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Contents
Preface to the Spanish Edition xvii Acknowledgments for the Spanish Edition xxiii Author's Note for the Spanish Edition xx Preface to the English Edition xxvii Introduction 1 Structure 1 Stylistics 1 Prehispanic Writing 3 Chapter 1, Phonology and Writing System 5 Vowels 5 Consonants 6 Stops 6 The glottal stop 7 Affricates 7 Fricatives 7 The lateral 8 Nasals 8 Semivowels 8 Accent 9 Early Orthographic Variation 9 Vowels 10 Semivowels 10 The /kw/ 11 Glottal stop 11 The /s/ 11 The // 11 Morphophonemic Changes 12

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Chapter 2, Nouns 15 The Absolutive Noun 15 The Noun Plural 16 Other phenomena in the plural formation 17 Abstract Nouns 18 The ligature ca- with agentive nouns and toponyms 18 Reverential, Pejorative, Diminutive, and Augmentative 19 Reverential 19 Plural of the reverential 20 Pejorative-diminutive 21 Plural of the pejorative-diminutive 21 Diminutive 22 Augmentative 22 Pejorative 23 Chapter 3, Pronouns 25 The Possessive Pronominal Prefixes 25 Possessed Nouns 25 Plural of the possessed noun 28 Possessed form of abstract, reverential, pejorative-diminutive, diminutive, augmentative, and pejorative nouns 28 Genitive phrases: possessor noun with third person possessed noun 29 The Possessive Prefixes With Adverbs 29 Verb Prefixes: Subject And Object 30 Form of the third person object prefixes 32 Expressed third person objects 32 Indefinite third person objects: te- and tla-33 Indirect objects 33 Verb Prefixes: The Reflexive 34 Reflexive prefixes in combination with object prefixes 35

Subject Prefixes Joined with Nouns and Adjectives 35 Independent Pronouns 36 Personal Pronouns 36 Indefinite pronouns 37 Negative indefinite pronouns 37 Interrogative pronouns 38

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Relative pronouns 38 Demonstrative pronouns 38 Chapter 4, Vocative 41 Masculine Vocative 41 Feminine Vocative 42 General Vocative 42 Chapter 5, Indicative Mood of the Verb 45 General Remarks Concerning Verbs and Their Conjugation 45 The citation form: third person singular present indicative 45 Person markers: the pronominal prefixes 45 The particle on- 46 Verb endings 47 Present Tense 47 Meaning and use of the present tense 48 Past Imperfect Tense 49 Meaning and use of the past imperfect tense 49 Past Perfect Tense 50 Alternate past perfect formations 53 Perfect marker o- 54 Past perfect suffix -c 54 Meaning and use of the past perfect tense 55 Pluperfect Tense 55 Meaning and use of the pluperfect tense 56 Future Tense 57 Meaning and use of the future tense 57 Desire expressed by nequi "want" 59 Chapter 6, Other Moods of the Verb 61 The Imperative 61

Use of the imperative 62 Requests or entreaties 63 Imperative with the future tense 64 Vetative of caution 64

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Optative and Subjunctive 65 Past imperfective and past perfective of the optative and subjunctive 67 Another form of the optative and subjunctive past perfect 68 Future optative and subjunctive 69 Future conditional subjunctive 70 The subjunctive in conditional sentences 71 Chapter 7, The Passive and the Impersonal 73 The Passive Voice 73 Consonant changes 74 Alternate forms of the passive 74 The reflexive pronoun of the passive: ne- 75 The passive use of the reflexive 75 The passive of the verb which has two objects 75 Other tenses and moods of the passive 72 Use of the passive 77 The Impersonal 78 The impersonal of transitive verbs 78 The impersonal of intransitive verbs 79 Intransitive verbs which add -ohua 79 The impersonal of inchoative intransitive verbs 80 Other tenses and moods of the impersonal 80 Chapter 8, Verbal Directional Suffixes 83 Movement Away: To Go to 83 The indicative mood: present and future -tiuh (sg.), -tihui-' (pl.) 83 The indicative mood: past -to (sg.), -to-' (p.) 83 Other moods of the verb: -ti (sg.), -ti-', -tin (pl.) 84 Movement Toward: To Come to 85 The indicative mood: present and past -co (sg.), -co-' (pl.) 85

The indicative mood: future -quiuh (sg.), -quihui-' (pl.) 85 Other moods of the verb: -qui (sg.), -qui-' (pl.) 86

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Chapter 9, Verbal Nouns 87 Action Nouns 87 Possessed form of the verbal action noun 88 Agentive Nouns 89 Alternate formations 90 Possessed form of agentive nouns 91 Possessive Nouns 92 The plural of the possessive noun 94 The possessed form of the possessive noun 94 The Ligature -Ca- In Derivations Of Verbal Nouns 95 Abstract nouns 95 Reverential 95 Pejorative-diminutive 96 Diminutive and augmentative 96 Patient Nouns 96 Impersonal-passive patient nouns 97 Past perfect patient nouns 97 Instrumental Nouns 99 Locative Nouns 100 Locative noun formed with the suffix -yan 100 Locative noun formed with the suffix -can 101 Verbal Nouns Which Appear Only In The Possessed Form 102 Suffix -ca: action received 102 Suffix -ca: action completed 103 Suffix -ya: instrumental 104 Suffix -yan: place and time 105 Chapter 10, Postpositions 107 Postpositions with possessive pronominal prefixes 107

Postpositions with nouns 107 The ligature -ti-108 Postposition with noun and copy pronoun 108 Six classes of postpositions 109 Postpositions That Combine With Either Nouns Or Pronominal Prefixes 110 Postposition -pan: upon, above in the time of with, by means of for, on behalf of concerning 110

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Postposition -icpac: on, above, on the top of, at the head of 112 Postposition -tlan: in, among, with, together with, under next to, close to 113 Postposition -tech: on, in, next to, close to concerning by, at 114 Postposition -ca: with, with help from, through, by means of, by, along, of 115 Postposition -nahuac: next to, beside, near to with, together with 117 Postposition -tzalan: between, among, in the middle of 118 Postposition -nepantla': in the middle of, among, between 118 Postpositions that Combine Only with Nouns 119 Postposition -c, -co: in, within, inside, on, through in the time of 119 Postposition -nalco: beyond, on the other side of 121 Postposition -chi: down, down toward 121 Postposition -can: where, place of, in the time of 122 Postposition -tla': where something abounds, place where something is abundant, time when something abounds 123 Postposition -teuh :like, in the manner of, similar to 124 Postpositions that Combine Only with Pronominal Prefixes 124 Postposition -pal: through, by, by means of, with the help of 125 Postposition -pampa: for, because of 125 Postposition -tloc: with, beside, together with, in the company of 126 Postposition -huan: with, together with, in the company of, accompanied by 127 Postposition -huic: toward, against 128 Postposition -icampa: behind 128 Postpositions Derived from Nouns 129 Postpositions -ixco, -ixtlan, -ixpan, (from ixtli, face, eye) 129 Postpositions -i'tic, -i'tec: inside, within (from i'titl, i'tetl belly) 131 Postposition -tepotzco: behind, in the absence of (from tepotztli back) 131 Some other postpositions derived from nouns 132 Double and Triple Postpositions 134 Double postpositions 134

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Triple postpositions 135 Reverential, Diminutive, And Pejorative Postpositions 136 Added to noun stems 136 Added to noun with a postposition 136 Added to possessive pronoun with postposition 136 Chapter 11, Family Hanes 139 Chapter 12, Adjectives 143 Primary Adjectives 143 Adjectives Derived From Nouns And The Verb Suffix -Yo' 143 Adjectives Derived From Verbs 145 Adjectives formed with -c, -tic 145 Adjectives in -ni 146 Adjectives in -qui 148 Patient adjectives 149 Chapter 13, Numerals 151 Cardinal Numbers 151 Numeral classifiers 153 Particles and suffixes which take numerals 155 Ordinal Numbers 157 Chapter 14, Verbs Derived from Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs 159 Derived Intransitive Verbs 159 Suffix -tiya 159 Agentive and possessive nouns use the ligature -ca with -ti 160 The past perfect for verbs in -ti and -ti 161 Suffix -ihui, -cihui, -ahui, -icihui 162 Suffix -a 163 Transitive and reflexive forms of verbs in -a 164

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Past perfect and future for verbs in -a 164 Derived Transitive and Reflexive Verbs 165 Suffix -lia 165 Suffix -huia 166 Suffix -tia 167 Chapter 15, Intransitive Verbs and Their Corresponding Transitive Forms 171 Chapter 16, Derived Verb Forms 173 Causative 173 The reflexive form of the causative 175 Applicative 175 The reflexive form of the applicative 178 Intensive-Frequentative 179 Reduplicated intensive-frequentative 180 Reduplication of the object prefix -tla181 The frequentative with a distributive meaning 181 Intensive-frequentative formed with the suffixes -ca and -tza 182 Reverential 183 The reverential form of intransitive verbs 184 The reverential form of transitive verbs 185 The reverential form of the reflexive verb 186 The use of -tzinoa as a reverential suffix of intensity 186 Tense, mood, and person of the reverential form 187 Pejorative 188 Chapter 17, Irregular and Defective Verbs 189 ''Be'' Verbs 189 "To be (located)": ca' 189 "To be standing": i'cac 192 "To be lying down, stretched out, or seated": onoc 194

"To be extended": mani 197 Synopsis of the "be" verbs 200

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"Go" and "Come" Verbs 200 "To go": yauh 200 "To come": huallauh 203 "To come": huitz 206 Synopsis of the "go" and "come" verbs 207 Irregular Verbs Used as Auxiliaries 20 Auxiliary -ca': "to be" 208 Auxiliary -i'cac: "to be standing" 209 Auxiliary -oc (from onoc): "to be lying down or seated" 210 Auxiliary -mani: "to be extended" 211 Auxiliary from yauh: "to go" 212 Auxiliary -huitz: "to come" 214 Chapter 18, Compounds 215 Noun Compounds 215 Noun joined with noun 215 Noun joined with adjective 216 Nouns and adjectives which take the ligature -ca- in compounds 216 Noun joined with adverb 217 Verb Compounds: with Nouns 217 Transitive verb joined with a noun (noun incorporation) 217 Intransitive verb joined with a noun 218 Nouns which take the ligature -ca- 219 Nouns with postpostions 219 Verb Compounds: with Adjectives 219 Verb Compounds: with Adverbs 220 Verb joined with simple adverb 220 Verb joined with adverb in -ca, derived from an adjective 220 Verb joined with hual "hither" 221

Verb Compounds: Verb Joined with Other Verb 222 Verbs compounded without the ligature 223 Verbs compounded with the ligature -ti- 223 Verbs which keep the reflexive prefix mo- after the ligature -ti-223 Frequently occurring verbs in compounds 224 The reverential form of verbs compounded with other verbs 227

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Chapter 19, Adverbs and Conjunctions 229 Introductory Remarks 229 Adverbs of Place 229 Adverbs of Time 236 Adverbs of Place and Time 248 Adverbs of Manner 252 Adverbs of Manner That End in -Ca 260 Adverbs derived from verbal nouns in -liz-tli 260 Adverbs derived from adjectives ending in -c or -qui 260 Adverbs derived with -ca that are not manner adverbs 261 Adverbs of Quantity 261 Adverbs of Affirmation, Negation, and Doubt 262 Conjunctions 270 Chapter 20, Comparatives and Superlatives 279 Comparatives 279 The comparative conjunction 280 Other comparative degrees 281 Superlatives 281 Vocabulary 285 Bibliography 315