GENERAL CHEMISTRY

CHEMICAL BONDING
LECTURE

Skills that you should learn:

A. Draw the Lewis Structures of molecules:
Ionic compound Covalent compound Organic molecules Polyatomic Ions

B. Draw the Resonance Structures C. Determine the Formal Charge atoms D. Determine the Polarity of bonds

Concept Check
What is meant by the term chemical bond? How do atoms bond with each other to form molecules?

Chemical Bonding
- attractive forces that hold atoms together in compounds.

Types of Chemical Bonding

1. Metal with nonmetal:

electron transfer and ionic bonding

2. Nonmetal with nonmetal: electron sharing and covalent bonding 3. Metal with metal: electron pooling and metallic bonding

The three models of chemical bonding

Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols

Depicts the element and its valence electrons The dots represents the number of valence electrons The group number gives the number of valence electrons.

Example: Nitrogen, N

. . :N .

. N. .

. . N: .

. . N.

Lewis electron-dot symbols for elements in Periods 2 and 3.

Chemical Bonding
When atoms bound, they lose, gain, or share electrons to attain a filled outer level of eight (or two) electrons.

Octet Rule
Representative elements usually attain stable noble gas electron configurations in most of their compounds

Ionic Bonding
Present in IONIC COMPOUNDS Bonding between a METAL + NONMETAL Metal loses an electron CATION (+ charge) Nonmetal gains an electron ANION (- charge) e.g. NaCl, KBr, MgS

Ionic Bonding

Three ways to represent the formation of Li+ and F- through electron transfer.

Formation of Ionic Compounds

Example: Na2O

2 Na.

+ .O. .. :

2 Na+[: O : ]2: :

Exercise 1

1. Write the Lewis-dot structure of the following compounds:

a. Li3N
Solution:

b. AlCl3 3 Li .

c. MgO 3Li+ [: N :]3: : : :

a. Li3N
b. AlCl3 c. MgO

+ .N :
: : ..

Al : + 3 . Cl : Al3+ 3 [: Cl :]-

:
Mg : +

: Mg2+ [: O: ]2O .. : :

Covalent Bonding
Present in COVALENT COMPOUNDS Bonding between a NONMETAL + NONMETAL * Atoms share electrons (outer e-/valence e-)

e.g. H2O, O2, NH3, PCl5

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons. 2 electrons shared - single covalent bond formed.

4 electrons - double bond formed.

6 electrons - triple bond formed.

Writing Lewis Structure

The OCTET rule Bonding (or shared) electrons Nonbonding (or unshared or lone pairs) of electrons.

Writing Lewis Structure: The Octet Rule

N - A = S rule
N = number of needed electrons N usually has a value of 8 for representative elements. N has a value of 2 for H atoms. A = number of available electrons in valence shells Correspond to the valence electron. A is equal to the periodic group number for each element. S = number of shared electrons in bonds. A-S = number of unshared electrons, lone pairs.

Writing Lewis Structure: The Octet Rule

For ions adjust the number of electrons available, A.
Add one e- to A for each negative charge. Subtract one e- from A for each positive charge.

The central atom in a molecule or polyatomic ion is determined by:

The atom with the least number in its molecular formula The less electronegative element Capable of forming multiple bonds

Writing Lewis Structure: The Octet Rule

Example 2: Write the Lewis structure of hydrogen cyanide,

HCN.

N = 2 (H) + 8 (C) + 8 (N) = 18 A = 1 (H) + 4 (C) + 5 (N) = 10 S= 8 -> 4 bonds A-S = 2 Lone pairs

Writing Lewis Structure: The Octet Rule

Example 3: Write the Lewis structure of carbon dioxide, CO2

N = 8 (C) + 2 x 8 (O) A = 4 (C) + 2 x 6 (O) S= A-S =

= 24 = 16 8 -> 4 bonds 8 Lone pairs

O C O

Writing Lewis Structure: Formal Charge

The formal charge is the hypothetical charge on an atom in a molecule or polyatomic ion. The formal charge determines the correct Lewis structures.

The best Lewis structures have formal charges on the atoms that are zero or nearly zero.

Writing Lewis Structure: Formal Charge

Rules for Assigning Formal Charge

F.C= valence e- (# of bonds + # of unshared e-)

Molecules: The sum of the formal charges of all atoms is equal to zero. Polyatomic ion: The sum of the formal charges is equal to the ions charge.

Writing Lewis Structure: Formal Charge

Example 4: Consider nitrosyl chloride, NOCl. Draw the

most stable Lewis structure of the compound.

N = 8 (N) + 8 (O) + 8 (Cl) = 24 A = 5 (N) + 6 (0) + 7 (Cl) = 18_ S= 6 -> 3 bonds A-S = 12 lone pairs

Cl N O

Cl N O

Writing Lewis Structure: Formal Charge

+1 0

-1

Cl N O
Cl N O 7-(2+4) = +1 5-(3+2) = 0 6-(1+6) = -1

Cl N O
Cl N O 7-(1+6) = 0 5-(3+2) = 0 6-(2+4) = 0

Writing Lewis Structure: Limitations of the Octet Rule

1. 2. 3. 4. The covalent compounds of Be. The covalent compounds of the IIIA Group. Species which contain an odd number of electrons. Species in which the central element must have a share of more than 8 valence electrons to accommodate all of the substituents. 5. Compounds of the d- and f-transition metals.

Writing Lewis Structure: Limitations of the Octet Rule

The outer atoms attached to the central atom nearly always attain noble gas configurations. The central atom does not have a noble gas configuration but may have fewer than 8 (exceptions 1, 2, & 3) or more than 8 (exceptions 4 & 5).

Exemptions to the Octet Rule

I. Reduced Octet
Ex: BBr3; BeCl2

II. Expanded Octet

Ex: PCl5; SF6

III. Odd-electron molecules

Ex: NO2

Exemptions to the Octet Rule

Example 5: Write the Lewis structure of boron tribromide, BBr3.

N = 8 (B) + 3 x 8 (Br) A = 3 (B) + 3 x 7 (Br) S= A-S =

= 32 = 24 8 -> 6 electrons 18

Br B Br

Br

*Reduced Octet

Exemptions to the Octet Rule

Example 6: Write the Lewis structure of AsF5.

N = 8 (As) + 5 x 8 (F) = 48 A = 5 (As) + 5 x 7 (F) = 40 S= 8 -> 10 electrons A-S = 30

F F

*Expanded Octet

F As F

Exemptions to the Octet Rule

1. Reduced Octet a. BBr3 Br = 7(1+6)= 0 B = 3(3+0)= 0 2. Expanded Octet a. PCl5 Cl = 7(1+6)= 0 P = 5(5+0)= 0 b. BeCl2 Cl = 7(1+6)= 0 Be = 2(2+0)= 0

b. SF6

F = 7(1+6)= 0 S = 6(6+0)= 0

Exercises
Draw the Lewis structure of the following molecules and calculate the formal charges of each atom: XeF2 SF4

Quiz

1. Write the Lewis structure of the following ionic compounds 2pts each a. SrF2 b. K2O c. Ca3N2 2. Draw the most stable Lewis structure and calculate the formal charge of each atom on: 4 pts each a. ICl3 b. SbF4-

Answer

1. Write the Lewis structure of the following salts: (2 pts each) a. SrF2 b. K2O

Sr2+ 2[: F : ]2K+ [: O: ]2: : :

c. Ca3N2

3Ca2+ 2[: N: ]3: :

Answer

2. Draw the most stable Lewis structure and calculate the formal charge of each atom on: 3 pts each

a) ICl3
N = 8 (I) + 3 x 8 (Cl) A = 7 (I) + 3 x 7 (Cl) = 32 = 28 S = 4 -> 6 electrons A-S = 28-6 =22

Cl

0 0

I : 7- (3+4) = 0 Cl : 7 ( 1+6) =0

Cl 0

Cl

Answer

2. Draw the most stable Lewis structure and calculate the formal charge of each atom on: 3 pts each

a) SbF4N = 8 (Sb) + 4 x 8 (F) = 40 A = 5 (Sb) + 4 x 7 (F) + 1 = 34 S = 6 -> 8 electrons A-S = 34-8 =26

F : 7- (1+6) = 0 Sb :5 (4+2)= -1

F
0

F Sb
-1
0 0

F0

Exercises
Draw the Lewis structure of the following molecules and calculate the formal charges of each atom:
1. 2. 3. 4. BiF52IBr4+ OCCl2 XeOF4

5. HONO2

Resonance
- more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a particular molecule.
Example 8: Write the a Lewis structure of sulfur trioxide, SO3.

N = 8 (S) + 4 x 8 (O) A = 6 (S) + 3 x 6 (O) S= A-S =

= 32 = 24 8 -> 4 bonds 16

O S O O

O S O
O

O S O
O

*Three possible structures for SO3.

Resonance

O S O

O S O O

O S O O

All of the bonds in SO3 are equivalent. There are no single or double bonds in SO3. Best representation of the Lewis structure of SO3:

Exercises
Draw the Lewis structure of nitrate ion, NO3-

O N O

O N O

O N O

Molecules with More than One Central Atom

Atom # of bonds

1. CH3CH2CH3
Tetravelent Trivalent Divalent Monovalent

C N O H, X

4 3 2 1

2. CH3CH2OH

Examples: 1. CH3CH2CH3 2. CH3CH2OH 3. CH3COCH3 4. CH3NH3

Molecules with More than One Central Atom

Atom # of bonds

3. CH3COCH3
Tetravelent Trivalent Divalent Monovalent

C N O H, X

4 3 2 1

Examples: 1. CH3CH2CH3 2. CH2CH2OH 3. CH3COCH3 4. CH3NH2

4. CH3NH2

Lewis Structure of Polyatomic Ion

Example 1: Write the Lewis structure of (NH4)2SO4

NH4+ + SO42- (NH4)2SO4

N = 4 x 2 (H) + 8 (N) = 16 A = 4 x1 (H) + 5 (N) -1 = 8 S=8 A-S = 0 N = 8 x 4 (O) + 8 (S) = 40 A = 6 x 4 (O) + 6 (S) + 2 = 32 S=8 A-S = 24

O O S O O

2-

H N H H

Lewis Structure of Polyatomic Ion

NH4+ + SO42- (NH4)2SO4

O O S O

2-

H N H H

Lewis Structure of Polyatomic Ion

Example 2: Write the Lewis structure of ammonium chloride, NH4Cl

H N H H

Cl

Concept Check
Draw the correct Lewis Structure of H3PO4
N = 3 x 2 (H) + 8 (P) + 4 x 8 (O) = 46 A = 3 x 1 (H) + 5 (P) + 4 x 6 (O) = 32 S = 14 -> 7 bonds A-S = 18 O -1

O
0

P+1 O
0

O
H

H : 1 (1+0)= 0 3 O : 6- (2+4) = 0 P : 5- (4+0) = 1 O : 6- (1+6) = -1

b) H3PO4

O
0

P0 O H
0

O
0

H : 1 (1+0)= 0 3 O : 6- (2+4) = 0 P : 5- (5+0) = 0 O : 6- (2+4) = 0 * Expanded octet

Bond Polarity
Covalent bonds in which the electrons are shared equally are designated as nonpolar covalent bonds.
Nonpolar covalent bonds have a symmetrical charge distribution.

Examples: 1. H2 2. N2

Bond Polarity
Covalent bonds in which the electrons are not shared equally are designated as polar covalent bonds
Polar covalent bonds have an asymmetrical charge distribution

Example: 1.HX (X =F, Cl, Br, I)

Electroneg ativities Difference 1.9

H F 2.1 4.0
1.9

very polar bond

Bond Polarity
Polar molecules have a separation of centers of negative and positive charge, an asymmetric charge distribution.

Density map of HF

Bond Polarity

Bond Polarity
Polar molecules can be attracted by magnetic and electric fields.

Dipole Moment
The dipole moment has the symbol . (= d x q; unit: debye) Polar molecules have dipole moment

Molecules that have a small separation of charge have a small . Molecules that have a large separation of charge have a large . For example, HF and HI:

H - F

H -I

1.91 Debye units

0.38 Debye units

Bond Order, Bond Length, Bond Energy

Review
1. How were covalent bonds formed?

2. When forming a bond, the atoms obey what rule? 3. Formation of one covalent bond involves how many electrons?
4. In a triple bond, how many electrons are being shared? 5. How will you determine which is the best lewis structure?

Take home quiz

Draw the best Lewis structure of the following molecules and calculate the formal charges of each atom: a. ICl2b. O3 c. Na3PO4 d. CaCO3 e. Glycine, CH3CONH2