover, the hypothesis of a proto-stage seems to be closely linked to the way these
industries are interpreted, i.e. by adopting either a stricter or a broader concept. As
demonstrated by several studies carried out in the last decades, both laminar and Levallois
reduction schemes are characterized by high variability. According to current definitions, we
can thus conclude that several reduction sequences documented at Cave dallOlio and
Orgnac 3 (layers 4b-4a) fit this variability by falling within the Levallois conception of core
reduction (Boda, 1994). The same is true of the laminar reduction at Cave dallOlio,
regardless of the apparent simplicity of the sequence. This results in the production of
blanks with simpler scar organization on the dorsal face than those typical of later Middle
Palaeolithic assemblages. It is important to note that no matter which term is used to
designate these assemblages (proto-Levallois or Levallois, which is essentially a problem
of terminology), the emergence of new technical systems seems to be irrefutable and
evidence from Cave DallOlio and Orgnac 3 clearly reflects the large scale diffusion of these
new technical systems across the continent, thereby bridging the gap between north-western
Europe, central Europe and the Near East.
To conclude, these considerations reinforce the idea of the existence of
continuous/discontinuous contacts among human groups distributed across the
Mediterranean during MIS 9 as a consequence of higher mobility, the development of new
patterns of land-use and, possibly, a demographical increase or anatomical changes
(Martinez et al., 2004), which could have enhanced exchanges of technological skills and the
development of more extensive social networks. This could bear connections with the
recently proposed hypothesis that the most recent common ancestor of modern humans
and Neanderthals had already developed a vocal repertoire more complex than previously
thought, an idea advanced after the discovery that modern humans, Neanderthals, and their
common ancestor display comparatively low levels of genetic diversity (Premo and Hublin,
2009). In this respect, we defend the importance of cultural and behavioral aspects as
complementary tools (to other techniques of study such as genetics and human
paleontology) for reconstructing the social organization of human groups across the
Mediterranean and Europe during prehistoric times.

Acknowledgments

This study has been financially supported by the project "Relations Socits-Natures dans le
long terme" of the National Museum of Natural History, Paris, France. F.F. and M.H. M.
wrote the paper; G.O. wrote paragraph 3.1. F.F. studied the lithic assemblage of Cave
dallOlio and M.H.M. the assemblage of Orgnac. F.F. and M.H.M. have compared the
technical features of the two assemblages. All authors have discussed the results. A special
thanks to Davide Visentin for taking care of the figures.
The manuscript has been corrected by L. Byrne, official translator and English native
speaker.
We would like to thank the anonymous reviewers who helped us to improve this paper with
their constructive comments.


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Figures captions

Fig. 1 Location of Orgnac 3 and Cave dallOlio and of the main sites quoted in the paper.

Fig. 2 Orgnac 3: the sequence and the in situ stalagmite (bottom of the archaeological sequence)

Fig. 3 Cave dallOlio (DallOlio quarries): location of the soil known as the Molino Unit (bottom soil
on the left side) which yielded the lithic assemblage

Fig. 4 Comparative chrono-stratigraphic scheme of the Quaternary litho-stratigraphic sequences
recognized in the area of the Apennines and the Po Plain (Italy) and the corresponding stratigraphic
series of France and the Netherlands (after G. Onorevoli)

Fig. 5 Orgnac 3: proportion of shaping and flaking reduction processes over time at Orgnac 3 (from
Moncel, 1999)

Fig. 6 - Orgnac 3: flint core from layer 6 with three flaking surfaces. The management follows slab
morphology (A); flint core from layer 6 with no evidence of preparation of convexities, the use of a
flake for dbitage explains the morphology of the main flaking surface (B); flint core on a slab from
layer 5b with a few removals; flaking is attested on the slab slice (C).

Fig. 7 Orgnac 3, layer 1: flint Levallois centripetal cores (A-B); Levallois flakes (C-D).

Fig. 8 - Cave dallOlio: recurrent Levallois cores with unipolar parallel (A), unipolar convergent (B),
orthogonal (C), bipolar (D-E) and centripetal (F) removals ; lineal Levallois core (G) (Photo: D.
Visentin)

Fig. 9 - Cave dallOlio: laminar cores (Photo: D. Visentin)

Fig. 10 Orgnac 3, layer 1: Levallois cores obtained from the ventral surfaces of flakes

Fig. 11 - Orgnac 3: types of Levallois methods represented over time

Fig. 12 - Orgnac 3, layer 1: table of the Levallois management. Sequence of methods on a same core.

Fig. 13 - Orgnac 3: types of Levallois flakes. Evidence of diversity of methods on a same core and
remains of scars for preparation of lateral and distal convexities

Fig. 14 Cave dallOlio : recurrent Levallois cores (A-C), lineal Levallois core (D) (drawings G.
Nenzioni)

Fig. 15 Cave dallOlio: recurrent unidirectional core (A), laminar core with two opposite percussion
platforms (B), laminar core (C) (drawings G. Nenzioni)

Fig. 16 - Cave dallOlio, laminar blanks: Totally cortical blade (A), semi-cortical blades (B-C), blades
(D-I), plunging blades (J-K) (Photo: D. Visentin)

Fig. 17 - Cave dallOlio, different kinds of blanks: semi-cortical plunging blade (A), backed blade (B),
blades (C,G), plunging blades (D-F), crested blade (E), Levallois flake (H-I), backed Levallois flake (J),
backed flake (K) (drawing G. Nenzioni)

Fig. 18 - Cave dallOlio: Levallois flakes and maintenance flakes from different reduction methods
(Photo: D. Visentin)

Fig 19 Orgnac 3, layer 3: centripetal flint core with evidence of a higher productivity and several
removals on the flaking surface and Levallois core.

Fig. 20 Orgnac 3: profiles of flint cores from layers 4b and 2. Striking platforms are more carefully
prepared in the top layers.

Fig. 21 Orgnac 3, layer 5b: flint Levallois flakes and scrapers

Fig. 22 - Orgnac 3, layer 1: flint flake-tools: scrapers and points

Fig. 23 Cave dallOlio: detail of retouch on a transversal scraper

Fig. 24 - Orgnac 3, layer 5b: flint biface

Fig. 25 - Cave dallOlio: bifaces obtained from the faonnage of flakes (A-C)

Figures captions

Tab. 1 - Composition of the lithic assemblage over time at Orgnac 3 (Moncel, Combier, 1992; Moncel,
1999)

Tab. 2 Composition of the lithic assemblage of Cave dallOlio (Fontana et al., 2009)

Tab. 3 Variety of reduction methods identified on cores at Cave dallOlio

Tab. 4 - Types of blanks identified in the assemblage of Cave dallOlio (the list includes only diagnostic
elements)

Tab. 5 Synthesis of technical features identified for the lithic assemblages of Orgnac and Cave
dallOlio

Tab. 6 Main sites in Europe and the Near East showing early appearance of Levallois and laminar
reduction



Total
83390
Flint
flakes
<20
mm
Flint
flakes >
20 mm
Frag-
ments
Lev.
flakes

Flakes
from
bifaces
Non Lev.
cores
Lev.
cores

Other
stones
flakes
Pebble
tools and
pebbles
Bifaces total
1
53m!
25073 10974
39.5%
13750 1676
6%
- 52 540

223 26 1 ?
0.01%
52315
2
39 m!
2900 3371
59.1%
1468 434
7.7%
? 25 138 88 54 5
0.08%
8483
3
39 m!
1560 1708
66.6%
480 152
5.9%
13 9 58 76 19 17
0.6%
4092
4a
39 m!
514 846
51.9%
553 64
3.9%
32 16 8 75 15 10
0.6%
2133
4b
39 m!
848 1644
66.7%
568 37
1.5%
31 17 11 100 21 8
0.3%
3285
5a
39 m!
1245 2983
84.2%
194 14
0.4%
66 31 3 165 40 18
0.7%
4759
5b
39 m!
804 2022
48.5%
1578 54
1.3%
229 38 4 135 39 28
0.7%
4931
6
39 m!
730 1327
58%
712 - 128 25 - 23 29 5
0.2%
2979
7
33 m!
40 219
6.,2%
65 - 42 8 - 15 1? 6
1.7%
396
8
24 m!
14 2 - - 1 - - - - 17


Table 1.docx
Flakes Leval.
flakes
Laminar
products
Biface
flakes
Frag-
ments
Retouch.
blanks
Leval.
cores
Laminar
cores
Pebble
tools
Bifaces Other
cores
Total

225 29 31 2 84 32 28 5 5 15 38 494
100%


Table 2.docx
Cores Total %
Opportunistic (unidirectional) 6 9,4
Opportunistic (multidirectional) 8 12,5
Centripetal/discoid 8 12,5
Levallois lineal 4 6,3
Levallois recurrent unidirectional 7 10,9
Levallois recurrent bidirectional 2 3,1
Levallois recurrent crossed 6 9,4
Levallois recurrent centripetal 1 1,6
Levallois on a flake 2 3,1
Levallois passing to laminar 3 4,7
Recurrent unidirectional semi-tournant (laminar s.l.) 2 3,1
Recurrent bidirectional semi-tournant (laminar s.l.) 3 4,7
Kombewa 9 14,1
Undetermined 7 10,9
Total 64 100

Table 3.docx
Dbitage products/By-products Tot %
First flake 5
!"#
Natural edge 2
$"%
Cortical flake (cortex >50%) 32
!!"&
Cortical flake (cortex <50%) 36
!'"%
Opening blade 4
!"(
Cortical blade 8
'"#
Laminar product/blade 7
'")
Backed cortical blade 6
'"!
Reorientation blade/crested blade 1
$"(
Plunging blades 9
&"'
Levallois blank 22
%"#
Debordant levallois blank 5
!"#
Kombewa flake 1
$"(
Pseudo-levallois point 4
!"(
Backed flake 15
)"&
Cortical backed flake 26
*"'
Flake from bifacial reduction 2
$"%
Surface maintenance flake 14
("*
Rejuvenation flake 1
$"(
Flake and hinged flake 64
''"+
Plunging flave 19
+"%
Total 283
!$$

Table 4.docx
MIS Orgnac 3
Lay. Debitage
methods
Ramification
of reduction
sequences

Preparation/main
-tenance of
convexities and
recurrence
Standardization of
dbitage
objectives/
productivity
Management of
flaking platforms
Tool kit Large
Cutting
tools
8

1 95% Levallois
cores,
some cortical
polyhedral,
centripetal and
prismatic
cores

50% core-
flakes

Centripetal + bi-
unipolar and
preferential

6%-10% Levallois
standardized flakes
More removals on
cores
Carefully prepared
chapeau de
gendarme
facetted platforms
61% scrapers
(simple)
+ some types
10% Mousterian
points
Little retouch
(6% level 1)
No modification
of shape
Rare bifacial
tools on flint
slabs
2 Few LCTs
on flint slabs


9
3 More scrapers
More
standardized
Numerous
and diverse
on flint and
other stones
Slabs and
some flakes-
pebbles
4a 40% Levallois
cores (on
flakes)
Core-flakes for
Levallois

Low convexities
master
Various flakes.
More removals on
cores
More carefully
prepared
Few LCTs
on flint slabs
4b Few LCTs
on flint slabs
5a Little evidence
of Levallois
dbitage
Cores on slabs
and nodules
Reduced core
management
Non exhausted
cores



Some Levallois
flakes
diversified flakes


Few prepared
Flat or cortical
platforms



Various types on
diverse blanks
Tool type
dependent on
product
thickness
Numerous
and diverse
5b Numerous
and diverse
on flint and
other stones
Slabs and
some flakes-
pebbles
6 Centripetal
cores
(unifacial,
bifacial) +
polyhedral and
prismatic
cores

Diversified
thick
Reduction process
in situ. Few
removals on cores
Few LCTs
on flint slabs
7 Few LCTs
on flint slabs
8 No
Cave dallOlio
39% Levallois
and
Cores mostly
on blocks;
Reduced core
management;
9,6% Levallois
flakes and 5,6%
Platforms mostly
flat and oblique on
Scrapers
dominating and
A few tools
on pebble
Table 5.docx
8% prismatic
cores; some
opportunistic
(21%) and
Kombewa
cores (14%);
3.1% core-
flakes for
Levallois
reduction;
bifacial items
mostly on flake
blanks
non exhausted
cores; among
Levallois
dominating
unidirectional and
crossed recurrent
schemes
elongated blanks
and plunging blades

the debitage
surface; few
carefully prepared
facetted platforms
realized on
diverse blanks

and some
bifaces;
roughly
elaborated
bifaces
mostly on
large flakes;
diverse
morphologie
s


Site Chronology Methods of reduction References
Botany Pit, Purfleet (United
Kingdom)
Late MIS9- early
MIS 8
Proto-Levallois cores White and Ashton 2003
La Cotte Saint-Brelade,
layers C-D (United Kingdom)
238+-35 ka Levallois reduction Callow and Cornford 1986
Cagny lEpinette (France) MIS 9 Levallois reduction Lamotte and Tuffreau 2001
Argoeuves-Lower Terrace
Complex of the Somme
(France)
MIS 8 Levallois reduction Tuffreau 1982, 1987
Gentelles base (France) MIS 9 Levallois reduction Goval 2005
Givres, Middle Terrace of
the Loire River (France)
370110ka () Levallois reduction
(some products and
cores)
Desprie et al. 2009
Bonneval (France) 240 ka Levallois reduction Sun et al. 2010
Petit-Bost (France) MIS 9 Levallois reduction
(recurrent uni-bipolar
method)
Bourguignon et al. 2008
Abri Vaufrey (France) MIS 8/7 Well managed
Levallois reduction
Rigaud 1988
Baume Bonne-Ensemble II-
III (France)
MIS 8-6 Levallois reduction Gagnepain and Gaillard 2005
Arago cave-stratigraphic
unit III (France)
0.45-0.41 ka, Barsky and De Lumley 2005
Korolevo VI-layer IIA
(Ukraine)
360.00050.000 ka
TL
Levallois reduction Koulakovska 2001
Rheindahlen (Germany) Saalian, Levallois reduction Bosinski et al. 1995
Markkleeberg (Germany) MIS 8 Levallois reduction Mania 1988; Svoboda 1989
Mesvin IV (Belgium) MIS 8 Levallois reduction Otte 1994
Becov I and IV (Czech
Republic)
MIS 8 Levallois reduction Fridrich and Fridichova 2010
Cueva del Bolomor-layer
XVII (Spain)
MIS 10-9 (525 _
125 and
233 _ 35 Ka )
Levallois reduction
(rare)
Blasco and Peris 2012
Gran Dolina (Atapuerca)-
TD11
ou TD10-1a (Spain)
337 29 ka Levallois reduction
(mainly centripetal)
Carbonnell et al. 2001


Ambrona and Torralba
(Spain)


MIS 9


Levallois reduction


Santonja and Perez-
Gonzales 2005; Falgures et
al., 2006
Table 6.docx

Torre in Pietra, layer m
(Italy)

400 and 200 ka

Levallois reduction

Grimaldi 1988

Quesem (Israel)

380-200 kys

Laminar reduction

Barkai et al. 2005; Gopher et
al. 2005

Tabun Cave-D type (Israel)

MIS 8-7

Blade production -
Levallois reduction

Meignen 1994

Hayonim Cave-lower E
(Israel)

170-190 ka

Laminar reduction
(Upper Pal. style) and
Levallois reduction

Meignen 1998

Mesvin IV (Belgium)

MIS 8

Laminar reduction

Otte 1994


Coquelles-groupe Beta
(France)


MIS 8-6


Laminar reduction
non-levallois directe


Rvillon 1995


Crayford (United Kingdom)


MIS 8-6

Laminar reduction
non Levallois
directe


Scott, 2011

Saint-Valry-sur-Somme
(France)

MIS 8-6

Laminar reduction
non-levallois directe

Heinzelin and Haesaerts
1983; Rvillon 1995

Rissori (Belgium)

MIS 8-6

Laminar reduction
(Upper Palaeolithic
style)

Rvillon 1995

Orgnac 3
Cueva
del
Bolomor
XV-XVII
Gran Dolina TD10/11
Galeria II base
Caune
de l'Arago
Baume
Bonne II-III
Vaufrey
La Micoque
Petit Bost
Cantalouette
Combe Brune 3
Barbas C4 base Cave dall'Olio
Cagny l'Epinette
Gentelles
Argoeuves
Ambrona
Schningen I3I
Soucy
Hoxne
Vertesszls
Castel di Guido
La Polledrara
Torre in Pietra (m)
Rozunice 3
Purfleet
Givres
Bonneval
Mesvin IV
Korolevo V
Markkleeberg
Becov I-IV
Rheindahlen
La Cote de St. Brelade
Saint-Valery sur Somme
Crayford
Rissori Coquelles
Figure(s)
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Figure(s)
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Chrons Subchrons,
Excursion events
Palaeomagnetic
record(1)
normal reversed
Marine Isotope Stages (1)
stack oI 57 globally distributed
benthic c18O record
Main Sites
M
o
d
e

1

A
s
s
e
m
b
l
a
g
e
s
M
o
d
e

2

a
s
s
e
m
b
l
a
g
e
s
M
o
d
e

3

a
s
s
e
m
b
l
a
g
e
s

Lithic
Industries
M
I
D
D
L
E
P
A
L
E
O
L
I
T
H
I
C
U
P
P
.
P
A
L
.
L
O
W
E
R
P
A
L
E
O
L
I
T
H
I
C
VI
Vb
Va
IV
III
II
I
E
v
e
n
ts
P
h
a
s
e
s
Tectonic
Eemian
WEICHSELIAN
Netherland
Stages (3)
NCR2+
Westerhoven
NCR1+
Waardenburg
Dorst-
Leerdam+
Linge-
Bavel+
Elsterian
NCR4+
Noordbergung
Holsteinian
NCR3+
Rosmalen
Intra-saal. 2
Intra-saal. 1
S
a
a
l
i
a
n

C
o
m
p
l
e
x
EGL
Etouvie Fm.
Montires Fm.
Argoeuves Fm.
Epinette Fm.
Garenne Fm.
Frville Fm.
Renancourt Fm.
Saveuse Fm.
Grce Fm.
Grce-Autoroute
Fm.
Grace I
Grace II
Grace III
Grace IV
Grace V
Grace VI
Grace VII
Grace Loess
(SL)
Mautort I
Mautort II
Mautort III
Loess
Loess
Loess
Loess
Loess SL
SL SL
SL
SL
SL
SL
St. Prest
Fm.
(SL)
Bosc Hue
VII
Iville V
Iville VI
Elbeuf I
Elbeuf II
Elbeuf III
Elbeuf IV
St. Saufleu Humic soil Cpx
St. Pierre Humic
soil Cpx
+12m
Fm
Tourville
Fm.
Oissel Fm.
Elbeuf Fm.
+38/40m Fm.
+50/54m Fm.
Valley bottom Fm. (Etigny)
Gron Fm.
Sens Fm.
Evry Fm.
Misy Fm.
Soucy Fm.
La Tombe Fm.
Courlon Fm.
Serbonnes Fm.
Vinneuf Fm.
Somme Basin Seine Valley Yonne Valley
(Muids?)
C
r
o
m
e
r
i
a
n

C
o
m
p
l
e
x
B
a
v
e
l
i
a
n

C
o
m
p
l
e
x
Brau I
Soucy II
Soucy III
SL
Soucy I
Rouen I?
Rouen II?
(Vaudreuil)
Loess
Valley
bottom
Fm.
Loess
Loess
Mesnil-Esnard Soil
Surface Soil
Bottom valley
Fm.
Flandrian
Fluvial sequences Fluvial sequences
Fluvial
sequences
Loess/Paleosols
Loess/
Paleosols
Loess/
Paleosols
French Stages (3)
Lithostratigraphic units Paletnological scheme of
Bologna sector
H
LGL
St. Acheu/V. Adam Soils
Loess
Loess
S
.

P
i
e
r
r
e

F
m
Surface Soil
Tv.B
Tv.D
Surface Soil
Notes:
(1) Cohen K.M. & Gibbard P. 2011.
(2) Farabegoli E., Onorevoli G., Rufno C. and Costantini B. 1997.
(3) Antoine P., Auguste P., Bahain J. J., Chausse C., Falgue` res C., Ghaleb B., Limondin-Lozouet N., Locht J. L., Voinchet P. 2010.
b2-1 b2-1 b1-2
S. Martino Arceto b3
Grisignano Chiozza b4
Ladino Vico b5
Vecchiazzano Rivalta b6b
b6c
T
e
r
r
a
c
e
d
u
n
i
t
s
Parma-Bologna
sector
Bologna-Rimini
sector
S. Mamante
section
S. Lucia
C dei Gatti
Villagrappa
Palazzino
Pseudogley soil
Less
Bellaria
S. Biagio
Toscanella clay s.s. c
l
a
y
s

s
.
l
.
T
o
s
c
a
n
e
l
l
a
b6a
Pianello S. Michele b7
Braga Felino b8
Selve Talignano b9
Molino
Oriolo
C Vallata
S
o
i
l
s

1
-
4
Selve
c
b
a
Crostolo
clays
S. Mamante
Capanna
Rio Cosina
S. Lazzaro
Il Pozzo
Murattina
Ramona
M. Poggiolo
Gaibola sands
S.Andrea clays
Ca' delle Donne sands
Albinea
sands
Rio Lodola silts
Borzano gravels
C dei Ladri
I
m
o
l
a

Y
e
l
l
o
w
S
a
n
d
s
R
o
m
an
in
a B
ian
ca
C
S
. C
arlo
P
ev
erella serie a
C
B
elv
ed
ere
(M
o
n
te P
o
g
g
io
lo
)
D
u
e P
o
zzi
C
av
e d
all'O
lio

C
av
e IE
C
M
E
B
el P
o
g
g
io

Italy - Apennines / Po plain(2)

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Figure(s)
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Figure(s)
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Figure(s)
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Robert Sala, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Institut Catal de Paleoecologia Humana i
Evoluci Social, rea de Prehistria, Plaa Imperial Tarraco, 43005, Tarragona 1, Spain,
e-mail: robert.sala@urv.cat.
Alain Tuffreau, Universit des Sciences et Technologies de Lille (Lille 1), 59655
Villeneuve dAscq Cedex, France, e-mail: alain.tuffreau@univ-lille1.fr

Nick Ashton, British Museum, London, United Kingdom, e-mail:
nashton@thebritishmuseum.ac.uk
Anna Maria Ronchitelli, Universit degli Studi di Siena, Dipartimento di Scienze Fisiche,
della Terra e dellAmbiente, U.R. Ecologia Preistorica, Via Laterina, 8 - 53100 Siena, Italy,
e-mail: annamaria.ronchitelli@unisi.it
Potential reviewers