Wheel-Rail Interaction Analysis

Tanel Telliskivi


TRITA-MMK 2003:21
ISSN 1400-1179
ISRN KTH/MMK/R2003/21--SE

MMK
Stockholm
2003
Doctoral Thesis
Department of Machine Design
Royal Institute of Technology, KTH
SE 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden














Wheel-Rail Interaction Analysis
Tanel Telliskivi












TRITA-MMK 2003:21
ISSN 1400-1179
ISRN KTH/MMK/R2003/21--SE
Stockholm 2003
Doctoral Thesis
Dept. of Machine Design
Royal Institute of Technology, KTH
SE 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden




























Akademisk avhandling som med tillstnd av Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan i Stockholm
framlggs till offentlig granskning fr avlggande av teknisk doktorsexamen den 28 maj 2003
kl 10.00 i Kollegiesalen, Administrationsbyggnaden, Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan,
Valhallavgen 79, Stockholm.

Tanel Telliskivi 2003
Universitetsservice US AB, Stockholm 2003
1





Abstract
A general approach to numerically simulating wear in rolling and sliding contacts is
presented in this thesis. A simulation scheme is developed that calculates the wear at a
detailed level. The removal of material follows Archards wear law, which states that
the reduction of volume is linearly proportional to the sliding distance, the normal
load and the wear coefficient. The target application is the wheel-rail contact.
Careful attention is paid to stress properties in the normal direction of the contact. A
Winkler method is used to calculate the normal pressure. The model is calibrated
either with results from Finite Element simulations (which can include a plastic
material model) or a linear-elastic contact model. The tangential tractions and the
sliding distances are calculated using a method that incorporates the effect of rigid
body motion and tangential deformations in the contact zone. Kalkers Fastsim code is
used to validate the tangential calculation method. Results of three different sorts of
experiments (full-scale, pin-on-disc and disc-on-disc) were used to establish the wear
and friction coefficients under different operating conditions.
The experimental results show that the sliding velocity and contact pressure in the
contact situation strongly influence the wear coefficient. For the disc-on-disc
simulation, there was good agreement between experimental results and the
simulation in terms of wear and rolling friction under different operating conditions.
Good agreement was also obtained in regard to form change of the rollers. In the full-
scale simulations, a two-point contact was analysed where the differences between the
contacts on rail-head to wheel tread and rail edge to wheel flange can be attributed
primarily to the relative velocity differences in regard to both magnitude and
direction. Good qualitative agreement was found between the simulated wear rate and
the full-scale test results at different contact conditions.



Keywords: railway rail, disc-on-disc, pin-on-disc, Archard, wear simulation, Winkler,
rolling, sliding
1



Preface
The work was carried out at the Department of Machine Design, Division of Machine
Elements at the Royal Institute of Technology, KTH, Sweden, within the Swedish research
programme SAMBA. The research programme was financially supported by the Swedish
National Board for Industrial and Technical Development (NUTEK), Bombardier
Transportation, the Swedish National Rail Administration, Swedish State Railways, Traintech
Engineering, Green Gargo, and Stockholm Local Traffic.
I would like to thank everyone in the Tribology Workgroup in the Machine Elements
Division. The opportunities you provided to listen to presentations and to talk through ideas
have been invaluable. While ideas normally surface when one is alone, feedback from others
is needed to establish the completeness and realisation possibilities.
I am also indebted to Professor Sren Andersson and to my supervisor, Dr. Ulf Olofsson, for
admitting me to the research programme and for their support.
Finally, many thanks to Maria Wolff, my fiance, for her love during this period and to my
infant daughter Sigrid for her patience (!).

Thesis
This thesis applies the modelling and simulation of wear in a rolling-sliding contact to
wheel-rail analysis. It contains an introduction and the following papers:
Paper A. T. Telliskivi and U. Olofsson, Contact mechanics analysis of measured
wheel-rail profiles using the finite element method Journal of Rail and Rapid
Transit, Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs., 215 Part F, 2001.
Paper B. U. Olofsson and T. Telliskivi, Wear, friction and plastic deformation of two
rail steels: Full-scale test and laboratory study Proceedings of World Tribology
Conference, Vienna, 47 Sep., 2001, Wear 254, 2003.
Paper C. T. Telliskivi, Simulation of wear in a rolling sliding contact by a semi-
Winkler model and Archards wear law, Proceedings of OST-01 Symposium on
Machine Design, Tallinn, 45 Oct., 2001. Submitted for publication 2002.
Paper D. T. Telliskivi and U. Olofsson Wheel-Rail Wear Simulation, accepted for
publication at CM2003, Gothenburg, June 10-13, 2003.
Paper E. T. Telliskivi Half-space solutions for frictionless elastic normal indentation
originating at a point contact, ISRN/KTH/MMK/R-03/10-SE.




2


Division of work between authors
Paper A. Olofsson prepared the FE model and Telliskivi performed the FE
calculations. Olofsson assisted in structuring and editing the
manuscript.
Paper B. Olofsson and Nilsson [1] conducted the full-scale tests and Telliskivi
performed the dry pin-on-disc tests. The manuscript was written
mainly by Olofsson, and Telliskivi assisted in structuring and data
treatment.
Paper C. Written by Telliskivi.
Paper D. Telliskivi wrote the manuscript and developed the simulation. Olofsson
assisted in structuring and editing the manuscript.
Paper E. Written by Telliskivi.
1

1


Contents
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.1 Classification in relation to severity of wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Studies in wheel-rail contact analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
1.3 The goal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2. Research Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1 FE analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Contact locality rolling-sliding analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Normal solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
2.4 Tangential solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.1 Need for modelling the influence of the neighbouring cell . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
2.4.2 Simulation example with the railway wheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
3. Summary of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
4. Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
4.1 Randomness, time-dependence and rough surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2 Wear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
4.3 Perspectives on plastic flow and fatigue analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1


1


Background
This thesis deals with the modelling and simulation of wear in a rolling and sliding
contact with special emphasis on wheel-rail contact. The work is presented in the five
appended papers that are summarised below.

Paper A: Contact mechanics analysis of measured wheel-rail profiles using the
finite element method
All machine elements working in contact are subject to various degradation
mechanisms. The main differences between contacting machine elements lie in their
geometries and the motion dynamics to which they are subject. As regards materials,
there are at least four main stages of complexity that have to be taken into account
when attempting a realistic problem analysis.

xy
.m z + k z
= N L/E/A
xy, yz, xz
= ()

Figure 1. Evolution of complexity of structural problems
As can be seen in figure 1, there is a progression from great simplification to
increasing complexity of analysis. If a body is considered as rigid, a one-dimensional
point mass analysis is used. Two-dimensional solutions are more elegant, but are still
only halfway to elastic body analysis. In three-dimensional analysis, numerical
methods are often needed.
The only general tool currently available for material plasticity analysis is the finite
element method (FEM), which has been used for complex material analysis and is
presented in paper A. The geometric flexibility of FEM and the availability of
material models make it a good basis for understanding, even though faster and
simpler methods are sometimes preferred. The limits and possibilities of FEM are
studied, and attention is drawn to the significant increase in contact area and the
lowering of pressure when geometric effects are taken into account when modelling
an elastic-plastic material.




2



Paper B: Wear, friction and plastic deformation of two rail steels: Full-scale test
and laboratory study
Extensive material testing is necessary to improve our knowledge of the behaviour of
materials in various contact situations. Paper B presents the results obtained from the
three types of experiments that are most commonly used to analyse wheel-rail
interaction. Pin-on-disc tests were undertaken to establish a sliding wear coefficient
and disc-on-disc tests were used to analyse rolling-sliding wear with relatively
constant creep over the contact area. The disc-on-disc tests and the field tests were
then simulated using the same wear model in order to be able to draw conclusions
about what happens in wheel-rail contact. These two simulations are presented in
papers C and D.

Paper C: Simulation of wear in a rolling sliding contact by a semi-Winkler model
and Archards wear law
A fast model of a new method of contact analysis was developed and applied for a
disc-disc simulation. The goal was to find a realistic relation between the tangential
stresses and the sliding distances for a simply modelled realistic normal contact and
for a linear-elastic material with generalised tangential displacement for a non-
elliptical shape of the contact area. The half-space assumption that is essential for
potential function solutions was taken as valid because of the almost flat contact and
by not permitting the breadth of contact to reach the disc corners during simulation.
The biggest obstacle to accepting this restriction is the non-smooth surfaces caused by
wear. The friction limit that causes a contact to slide was modelled, thus enabling the
simulation of Archards wear law. Contact locality simulation was extended and a
qualitative match of important parameters in the simulation and in the experimental
data was obtained. A comparison of elliptical contacts with a well-known numerical
method (Fastsim) showed differences in only one constant.

Paper D: Wheel-Rail Wear Simulation
The model presented in paper C was modified with a more general geometry
treatment so as to be able to simulate a wheel-rail contact. The stress in normal
direction (normal solution by a Winkler method) was calibrated using the results from
FEM modelling of the wheel-rail contact with the elastic-plastic material model. This
approach produced more valid results in regard to tangential stress, with the half-
space assumption being compensated for by the transformation of the contact surface
into a half-space due to the profile curvature of the rail. As in paper C, the largest
numerical error is due to uneven wear on the rail surface. Wear in a typical wheel-rail
two-point contact was simulated and the results were compared with those from a full-
scale field test.
3


Paper E: Half-space solutions for frictionless elastic normal indentation
originating at a point contact
The general use of the solutions of potential theory is presented for normal indentation
analysis of arbitrary body shapes. This application is analogous to the tangential
solutions in previous papers.

4


1. Introduction
One of the basic tasks in the study of machine elements has traditionally been the
characterisation of wear. Wear is defined as the material loss or change in surface
texture occurring when two or three surfaces of mechanical components contact each
other. There are many different types of wear and a widely varying range of working
conditions, making wear a very complex problem.
Recent studies have shown the importance of the association between the wear
analyses of different machine elements such as roller-bearings [2], cam followers [3]
and gears [4]. While the dynamics and geometry are different, the material is more or
less the same. What is known as Archards linear wear law has traditionally been used
in the study of both sliding and rolling-sliding contacts. This law assumes that wear is
proportional to normal load, the sliding distance and a wear coefficient, divided by the
surface hardness.

Contact of a friction pair
- material parameters
- surface parameters (lubrication)
- loading
- relative local velocity
Wear simulation
- FEM simulations
- fast numerical methods
(Winkler, BEM,
combinations)
Experiments
- in field
- pin-on-disc
- disc-on-disc

Figure 2. Wear analysis scheme

The basic approach adopted in this thesis (outlined in figure 2) does not differ much
from the standard methodology for investigating component wear. The qualitative
wear models generated by direct physical interpretation thirty years ago made a
creative contribution to the body of wear modelling. However, they had not stood yet
the tests of time and experiment. Since the 1980s, wear modellers have begun to use
relevant theories from other fields of engineering to explain such wear phenomena as
plastic deformation, fatigue, heat generation, oxidation, and crack formation and
propagation. Many of these phenomena have been studied in detail in other fields and
validated theories have been developed. The adopted theories have also been used to
describe variations in working conditions and some single phenomena during the wear
process.

5

Fatigue
mechanisms
Plasticity
Shakedown
Ratchetting
Archard
process
Adhesion, immediate
mechanical mass loss
Flow and other
changes in
the material
Crack initiation after
some cycles, fatigue

Figure 3. Categorisation of surface degradation processes

Surface degradation, especially that caused by a curving train, involves various
phenomena that are difficult to separate. The first of these phenomena is the
immediate adhesive mass loss. The mechanism of wear is clarified by the Archards
linear wear law [5] (see figure 3). Due to the complexity of wear systems, it is
important to begin with relatively simple methods and then to enhance these methods
where possible. The wear system itself involves a number of interacting mechanisms.
1.1 Classification in relation to severity of wear
Wearing systems have been classified in terms of the severity of wear on the wearing
surfaces. Archard and Hirst [6] proposed two broad types of wear phenomena: severe
wear and mild wear. Severe wear is characterised by high wear rates, extensive plastic
deformation, transfer of material to the harder counterface, and flake-like metallic
wear debris. Mild wear, by contrast, is characterised by low wear rates, minimal
plastic deformation, formation of a surface film protecting against metal-to-metal
contact, and oxide wear debris.
A wearing system consists of a number of mechanisms that need to be precisely
defined in order to avoid overlaps in wear analysis. For example, the severity of wear
needs to be defined in terms of precise, well-accepted definitions of such features as
the amount of mass loss, the coefficient of friction and the surface roughness in order
to accurately distinguish mild and severe wear. Without such precise definitions,
models of wear may produce different results on the basis of different classifications.
This is clear from the confusion already introduced by the considerable overlap in the
classification of wearing systems. Erosion, for example, has been classified as wear
based on relative motion [7] and as a wear mechanism. However, the literature
suggests that several mechanisms contribute to erosion, implying that erosion itself is
not a mechanism. The mechanisms proposed include cutting [8], thermal melting [9],
brittle fracture [10] and low cycle fatigue [11]. The mechanism category is the lowest
category in a hierarchy. A wear mechanism involves basic atomic and molecular
interactions such as atomic diffusion, monolayer film formation, adhesion due to
surface roughness, dislocation interaction, surface chemical reactions and the like.


6

1.2 Studies in wheel-rail contact analysis
Wheel-rail analysis has focused mainly on what is known as rolling contact fatigue.
This phenomenon arises primarily where there are contacts with low relative sliding,
such as on the rail head on straight tracks. A simulation of a so-called ratchetting
model using finite elements carried out by Ringsberg et al. [12] identified asymptotic
values of the friction coefficient at which crack initiation would occur. In northern
Sweden, 60% of rail replacements were found to be due to problems caused by rolling
contact fatigue and surface defects, while only 5% were due to flange wear [13]. In
southern Sweden the statistics are slightly different. An additional problem that has
arisen with high-speed trains has been vertical transient motions, including the
response from the foundation, that has resulted in periodic degradation on the rail
head and led to failures [14, 15]. Sometimes the contribution of sliding wear is totally
ignored, yet it is still evidently accepted as a factor in wheel wear due to braking [16]
and in the general understanding of wear [17]. Preventive grinding, in which rails are
ground at regular intervals, is one method adopted by rail operators to extend the
service life of rails. A model of the effects of adhesive wear makes it clear why
preventive grinding is necessary.
Continuum rolling contact theory started with a publication by Carter [18], in which
he approximated the wheel by a cylinder and the rail by an infinite half-space. The
analysis was two-dimensional and an exact solution was found. Carter showed that the
difference between the circumferential velocity of a driven wheel and the translational
velocity of the wheel has a non-zero value as soon as an accelerating or a braking
couple is applied to the wheel. This difference increases as the couple increases until
the maximum value according to Coulombs law is reached. Carter formulated a
creep-force law relating the drivingbraking couple and the velocity difference.
Carters theory is adequate for describing the action of driven wheels (for example, it
is capable of predicting the frictional losses in a locomotive driving wheel). However,
it is not sufficient for vehicle motion simulations that involve lateral forces as well as
the motion in rolling direction [19].
Johnson [20] generalised Carters results to circular contacts and longitudinal and
lateral creep. Vermeulen and Johnson [21] generalised this theory to elliptical contact
areas. Shen et al. [22] improved the results by replacing the approximate values for
the creep coefficients given by Vermeulen and Johnson with more accurate values.
All of this work is Hertzian-based, giving contact solutions for a class of geometrical
objects satisfying the half-space restriction [23].
In the development of wear modelling in the railway context, an Archard-like wear
model developed by Li and Kalker [24] has also been used in which the normal load
is replaced by the frictional load or, in other words, the normal load is multiplied by
the friction coefficient. An analogous approach by Li et al. [25] was practically
applied in the analysis of a city train railway, but no direct measures such as profile
changes are presented. Linder and Brauschli [26] did analyse the profile change of a
7

train wheel, noting the qualitative difference in the wear rate between the wheel
flange and the wheel tread.
New wear models do not tend to produce any simplifications in terms of wear
coefficients and the like. For example, Fries and Davilas [27] wear coefficient based
on energy does not solve the problem of the wear coefficient and is still dependent on
the same influences as other wear models, such as Archards. Furthermore, energy
itself is not the mechanism and there is a problem with dimensions in physical
relations.
There is a lack of work connecting different phenomena, and too many
oversimplifications that attempt to deal with the whole issue in terms of stresses only
or, at the opposite extreme, attempt to apply various wear coefficients in applications
without having much of a theoretical structure and an understanding of the sources
and circumstances of wear. It is important to remember that shearing and stress-
related failures happen around the sticking region of the contact because of the static
hooking of asperities that can move back and forth. Adhesive wear occurs primarily
under sliding conditions, where asperities are beating each other under a transient load
and stress-related effects may also be present.
1.3 The goal
Accurate wear modelling requires detailed descriptions of the many different wear
phenomena that occur simultaneously on wearing surfaces if the analytical model is to
explain wear phenomena in a wear system.
The goal of this thesis is to standardise the mathematical expression of different wear
phenomena. The long-term goal must be to devise a wear classification scheme based
primarily on the mechanisms by which the asperities deform and particles are
detached. In such a scheme, crack initiation would be explained in terms of surface
imperfections and the irregular ductility of the continuous bulk structure that may act
to increase stress and lead to the initiation of contact fatigue. The first steps will be
taken towards constructing a flexible simulation model in which the nature of the
wear mechanism can change depending on various geometric, kinematic and
structural parameters rather than produce a new wear equation.
8


2. Research Approach
The simulation tool for wear analysis represents an attempt to achieve an integrated
understanding of wear and other degradation mechanisms. It is not intended only for
work related to railways. Analysis of metal-on-metal contact is a common element in
machine design, as is clear from the large number of wear tests conducted every year
in different institutions. The data obtained from such tests needs a tool that attempts to
systematise it and responds flexibly to the working conditions that produce wear.
Since the early 1970s, there have been numerical simulations of the behaviour of rail
vehicles and of the interactions between vehicles and track. Specialised software has
been developed, including Vampire, developed by British Rail, Medyna developed by
Deutsche Luft und Raumfahrt, and Nucars in the USA. All of these are highly
specialised and optimised for a reasonable turn-around time for a simulation
(Andersson et al. [28]). An example of recently developed commercially available
software is Gensys [29]. General-purpose software for dynamic simulations of
multibody systems (MBS), such as Adams, Simpack, and Dads, has recently included
features that enable efficient dynamic simulation of railway vehicles and vehicle-track
interaction. One-dimensional beam models are usually sufficient for the frequency
range up to three kHz (Knothe et al. [30]). Software for vehicle motion simulations is
normally concerned with the orientation of each wheel relative to the track, and thus
with the point-contact between the wheel tread and the rail head and the contact forces
that are caused by the dynamic interaction, with time-consumption as the prime
restriction. There are also potential function-based fast numerical methods such as
simplified theory (Fastsim [31]). Fastsim, developed by J. J. Kalker, treats the
material as linear-elastic and the contact as elliptical, with constant creep (velocity)
over a whole contact. In the simplified theory, the surface displacement at one unique
point depends only on the surface traction at that point (Winkler model). The
simplified theory was implemented in early, special purpose computer codes.
What is often referred to as the complete theory was implemented in a computer
program called Contact [32], which is based on the boundary element (BE) method.
Kalker extended his theory of rolling contact between arbitrary bodies to the case
where the shape of the contact area is non-elliptical, and thus non-Hertzian. In order
to get an approximate solution, the contact area is divided into rectangular elements.
The Contact program is roughly 400 times slower than routines based on the
simplified theory, but it has been used to validate the linear and simplified theories as
well as to validate the theory of Shen et al. [22], which has been implemented in a
program that runs significantly faster than Contact.
The form change of curves can be large over time (see paper B). Figure 4 shows the
form change in two UIC 60 high rails over 2 years and 3 years respectively in a
narrow curve on a commuter train track. As part of a wider study, this track was
studied over a period of 2 years and the form and hardness of the track were
9

characterised in terms of its two-dimensional profile and surface hardness
measurements. New rails of 20m apiece were inserted in two narrow curves. A length
of the old rail was left in place as a test rail, enabling the study of both new and 3-
year-old rail.
0 20 40 60
0
10
20
30
rail new at test start
rail three years old at test start
wear
plastic
deformation
h
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
m
)
length (mm)
0 20 40 60
0
10
20
30
plastic
deformation
wear
h
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
m
)
length (mm)

Figure 4. Form change of a UIC 60 high rail in a 303m curve over a period of 2 years. Top
figure: Solid line = 3-year-old rail at test start; dotted line = after 1 year of use; dashed line
= after 2 years of use. Bottom figure: Solid line = new rail at test start; dotted line = after 1
year of use; dashed line = after 2 years of use.

The experimental form measurements showed that there was a significant change in
the rail profile due to both wear and plastic deformation and that both processes
influence the form of a rail that has been in use for more than 5 years. The surface
hardness measurement showed that the hardness of the new rail increased, but that
after 2 years use it had not yet reached the hardness of the old rail. These
experimental results show that plastic deformation is a necessary element in wheel-
rail contact analysis.
The study in paper B showed that there are three important elements that are not
addressed in present methods of wheel-rail wear analysis:
- shakedown and plasticity effects, which operate continuously in real
contacts;
- the non-elliptical shape of the contact zone, especially for worn profiles;
- the velocity difference between the rail head and rail edge, which can be
more than 1m/s, and which changes direction rotationally, causing spin.
In order to model these observations correctly, it is necessary to investigate them
fully.

10

2.1 FE analysis
First, to overcome the limitations inherent in traditional approaches and their lack of
ability to analyse plasticity, a tool for FE-based quasi-static wheel-rail contact
modelling and simulations was developed (see paper A and [33]. The tool is a library
of macro routines for configuring, meshing and loading a parametric wheel-rail
model. The routines are written in the ANSYS [34] programming language. The
meshing can be based on measured wheel and rail profiles, i.e., worn profiles. The
kinematic constraints are enforced with the ANSYS contact element and the material
models are treated as elastic-plastic with kinematic hardening. The quasi-static loads
were obtained from train dynamic calculations with special purpose MBS software.
In the finite element method, plasticity is modelled according to established plasticity
theories, but the time taken to do this is impractical for wear analysis. Further
drawbacks of this approach are that the surface discretisation is a lengthy procedure
and that the contact element requires extra stiffness that is not physically correct. The
contact nodes interfered in the final output. The rolling problem (even in quasi-static
form) could be solved only after several discrete steps in which the sizes in rolling
steps and the contact elements had a significant influence on the final result in the
stick-slip region. Slip detection is defined in the pre-processing and had several
options such as full-sliding, small motions, sticking etc. By choosing different modes
resulted in different output.
2.2 Contact locality rolling-sliding analysis
The FE method has undergone significant improvement, but the parallel progress of
the FE method and faster numerical methods are obviously of interest.
The contact locality is the rectangular area that is large enough to envelope the true
contact region. The benefits of solutions focusing only on the contact locality are as
follows:
- It is not necessary to model the bodies as only the surface is discretised;
- The tangential solution can be achieved by one computation, analogous to
that in the program Fastsim.
In paper C some supplementary steps have been added to enhance the modelling
capabilities of the standard Winkler brush (see paper C for more details of what is
called the semi-Winkler model and paper D for Winkler coefficient in normal
direction). The transformations of the contact locality are performed in six
consecutive stages:
1) To create three-dimensional geometries of wheel and rail. The geometrical data for
analysis is expected to be 2-dimensional discrete samples of wheel and rail contours
in the y-z plane (see paper B). The two-dimensional profile samples are extruded
rotationally for the wheel and linearly for the rail.
2) To rotate wheel and rail geometries for the normal solution. Both profiles are
rotated to the resultant normal load direction and the contact localities of the wheel
11

and rail are set together. The curving train has sideways centrifugal forces that cause
the normal force to incline. The profiles are rotated according to this known
inclination. A two-point contact at the rail head and rail corner involves large
deviations in the normal direction compared to the normal load direction of the
contacting cells, which are taken into account by the cosine rule.
3) To move the wheel and the rail back to their original position in space after the
normal solution. The penetrations calculated in the normal solution are now included
and the velocities are calculated.
4) To transform the three-dimensional geometries to a flat surface (half-space). The
velocity and creep system is rotated so that the Euler angles become zero. This
simplifies calculation of the tangential tractions since only the components in the x-
and y-directions are used.
5) To rotate the rail and wheel profiles again to the resultant normal load direction
where the original 2-dimensional data is updated with the form change due to wear.
6) To transform back to the original position in order to create the new contact
localities of the worn rail and the wheel.
The application of rigid body velocities is particularly important when updating the
geometries and developing a sort of rough surface during the wear. The time-step is
associated with length and is important when using time-dependent equations:
) 1 (
arctan

|
.
|

\
|
=
R
x
t
where x is the length in the rolling direction [m], R is the radius of the wheel [m], and
is the constant rotation velocity [rad/s]. Dimensional compatibility shows that both
t and arctan(x/R) are angles [rad]. The piecewise approach and stick-slip analysis
solve the problem of rolling friction using only the pure sliding friction coefficient
obtained in pin-on-disc tests and provide an approximate upper limit for linear
motion. The results are assumed to be valid for the so-called quasi-linear motion
(Normal and tangential solution procedures are described in more detail in later
sections). The velocity difference between the rail head and the rail edge leads to
several wear mechanisms being applied concurrently. At different velocities and load
conditions, different wear coefficients apply, providing a practical application of the
wear maps for steels initiated by Lim and Ashby [35]. The removal of material
follows Archard's law, that is, the removal volume, W=W [m
3
], is linearly
proportional to the sliding distance, u
r SLIDING
[m], and the normal load, P [N], and is
updated for every time-step in the solution procedure:


u u P
W
2
j i, y
2
j i, x j i,
j i,
H
k
SLIDING SLIDING
+
= (2)
12


where H [Pa] is the hardness of material. The wear coefficient, k, was chosen on the
basis of a pin-on-disc test in earlier work (see paper B). Using the formula W=W
[m
3
], the following parameters can be calculated:
- wear volume per metre: determined from the volume, W knowing that the
steady-state solution gives the wear volume per discretisation unit x as
W/x [m
3
/m].
- mass loss per metre: determined by the combination of wear volume and
material density, W/x [kg/m].
- the wear volume per wheel revolution: found by 2reW/x [m
3
/rev.].
- wear depth: derived by dividing the wear volume by the discretisation area
(xy). This is a vertical length for updating the profiles per breadth, y
(the wear rate is constant for each sample within the length, y). The
formula for wear depth is W
j
/(xy) [m], where W
j
is the index of an
array after the summation of matrix W only in x-direction (i).
The Winkler brush model is used for the normal problem in order to compensate for
the differences between the linear-elastic and elastic plastic material model. The
normal problem is solved separately from the tangential problem. The displacement
matrix with size mn is expressed as
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
n m m
j i
n
, 1 ,
,
, 1 1 , 1
u u
u
u u
u
and is calculated with the help of the (2m+1)(2n+1) coefficient matrix C:
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
+ + +
+ +
+
1 2 , 1 2 1 , 1 2
1 n 1, m
1 2 , 1 1 , 1
C C
C
C C
n m m
n
C

where the matrix C is real-valued and symmetric. The known surface tractions, q
r
(p
= |q
z
|) with size mn can be represented by two different equation systems, 3a and 3b.
Equation 3a (see paper C) consists of three sets of programming for loops that fill
the u
r ELASTC
(index r = x, y and z directions) values at indices, u
r i-1-mi+nj,j-1-mi+nj
in the
specified locations summarised in the block matrix shown here:

13

(
(
(

(
(
(

+
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+ +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
j i
j i y
j i x
nj mi n nj mi m
nj mi n nj mi m nj mi n nj mi m yx
nj mi n nj mi m xy nj mi n nj mi m
nj mi j nj mi i z
nj mi j nj mi i y
nj mi j nj mi i x
ELASTIC z
ELASTIC y
x ELASTIC
,
,
,
, z
, y ,
, , x
1 , 1
1 , 1
1 , 1
p
q
q
C
C C
C C
u
u
u
u
u
u
(3a)
where u
r ELASTC
starts with the mn zero values and every index picked in right hand
side is updated by local summation indexwise, i=1m, j=1n, mi is the number of
neighbour levels (see figure 5) used in computation and nj=12mi+1. A control
must be made that the neighbouring indices are inside the boundary mn, otherwise a
matrix of size (m+2mi)(n+2mi) is updated in equation 3a.


Figure 5 Neighbouring levels mi for the contact locality and for the influence matrix.
Equation 3b is a complete superposition of matrices with equal size mn
Displacements at the contact locality are updated at every point in every summation
step i,j by the coefficient matrix C (see paper D and E) that is cut to the size of mn
from the size (2m+1)(2n+1) by:

= =
+ + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

m
1 i
n
1 j
,
,
,
j - 1 j...2n - 2 n i, - 1 i...2m - 2 m
j - 1 j...2n - 2 n i, - 1 i...2m - 2 m j - 1 j...2n - 2 n i, - 1 i...2m - 2 m
j - 1 j...2n - 2 n i, - 1 i...2m - 2 m j - 1 j...2n - 2 n i, - 1 i...2m - 2 m
p
q
q
j i
j i y
j i x
z
y yx
xy x
ELASTIC z
ELASTIC y
x ELASTIC
C
C C
C C
u
u
u
(3b)
The coefficient matrices are built from influence functions by:

14

( )
( )
G
y x y x y x y x
y x y x
G
y x
G
y x
yx xy
y x

+ + + + + + + + +
= =

+
=

+
=

2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) , ( C ) , ( C
,
2
gBxx gAxx 1
) , ( C ,
2
gBxx ) 1 ( gAxx
) , ( C
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(4)
where gAxx and gBxx represent the components of analytic influence coefficients for
linear-elastic material for constant tractions and rectangular elements:


) ( ) (
) ( ) (
log ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
log ) (
gBxx
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
log ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
log ) (
gAxx
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
+ + + +
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
+ + + +
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + +
+ + + + +
+
=

y x y
y x y
x
y x y
y x y
x
y x x
y x x
y
y x x
y x x
y
(5)
where and are the half-lengths of the discretised cell and the C
xy
and C
yx
are not
included in this work.
The function of C
z
is left open, pending analysis in the next section.
2.3 Normal solution
In the earlier studies presented in paper A, a finite element method was employed to
predict the changes in contact properties when subjected to high loads. A particular
elastic-plastic material model was simulated. There are a number of different material
models, and therefore the results are qualitative, predicting a rise in the contact area
and a decrease in the maximum contact pressure. A comparable method as regards
computation time versus accuracy of the structural properties is the Winkler mattress
method used in papers C and D. The normal displacement u
z
is related to the normal
contact pressure by
KN
p
u =
z
(6)
where KN is the linear modulus of the foundation. According to equation 3, the
influence function becomes a constant in equation 6, i.e., C
z
= 1/KN. KN can be
determined by experimental work, by FEM analysis or by comparison with another
calculation theory, such as Hertzian theory [36].
The method outlined in paper E is valuable when focusing on linear-elastic contacts.
The Winkler brush model (used in papers C and D) leaves some parameters as
unknowns. The method adopted in paper E establishes the link between a pure linear-
elastic solution and the Winkler brush method that has to be adjusted for different
solutions. The method is based on several assumptions that challenge the assumptions
in previous implementations of influence functions [32, 37]. These assumptions are:
15

- that the pressure distribution on each rectangular cell is approximately
constant. Loves [38] solutions cover the area using rectangular elements.
This solution meets the boundary conditions and the superposition
principle is valid. Although there are still restrictions on the curvature,
Hertzian geometries are certainly valid;
- that the solution is to treat the initial overlapping of two bodies as a purely
geometric problem. The overlap is gradually eliminated by proceeding in
discrete steps, each a predetermined fraction (1/1000 or the like) of the
maximum overlap;
- that every discrete step may consist of several equal lengths in different
places (the corresponding pressure is automatically found) and that the
order of succession within this step is not important;
- that every discrete subtraction length also successively subtracts the
influence lengths at neighbouring cells so that the total subtraction is made
for the entire overlap (bodies);
- that those discrete lengths (without the neighbour effects) are accumulated
because they are directly proportional to pressure (force). The addition of
those discrete lengths can be stopped if any total load restriction is met,
enabling computation to be either load-based or approach-based.
The normal component in equation 3 is expressed in this case as

( ) ( )
G
y x
z

+
=

2
gBxx gAxx 1
) , ( C (7)
where gAxx and gBxx are given in equation 5 and are the functions that scale the
displacements for the neighbouring cell. The problem is solved using only geometric
parameters. Exact Hertzian solutions are obtained. Moreover, the bodies may be
described as general polynomials (with variable curvatures) in any order and several
concurrent contacts can be solved solely on the basis of geometric overlapping.

2.4 Tangential solution
This section contains a review of selected aspects of wear analysis focusing on the
formulation of tangential contact problems for deformable discrete surfaces. In
contact problems, frictional effects are generally accounted for by the introduction of
a friction law that relates the sliding velocity to the contact forces. The tangential
component of the contact tractions, or frictional traction, can be exerted without
sliding, i.e., under stick conditions, until a certain threshold is overcome to allow
sliding. According to Coulombs law, the threshold is proportional to the magnitude
of the normal pressure. When sliding occurs, the frictional tractions always oppose the
sliding velocity and are, therefore, dissipative.
16

We shall be concerned with the motions of a deformable body, but first the rigid body
motions are determined. Rigid body kinematic expressions provide many commonly
used functions for dealing with rigid body attitude coordinates. The rotation matrix
includes the time dependent Euler angles , , are roll, pitch and yaw, respectively.
In the present case will be the inclination matrix of the perpendicular of roller
curvature and = t is the angle of curvature of the roller radius.
The basic steps for tangential solution as described in Paper C are as follows:
- Calculate relative velocities and creep for the rigid body;
- Use an artificial displacement field created by creep ratios and enlarged by
the influence of neighbouring cells. The influence of a neighbouring
element is determined logarithmically by the solutions of potential theory
for constant traction on a rectangular area;
- Creep times the discretisation unit, x in square is linearly (in every index
separately) divided by the artificial displacements;
- Cumulatively sum the result from the beginning of the contact (in the
rolling direction). The results are directly proportional to the tangential
surface tractions. Check surface tractions by the frictional bounds and, if
applicable, reduce them to level P;
- Modify the elastic displacements in line based on the previous restriction.
The part that was cut is the sliding component used in Archards wear
equation;
- Calculate the wear volume using Archards wear law.

2.4.1 Need for modelling the influence of the neighbouring cell
Because the numerical algorithm is rather straightforward, the method is verified by
using special cases. The unsymmetrical case is taken from an industrial application. It
involves a spherical roller thrust bearing, the lateral profile of which is unsymmetrical
(see figure 6). Mathematically defined bodies can also be unsymmetrical, but using an
industrial example shows the correlation with experimental and empirical data in the
literature [39].

Figure 6. Outline and contact model of spherical roller thrust bearing.

17


Figure 7. Contact pressure, total rigid speed and local creep distribution on roller
surface.

Figure 7 shows the special conditions in order to demonstrate the benefits of the
proposed methodology. The contact pressure is unsymmetrical and is solved linear-
elastically using the method described in paper E. The rigid body creep and velocities
are solved for conforming contact where the direction of the initially zero creep
changes (see figure 7, right. lower image). Theoretically, creep should be zero in the
case of free rolling of rollers.
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x 10
-4
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
x 10
-3
Elastic displacement directions on contact surface
x [m]
y

[
m
]

Figure 8. Results of surface traction distribution on roller surface.
The change of direction also results in a surface traction solution by the method
described in paper C, where the influence of neighbours results in there being regions
of zero displacement with no sliding at all independent of the friction coefficient.
These regions appear as hollows due to low distances in the wear results (see figure 8,
right, upper).
This brief demonstration of the concept underlying the method presented in paper C
can be illustrated by examining the effects when displacements are in opposite
directions (see figure 9).

18


Figure 9. Four unit displacements (linearly related to tractions) with neighbouring
effects at t=[6 3 0 6] resulting in the displacement distribution.

The left-hand image in figure 9 shows the superposition of four unit (so called
direct, see paper E) displacements where the influence of the solid means that these
do not originate at zero (i.e., if these unit displacements are linearly related to the
magnitude of traction, unit tractions are applied to get the final penetration field). The
starting position is unimportant, only the magnitude and direction count. In the right-
hand image in figure 9, one displacement applied at t = 0 is in the opposite direction.
The superposition principle is simply applied and the neighbours (discrete case) or
influence (continuous in figure 9) affect the final solution. The model is no longer a
simple brush model. This increase in complexity is an irreplaceable benefit in
modelling tangential contact in a spherical thrust bearing.

2.4.2 Simulation example with the railway wheel at the same attitude against the rail
Two-point contact is the characteristic contact mode in curving wheel-rail contact. In
a two-point contact, there is contact at the rail head due to gravity and also contact
between the rail edge and the wheel flange due to the centrifugal side forces of the
curving train. A wear simulation for a two-point contact on a high rail was performed
with a wheel at the same attitude for each wheel passage. A worn rail profile from a
curve with low radius (303 m) and a worn wheel profile from the first wheelset in the
leading bogie of an X1 train were used to generate the geometry. The wear of wheel is
not included. Table 1 presents the parameters used in the wear simulation of the two-
point contact.

Table 1. Parameters used in the wear simulation of the
two-point contact.
The main input data
Fn [N] 80377

1
[rad] -0.58

2
[rad] -0.85
[rad] 0.035
V
TRAIN
[km/h] 75 (-20.8m/s)
R
CURVE
[m] 303
0.6
19


Two different levels of creep were used in the analysis, see table 2. The wear
simulation results are presented in table 2 in parameter format after one wheel passage
and after 3000 wheel passages.

Table 2. Two different levels of creep and parameters
that are derived from creep.
creep []
0.5 1
= V
TRAIN
/re
d/
-45.06 -44.84
re 0.4623 0.4646


The results from the wear simulation are presented in figure 10 as wear rate or mass
loss for 1m of rail length and cumulative mass loss showing the tendency of wear
after some time.
Two other parameters important for wear simulation are the change in maximum
contact pressure and area. Figure 11 shows the increase in the contact area during the
simulation. At the same time the contact pressure was reduced in corresponding cells.
In figure 10 the loss of mass is reduced as the contact pressure drops (see figure 11).
This phenomenon is explainable in terms of Archards wear law, of which contact
pressure over a rectangular area subdivision, is a component. The locations that cause
high-pressure concentrations disappear as the shape of the contact conforms.
In figure 12, the left hand side of the figure represents the initial contact where the
wheel attitude for normal solution is determined according to table 1 and 2, and the
solution for the two-point contact is found. The right hand side of figure 12 shows
how, after simulation of 3000 wheel passages (assuming contact with only the leading
wheel of the bogie), the two-point contact has been spread to a larger contact area.
The maximum level of contact pressure was significantly reduced after 3000 wheel
passages. The rail profile change is present although not clearly visible at figure 12.
Figure 13 shows changes in the wear and the tangential surface displacement as the
wear causes a contact to conform to a non-wearing wheel kept at the same attitude.
The dotted-line contour represents the sum of elastic displacements in the x-direction
over the whole contact locality (including outside the contact). The x-line contour
shows the total sliding distance included in Archards wear law. The solid line
represents elastic displacement and sliding that is the total rigid motion in the contact.
The lower part of both cases in figure 13 shows that the wear volume at the rail gauge
corner (the most positive y-axis) is highest for the first iteration.


20



Figure 10. Mass loss and cumulative mass loss versus number of wheel passages.




Figure 11. Contact area and maximum contact pressure versus number of wheel
passages.



Figure 12. Visualisation of the normal pressure after the first contact solution (left)
and after 3000 wheel passages (right).




21


Figure 13. Elastic displacements at a whole contact locality and wear volume from
every discretisation cell after one wheel passage (upper) and after 3000 wheel
passages (lower).

22


3 Summary of results
The analysis of wheel-rail interactions up to this point has been preparatory in the
sense that it has focused on developing the ability to simulate particular locations on a
track and the optimum rail or wheel design. However, this work has given rise to
thoughts about future possible applications of the new methods.
The main results of the FE modelling presented in paper A were as follows:
- A FE tool for wheel-rail contact analysis has been developed. This tool
allows easy changing of the geometry of a contact. Measured wheel and
rail profiles were used in generating the model. Unlike the Hertzian
analytical method and the Contact program, which uses the well-known
boundary element method, the FE model does not have to assume a half-
space or a linear-elastic material model.
- The results of the two test cases presented show that the difference in
maximum contact pressure between the Contact and the Hertzian method
and the FE method was negligible where the radii of curvature of the two
contacting bodies at the contact point were large compared with the
significant dimensions of the contact area (in other words, where the half-
space assumption was valid). However, in test case 1, where the radii of
curvature of the rail edge were small compared to the dimensions of the
contact area, the difference between the model used here and the Contact
and Hertzian methods was as large as 3GPa, probably due to both the half-
space assumption and the material model.
The experimental studies presented in paper B supported the following conclusions:
- The form of the unlubricated curves showed significant changes due to
wear and plastic deformation. This was a continuing process even for rail
that had been in service for five years.
- The contact situation in terms of lubrication or sliding velocity and contact
pressure had more influence on form change than whether the material was
UIC 900A or UIC 1100.
- Different wear mechanisms affected different parts of the rail. Mild wear
was the dominant wear mechanism at the rail head, while severe wear was
the dominant mechanism at the edge. The difference in wear rate between
rail head and rail edge could be as great as a factor of ten.
- The plastic deformation mechanism at the rail edge was plastic ratchetting.
- Laboratory tests showed that the wear coefficient depended on the sliding
velocity. The increase in the wear coefficient with increasing sliding
velocity was due to a change in the wear mechanism from mild wear to
severe wear.
23

The main conclusions from the disc-on-disc simulation presented in paper C were as
follows:
- The tangential stress-displacement field for rolling-sliding contact with a
linear-elastic material can be calculated without special coefficients that
are dependent on Poissons ratio and the shape of the contact area.
Realistic results can be obtained for any pressure distribution.
- The friction coefficient in rolling is affected by the stick-slip region as a
result of creep and normal load (and probably also because of plasticity
effects) and is therefore generally lower than coefficients obtained from
pin-on-disc tests. The rolling friction model obtained from the simulation
involves the division of the longitudinal resistance force by the total
normal load and can accommodate plasticity effects, which dissipate
energy.
- Good agreement was found between experiments and the simulation in
terms of wear and rolling friction at different levels of normal load and
creep.
- Good qualitative agreement in regard to the form change of the rollers was
obtained.
The main results of the full-scale wheel-rail simulation presented in paper D were as
follows:
- The normal load was validated for the two cases that were under
investigation.
- Two-point contact was analysed at different attitudes giving information
about attitude restrictions imposed by the bogie and the curve.
- The simple two-point contact with Archards wear law was simulated.
The results of the contact mechanics method presented in paper E were as follows:
- The potential function solutions for rectangular contact divisions carrying
uniform pressure are employed using a simple superposition method for a
non-elliptical shape of the contact area at indentation. The penetration or
load was tested within only one programming loop.
- Deformed bodies resulting from penetration are obtained.
- The proportions of speed and accuracy were analysed.
24


4 Future work
The focus so far has been on wheel-rail analysis. However, the work done in this field
suggests future possibilities in a number of engineering fields using the methods
introduced here.
4.1 Randomness, time-dependence and rough surface
The use of variation in discretisation introduces the possibility of making greater use
of what is known as the Monte Carlo technique if the variables change randomly
based on their probabilistic distribution. In the present case, only the lengths of x
and y are variable. MBS data such as attitude angles between the wheel and the rail
and the global creep ratio
r GLOBAL
, can be varied, as can the pin-on-disc data
coefficient of friction , and the wear coefficient k. Many other parameters may be
varied within their probabilistic bounds between the different cells in contact or
between the computation steps, because the computation steps progress with
reasonable frequency. For instance, Beckmann and Dierich [40] proposed that wear
prognoses must take account of the statistical nature of hardness. The methods
robustness can be analysed by comparing input and output variation and more general
relationships can also be found.
The introduced transformation by the time-dependent Euler angles and the
corresponding velocities (accelerations) permits the study of transient motions.
It will also be possible to study the effects of a rough surface on a rectangular area.
Such a study could be statistical, in the form of what is known as the Abbott curve
implementation, or could involve precisely measured asperities mechanically attached
(although this approach would be rather time-consuming).
4.2 Wear
Future work in regard to wear can be divided into long-term and short-term plans. The
short-term plans involve wheel-rail analysis to study how lubricated and wet
conditions affect the degradation mechanisms in wheel-rail wear. With lubrication,
the elastic tension in the tangential direction is shortened due to the decrease in the
friction coefficient and the plastic flow effect is reduced.
In the long-term perspective, the aim will be to study range of materials to determine
how the plastic limit indicated as equivalent stress on the surface affects the wear
coefficient. A related problem is the softening of the so far optionally linear-elastic
tangential solution in the proposed method in paper C.
The effect of roughness on friction and the wear coefficient is not only interesting in
general but also affects the validity of the method through discretisation and the half-
space assumption. An important part of curved geometries is determining what metric
length constituting a valid discretisation length.
25


4.3 Perspectives on plastic flow and fatigue analysis
In the approach adopted in this thesis, sliding displacements and elastic displacements
are separated. The loading of a train wheel on rail is usually such that plastic flow
occurs in the rail with every wheel passage, imparting a small increment of plastic
strain in the opposite direction to traction. This strain accumulates until it reaches the
ductility of the material, at which point rupture occurs. The incremental rise in surface
sliding is obvious at the wheel flange. The relative transversal velocities for the
trailing wheel in a bogie have motions in the flange contact in the opposite direction.
However, the leading wheel has a greater effect on the flange contact because it is
steering the bogie.
Zone A
Zone D
z
B
C
D
A

Figure 14. Visual confirmation of severe plastic flow on a gauge corner at zone D.
Zone A has not been in contact with the wheel.

As can be seen in figure 14, material has been moved and the structure of the steel has
been stretched. On the one hand, the von Mises equivalent stress has been very high in
this location. The higher the relative motion in the contact, the more plastic flow has
occurred. Figure 14 illustrates the surface traction directions that will be the directions
for potential plastic flow.
The mechanism of rupture when a metal is subjected to open strain cycles
(ratchetting) can be analysed qualitatively using the linear-elastic stress-strain
potential function solutions for the constant tractions of a rectangular sub-area.
Additional constitutive relations may be worked out in the future. The computed
displacements can easily be converted into strains if needed, but as a first step the
fraction of tangential displacements may be used as a simulation criterion and as a
starting step an approximated tangential material flow on the surface may be
simulated.
26


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27

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