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INTRODUCTION

C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup of AT&T Bell Laboratories in the early 1980's, and is based on the C language. The "++" is a syntactic construct used in C (to increment a variable), and C++ is intended as an incremental improvement of C. Most of C is a subset of C++, so that most C programs can be compiled (i.e. converted into a series of low-level instructions that the computer can execute directly) using a C++ compiler.

C is in many ways hard to categorise. Compared to assembly language it is highlevel, but it nevertheless includes many low-level facilities to directly manipulate the computer's memory. It is therefore an excellent language for writing efficient "systems" programs. But for other types of programs, C code can be hard to understand, and C programs can therefore be particularly prone to certain types of error. The extra object-oriented facilities in C++ are partly included to overcome these shortcomings.

In structured programming, the primary focus is on the function. In structured programming program has a fixed well defined structure. The major motivating factor in the invention of object-oriented approach is to remove some of the flaws encountered in the procedural approach. OOP treats data as a critical element in the program development and does not allow it flow freely around the system. It ties data more closely to the functions that operate it, and protects it from accidental modification from outside functions. OOP allows decomposition of a problem into a number of entities called objects and then builds data functions around these objects.

C++ (pronounced see plus plus) is a general purpose programming language that is free-form and compiled. It is regarded as an intermediate-level language, as it comprises both high-level and low-level language features.It provides imperative, object-oriented and generic programming features.

C++ is one of the most popular programming languages and is implemented on a wide variety of hardware and operating system platforms. As an efficient performance driven programming language it is used in systems software, application software, device drivers, embedded software, highperformance server and client applications, and entertainment software such as video games. Various entities provide both open source andproprietary C++ compiler software, including the FSF, LLVM, Microsoft and Intel. C++ has influenced many other programming languages, for example, C# and Java.

C++ is standardised by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which the latest (and current) having being ratified and published byISO in September 2011 as ISO/IEC 14882:2011 (informally known as C++11).[8] The C++ programming language was initially standardised in 1998 as ISO/IEC 14882:1998, which was amended by the 2003 technical corrigendum, ISO/IEC 14882:2003. The current standard (C++11) supersedes these, with new features and an enlarged standard library.

HISTORY
Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish and British trained computer scientist, began his work on C++'s predecessor "C with Classes" in 1979. The motivation for creating a new language originated from Stroustrup's experience in programming for his Ph.D. thesis. Stroustrup found that Simula had features that were very helpful for large software development, but the language was too slow for practical use, while BCPL was fast but too low-level to be suitable for large software development. When Stroustrup started working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect todistributed computing. Remembering his Ph.D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like features. C was chosen because it was general-purpose, fast, portable and widely used. Besides C and Simula's influences, other languages also influenced C++, for example,ALGOL 68, Ada, CLU and ML. At first, the class, derived class, strong typing, inlining, and default argument features were added to C via Stroustrup's "C with Classes" to C compiler, Cpre. In 1983, it was renamed from C with Classes to C++ (++ being the increment operator in C). New features were added including virtual functions, function name and operator overloading, references, constants, user-controlled free-store memory control, improved type checking, and BCPL style single-line comments with two forward slashes (//), as well as the development of a proper compiler for C++, Cfront. In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, providing an important reference to the language, as there was not yet an official standard. The first commercial implementation of C++ was released in October of the same year. Release 2.0 of C++ came in 1989 and the updated second edition of The C++ Programming Language was released in 1991.[13] New features included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static member functions, const member functions, and protected members. In 1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published. This work became the basis for the future standard. Late feature additions included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, and a Boolean type. As the C++ language evolved, the standard library evolved with it. The first addition to the C++ standard library was the stream I/O library which provided facilities to replace the traditional C functions such as printf and scanf. Later,

among the most significant additions to the standard library, was a large amount of the Standard Template Library.

Standardization
Year C++ Standard Informal name

1998

ISO/IEC 14882:1998

C++98

2003

ISO/IEC 14882:2003

C++03

2007

ISO/IEC TR 19768:2007

C++TR1

2011

ISO/IEC 14882:2011

C++11

In 1998, the C++ standards committee (the ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG21 working group) standardized C++ and published the international standard ISO/IEC 14882:1998 (informally known asC++98). For some years after the official release of the standard, the committee analysed reported problems with the standard, and in 2003 published a corrected version of the C++ standard,ISO/IEC 14882:2003. In 2005, a technical report, called the "Library Technical Report 1" (often known as TR1 for short), was released. While not an official part of the standard, it specified a number of extensions to the standard library, which were expected to be included in the next version of C++. The latest major revision of the C++ standard, C++11 (formerly known as C++0x), was approved by ISO/IEC on 12 August 2011. It has been published as 14882:2011. C++14 or C++1y are names being used for the next minor revision. It is planned to be a small extension over C++11, featuring mainly bug fixes and small improvements, similarly to how C++03 was a small extension to C++98. While the name 'C++14' implies a release in 2014, this date is not fixed. The subsequent major revision, informally known as C++17, is planned for 2017.

Operators and operator overloading


C++ provides more than 35 operators, covering basic arithmetic, bit manipulation, indirection, comparisons, logical operations and others. Almost all operators can be overloaded for user-defined types, with a few notable exceptions such as member access (. and .*) as well as the conditional operator. The rich set of overloadable operators is central to using user created types in C++ as well and as easily as built in types (so that the user using them cannot tell the difference). The overloadable operators are also an essential part of many advanced C++ programming techniques, such as smart pointers. Overloading an operator does not change the precedence of calculations involving the operator, nor does it change the number of operands that the operator uses (any operand may however be ignored by the operator, though it will be evaluated prior to execution). Overloaded "&&" and "||" operators lose their short-circuit evaluation property.
Operators that cannot be overloaded

Operator

Symbol

Scope resolution operator

::

Conditional operator

?:

dot operator

Member selection operator

.*

"sizeof" operator

sizeof

"typeid" operator

typeid

Memory management
C++ supports four types of memory management:

Static memory allocation. A static variable is assigned a value at compile-time, and allocated storage in a fixed location along with the executable code. These are declared with the "static" keyword (in the sense of static storage, not in the sense of declaring a class variable).

Automatic memory allocation. An automatic variable is simply declared with its class name, and storage is allocated on the stack when the value is assigned. The constructor is called when the declaration is executed, the destructor is called when the variable goes out of scope, and after the destructor the allocated memory is automatically freed.

Dynamic memory allocation. Storage can be dynamically allocated on the heap using manual memory management normally calls to new and delete (though old-style C calls such as malloc() and free() are still supported).

With the use of a library, garbage collection is possible. The Boehm garbage collector is commonly used for this purpose.

The fine control over memory management is similar to C, but in contrast with languages that intend to hide such details from the programmer, such as Java, Perl, PHP, and Ruby.

Templates
C++ templates enable generic programming. C++ supports both function and class templates. Templates may be parameterized by types, compile-time constants, and other templates. Templates are implemented by instantiation at compile-time. To instantiate a template, compilers substitute specific arguments for a template's parameters to generate a concrete function or class instance. Some substitutions are not possible; these are eliminated by an overload resolution policy described by the phrase "Substitution failure is not an error" (SFINAE). Templates are a powerful tool that can be used for generic programming, template metaprogramming, and code optimization, but this power implies a cost. Template use may increase code size, because each template instantiation produces a copy of the template code: one for each set of template arguments, however, this is the same amount of code that would be generated, or less, that if the code was written by hand. This is in contrast to run-time generics seen in other languages (e.g., Java) where at compile-time the type is erased and a single template body is preserved. Templates are different from macros: while both of these compile-time language features enable conditional compilation, templates are not restricted to lexical substitution. Templates are aware of the semantics and type system of their companion language, as well as all compile-time type definitions, and can perform high-level operations including programmatic flow control based on evaluation of strictly type-checked parameters. Macros are capable of conditional control over compilation based on predetermined criteria, but cannot instantiate new types, recurse, or perform type evaluation and in effect are limited to pre-compilation text-substitution and text-inclusion/exclusion. In other words, macros can control compilation flow based on pre-defined symbols but cannot, unlike templates, independently instantiate new symbols. Templates are a tool for static polymorphism (see below) and generic programming. In addition, templates are a compile time mechanism in C++ that is Turingcomplete, meaning that any computation expressible by a computer program can be computed, in some form, by atemplate metaprogram prior to runtime.

In summary, a template is a compile-time parameterized function or class written without knowledge of the specific arguments used to instantiate it. After instantiation, the resulting code is equivalent to code written specifically for the passed arguments. In this manner, templates provide a way to decouple generic, broadly applicable aspects of functions and classes (encoded in templates) from specific aspects (encoded in template parameters) without sacrificing performance due to abstraction.

Objects
C++ introduces object-oriented programming (OOP) features to C. It offers classes, which provide the four features commonly present in OOP (and some non-OOP) languages: abstraction,encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism. One distinguishing feature of C++ classes compared to classes in other programming languages is support for deterministic destructors, which in turn provide support for the Resource Acquisition is Initialization (RAII) concept.

Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the hiding of information to ensure that data structures and operators are used as intended and to make the usage model more obvious to the developer. C++ provides the ability to define classes and functions as its primary encapsulation mechanisms. Within a class, members can be declared as either public, protected, or private to explicitly enforce encapsulation. A public member of the class is accessible to any function. A private member is accessible only to functions that are members of that class and to functions and classes explicitly granted access permission by the class ("friends"). A protected member is accessible to members of classes that inherit from the class in addition to the class itself and any friends. The OO principle is that all of the functions (and only the functions) that access the internal representation of a type should be encapsulated within the type definition. C++ supports this (via member functions and friend functions), but does not

enforce it: the programmer can declare parts or all of the representation of a type to be public, and is allowed to make public entities that are not part of the representation of the type. Therefore, C++ supports not just OO programming, but other weaker decomposition paradigms, like modular programming. It is generally considered good practice to make all data private or protected, and to make public only those functions that are part of a minimal interface for users of the class. This can hide the details of data implementation, allowing the designer to later fundamentally change the implementation without changing the interface in any way.

Inheritance
Inheritance allows one data type to acquire properties of other data types. Inheritance from a base class may be declared as public, protected, or private. This access specifier determines whether unrelated and derived classes can access the inherited public and protected members of the base class. Only public inheritance corresponds to what is usually meant by "inheritance". The other two forms are much less frequently used. If the access specifier is omitted, a "class" inherits privately, while a "struct" inherits publicly. Base classes may be declared as virtual; this is calledvirtual inheritance. Multiple inheritance is a C++ feature not found in most other languages, allowing a class to be derived from more than one base class; this allows for more elaborate inheritance relationships. For example, a "Flying Cat" class can inherit from both "Cat" and "Flying Mammal". Some other languages, such as C# or Java, accomplish something similar (although more limited) by allowing inheritance of multiple interfaces while restricting the number of base classes to one (interfaces, unlike classes, provide only declarations of member functions, no implementation or member data). An interface as in C# and Java can be defined in C++ as a class containing only pure virtual functions, often known as an abstract base class or "ABC". The member functions of such an abstract base class are normally explicitly defined in the derived class, not inherited implicitly. C++ virtual inheritance exhibits an ambiguity resolution feature called dominance.

Polymorphism
Polymorphism enables one common interface for many implementations, and for objects to act differently under different circumstances. C++ supports several kinds of static (compile-time) and dynamic (runtime) polymorphisms. Compile-time polymorphism does not allow for certain runtime decisions, while run-time polymorphism typically incurs a performance penalty.

Static polymorphism
Function overloading allows programs to declare multiple functions having the same name (but with different arguments). The functions are distinguished by the number or types of their formal parameters. Thus, the same function name can refer to different functions depending on the context in which it is used. The type returned by the function is not used to distinguish overloaded functions and would result in a compile-time error message. When declaring a function, a programmer can specify for one or more parameters a default value. Doing so allows the parameters with defaults to optionally be omitted when the function is called, in which case the default arguments will be used. When a function is called with fewer arguments than there are declared parameters, explicit arguments are matched to parameters in left-to-right order, with any unmatched parameters at the end of the parameter list being assigned their default arguments. In many cases, specifying default arguments in a single function declaration is preferable to providing overloaded function definitions with different numbers of parameters.

Templates in C++ provide a sophisticated mechanism for writing generic, polymorphic code. In particular, through the Curiously Recurring Template Pattern, it's possible to implement a form of static polymorphism that closely

mimics the syntax for overriding virtual functions. Because C++ templates are type-aware and Turing-complete, they can also be used to let the compiler resolve recursive conditionals and generate substantial programs through template metaprogramming. Contrary to some opinion, template code will not generate a bulk code after compilation with the proper compiler settings.

Dynamic polymorphism
Inheritance Variable pointers (and references) to a base class type in C++ can refer to objects of any derived classes of that type in addition to objects exactly matching the variable type. This allows arrays and other kinds of containers to hold pointers to objects of differing types. Because assignment of values to variables usually occurs at run-time, this is necessarily a run-time phenomenon. C++ also provides a dynamic_cast operator, which allows the program to safely attempt conversion of an object into an object of a more specific object type (as opposed to conversion to a more general type, which is always allowed). This feature relies on run-time type information (RTTI). Objects known to be of a certain specific type can also be cast to that type withstatic_cast, a purely compiletime construct that has no runtime overhead and does not require RTTI.

Virtual member functions


Ordinarily, when a function in a derived class overrides a function in a base class, the function to call is determined by the type of the object. A given function is overridden when there exists no difference in the number or type of parameters between two or more definitions of that function. Hence, at compile time, it may not be possible to determine the type of the object and therefore the correct function to call, given only a base class pointer; the decision is therefore put off until runtime. This is called dynamic dispatch. Virtual member functions or methods allow the most specific implementation of the function to be called, according to the actual run-time type of the object. In C++ implementations, this is commonly done using virtual function tables. If the object type is known, this may be bypassed by prepending a fully qualified class name before the function call, but in general calls to virtual functions are resolved at run time. In addition to standard member functions, operator overloads and destructors can be virtual. A general rule of thumb is that if any functions in the class are virtual, the destructor should be as well. As the type of an object at its creation is known at compile time, constructors, and by extension copy constructors, cannot be virtual. Nonetheless a situation may arise where a copy of an object needs to be created when a pointer to a derived object is passed as a pointer to a base object. In such a case, a common solution is to create a clone() (or similar) virtual function that creates and returns a copy of the derived class when called. A member function can also be made "pure virtual" by appending it with = 0 after the closing parenthesis and before the semicolon. A class containing a pure virtual function is called an abstract data type. Objects cannot be created from abstract data types; they can only be derived from. Any derived class inherits the virtual function as pure and must provide a non-pure definition of it (and all other pure virtual functions) before objects of the derived class can be created. A program that attempts to create an object of a class with a pure virtual member function or inherited pure virtual member function is ill-formed.

Exception handling
Exception handling is a mechanism in C++ that is used to handle errors in a uniform manner and separately from the main body of a programme's source code. Should an error occur, an exception is thrown (raised), which is then caught by an exception handler. The code that might cause an exception to be thrown goes in a try block (is enclosed in try { and }) and the exceptions are handled in separate catch blocks.:

STANDARD LIBRARY

The C++ standard consists of two parts: the core language and the C++ Standard Library; which C++ programmers expect on every major implementation of C++, it includes vectors, lists, maps,algorithms (find, for_each, binary_search, random_shuffle, etc.), sets, queues, stacks, arrays, tuples, input/output facilities (iostream; reading from the console input, reading/writing from files),smart pointers for automatic memory management, regular expression support, multithreading library, atomics support (allowing a variable to be read or written to be at most one thread at a time without any external synchronisation), time utilities (measurement, getting current time, etc.), a system for converting error reporting that doesn't use C++ exceptions into C++ exceptions, arandom number generator and a slightly modified version of the C standard library (to make it comply with the C++ type system). A large part of the C++ library is based on the STL. This provides useful tools as containers (for example vectors and lists), iterators to provide these containers with array-like access andalgorithms to perform operations such as searching and sorting. Furthermore (multi)maps (associative arrays) and (multi)sets are provided, all of which export compatible interfaces. Therefore it is possible, using templates, to write generic algorithms that work with any container or on any sequence defined by iterators. As in C, the features of the library are accessed by using

the#include directive to include a standard header. C++ provides 105 standard headers, of which 27 are deprecated. The standard incorporates the STL was originally designed by Alexander Stepanov, who experimented with generic algorithms and containers for many years. When he started with C++, he finally found a language where it was possible to create generic algorithms (e.g., STL sort) that perform even better than, for example, the C standard library qsort, thanks to C++ features like using inlining and compile-time binding instead of function pointers. The standard does not refer to it as "STL", as it is merely a part of the standard library, but the term is still widely used to distinguish it from the rest of the standard library (input/output streams, internationalization, diagnostics, the C library subset, etc.). Most C++ compilers, and all major ones, provide a standards conforming implementation of the C++ standard library.

Compatibility
Producing a reasonably standards-compliant C++ compiler has proven to be a difficult task for compiler vendors in general. For many years, different C++ compilers implemented the C++ language to different levels of compliance to the standard, and their implementations varied widely in some areas such as partial template specialization. Recent releases of most popular C++ compilers support almost all of the C++ 1998 standard. To give compiler vendors greater freedom, the C++ standards committee decided not to dictate the implementation of name mangling, exception handling, and other implementation-specific features. The downside of this decision is that object code produced by different compilers is expected to be incompatible. There were, however, attempts to standardize compilers for particular machines or operating systems (for example C++ ABI), though they seem to be largely abandoned now.

With C C++ is often considered to be a superset of C, but this is not strictly true.[34] Most C code can easily be made to compile correctly in C++, but there are a few differences that cause some valid C code to be invalid or behave differently in C++. For example, C allows implicit conversion from void* to other pointer types, but C++ does not (for type safety reasons). Also, C++ defines many new keywords, such as new and class, which may be used as identifiers (for example, variable names) in a C program. Some incompatibilities have been removed by the 1999 revision of the C standard (C99), which now supports C++ features such as line comments (//), and declarations mixed with code. On the other hand, C99 introduced a number of new features that C++ did not support, were incompatible or redundant in C++, such as variable-length arrays, native complex-number types (use std::complex class that is, and was also there before C99 existed, in the C++ standard library), designated initializers (use constructors instead), compound literals, the boolean typedef (in C++ it is a fundamental type) and the restrict keyword.[35] Some of the C99-introduced features were included in the subsequent version of the C++ standard, C++11:

Write a program in C++ to check whether the given number even or odd ?

#include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h>

int main() { int a; cout<<"Enter any number : "; cin>>a; if(a%2==0) cout<<"The number is even"; else cout<<"The number is odd"; getch(); return 0; }

Write a program in C++ to find biggest of three numbers using ternary operator ?

#include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { clrscr(); int a,b,c,d; cout<<"enter three no."; cin>>a>>b>>c; d=((a>b&&a>c)?a:(b>a&&b>c)?b:c); cout<<"greater no is"<<d; getch(); }

Write a program in C++ to find a vowel or not of given character ?

#include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { char c; cin>>c; if(c>=65&&c<82) c=c+32; switch(c) { case 'a': case 'e': case 'i': case 'o': case 'u': cout<<"Given character is vowel"<<end|; break; default: cout<<"Given character is consonant"<<end|; } }

Write a c++ program that includes all arithmetic operation? #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> class Number { private: int n; public: void getNumber() { cout<<"Get Number"; cin>>n; } void print Number() { cout<<"n="<<n<<"\n"; } friend void add(Number A,Number B); friend void subtract(Number A,Number B); friend void multiply(NUmber A,Number B); friend void divide(Number A,Number B);

}; void add(Number A,Number B) { int tot; tot=A.n+B.n; cout<<"Total of two object="<<tot<<"\n"; } void subtract(Number A,Number B) { int tot; tot=A.n-B.n; cout<<"Subtraction or two object="<<tot<<"\n"; } void multiply(Number A,Number B) { int tot; tot=A.n*B.n; cout<<"Multiplication of two object="<<tot<<"\n"; } void divide(Number A,Number B) { int tot; tot=A.n/B.n;

cout<<"Division of two object="<<tot<<"\n"; } void main() { Number X,Y; clrscr(); X.getNumber(); Y.getNumber(); add(X,Y); subtract(X,Y); multiply(X,Y); divide(X,Y); getch(); }

Write a program in C++ to factorial of given number ?

#include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> // Find factorial of a Given Number int main() { long double factorial = 1; int n; cout <<"Enter a Number : "<<endl; cin >> n; for(int i =n; i>0; i--) factorial *= i; cout << n << "! = " << factorial <<endl; getch(); return 0; }

Write a program in C++ to exchange the content of two variables using call by reference? The call by reference method of passing arguments to a function copies the reference of an argument into the formal parameter. Inside the function, the reference is used to access the actual argument used in the call. This means that changes made to the parameter affect the passed argument. To pass the value by reference, argument reference is passed to the functions just like any other value. So accordingly you need to declare the function parameters as reference types as in the following function swap(), which exchanges the values of the two integer variables pointed to by its arguments.

// function definition to swap the values. void swap(int &x, int &y) { int temp; temp = x; /* save the value at address x */ x = y; /* put y into x */ y = temp; /* put x into y */ return; }

#include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> void swap (int &a, int &b) { /* &a and int temp; temp=a; a=b; b=temp; } main()

&b

are

reference

variables

*/

{ clrscr(); int i=5,j=10; cout<<"Before swapping I = "<<i<<" J = "<<j<<endl; swap(i,j); cout<<"After swapping I = "<<i<<" J = "<<j<<endl; }

Write a program in C++ to exchange the content of two variables using call by value? The call by value method of passing arguments to a function copies the actual value of an argument into the formal parameter of the function. In this case, changes made to the parameter inside the function have no effect on the argument. By default, C++ uses call by value to pass arguments. In general, this means that code within a function cannot alter the arguments used to call the function. Consider the function swap() definition as follows. // function definition to swap the values. void swap(int x, int y) { int temp; temp = x; /* save the value of x */ x = y; /* put y into x */ y = temp; /* put x into y */ return; }

Now, let us call the function swap() by passing actual values as in the following example: #include <iostream> using namespace std; // function declaration void swap(int x, int y); int main () { // local variable declaration: int a = 100; int b = 200;

cout << "Before swap, value of a :" << a << endl; cout << "Before swap, value of b :" << b << endl; // calling a function to swap the values. swap(a, b); cout << "After swap, value of a :" << a << endl; cout << "After swap, value of b :" << b << endl; return 0; }

Write a program in C++ demonstrating the Static Data member?

#include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> class stat { int code; static int count; public: stat() { code=++count; } void showcode() { cout<<"\n\tObject number is :"<<code; } static void showcount() { cout<<"\n\tCount Objects :"<<count; } }; int stat::count; void main() { clrscr(); stat obj1,obj2; obj1.showcount(); obj1.showcode();

obj2.showcount(); obj2.showcode(); getch(); }

Write a program in C++ to demonstrate multiple inheritance.

C++ provides the ability to do multiple inheritance. Multiple inheritance enables a derived class to inherit members from more than one parent.Lets say we wanted to write a program to keep track of a bunch of teachers. A teacher is a person. However, a teacher is also an employee (they are their own employer if working for themselves). Multiple inheritance can be used to create a Teacher class that inherits properties from both Person and Employee. To use multiple inheritance, simply specify each base class (just like in single inheritance), separated by a comma.

#include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> class student { protected: int rno,m1,m2; public: void get() { cout<<"Enter the Roll no :"; cin>>rno; cout<<"Enter the two marks :"; cin>>m1>>m2; } }; class sports {

protected: int sm; // sm = Sports mark public: void getsm() { cout<<"\nEnter the sports mark :"; cin>>sm; } }; class statement:public student,public sports { int tot,avg; public: void display() { tot=(m1+m2+sm); avg=tot/3; cout<<"\n\n\tRoll No : "<<rno<<"\n\tTotal cout<<"\n\tAverage : "<<avg; } }; void main() { clrscr(); statement obj; obj.get(); obj.getsm(); obj.display(); getch(); }

: "<<tot;

/*Program for smallest no. using object-oriented programming*/ #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> class small { private: int x,y; public: void readdata(); void output(); }; void small:: readdata() { cout<<"Enter first number"; cin>>x; cout<<"Enter second number"; cin>>y; } void small:: output() { if(x < y) cout<<"smallest is:" < < x< < endl; else cout<<"smallest is:" < < y< < endl; } void main() { small s; clrscr(); s.readdata(); s.output(); getch(); }

Concept of Access Modifier:There are three type of access modifier namely 1. Private 2. Public 3. Protected Private :- The member that have been declared as private can be accessed only from within class. Public :- The member that have been declared as public can be accessed from outside the class. Generally the functions are written under public specifier because generally functions are called form outside the class in real life program. Protected :- The protected member can be accessed within the class in which they are defined and they are also accessed in derived class which is derived by its own class. Note that protected member can not be accessed from outside these classes. /*Program for handling arithmetic operation through inheritance*/ #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> class calculate { protected: int x,y; public: void assign() { x=10; y=20; } }; class cal1: public calculate

{ int s; public: void add() { s=x+y; cout<<"x+y =";" < <s;" < <endl; } }; class cal2:public calculate { int t; public: void sub() { t=x-y; cout<<"x-y is=";" < <t;" < <endl; } }; class cal3:public calculate { int m; public:void mul() { m=x*y; cout<<"x*y is=";" < <m;" < <endl; } }; void main() { cal1 c1; cal2 c2; cal3 c3; clrscr(); c1.assign(); c1.add();

c2.assign(); c2.sub(); c3.assign(); c3.mul(); getch(); }

Write a program to implement the concept of single inheritance? #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> class emp { public: int eno; char name[20],des[20]; void get() { cout<<"Enter the employee number:"; cin>>eno; cout<<"Enter the employee name:"; cin>>name; cout<<"Enter the designation:"; cin>>des; } }; class salary:public emp { float bp,hra,da,pf,np; public: void get1() { cout<<"Enter the basic pay:"; cin>>bp; cout<<"Enter the Humen Resource Allowance:"; cin>>hra; cout<<"Enter the Dearness Allowance :"; cin>>da; cout<<"Enter the Profitablity Fund:"; cin>>pf; } void calculate() { np=bp+hra+da-pf;

} void display() { cout<<eno<<"\t"<<name<<"\t"<<des<<"\t"<<bp<<"\t"<<hra<<"\t"<<da< <"\t"<<pf<<"\t"<<np<<"\n"; } }; void main() { int i,n; char ch; salary s[10]; clrscr(); cout<<"Enter the number of employee:"; cin>>n; for(i=0;i<n;i++) { s[i].get(); s[i].get1(); s[i].calculate(); } cout<<"\ne_no \t e_name\t des \t bp \t hra \t da \t pf \t np \n"; for(i=0;i<n;i++) { s[i].display(); } getch(); }

Write a program to implement the concept of multilevel inheritance? #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> class Student { protected: int roll; public: void get_num(int); void put_num(); }; void Student::get_num(int a) { roll=a; } void Student::put_num() { cout<<"Roll number is "<<roll<<"\n"; } class Test:public Student { protected: float sub1,sub2; public: void get_mks(float,float); void put_mks(); }; void Test::get_mks(float a,float b) { sub1=a;sub2=b; } void Test::put_mks() { cout<<"marks in sub1= "<<sub1<<"\n"; cout<<"marks in sub2= "<<sub2<<"\n"; } class Result:public Test {

float total; public: void display(); }; void Result::display() { total=sub1+sub2; put_num(); put_mks(); cout<<"total = "<<total<<"\n"; } void main() { int r; float s1,s2; Result obj; clrscr(); cout<<"enter the Roll no of Student\n"; cin>>r; cout<<"\nenter the marks of the student in 2 subject\n"; cin>>s1>>s2; obj.get_num(r); obj.get_mks(s1,s2); obj.display(); getch(); }

Constructor:- A constructor is special type of function for automatic initialization of object. Whenever an object is created the constructor will be executed automatically The name of constructor must be same as that of its class. The constructor is declared with no return type, not even void. Constructor may not be static and virtual. Constructor should be declared in the public section, it can be declared within the protected and in some rare case within the private. Note that object with a constructor cannot be used as a member of a union.

/*Program for print the object whenever we create an object*/ #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> class counter { static int count; public: counter() { count++; cout<<"object number is " < <count < <endl; } }; int counter::count; void main() { clrscr(); cout < <"we are creating c1:" < <endl; counter c1; cout < <"We are creating c2;" < <endl; counter c2; getch(); }

Destructor:-A destructor is used to destroy the objects that have been created by a constructor. A destructor is a member function like constructor. The name of destructor is same as constructor but is preceded by tilde(~). Destructor will automatically be called by compiler upon exit from the program to clean up storage which was taken by object. Note that the objects are destroyed in the reverse order of creation. /*Program for print the object whenever we create an object */ #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> int count=0; class alpha { public: alpha() { count++; cout< <"Number of object created: "< <count< <endl; } ~ alpha() { cout< <"number of objected destroyed "< <count<<endl; count--; } };

void main() { clrscr(); cout< <"Enter main\n"; alpha a1,a2,a3,a4; { cout< <"enter block1";

alpha a5; } { cout< <"enter block2"; alpha a6; } cout< <"\nRe-enter main"; getch(); }

Function Overloading:Overloading refers to the use of the same thing for different purpose. This means that we can use the same function name to create functions that perform a variety of different tasks. This is known as function polymorphism in OOP. /*Program for function overloading*/ #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> int volume(int); double volume(double,int); long volume(long,int,int); void main() { cout<<volume(10)<<"\n"; cout<<volume(5.5,10)<<"\n"; cout<<volume(100l,75,15)<<"\n"; } int volume(int a) //cube { return(a*a*a); } double volume(double b,int c) //cylinder { return(3.14*b*b*c); } long volume(long d,int e,int f) //rectanglular { return(d*e*f); }

Virtual function:Virtual means existing in effect but not in reality. A function is declared virtual buy writing keyword virtual in front of function header. The question is why virtual function are needed? For the answer of question see the following example. /*Programe for handling virtual function*/ #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> class B { public: virtual void show() { cout<<"this is in class B"<<endl; } }; class D1:public B { public :void show() { cout<<"this is in class D1"<<endl; } }; class D2:public B { public :void show() { cout<<"this is in class D2"<<endl; } }; void main() { clrscr(); B *p; D1 obj1;

D2 obj2; B objbase; p=&objbase; p->show(); p=&obj1; p->show(); p=&obj2; p->show(); getch(); }

Class Template:Template is very important feature which has been added recently to c++. By using templates we can define generic classes. We can define template for both classes and function. For example suppose we want to create a class which has three private data all are int type. And the class has two member function one get the data from keyboard and second perform the addition of two private data, store the result into third private data, then print the result. But suppose we want to perform same above operation with float type data then what we do? The solution is we have to change the type of private data from into to float, or design a new class which private data are float type. But with the help of templates we can solve problem. Because template facility allows the data type to be specified as a parameter. We can design a generic classes. /*Programe which generate template class, by which we can perform integer type data addition and float type data addition also*/ #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> template<class T> class add { private: T a,b; public: void getdata() { cout<<"enter first data ="; cin>>a; cout<<"enter second data ="; cin>>b; } Tsum() { T c; c=a+b; return(c); }

};

void main() { add<int>obj1; add<float>obj2; cout<<"enter integer number"<<endl; obj1.getdata(); cout<<"Sum of integer data ="<<obj1.sum(); cout<<endl; cout<<"Enter float type data"<<endl; obj2.getdata(); cout<<"Sum of float type data"<<obj2.sum(); cout<<endl; getch(); }

Operator Overloading:Operator overloading is one of the feature of C++ language. The concept by which we can give special meaning to an operator of language is known as operator overloading. For example + operator in C++ work only with basic type int and float means. C=a+b is calculated by compiler if a, b and c are basic type, suppose a, b and c are object of user defined class compiler give error. However using operator overloading we can make this statement legal even if a, b and c are objects of class. Actually when we write statement C=a+b the compiler call a member function of class. If a, b and c are basic type then compiler calculates a+b and assigns that of c. We can overload all the C++ operators except the following: 1. ?:(condition operator) 2. : : (scope resolution operator) 3. size of()size of operator) 4. .(Membership operator) 5. *(Pointer to member operator) /*Programe for reading a complex no. increment real and imaginary part */ #include<iostream.h> #include<conio.h> class complex { int i,r; public: void getdata() { cout<<"enter real part:"; cin>>r; cout<<"enter imag. part:"; cin>>i; } void operator ++() //overloading ++ { ++r;

++i; } void showdata() { cout<<r<<"+i"<<i<<endl; } }; void main() { complex c1; c1.getdata(); cout<<"no. before increment"<<endl; c1.showdata(); c1++; cout<<"no. after increment"<<endl; c1.showdata(); getch(); }

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