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Contents
Articles
Atlantic Charter List of World War II conferences United Nations Declaration by United Nations United Nations Charter Ban Ki-moon Kofi Annan United Nations Millennium Declaration Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1 5 8 27 30 35 48 58 59

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 71 74

Article Licenses
License 76

Atlantic Charter

Atlantic Charter
The Atlantic Charter was a pivotal policy statement first issued in August 1941 that early in World War II defined the Allied goals for the post-war world. It was drafted by Britain and the United States, and later agreed to by all the Allies. The Charter stated the ideal goals of the war: no territorial aggrandizement; no territorial changes made against the wishes of the people; restoration of self-government to those deprived of it; free access to raw materials; reduction of trade restrictions; global cooperation to secure better economic and social conditions for all; freedom from fear and want; freedom of the seas; and abandonment of the use of force, as well as disarmament of aggressor nations. In the "Declaration by United Nations" of 1 January 1942, the Allies of World War II pledged adherence to the charter's principles. The Charter set goals rather than a blueprint for the postwar world. It inspired many of the international agreements that shaped the world. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the post-war independence of European colonies, and much more are derived from the Atlantic Charter.

Winston Churchill's edited copy of the final draft of the Atlantic Charter.

Origin
The Atlantic Charter was drafted at the Atlantic Conference (codenamed Riviera) by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Newfoundland. It was issued as a joint declaration on 14 August 1941. The United States did not officially enter the War until after the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The policy was issued as a statement; as such there was no formal, legal document entitled "The Atlantic Charter". The term "Atlantic Charter" was coined by the Daily Herald, a London newspaper, after the joint declaration had been published. It detailed Roosevelt and Churchill aboard ship the goals and aims of the Allied powers concerning the war and the post-war world. The ideals expressed through the eight points of the Atlantic Charter were so popular that the United States Office of War Information distributed 240,000 posters of it in 1943 (OWI Poster No. 50). On 9 August 1941, HMS Prince of Wales sailed into Placentia Bay, with Winston Churchill on board, and met the USS Augusta where Roosevelt and his staff were waiting. On first meeting, Churchill and Roosevelt were silent for a moment until Churchill said "At long last, Mr. President", to which Roosevelt replied "Glad to have you aboard, Mr. Churchill". Churchill then delivered to the President a letter from King George VI and made an official statement

Atlantic Charter which, despite two attempts, a sound-film crew present failed to record.

Content
The Atlantic Charter established a vision for a post-war settlement. The eight principal points of the Charter were: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. no territorial gains were to be sought by the United States or the United Kingdom; territorial adjustments must be in accord with the wishes of the peoples concerned; all peoples had a right to self-determination; trade barriers were to be lowered; there was to be global economic cooperation and advancement of social welfare; the participants would work for a world free of want and fear; the participants would work for freedom of the seas; there was to be disarmament of aggressor nations, and a postwar common disarmament.

Point Four, with respect to international trade, consciously emphasized that both "victor [and] vanquished" would be given market access "on equal terms." This was a repudiation of the punitive trade relations that were established within Europe post-World War I, as exemplified by the Paris Economy Pact.

Origin of the name

When it was released to the public, the Charter was titled "Joint Declaration by the President and the Prime Minister" and was generally known as the "Joint Declaration". The name "Atlantic Charter" is believed to have been first coined by the Daily Herald newspaper, but was used by Churchill in Parliament on 24 August 1941, and has since been generally adopted. No signed version ever existed. The document was threshed out through several drafts and the final agreed text was telegraphed to London and Washington. President Roosevelt gave Congress the Charter's content on 21 August 1941.[1] The British War Cabinet replied with its approval and a similar acceptance was telegraphed from Washington. During this process, an error crept into the London text, but this was subsequently corrected. The account in Churchill's The Second World War concludes "A number of verbal alterations were agreed, and the document was then in its final shape", and makes no mention of any signing or ceremony. Archives at the FDR Library show that at a press conference in December 1944, Roosevelt admitted that "nobody signed the Atlantic Charter." In Churchill's account of the Yalta Conference he quotes Roosevelt saying of the unwritten British constitution that "it was like the Atlantic Charter - the document did not exist, yet all the world knew about it. Among his papers he had found one copy signed by himself and me, but strange to say both signatures were in his own handwriting."

Acceptance by InterAllied Council and by United Nations

At the subsequent meeting of the Inter-Allied Council in St. James' Palace in London on 24 September 1941, the governments of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and representatives of General Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French, unanimously adopted adherence to the common principles of policy set forth in the Atlantic Charter.[2] On 1 January 1942, a larger group of nations, who adhered to the principles of the Atlantic Charter, issued a joint Declaration by United Nations stressing their solidarity in the defence against Hitlerism.[3]

Atlantic Charter

Impact
The Axis Powers interpreted these diplomatic agreements as a potential alliance against them. In Tokyo the Atlantic Charter rallied support for the militarists in the Japanese government, who pushed for a more aggressive approach against the US and Britain. The British dropped millions of flysheets over Germany to allay fears of a punitive peace that would destroy the German state. World map of colonization at the end of the Second World War in 1945 The text cited the Charter as the authoritative statement of the joint commitment of Great Britain and the U.S. "not to admit any economical discrimination of those defeated" and promised that "Germany and the other states can again achieve enduring peace and prosperity."[4] The agreement proved to be one of the first steps towards the formation of the United Nations.[5]

Impact on imperial powers

The problems came not from Germany and Japan, but from those of the allies that had their empires and which resisted self-determination--especially Britain, the Soviet Union and the Netherlands. Roosevelt's speechwriter Robert Sherwood noted that "it was not long before the people of India, Burma, Malaya, and Indonesia were beginning to ask if the Atlantic Charter extended also to the Pacific and to Asia in general." With a war that could only be won with these allies, Roosevelt's solution was to put some pressure on Britain but to postpone until after the war the issue of self-determination of the colonies.[6]

British Empire
Public opinion in Britain and the Commonwealth was delighted with the principles of the meetings but disappointed that the U.S. was not entering the war. Churchill admitted that he had hoped the U.S. would finally decide to commit itself. The acknowledgment that all peoples had a right to self-determination gave hope to independence leaders in British colonies (e.g., India).[7] In a September 1941 speech, Churchill stated that the Charter was only meant to apply to states under German occupation, and certainly not to the peoples who formed part of the British Colonial Empire.[8] Churchill rejected its universal applicability when it came to the self-determination of subject nations such as British India. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in 1942 wrote to President Roosevelt: "I venture to think that the Allied declaration that the Allies are fighting to make the world safe for the freedom of the individual and for democracy sounds hollow so long as India and for that matter Africa are exploited by Great Britain..."[9] Roosevelt repeatedly brought the need for Indian independence to Churchill's attention, but was repeatedly rebuffed.[9] However Gandhi and his party refused to help either the British or the American war effort against Germany and Japan in any way, leaving Roosevelt no choice but to back Churchill.[10] India eventually ended up contributing significantly to the war effort, sending over 2.5 million men (the largest volunteer force in the world at the time) to fight for the Allies, mostly in West Asia and North Africa. [11]

Atlantic Charter

Poland
Churchill was unhappy with the inclusion of references to peoples' right to "self-determination" and stated that he considered the Charter an "interim and partial statement of war aims designed to reassure all countries of our righteous purpose and not the complete structure which we should build after the victory."[12] An office of the Polish Government in Exile wrote to warn Wadysaw Sikorski that if the Charter was implemented with regards to national self-determination, it would make the desired Polish annexation of Danzig, East Prussia and parts of German Silesia impossible, which led the Poles to approach Britain asking for a flexible interpretation of the Charter.[12]

Baltics
During the war Churchill also argued for a liberal interpretation of the charter in order to allow Russia to continue to control the Baltic states, an interpretation accepted by the U.S. in March 1944.[13] Lord Beaverbrook warned that the Atlantic Charter "would be a menace to our own safety as well as to that of Russia." The U.S. refused to recognize the Soviet takeover of the Baltics, but did not press the issue against Stalin when he was fighting the Germans.[14] Roosevelt planned to raise the Baltic issue after the war, but he died in April 1945 in the last weeks of the fighting.[15]

Notes
[1] President Roosevelt's message to the U. S. Congress on 21 August 1941 (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ wwii/ atcmess. asp) [2] Inter-Allied Council Statement on the Principles of the Atlantic Charter on 24 September 1941 (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ wwii/ interall. asp) [3] Joint Declaration by the United Nations of 1 January 1942 (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ 20th_century/ decade03. asp) [4] Ernst Sauer, "Grundlehre des Vlkerrechts", 2nd edition, Balduin Pick, Cologne 1948, p. 407 [5] Atlantic Charter (http:/ / www. internet-esq. com/ ussaugusta/ atlantic1. htm) [6] Elizabeth Borgwardt, A new deal for the world: America's vision for human rights (2005) p. 29 [7] Bayly, C., and Harper, T., 2004. Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941-1945. Belknap Press [8] Neta C. Crawford, Argument and Change in World Politics: Ethics, Decolonization, and Humanitarian Intervention (Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 297 ( Google books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=VMF_-aVJSE4C& pg=PA297& )) [9] Kanishkan Sathasivam, Uneasy Neighbors: India, Pakistan, and US Foreign Policy, p. 59 Google books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Sy0YB7LLzlUC& pg=PA59& ) [10] William Roger Louis, Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization (2006), p. 400 [11] "Commonwealth War Graves Commission Report on India 20072008" (http:/ / www. cwgc. org/ admin/ files/ cwgc_india. pdf). Commonwealth War Graves Commission. . Retrieved 2009-09-07. [12] Anita Pramowska, "Britain and Poland, 1939-1943: the betrayed ally, Part 750", p. 93 ( Google books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Z4J2c4jEhjYC& pg=PA93& )) [13] Roger S. Whitcomb, The Cold War in Retrospect: The Formative Years (Praeger, 1998), p. 18; "Churchill suggested that the principles of the Atlantic Charter ought not be construed so as to deny Russia the frontier occupied when Germany attacked in 1941." Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LLq4oruub3gC& pg=PA18& ) [14] William Roger Louis, More adventures with Britannia (1998) p. 224 [15] Townsend Hoopes and Douglas Brinkley, FDR and the Creation of the U.N. (2000) p 52

Bibliography
Beschloss, Michael R. The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941-1945 (2002) Douglas G Brinkley and David Facey-Crowther, eds. The Atlantic Charter (1994) (http://books.google.com/ books?id=NNkLsMHtnPAC&printsec=toc&dq=atlantic+charter) Charmley, John. "Churchill and the American Alliance," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 6th Ser., Vol. 11 (2001), pp. 353-371 in in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/pss/3679428) Cull, Nicholas. "Selling peace: the origins, promotion and fate of the Anglo-American new order during the Second World War," Diplomacy and Statecraft, vol 3#1 1996, pp. 1-28 Kimball, Warren. Forged in war: Churchill, Roosevelt and the Second World War (1997)

Atlantic Charter Smith, Jean Edward. FDR (2008) pp. 481-505

External links
BBC News (http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/14/newsid_3536000/3536533.stm) The Atlantic Conference (http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/wwii/atlantic/atmenu.htm) from the Avalon Project U.S. National Archives image of original document (http://www.archives.gov/digital_classroom/lessons/ fdr_churchill_documents/images/atlantic_charter.gif) Letter from The Ambassador Patrick J. Hurley to the U.S. Secretary of State (http://teachingamericanhistory. org/library/index.asp?document=919) TEHRAN, April 14, 1945. Describing meeting with Churchill, where Churchill vehemently states that the U.K. is in no way bound to the principles of the Atlantic Charter. The Atlantic Charter (http://histclo.com/essay/war/ww2/cou/us/pr/pr-ac.html)

List of World War II conferences

This list is incomplete. This is a list of World War II conferences of the Allies of World War II.
Name (CODE NAME) Location Dates January 29 March 27, 1941 August 9 12, 1941 Major participants: American, British, and Canadian military staff Major results Set the basic planning agreement for the U.S. to enter the war

U.S.-British Staff Washington, Conference (ABC-1) D.C. (ABC-1) Atlantic Conference (RIVIERA) Argentia, Newfoundland

Churchill, Roosevelt, Hopkins Atlantic Charter, proposal for a Soviet aid conference Allied aid to Russia

Moscow Conference Moscow, USSR First Washington Conference (ARCADIA) Second Washington Conference Washington, D.C.

September 29 Stalin, Harriman, October 1, Beaverbrook, Molotov 1941 December 22, Churchill, Roosevelt 1941 January 14, 1942 June 20 25, Churchill, Roosevelt 1942

Europe first, Declaration by United Nations

Washington, D.C.

Make first priority opening a 2nd front in North African Campaign before cross-English channel invasion Discuss reasons for North African Campaign over cross-channel invasion, Anglo-Soviet pact on information and technological exchanges A clandestine conference before the Operation Torch landings, in which some Vichy French commanders agreed not to resist the Allied [1] landings in Morocco and Algeria

Second Moscow Conference

Moscow, USSR

August 12 17, 1942

Churchill, Stalin, Harriman

Cherchell Conference

Cherchell, Algeria

October 21 22, 1942

American General Clark, and Vichy French officers including Charles Mast

List of World War II conferences

6
January 14 24, 1943 Churchill, Roosevelt, Charles de Gaulle, Henri Giraud Plan Italian Campaign, plan cross channel invasion in 1944, declaration of "unconditional surrender" of Axis, Incitement to unify French fighting authorities of London and Algiers

Casablanca Conference (SYMBOL)

Casablanca, Morocco

Third Washington Conference (TRIDENT) Quebec Conference (QUADRANT)

Washington, D.C. Quebec, Canada

May 12 27, Churchill, Roosevelt, Marshall Plan Italian Campaign, increase air 1943 attacks on Germany, increase war in Pacific August 17 24, 1943 Churchill, Roosevelt, Mackenzie King D-Day set for 1944, reorganization of South East Asia Command, secret Quebec Agreement to limit sharing nuclear energy info Moscow Declaration

Third Moscow Conference Cairo Conference (SEXTANT)

Moscow, USSR Cairo, Egypt

October 18 November 1, 1943

Foreign ministers Hull, Eden, Molotov, Bingchang and Stalin

November 23 Churchill, Roosevelt, 26, 1943 ChiangKai-shek November 28 Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin December 1, 1943 December 4 Churchill, Roosevelt, Inn 6, 1943

Cairo Declaration for postwar Asia First meeting of the Big 3, plan the final strategy for the war against Nazi Germany and its allies, set date for Operation Overlord Agreement to complete Allied air bases in Turkey, postpone Operation Anakim against Japan in Burma. British Commonwealth leaders support Moscow Declaration and reach agreement regarding their respective roles in the overall Allied war effort. Establishes International Monetary Fund and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

Tehran Conference Tehran, Iran (EUREKA)

Second Cairo Conference (SEXTANT) British Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference Bretton Woods conference Dumbarton Oaks Conference Second Quebec Conference (OCTAGON) Fourth Moscow Conference (TOLSTOY) Malta Conference (ARGONAUT & CRICKET) Yalta Conference (ARGONAUT & MAGNETO)

Cairo, Egypt

London, England

May 116, 1944

Churchill, John Curtin (Australia), Peter Fraser (New Zealand), Mackenzie King (Canada) and General Jan Smuts (South Africa). Representatives of 44 nations

Bretton Woods, July 1 15, USA 1944 Washington, D.C. Quebec, Canada Moscow, USSR Malta August 21 29, 1944

Delegates from 39 nations, Agreement to establish the United Stettinius, Cadogan, Gromyko Nations Morgenthau Plan for postwar Germany, other war plans, Hyde Park Agreement Establishing post-war spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, Balkan peninsula Preparation for Yalta

September 12 Churchill, Roosevelt, 16, 1944 Mackenzie King October 9, 1944 January 30 February 2, 1945 February 4 11, 1945 Churchill, Stalin, Molotov, Eden Churchill, Roosevelt

Yalta, USSR

Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin

final plans for defeat of Germany, postwar Europe plans, set date for United Nations Conference, conditions for the Soviet Union's entry in war against Japan

List of World War II conferences

7
April 25 Representatives of 50 nations June 26, 1945 United Nations Charter

United Nations Conference on International Organization Potsdam Conference (TERMINAL)

San Francisco, USA

Potsdam, Germany

July 17 August 2, 1945

Churchill, Stalin, Truman, Attlee

Potsdam Declaration for unconditional surrender of Japan, Potsdam Agreement on policy for Germany

In total Churchill attended 14 meetings, Roosevelt 12, Stalin 5. Code names for some of the major wartime conference meetings involving Roosevelt and later Truman had a partial naming sequence referring to devices or instruments which had an ordinal number as part of their meaning referring to the number of the meeting: 1 ARCADIA, 2 SYMBOL, 3 TRIDENT, 4 QUADRANT, 5 (none), 6 SEXTANT, 7 EUREKA, 8 OCTAGON, 9 ARGONAUT (CRICKET & MAGNETO), 10 and last TERMINAL.

Atlantic Conference, Argentia, Dominion of Newfoundland, 1941

Casablanca Conference, Casablanca, Morocco, 1943

First Quebec Conference Quebec City, Canada, 1943

Cairo Conference, Cairo, Egypt, 1943

Tehran Conference, Tehran, Iran, 1943

Second Cairo Conference, Cairo, Egypt, 1943

Yalta Conference, Yalta, USSR, 1945

Potsdam Conference, Potsdam, Germany, 1945

References
[1] David H. Lippman WORLD WAR II PLUS 55, World War II Notes, November 8, 1942 (Operation Torch) (http:/ / usswashington. com/ worldwar2plus55/ dl08no42. htm)

Further reading
What major conferences were held during World War II? (http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/ww2con95.html), website of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library United States Army Center of Military History Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941 -1942 (http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Sp1941-42/index. htmStrategic) Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1943 -1944 (http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/ Sp1941-42/index.htm)

List of World War II conferences Washington Command Post: The Operations Division (http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/WCP/ index.htm) Appendix C: Principals at the international conferences January 1943September 1944 (http://www.history. army.mil/books/wwii/sp1943-44/appC.htm)

United Nations
United Nations Organisation des Nations unies Organizacin de las Naciones Unidas

Map showing the Member states of the United Nations [1] This map does not represent the view of its members or the UN concerning the legal status of any country, nor does it accurately reflect which areas' governments have UN representation. Headquarters International territory in New York City, New York, U.S. Arabic Chinese English French Russian Spanish 193 member states Leaders - - - - Secretary-General Deputy Secretary-General General Assembly President Security Council President Ban Ki-moon Asha-Rose Migiro Nassir Abdulaziz Al-Nasser Vitaly Churkin

Official languages

Membership

United Nations

9
Establishment

- -

United Nations Charter signed Entry into force of Charter Website [2] UN.org

26 June 1945 24 October 1945

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out its missions. There are currently 193 member states, including every internationally recognised sovereign state in the world but the Vatican City. From its offices around the world, the UN and its specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout the year. The organization has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security); the Economic and Social Council (for assisting in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the United Nations Trusteeship Council (which is currently inactive). Other prominent UN System agencies include the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). The UN's most visible public figure is the Secretary-General, currently Ban Ki-moon of South Korea, who attained the post in 2007. The United Nations Headquarters resides in international territory in New York City, with further main offices at Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, and has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.[3]

History
The League of Nations failed to prevent World War II (19391945). Because of the widespread recognition that humankind could not afford a third world war, the United Nations was established to replace the flawed League of Nations in 1945 in order to maintain international peace and promote cooperation in solving international economic, social and humanitarian problems. The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization was begun under the aegis of the U.S. State Department in 1939. Franklin D. Roosevelt first coined the term 'United Nations' as a term to describe the Allied countries. The term was first officially used on 1 January 1942, when 26 governments signed the Atlantic Charter, pledging to continue the war effort.[4] On 25 April 1945, the UN Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter. The UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security CouncilFrance, the Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United Statesand by a majority of the other 46 signatories. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, and the Security Council, took place in Westminster Central Hall in London in January 1946.[5] The organization was based at the Sperry Gyroscope Corporation's facility in Lake Success, New York, from 19461952, before moving to the United Nations Headquarters building in Manhattan upon its completion. Since its creation, there has been controversy and criticism of the United Nations. In the United States, an early opponent of the UN was the John Birch Society, which began a "get US out of the UN" campaign in 1959, charging that the UN's aim was to establish a "One World Government." After the Second World War, the French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized by the US as the government of France, and so the country was

United Nations initially excluded from the conferences that aimed at creating the new organization. Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously calling it le machin ("the thing"), and was not convinced that a global security alliance would help maintain world peace, preferring direct defence treaties between countries.[6]

10

Legal basis of establishment

Shortly after its establishment the UN sought recognition as an international legal person due to the case of Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations[7] with the advisory opinion delivered by the International Court of Justice (ICJ). The question arose whether the United Nations, as an organisation, had "the capacity to bring an international claim against a government regarding injuries that the organisation alleged had been caused by that state."[8] The Court stated: the Organization was intended to exercise and enjoy, and is in fact exercising and enjoying functions and rights, which can only be explained on the basis of the possession of a large measure of international personality and the capacity to operate upon an international plane ... Accordingly, the Court has come to the conclusion that the Organization is an international person. That is not the same thing as saying that it is a State, which it certainly is not, or that its legal personality and rights and duties are the same as those of a State ... What it does mean is that it is a subject of international law and capable of possessing international rights and duties, and that it has capacity to maintain its rights by bringing international claims.[9]

Organization
The United Nations' system is based on five principal organs (formerly six the Trusteeship Council suspended operations in 1994, upon the independence of Palau, the last remaining UN trustee territory);[10] the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice. Four of the five principal organs are located at the main United Nations Headquarters located on international territory in New York City.[11] The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, while other major agencies are based in the UN offices at Geneva,[12] Vienna,[13] and Nairobi.[14] Other UN institutions are located throughout the world. The six official languages of the United Nations, used in intergovernmental meetings and documents, are Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.[3] The Secretariat uses two working languages, English and French. Four of the official languages are the national languages of the permanent members of the Security Council (the United Kingdom and the United States share English as a de facto official language); Spanish and Arabic are the languages of the two largest blocs of official languages outside of the permanent members (Spanish being official in 20 countries, Arabic in 26). Five of the official languages were chosen when the UN was founded; Arabic was added later in 1973. The United Nations Editorial Manual states that the standard for English language documents is British usage and Oxford spelling, the Chinese writing standard is Simplified Chinese. This replaced Traditional Chinese in 1971 when the UN representation of China was changed from the Republic of China to the People's Republic of China (see China and the United Nations for details).

United Nations

11

General Assembly
The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly of the United Nations. Composed of all United Nations member states, the assembly meets in regular yearly sessions under a president elected from among the member states. Over a two-week period at the start of each session, all members have the opportunity to address the assembly. Traditionally, the Secretary-General makes the first statement, followed by the president of the assembly. The first session was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Westminster Central Hall in London and included representatives of 51 nations.

United Nations General Assembly hall

When the General Assembly votes on important questions, a two-thirds majority of those present and voting is required. Examples of important questions include: recommendations on peace and security; election of members to organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members; and, budgetary matters. All other questions are decided by majority vote. Each member country has one vote. Apart from approval of budgetary matters, resolutions are not binding on the members. The Assembly may make recommendations on any matters within the scope of the UN, except matters of peace and security that are under Security Council consideration. Conceivably, the one state, one vote power structure could enable states comprising just eight percent of the world population to pass a resolution by a two-thirds vote (see List of countries by population). However, as no more than recommendations, it is difficult to imagine a situation in which a recommendation by member states constituting just eight percent of the world's population, would be adhered to by the remaining ninety-two percent of the population, should they object.

Security Council
The Security Council is charged with maintaining peace and security among countries. While other organs of the United Nations can only make 'recommendations' to member governments, the Security Council has the power to make binding decisions that member governments have agreed to carry out, under the terms of Charter Article 25.[15] The decisions of the Council are known as United Nations Security Council resolutions.

United Nations Security Council chamber

The Security Council is made up of 15 member states, consisting of 5 permanent membersChina, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United Statesand 10 non-permanent members, currently Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Colombia, Gabon, Germany, India, Lebanon, Nigeria, Portugal, South Africa. The five permanent members hold veto power over substantive but not procedural resolutions allowing a permanent member to block adoption but not to block the debate of a resolution unacceptable to it. The ten temporary seats are held for two-year terms with member states voted in by the General Assembly on a regional basis. The presidency of the Security Council is rotated alphabetically each month.[16]

United Nations

12

Secretariat
The United Nations Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the UN Security Council, the UN General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council, and other UN bodies. The United Nations Charter provides that the staff be chosen by application of the "highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity," with due regard for the importance of recruiting on a wide geographical basis. The Charter provides that the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any authority other than the UN. Each UN member country is enjoined to respect the international character of the Secretariat and not seek to influence its staff. The Secretary-General alone is responsible for staff selection.

The Secretary-General's duties include helping resolve international disputes, administering peacekeeping operations, organizing international conferences, gathering information on the implementation of Security Council decisions, and consulting with member governments regarding various initiatives. Key Secretariat offices in this area include the Office of the Coordinator of Humanitarian Affairs and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter that, in his or her opinion, may threaten international peace and security. Secretary-General The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, who acts as the de facto spokesperson and leader of the UN. The current Secretary-General is Ban Ki-moon, who took over from Kofi Annan in 2007 and has been elected for a second term to conclude at the end of 2016.[17] Envisioned by Franklin D. Roosevelt as a "world moderator", the position is defined in the UN Charter as the organization's "chief administrative officer",[18] but the Charter also states that the Secretary-General can bring to the Security Council's attention "any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security",[19] giving the position greater scope for action on the world stage. The position has evolved into a dual role of an administrator of the UN organization, and a diplomat and mediator addressing disputes between member states and finding consensus to global issues.[20]

The United Nations Secretariat Building at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City.

The current Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon

The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, after being recommended by the Security Council, where the permanent members have veto power.[21] The General Assembly can theoretically override the Security Council's recommendation if a majority vote is not achieved, although this has not happened so far.[22] There are no specific criteria for the post, but over the years, it has become accepted that the post shall be held for one or two terms of five years, that the post shall be appointed on the basis of geographical rotation, and that the Secretary-General shall not originate from one of the five permanent Security Council member states.[22]

United Nations
Secretaries-General of the United Nations No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Name Trygve Lie Dag Hammarskjld U Thant Kurt Waldheim Javier Prez de Cullar Boutros Boutros-Ghali Kofi Annan Ban Ki-moon Country of origin
Norway Sweden [23]

13

Took office 2 February 1946 10 April 1953 30 November 1961 1 January 1972 1 January 1982 1 January 1992 1 January 1997 1 January 2007

Left office 10 November 1952 18 September 1961 31 December 1971 31 December 1981 31 December 1991 31 December 1996 31 December 2006 Incumbent

Note Resigned Died while in office First Secretary-General from Asia

Burma

Austria

Peru

First Secretary-General from the Americas First Secretary-General from Africa

Egypt

Ghana

South Korea

International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in The Hague, Netherlands, is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. Established in 1945 by the United Nations Charter, the Court began work in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.[24] It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands, sharing the building with the Hague Academy of International Law, a private Peace Palace, seat of the International Court of centre for the study of international law. Several of the Court's current Justice at The Hague, Netherlands judges are either alumni or former faculty members of the Academy. Its purpose is to adjudicate disputes among states. The court has heard cases related to war crimes, illegal state interference and ethnic cleansing, among others, and continues to hear cases.[25]

International Criminal Court

The International Criminal Court (ICC), it came into being on 1 July 2002 with the entering into force of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court which was adopted on 17 July 1998. It is the first permanent international court charged with trying those who commit the most serious crimes under international law, including war crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity and the crime of aggression (although it cannot exercise jurisdiction over this crime prior to 2017). The ICC is functionally independent of the UN in terms of personnel and financing, but some meetings of the ICC governing body, the Assembly of the States Parties to the Rome Statute, are held at the United Nations. There is a "relationship agreement" between the ICC and the UN that governs how the two institutions regard each other legally.[26]

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Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General Assembly in promoting international economic and social cooperation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, all of which are elected by the General Assembly for a three-year term. The president is elected for a one-year term and chosen amongst the small or middle powers represented on ECOSOC. ECOSOC meets once a year in July for a four-week session. Since 1998, it has held another meeting each April with finance ministers heading key committees of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Viewed separate from the The ECOSOC chamber specialized bodies it coordinates, ECOSOC's functions include information gathering, advising member nations, and making recommendations. In addition, ECOSOC is well-positioned to provide policy coherence and coordinate the overlapping functions of the UNs subsidiary bodies and it is in these roles that it is most active.

Specialized institutions
Many UN organizations and agencies exist to work on particular issues. Some of the most well-known agencies are the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Food and Agriculture Organization, UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Bank and the World Health Organization. It is through these agencies that the UN performs most of its humanitarian work. Examples include mass vaccination programmes (through the WHO), the avoidance of famine and malnutrition (through the work of the WFP) and the protection of vulnerable and displaced people (for example, by the UNHCR). The United Nations Charter stipulates that each primary organ of the UN can establish various specialized agencies to fulfil its duties.
Organizations and specialized agencies of the United Nations Acronyms No. 1 FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Rome, Italy Jacques Diouf Logo Agency Headquarters Head Established in 1945

IAEA

International Atomic Energy Agency

Vienna, Austria

Yukiya Amano

1957

ICAO

International Civil Aviation Organization

Montreal, Canada

Raymond Benjamin Kanayo F. Nwanze Juan Somava

1947

4 5

IFAD ILO

International Fund for Agricultural Development International Labour Organization

Rome, Italy

1977 1946 (1919)

Geneva, Switzerland London, United Kingdom

IMO

International Maritime Organization

Efthimios E. Mitropoulos

1948

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International Monetary Fund International Telecommunication Union Washington, D.C., USA Geneva, Switzerland Paris, France Christine Lagarde Hamadoun Tour Irina Bokova 1945 (1944) 1947 (1865)

7 8

IMF ITU

UNESCO

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Industrial Development Organization Universal Postal Union

1946

10 11

UNIDO UPU

Vienna, Austria

Kandeh Yumkella Edouard Dayan

1967 1947 (1874)

Bern, Switzerland Washington, D.C., USA Rome, Italy

12 13

WB WFP

World Bank World Food Programme

Robert B. Zoellick Josette Sheeran

1945 (1944) 1963

14

WHO

World Health Organization

Geneva, Switzerland

Margaret Chan

1948

15 16

WIPO WMO

World Intellectual Property Organization World Meteorological Organization

Geneva, Switzerland Geneva, Switzerland Madrid, Spain

Francis Gurry Alexander Bedritsky Taleb Rifai

1974 1950 (1873)

17

UNWTO

World Tourism Organization

1974

Membership
With the addition of South Sudan on 14 July 2011,[27] there are currently 193 United Nations member states, including all fully recognized [28] independent states apart from Vatican City (the Holy See, which holds sovereignty over the state of Vatican City, is a permanent observer).[29] The United Nations Charter outlines the rules for membership: 1. Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states that accept
An animation showing the timeline of accession of UN member states, according to the UN. Note that Antarctica has no government; political control of Western Sahara is in dispute; and the territories administered by the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Kosovo are considered by the UN to be provinces of the People's Republic of China and Republic of Serbia, respectively.

United Nations the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations. 2. The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. United Nations Charter, Chapter 2, Article 4,http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/''

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Group of 77
The Group of 77 at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations, designed to promote its members' collective economic interests and create an enhanced joint negotiating capacity in the United Nations. There were 77 founding members of the organization, but the organization has since expanded to 130 member countries. The group was founded on 15 June 1964 by the "Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries" issued at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The first major meeting was in Algiers in 1967, where the Charter of Algiers was adopted and the basis for permanent institutional structures was begun.[30]

Stated objectives
Peacekeeping and security

Darfur

Western Sahara

Israel/Palestine

Kosovo

Cyprus

Golan

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Lebanon

Haiti

Liberia

Cte d'Ivoire

DR Congo

Sudan

East Timor

Jammu and Kashmir

Afghanistan

Current UN peacekeeping missions The UN, after approval by the Security Council, sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused to enforce the terms of peace agreements and to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities. Since the UN does not maintain its own military, peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states of the UN. The forces, also called the "Blue Helmets", who enforce UN accords, are awarded United Nations Medals, which are considered international decorations instead of military decorations. The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.[31] The founders of the UN had envisaged that the organization would act to prevent conflicts between nations and make future wars impossible, however the outbreak of the Cold War made peacekeeping agreements extremely difficult because of the division of the world into hostile camps. Following the end of the Cold War, there were renewed calls for the UN to become the agency for achieving world peace, as several dozen ongoing conflicts continue to rage around the globe. A 2005 RAND Corp study found the UN to be successful in two out of three peacekeeping efforts. It compared UN nation-building efforts to those of the United States, and found that seven out of eight UN cases are at peace, as compared with four out of eight US cases at peace.[32] Also in 2005, the Human Security Report documented a decline in the number of wars, genocides and human rights abuses since the end of the Cold War, and presented evidence, albeit circumstantial, that international activismmostly spearheaded by the UNhas been the main cause of the decline in armed conflict since the end of the Cold War.[33] Situations where the UN has not only acted to keep the peace but also occasionally intervened include the Korean War (19501953), and the authorization of intervention in Iraq after the Persian Gulf War in 1990. The UN has also drawn criticism for perceived failures. In many cases, member states have shown reluctance to achieve or enforce Security Council resolutions, an issue that stems from the UN's intergovernmental natureseen by some as simply an association of 193 member states who must reach consensus, not an independent organization. Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to prevent the

United Nations 1994 Rwandan Genocide,[34] failed to provide humanitarian aid and intervene in the Second Congo War, failed to intervene in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre and protect a refugee haven by authorizing peacekeepers to use force, failure to deliver food to starving people in Somalia, failure to implement provisions of Security Council resolutions related to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and continuing failure to prevent genocide or provide assistance in Darfur. UN peacekeepers have also been accused of child rape, sexual abuse or soliciting prostitutes during various peacekeeping missions, starting in 2003, in the Congo,[35] Haiti,[36] [37] Liberia,[38] Sudan and what is now South Sudan,[39] Burundi and Cte d'Ivoire.[40] In 2004, former Israeli ambassador to the UN Dore Gold criticized what it called the organization's moral relativism in the face of (and occasional support of)[41] genocide and terrorism that occurred between the moral clarity of its founding period and the present day. Gold specifically mentions Yasser Arafat's 1988 invitation to address the General Assembly as a low point in the UN's history.[42] In addition to peacekeeping, the UN is also active in encouraging disarmament. Regulation of armaments was included in the writing of the United Nations Charter in 1945 and was envisioned as a way of limiting the use of human and economic resources for the creation of them.[43] However, the advent of nuclear weapons came only weeks after the signing of the charter and immediately halted concepts of arms limitation and disarmament, resulting in the first resolution of the first ever General Assembly meeting calling for specific proposals for "the elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction".[44] The principal forums for disarmament issues are the General Assembly First Committee, the UN Disarmament Commission, and the Conference on Disarmament, and considerations have been made of the merits of a ban on testing nuclear weapons, outer space arms control, the banning of chemical weapons and land mines, nuclear and conventional disarmament, nuclear-weapon-free zones, the reduction of military budgets, and measures to strengthen international security. The UN is one of the official supporters of the World Security Forum, a major international conference on the effects of global catastrophes and disasters, which took place in the United Arab Emirates in October 2008.

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Human rights and humanitarian assistance

The pursuit of human rights was a central reason for creating the UN. World War II atrocities and genocide led to a ready consensus that the new organization must work to prevent any similar tragedies in the future. An early objective was creating a legal framework for considering and acting on complaints about human rights violations. The UN Charter obliges all member nations to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights" and to take "joint and separate action" to that end. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, though not legally binding, was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948 as a common standard of achievement for all. The Assembly regularly takes up human rights issues.

Eleanor Roosevelt with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1949

The UN and its agencies are central in upholding and implementing the principles enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A case in point is support by the UN for countries in transition to democracy. Technical assistance in providing free and fair elections, improving judicial structures, drafting constitutions, training human rights officials, and transforming armed movements into political parties have contributed significantly to democratization worldwide. The UN has helped run elections in countries with little or no democratic history, including recently in Afghanistan and East Timor. The UN is also a forum to support the right of women to participate fully in the political, economic, and social life of their countries. The UN contributes to raising consciousness of the concept of human rights through its covenants and its attention to specific abuses through its General Assembly, Security Council resolutions, or International Court of Justice rulings.

United Nations The purpose of the United Nations Human Rights Council, established in 2006,[45] is to address human rights violations. The Council is the successor to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, which was often criticized for the high-profile positions it gave to member states that did not guarantee the human rights of their own citizens.[46] The council has 47 members distributed by region, which each serve three-year terms, and may not serve three consecutive terms.[47] A candidate to the body must be approved by a majority of the General Assembly. In addition, the council has strict rules for membership, including a universal human rights review. While some members with questionable human rights records have been elected, it is fewer than before with the increased focus on each member state's human rights record.[48] The rights of some 370million indigenous peoples around the world are also a focus for the UN, with a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples being approved by the General Assembly in 2007.[49] The declaration outlines the individual and collective rights to culture, language, education, identity, employment and health, thereby addressing post-colonial issues that had confronted indigenous peoples for centuries. The declaration aims to maintain, strengthen and encourage the growth of indigenous institutions, cultures and traditions. It also prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples and promotes their active participation in matters that concern their past, present and future.[49] The United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues is the UN's central coordinating body for matters relating to the concerns and rights of the world's indigenous peoples. The forum is an advisory body within the framework of the United Nations System that reports to the UN's Economic and Social Council. In conjunction with other organizations such as the Red Cross, the UN provides food, drinking water, shelter and other humanitarian services to populaces suffering from famine, displaced by war, or afflicted by other disasters. Major humanitarian branches of the UN are the World Food Programme (which helps feed more than 100million people a year in 80 countries), the office of the High Commissioner for Refugees with projects in over 116 countries, as well as peacekeeping projects in over 24 countries.

19

Social and economic development

Millennium Development Goals

eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality and empower women; reduce child mortality; improve maternal health; combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; ensure environmental sustainability; and develop a global partnership for development.

The UN is involved in supporting development, e.g. by the formulation of the Millennium Development Goals. The UN Development Programme (UNDP) is the largest multilateral source of grant technical assistance in the world. Organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS, and The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria are leading institutions in the battle against diseases around the world, especially in poor countries. The UN Population Fund is a major provider of reproductive services. 32 UN agencies performing tasks on development are coordinating their efforts through the United Nations Development Group or UNDG.[50] The UN also promotes human development through some related agencies, particularly the UNDP.[51] The World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund (IMF), for example, are independent, specialized agencies and observers within the UN framework, according to a 1947 agreement. They were initially formed as separate from the UN through the Bretton Woods Agreement in 1944.[52]

United Nations The UNDP annually publishes the Human Development Index (HDI), a comparative measure ranking countries by poverty, literacy, education, life expectancy, and other factors.[53] The Millennium Development Goals (declared in the United Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000) are eight goals that all of the then 192 United Nations member states have agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015.[54]

20

Mandates
From time to time, the different bodies of the United Nations pass resolutions that contain operating paragraphs that begin with the words "requests", "calls upon", or "encourages", which the Secretary-General interprets as a mandate to set up a temporary organization or do something. These mandates can be as little as researching and publishing a written report, or mounting a full-scale peacekeeping operation (usually the exclusive domain of the Security Council). Although the specialized institutions, such as the WHO, were originally set up by this means, they are not the same as mandates because they are permanent organizations that exist independently of the UN with their own membership structure. One could say that original mandate was simply to cover the process of setting up the institution, and has therefore long expired. Most mandates expire after a limited period and require renewal from the body, which set them up. One of the outcomes of the 2005 World Summit was a mandate (labelled id 17171 [55]) for the Secretary-General to "review all mandates older than five years originating from resolutions of the General Assembly and other organs". To facilitate this review and to finally bring coherence to the organization, the Secretariat has produced an on-line registry of mandates [56] to draw together the reports relating to each one and create an overall picture.[57] Greening the Blue In 2007, On 5 June World Environment Day 2007, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon made public his ambition to make the United Nations more efficient in its operations: I would like to see our renovated Headquarters complex eventually become a globally acclaimed model of efficient use of energy and resources. Beyond New York, the initiative should include the other United Nations headquarters and offices around the globe. The UN's progress towards achieving this goal is communicated through the initiative Greening the Blue (see external links below).

Other
Over the lifetime of the UN, over 80 colonies have attained independence.[58] The General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960 with no votes against but abstentions from all major colonial powers. Through the UN Committee on Decolonization,[59] created in 1962, the UN has focused considerable attention on decolonization. It has also supported the new states that have arisen as a result of self-determination initiatives. The committee has overseen the decolonization of every country larger than 20,000km and removed them from the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories, besides Western Sahara, a country larger than the UK only relinquished by Spain in 1975. The UN declares and coordinates international observances, periods of time to observe some issue of international interest or concern. Using the symbolism of the UN, a specially designed logo for the year, and the infrastructure of the United Nations System, various days and years have become catalysts to advancing key issues of concern on a global scale. For example, World Tuberculosis Day, Earth Day and International Year of Deserts and Desertification.

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Funding
Top 10 donators to the UN budget, 2011 Member state
USA Japan Germany United Kingdom France Italy Canada China Spain Mexico [60]

Contribution (% of UN budget) 22.000% 12.530% 8.018% 6.604% 6.123% 4.999% 3.207% 3.189% 3.177% 2.356% 27.797%

Other member states

The UN is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from member states. The General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member. This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay, as measured by their gross national income (GNI), with adjustments for external debt and low per capita income.[61] The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be overly dependent on any one member to finance its operations. Thus, there is a 'ceiling' rate, setting the maximum amount any member is assessed for the regular budget. In December 2000, the Assembly revised the scale of assessments to reflect current global circumstances. As part of that revision, the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25% to 22%. For the least developed countries (LDCs), a ceiling rate of 0.01% is applied.[61] In addition to the ceiling rates, the minimum amount assessed to any member nation (or 'floor' rate) is set at 0.001% of the UN budget. Refer to the table for major contributors. A large share of UN expenditures addresses the core UN mission of peace and security. The peacekeeping budget for the 20052006 fiscal year was approximately US$5billion, 2.5billion (compared to approximately US$1.5billion, 995million for the UN core budget over the same period), with some 70,000 troops deployed in 17 missions around the world.[62] UN peace operations are funded by assessments, using a formula derived from the regular funding scale, but including a weighted surcharge for the five permanent Security Council members, who must approve all peacekeeping operations. This surcharge serves to offset discounted peacekeeping assessment rates for less developed countries. As of 1 January 2011, the top 10 providers of assessed financial contributions to United Nations peacekeeping operations were: the United States, Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Italy, China, Canada, Spain and the Republic of Korea.[63] Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget (such as UNICEF, the WFP and UNDP) are financed by voluntary contributions from other member governments. Most of this is financial contributions, but some is in the form of agricultural commodities donated for afflicted populations. Since their funding is voluntary, many of these agencies suffer severe shortages during economic recessions. In July 2009, the World Food Programme reported that it has been forced to cut services because of insufficient funding.[64] It has received barely a quarter of the total it needed for the 09/10 financial year.

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Personnel policy
The UN and its agencies are immune to the laws of the countries where they operate, safeguarding UN's impartiality with regard to the host and member countries.[65] Despite their independence in matters of human resources policy, the UN and its agencies voluntarily apply the laws of member states regarding same-sex marriages, allowing decisions about the status of employees in a same-sex partnership to be based on nationality. The UN and its agencies recognize same-sex marriages only if the employees are citizens of countries that recognize the marriage. This practice is not specific to the recognition of same-sex marriage but reflects a common practice of the UN for a number of human resources matters. It has to be noted though that some agencies provide limited benefits to domestic partners of their staff and that some agencies do not recognise same-sex marriage or domestic partnership of their staff.

Reform
Since its founding, there have been many calls for reform of the United Nations, although little consensus on how to do so. Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, while others want its role reduced to humanitarian work.[66] There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council's membership to be increased, for different ways of electing the UN's Secretary-General, and for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly. The UN has also been accused of bureaucratic inefficiency and waste. During the 1990s, the United States withheld dues citing inefficiency, and only started repayment on the condition that a major reforms initiative was introduced. In 1994, the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) was established by the General Assembly to serve as an efficiency watchdog.[67] An official reform programme was begun by Kofi Annan in 1997. Reforms mentioned include changing the permanent membership of the Security Council (which currently reflects the power relations of 1945), making the bureaucracy more transparent, accountable and efficient, making the UN more democratic, and imposing an international tariff on arms manufacturers worldwide.
In 2005, then-Secretary General Kofi Annan published his report In Larger Freedom, a proposal for reform of the UN.

In September 2005, the UN convened a World Summit that brought together the heads of most member states, calling the summit "a once-in-a-generation opportunity to take bold decisions in the areas of development, security, human rights and reform of the United Nations."[68] Kofi Annan had proposed that the summit agree on a global "grand bargain" to reform the UN, renewing the organization's focus on peace, security, human rights and development, and to make it better equipped at facing 21st century issues. The World Summit Outcome Document delineated the conclusions of the meeting, including: the creation of a Peacebuilding Commission, to help countries emerging from conflict; a Human Rights Council and a democracy fund; a clear and unambiguous condemnation of terrorism "in all its forms and manifestations"; agreements to devote more resources to the Office of Internal Oversight Services; agreements to spend billions more on achieving the Millennium Development Goals; the dissolution of the Trusteeship Council, because of the completion of its mission; and, the agreement that individual states, with the assistance of the international community, have the "responsibility to protect" populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity- with the understanding that the international community is prepared to act "collectively" in a timely and decisive manner to protect vulnerable civilians should a state "manifestly fail" in fulfilling its responsibility.[69] The Office of Internal Oversight Services is being restructured to better define its scope and mandate, and will receive more resources. In addition, to improve the oversight and auditing capabilities of the General Assembly, an Independent Audit Advisory Committee (IAAC) is being created. In June 2007, the Fifth Committee created a draft

United Nations resolution for the terms of reference of this committee.[70] [71] An ethics office was established in 2006, responsible for administering new financial disclosure and whistleblower protection policies. Working with the OIOS, the ethics office also plans to implement a policy to avoid fraud and corruption.[72] The Secretariat is in the process of reviewing all UN mandates that are more than five years old. The review is intended to determine which duplicative or unnecessary programmes should be eliminated. Not all member states agree on which of the over 7000 mandates should be reviewed. The dispute centres on whether mandates that have been renewed should be examined.[73] Indeed, the obstacles identified in particular, the lack of information on the resource implications of each mandate constituted sufficient justification for the General Assembly to discontinue the mandate review in September 2008. In the meantime, the General Assembly launched a number of new loosely related reform initiatives in April 2007, covering international environmental governance, Delivering as One at the country level to enhance the consolidation of UN programme activities and a unified gender organization. Whereas little was achieved on the first two issues, the General Assembly approved in September 2010 the establishment of UN Women as the new UN organization for gender equality and the empowerment of women. UN Women was established by unifying the resources and mandates of four small entities for greater impact and its first head is Ms. Michelle Bachelet, former President of Chile.

23

References
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"The Nobel Peace Prize 1988" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ peace/ laureates/ 1988/ ). . Retrieved 3 April 2011. [32] RAND Corporation. "The UN's Role in Nation Building: From the Congo to Iraq" (http:/ / www. rand. org/ pubs/ monographs/ 2005/ RAND_MG304. sum. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 30 December 2008. [33] Human Security Centre. "The Human Security Report 2005" (http:/ / www. humansecurityreport. info/ ). . Retrieved 8 February 2007. [34] "Book Review: A People Betrayed, the Role of the West in Rwanda's Genocide" (http:/ / www. hrw. org/ community/ bookreviews/ melvern. htm). Human Rights Watch. . [35] Colum Lynch (16 December 2004). "U.N.Sexual Abuse Alleged in Congo" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ articles/ A3145-2004Dec15. html). Washington Post. . [36] "UN troops face child abuse claims" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 6195830. stm). BBC News. 30 November 2006. . [37] "108 Sri Lankan peacekeepers in Haiti to be repatriated after claims they paid prostitutes" (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ ap/ 2007/ 11/ 02/ news/ UN-GEN-UN-Haiti-Sexual-Exploitation. php). International Herald Tribune. 2 November 2007. . [38] "Aid workers in Liberia accused of sex abuse" (http:/ / www. iht. com/ articles/ 2006/ 05/ 08/ news/ abuse. php). International Herald Tribune. 8 May 2006. . [39] Holt, Kate (4 January 2007). "UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main. jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2007/ 01/ 03/ wsudan03. xml). London: Telegraph. . Retrieved 1 April 2010. [40] "UN staff accused of raping children in Sudan" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ in_depth/ 7420798. stm). BBC. 28 May 2007. . [41] Gold, 216217 [42] Gold, 38 [43] United Nations Charter, Article 26. [44] "Resolutions Adopted by the General Assembly During its First Session" (http:/ / www. un. org/ documents/ ga/ res/ 1/ ares1. htm). United Nations. . Retrieved 24 March 2008. [45] United Nations General Assembly 60 (http:/ / www. undemocracy. com/ A-RES-60-251''Resolution''& #32;251& #32;session) on 15 March 2006 (retrieved 19 September 2007) [46] "The Shame of the United Nations" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 02/ 26/ opinion/ 26sun2. html?_r=1& n=Top/ Opinion/ Editorials and Op-Ed/ Editorials& oref=slogin). New York Times. 26 February 2006. . Retrieved 15 August 2006. [47] "UN Human Rights Council Elections" (http:/ / www. un. org/ ga/ 61/ elect/ hrc/ ). United Nations. . Retrieved 4 May 2007. [48] "Successful UN Human Rights Council Elections Demonstrate UN Members are Taking Reform Effort Seriously." (http:/ / www. opensocietypolicycenter. org/ news/ article. php?docId=110). Open Society Policy Center. 9 May 2006. . [49] UN General Assembly61st sessionUnited Nations adopts Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples (http:/ / www. un. org/ ga/ 61/ news/ news. asp?NewsID=23794& Cr=indigenous& Cr1=). [50] "About the UNDG" (http:/ / www. undg. org/ index. cfm?P=2). Undg.org. . Retrieved 1 May 2011. [51] "Human Development | Human Development Reports (HDR) | United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)" (http:/ / hdr. undp. org/ en/ humandev/ ). Hdr.undp.org. . Retrieved 1 May 2011. [52] "About UsUnited Nations" (http:/ / web. worldbank. org/ WBSITE/ EXTERNAL/ EXTABOUTUS/ 0,,contentMDK:20040610~menuPK:41691~pagePK:43912~piPK:44037,00. html). The World Bank. 30 June 2003. . Retrieved 2 August 2007. [53] "Human Development Reports (HDR) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)" (http:/ / hdr. undp. org/ en/ ). Hdr.undp.org. . Retrieved 1 May 2011. [54] "The UN Millennium Development Goals" (http:/ / www. un. org/ millenniumgoals/ ). United Nations. . Retrieved 4 May 2007. [55] http:/ / webapps01. un. org/ mandatereview/ viewBrowseMandate. do?code=17171& page=1& offset=16 [56] http:/ / www. un. org/ mandatereview/ index. html [57] The Secretary-General (30 March 2006). "Mandating and DeliveringExecutive Summary" (http:/ / www. un. org/ mandatereview/ executive. html). United Nations. . [58] "Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories, 19451999" (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ dpi/ decolonization/ trust2. htm). United Nations. . Retrieved 9 October 2008. [59] the United Nations Special Committee on DecolonizationOfficial Website (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ dpi/ decolonization/ special_committee_main. htm). [60] "Assessment of Member States' contributions to the United Nations regular budget for the year 2011" (http:/ / www. un. org/ ga/ search/ view_doc. asp?symbol=ST/ ADM/ SER. B/ 755) (PDF). UN Secretariat. 28 December 2010. . Retrieved 26 February 2011.

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United Nations
[61] "Fifth Committee Approves Assessment Scale for Regular, Peacekeeping Budgets, Texts on Common System, Pension Fund, as it Concludes Session (Press Release)" (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2006/ gaab3787. doc. htm). United Nations. 22 December 2006. . [62] "United Nations Peacekeeping Operations" (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ dpko/ dpko/ bnote. htm). United Nations. 31 December 2007. . Retrieved 24 March 2008. [63] "Financing of UN Peacekeeping Operations" (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ dpko/ dpko/ contributors/ financing. html). United Nations. . Retrieved 26 February 2011. [64] "BBC News, 'Dire shortage' at UN food agency" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ in_depth/ 8179250. stm). BBC. 31 July 2009. . Retrieved 5 September 2009. [65] "Jerusalem Court: No Immunity for UN Employee for Private ActsDiplomatic/Consular Law and Sovereign Immunity in Israel" (http:/ / diplomaticlaw. com/ blog/ 2009/ 03/ 23/ jerusalem-court-no-immunity-for-un-employee-for-private-acts/ ). Diplomaticlaw.com. 23 March 2009. . Retrieved 27 April 2010. [66] The Future of the United Nations: Understanding the Past to Chart a Way Forward / Joshua Muravchik (2005) ISBN 978-0-8447-7183-0. [67] Reddy, Shravanti (29 October 2002). "Watchdog Organization Struggles to Decrease UN Bureaucracy" (http:/ / www. globalpolicy. org/ ngos/ ngo-un/ rest-un/ 2002/ 1029watchdog. htm). Global Policy Forum. . Retrieved 21 September 2006. [68] "The 2005 World Summit: An Overview" (http:/ / www. un. org/ ga/ documents/ overview2005summit. pdf) (PDF). United Nations. . [69] "2005 World Summit Outcome" (http:/ / www. un. org/ summit2005/ presskit/ fact_sheet. pdf) (PDF). United Nations. . [70] Irene Martinetti (1 December 2006). "Reforming Oversight and Governance of the UN Encounters Hurdles" (http:/ / www. centerforunreform. org/ node/ 226). . [71] "Oversight and Governance" (http:/ / www. centerforunreform. org/ node/ 31). Center for UN Reform Education. . [72] "Ethics Office" (http:/ / www. centerforunreform. org/ node/ 32). Center for UN Reform Education. . [73] "Mandate Review" (http:/ / www. centerforunreform. org/ node/ 30). Center for UN Reform Education. .

25

Further reading
United Nations Intellectual History Project Book Series (http://www.iupress.indiana.edu/catalog/index. php?cPath=1037_3130_3369). Indiana University Press. "Think Again: The United Nations" (http://foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=34), Madeleine K. Albright, Foreign Policy, September/October 2004. Hans Kchler, Quo Vadis, United Nations?, in: Law Review, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, College of Law, May 2005 Online version (http://hanskoechler.com/koechler-quo-vadis-UN.htm). An Insider's Guide to the UN, Linda Fasulo, Yale University Press (1 November 2003), hardcover, 272 pages, ISBN 0-300-10155-4. United Nations: The First Fifty Years, Stanley Mesler, Atlantic Monthly Press (1 March 1997), hardcover, 416 pages, ISBN 0-87113-656-2. Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations, Stephen Schlesinger, Westview Press (1 September 2003), softcover, 374 pages, ISBN 978-0-8133-3324-3. The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945, edited by Vaughan Lowe, Adam Roberts, Jennifer Welsh and Dominik Zaum (http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/ ?ci=9780199583300), Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010, paperback, 794 pages. ISBN 978-0-19-958330-0. For US edition, click here. (http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Politics/InternationalStudies/ ?view=usa&ci=9780199583300#Description) United Nations, Divided World: The UN's Roles in International Relations, edited by Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury (http://www.oup.com/uk/catalogue/?ci=9780198279266), Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2nd edition, 1993, paperback, 589 pages. ISBN 0-19-827926-4. For US edition, click here. (http://www.oup.com/ us/catalog/general/subject/Politics/InternationalStudies/InternationalOrganizations/?view=usa& ci=9780198279266) A Guide to Delegate Preparation: A Model United Nations Handbook, edited by Scott A. Leslie, The United Nations Association of the United States of America, 2004 edition (October 2004), softcover, 296 pages, ISBN 1-880632-71-3. "U.S. At WarInternational." Time Magazine XLV.19 7 May 1945: 2528.

United Nations The Oxford Handbook on the United Nations, edited by Thomas G. Weiss and Sam Daws (http://www.us.oup. com/us/catalog/general/subject/Politics/InternationalStudies/InternationalOrganizations/?view=usa& ci=9780199279517), Oxford University Press, July 2007, hardcover, 896 pages, ISBN 978-0-19-927951-7, ISBN 0-19-927951-9. Gold, Dore. Tower of Babble: How the United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004.

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External links
Official websites United Nations official homepage (http://www.un.org/) United Nations Systems of Organizations (http://www.unsystem.org/) About the United Nations (http://www.un.org/aboutun) Global Issues on the UN Agenda (http://www.un.org/issues) High-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence (http://www.un.org/events/panel/) Journal of the United Nations: Programme of meetings and agenda (http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/En/ lateste.pdf).

The United Nations Regional Information Centre (UNRIC) (http://www.unric.org/) Greening the Blue: The United Nations' approach to managing its own sustainability performance (http://www. greeningtheblue.org/) UN Chronicle Magazine (http://www.un.org/chronicle) UN Organisation Chart (http://www.un.org/aboutun/chart.html) UN Works (http://www.un.org/works) United Nations Charter (http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/index.html)Charter text United Nations Security Council Resolutions (http://www.un.org/documents/scres.htm) United Nations Volunteers (http://www.unv.org/) United Nations Webcasts (http://www.un.org/webcast/index.asp#) Universal Declaration of Human Rights (http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html) World Map of UN websites and locations (http://www.un.org/aroundworld/map/) Other United Nations Rule of Law (http://www.unrol.org/), the United Nations' centralized website on the rule of law. Documents and Resources on UN, War, War Crimes and Genocide (http://www.warcrimes.info/) Eye on the UN (http://www.eyeontheun.org/)A Project of the Hudson Institute New York and the Touro Law Center Institute for Human Rights United Nations (http://uiuc.libguides.com/content.php?pid=43017) LibGuide resources from the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign Library History of the United Nations (http://www.direct.gov.uk/Gtgl1/GuideToGovernment/InternationalBodies/ InternationalBodiesArticles/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=4003089&chk=aPi/oF)UK Government site Inner City Press (http://www.innercitypress.com/)UN related news. Outcomes of the 2005 World Summit (http://www.un.org/summit2005/presskit/fact_sheet.pdf)PDF(82.9 KB) Permanent Missions To The United Nations (http://www.un.int/) Searchable archive of UN discussions and votes (http://www.undemocracy.com/) List of UN datasets on CKAN, a registry of open data (http://ckan.net/tag/read/un) Task Force on United Nations (http://www.usip.org/un/)U.S. Institute of Peace

United Nations UN watch (http://www.unwatch.org/)non-governmental organization based in Geneva whose mandate is to monitor the performance of the United Nations by the yardstick of its own Charter. United Nations Association of the UK: independent policy authority on the UN (http://www.una.org.uk/) United Nations: Inside the Glass House (http://www.ipsnews.net/new_focus/unitednations/index. asp)Independent news reports by the news agency Inter Press Service United Nations eLearning Unit (http://elearning.security-research.at/flash/un) created by ISRGUniversity of Innsbruck United Nations Research Guide from the Mississippi State University Libraries (http://library.msstate.edu/ content/templates/?a=429&z=83) Website (http://www.globalpolicy.org/) of the Global Policy Forum, an independent think-tank on the UN United Nations Offices Worldwide (http://www.angelfire.com/wizard/trainingnet/unw.htm)

27

Declaration by United Nations

The Declaration by United Nations was a World War II document agreed to on January 1, 1942 during the Arcadia Conference by 26 governments: the Allied "Big Four" (the USA, the UK, the USSR, and China), nine American allies in Central America and the Caribbean, the four British Dominions, British India, and eight Allied governments-in-exile, for a total of twenty-six nations. During December 1941, Roosevelt devised the name "United Nations" for the Allies of World War II, and the Declaration by United Nations, on 1 January 1942, was the basis of the modern UN.[1] The term United Nations became synonymous during the war with the Allies and was considered to be the formal name that they were fighting under. The text of the declaration affirmed the signatories' perspective "that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life, liberty, independence and religious freedom, and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands, and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces Wartime poster for the United Nations, created in seeking to subjugate the world". The principle of "complete victory" 1943 by the U.S. Office of War Information. established an early precedent for the Allied policy of obtaining the Axis' powers' "unconditional surrender". The defeat of "Hitlerism" constituted the overarching objective, and represented a common Allied perspective that the totalitarian militarist regimes ruling Germany, Italy, and Japan were indistinguishable.[2] The declaration, furthermore, "upheld the Wilsonian principles of self determination," thus linking U.S. war aims in both world wars.[3] By the end of the war, a number of other states had acceded to the declaration, including the Philippines, France, every Latin American state except Argentina,[4] and the various independent states of the Middle East and Africa. Although most of the minor Axis powers had switched sides and joined the United Nations as co-belligerents against Germany by the end of the war, they were not allowed to accede to the declaration.

Declaration by United Nations

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Wartime poster for the United Nations, created in 1942 by the U.S. Office of War Information, showing the 26 members of the alliance.

The original signatories were Big Four United States United Kingdom Soviet Union China

British Commonwealth Australia Canada India New Zealand South Africa Other powers In exile Later signatories were 1942 1943 1944 1945 Mexico Philippine Commonwealth Ethiopia Iraq Brazil Bolivia Iran Colombia Liberia France Ecuador Peru Chile Paraguay Venezuela Uruguay Turkey Egypt Saudi Arabia Lebanon Syria Costa Rica Cuba Dominican Republic El Salvador Guatemala Haiti Honduras Nicaragua Panama Belgium Czechoslovakia Greece Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Yugoslavia

The parties pledged to uphold the Atlantic Charter, to employ all their resources in the war against the Axis powers, and that none of the signatory nations would seek to negotiate a separate peace with Nazi Germany or Japan in the same manner that the nations of the Triple Entente had agreed not to negotiate a separate peace with any or all of the Central Powers in World War I under the Unity Pact.

Declaration by United Nations

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Notes
[1] Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley. FDR and the Creation of the U.N. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997. ISBN 9780300069303. [2] Bevans, Charles I. Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America, 1776-1949. Volume 3. Mulitlateral, 1931-1945. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1969, p. 697. [3] Bailey, Thomas A. The Marshall Plan Summer: An Eyewitness Report on Europe and the Russians in 1947. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1977, p. 227. [4] Act of Chapultepec (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ topic/ Act_of_Chapultepec. aspx) The Oxford Companion to World War II, I. C. B. Dear and M. R. D. Foot (2001)

References
Declaration by United Nations (http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1942/420101a.html) from ibiblio.

United Nations Charter

30

United Nations Charter

United Nations Charter
Signed Location Effective Condition Parties 26 June 1945 San Francisco, California, United States 24 October 1945 Ratification by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, United States and by a majority of the other signatory states. 193 Charter of the United Nations at Wikisource

The Charter of the United Nations is the foundational treaty of the international organization called the United Nations.[1] It was signed at the San Francisco War Memorial and Performing Arts Center in San Francisco, United States, on 26 June 1945, by 50 of the 51 original member countries (Poland, the other original member, which was not represented at the conference, signed it later). It entered into force on 24 October 1945, after being ratified by the five permanent members of the Security Councilthe Republic of China (later replaced by the People's Republic of China), France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (later replaced by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom, and the United Statesand a majority of the other signatories. Today, 193 countries are the members of the United Nations. As a charter, it is a constituent treaty, and all members are bound by its articles. Furthermore, the Charter states that obligations to the United Nations prevail over all other treaty obligations.[1] Most countries in the world have now ratified the Charter. One notable exception is the Holy See, which has chosen to remain a permanent observer state and therefore is not a full signatory to the Charter.[2]

Summary
The Charter consists of a preamble and a series of articles grouped into chapters.[1] The preamble consists of two principal parts. The first part containing a general call for the maintenance of peace and international security and respect for human rights. The second part of the preamble is a declaration in a contractual style that the governments of the peoples of the United Nations have agreed to the Charter. Chapter I sets forth the purposes of the United Nations, including the important provisions of the maintenance of international peace and security. Chapter II defines the criteria for membership in the United Nations. Chapters III-XV, the bulk of the document, describe the organs and institutions of the UN and their respective powers. Chapters XVI and Chapter XVII describe arrangements for integrating the UN with established international law. Chapters XVIII and Chapter XIX provide for amendment and ratification of the Charter. The following chapters deal with the enforcement powers of UN bodies: Chapter VI describes the Security Council's power to investigate and mediate disputes; Chapter VII describes the Security Council's power to authorize economic, diplomatic, and military sanctions, as well as the use of military force, to resolve disputes; Chapter VIII makes it possible for regional arrangements to maintain peace and security within their own region; Chapters IX and Chapter X describe the UN's powers for economic and social cooperation, and the Economic and Social Council that oversees these powers;

United Nations Charter Chapters XII and Chapter XIII describe the Trusteeship Council, which oversaw decolonization; Chapters XIV and Chapter XV establish the powers of, respectively, the International Court of Justice and the United Nations Secretariat. Chapters XVI through Chapter XIX deal respectively with XVI: miscellaneous provisions, XVII: transitional security arrangements related to World War II, XVIII: the charter amendment process, and XIX: ratification of the charter.

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Charter Provisions
Preamble
The Preamble to the treaty reads as follows: "We the peoples of the United Nations determined: to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, And for these ends: to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, and to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples, Have resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish these aims: Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations." Although the Preamble is an integral part of the Charter, it does not set out any of the rights or obligations of member states, rather its purpose is to serve as an interpretative guide for the provisions of the Charter through the highlighting of some of the core motives of the founders of the organisation.[3]

Chapter I: Purposes And Principles

Article 1 The Purposes of the United Nations are[1] 1. To maintain international peace and security, to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace; 2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace; 3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and 4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends.

United Nations Charter Article 2 The Organization and its Members, in pursuit of the Purposes stated in Article 1, shall act in accordance with the following Principles:[1] 1. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members. 2. All Members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed by them in accordance with the present Charter. 3. All Members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered. 4. All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations. 5. All Members shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the present Charter, and shall refrain from giving assistance to any state against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action. 6. The Organization shall ensure that states which are not Members of the United Nations act in accordance with these Principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security. 7. Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the Members to submit such matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice the application of enforcement measures under Chapter Vll.[1]

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Chapter II: Membership

Chapter II of the United Nations Charter deals with membership of the United Nations organization

Chapter III: Organs

1. There are established as principal organs of the United Nations: a General Assembly, a Security Council, an Economic and Social Council, a Trusteeship Council, an International Court of Justice and a Secretariat. 2. Such subsidiary organs as may be found necessary may be established in accordance with the present Charter.

Chapter V: The Security Council

COMPOSITION Article 23 1. The Security Council shall consist of fifteen Members of the United Nations. The Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America shall be permanent members of the Security Council. The General Assembly shall elect ten other Members of the United Nations to be non-permanent members of the Security Council, due regard being specially paid, in the first instance to the contribution of Members of the United Nations to the maintenance of international peace and security and to the other purposes of the Organization, and also to equitable geographical distribution. 2. The non-permanent members of the Security Council shall be elected for a term of two years. In the first election of the non-permanent members after the increase of the membership of the Security Council from eleven to fifteen, two of the four additional members shall be chosen for a term of one year. A retiring member shall not be eligible for immediate re-election. 3. Each member of the Security Council shall have one representative. FUNCTIONS and POWERS Article 24

United Nations Charter 1. In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the United Nations, its Members confer on the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and agree that in carrying out its duties under this responsibility the Security Council acts on their behalf. 2. In discharging these duties the Security Council shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. The specific powers granted to the Security Council for the discharge of these duties are laid down in Chapters VI, VII, VIII, and XII. 3. The Security Council shall submit annual and, when necessary, special reports to the General Assembly for its consideration. Article 25 The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance with the present Charter. Article 26 In order to promote the establishment and maintenance of international peace and security with the least diversion for armaments of the world's human and economic resources, the Security Council shall be responsible for formulating, with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee referred to in Article 47, plans to be submitted to the Members of the United Nations for the establishment of a system for the regulation of armaments. VOTING Article 27 1. Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members. 3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the permanent members; provided that, in decisions under Chapter VI, and under paragraph 3 of Article 52, a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting. PROCEDURE Article 28 1. The Security Council shall be so organized as to be able to function continuously. Each member of the Security Council shall for this purpose be represented at all times at the seat of the Organization. 2. The Security Council shall hold periodic meetings at which each of its members may, if it so desires, be represented by a member of the government or by some other specially designated representative. 3. The Security Council may hold meetings at such places other than the seat of the Organization as in its judgment will best facilitate its work. Article 29 The Security Council may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions. Article 30 The Security Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President. Article 31 Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security Council may participate, without vote, in the discussion of any question brought before the Security Council whenever the latter considers that the interests of that Member are specially affected. Article 32

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United Nations Charter Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security Council or any state which is not a Member of the United Nations, if it is a party to a dispute under consideration by the Security Council, shall be invited to participate, without vote, in the discussion relating to the dispute. The Security Council shall lay down such conditions as it deems just for the participation of a state which is not a Member of the United Nations.

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Chapter XV: The Secretariat

It comprises the secretary general and such other staff as the organization may require. It provides services to the other organ of the united nation, the G.A, the S.C, the ECOSOC, and the trusteeship council, as well as their subsidiary bodies. The secretary general is appointed by the G.A on the recommendation of security council. The staff of the secretariat is appointed by the secretary general according to the regulation laid G.A. The secretariat is located at the headquarter of the U.N in New York. The secretariat also includes the regional commission secretariat at Baghdad, Bangkok, Geva and Santiago. Function of Secretariat 1. preparation of report and other documents containing information, analysis, historical background research finding, policy suggestions and so forth, to facilitate deliberations and decision making by other organs. 2. to facilitate legislative organs and their subsidiary bodies. 3. provision of meeting services for the G.A and other organs 4. provision of editorial, translation and document reproduction services for the issuance of UN documents in different language. 5. conduct of studies and provision of information to various member states in meeting challenge in various fields 6. preparation of statistical publication, information bulletin and analytical work which the G.A. has decided 7. organization of conferences experts group meetings and seminar on topics of concern to the international community 8. provision of technical assistance to develop countries. 9. understanding of service mission to countries, areas or location as authorized by the G.A or the security council

Notes
[1] Introductory Note (http:/ / www. un. org/ aboutun/ charter/ ) [2] Short History (http:/ / www. holyseemission. org/ short_history. html) [3] Report of the Rapporteur of Commission I/1 UNICO VI, pp 446-7, Doc. 944 I/1/34(1).

External links
Full text of the charter (http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/) Scanned copy of the signed charter (http://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/CTC/uncharter.pdf) Searchable/cross-referenced/Trackback-enabled text of the charter (http://uncharter.org) Alger Hiss recounts transporting the UN Charter after its signing. (http://www.peacekey.com/1-1-a/UN_Web/ 1_UN_Book/The_Fearful_Master_09.htm)

Ban Ki-moon

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Ban Ki-moon
Ban Ki-moon

8th Secretary-General of the United Nations Incumbent Assumed office January 1, 2007 Deputy Preceded by Asha-Rose Migiro Kofi Annan

33rd Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade of South Korea President Roh Moo-hyun

Prime Minister Goh Kun Lee Hae Chan Han Duck-soo Han Myeong-sook Preceded by Succeeded by Yoon Young Kwan Song Min-soon Personal details Born [1] 13 June 1944 Eumseong County, Chungcheongbuk-do, Korea, Empire of Japan South Korean Yoo Soon-taek Seoul National University (B.A.) Harvard University (M.P.A.) No public affiliation [2] [3]

Nationality Spouse(s) Alma mater

Religion Signature

Ban Ki-moon

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Korean name
Hangul Hanja

Pan Kimun

Revised Romanization Ban Gimun McCuneReischauer

Korean pronunciation:[panimun]

This is a Korean name; the family name is Ban. Ban Ki-moon (Hangul: , Hanja: ; born 13 June 1944) is the eighth and current Secretary-General of the United Nations, after succeeding Kofi Annan in 2007. Before going on to be Secretary-General, Ban was a career diplomat in South Korea's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and in the United Nations. He entered diplomatic service the year he graduated from university, accepting his first post in New Delhi, India. In the foreign ministry he established a reputation for modesty and competence. Ban was the Foreign Minister of the Republic of Korea from January 2004 to November 2006. In February 2006, he began to campaign for the office of Secretary-General. Ban was initially considered to be a long shot for the office. As foreign minister of South Korea, however, he was able to travel to all of the countries that were members of the United Nations Security Council, a maneuver that turned him into the front runner. On 13 October 2006, he was elected to be the eighth Secretary-General by the United Nations General Assembly and officially succeeded Annan on 1 January 2007. Ban has led several major reforms regarding peacekeeping and UN employment practices. Diplomatically, Ban has taken particularly strong views on Darfur, where he helped persuade Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir to allow peacekeeping troops to enter Sudan; and on global warming, pressing the issue repeatedly with former U.S. President George W. Bush. Ban has received strong criticism from OIOS, the UN internal audit unit, stating that the secretariat, under Ban's leadership, is "drifting into irrelevance".[4] In 2011, Ban ran unopposed for a second term as Secretary-General. On 21 June 2011, he was unanimously re-elected by the General Assembly and therefore will continue to serve until 31 December 2016.[5] [6]

Biography
Ban was born in Eumseong in a small farming village in North Chungcheong, in 1944 at the end of the Japanese rule of Korea. His family moved to the nearby town of Chungju, where he was raised.[7] During Ban's childhood, his father had a warehouse business, but the warehouse went bankrupt and the family lost its middle-class standard of living. When Ban was six, his family fled to a remote mountainside for the duration of the Korean War.[1] After the war ended, his family returned to Chungju. Ban has mentioned meeting U.S. military troops at this time.[8] In secondary school (Chungju High School), Ban became a star pupil, particularly in his studies of English. In 1952, he was selected by his class to address a message to then UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjld, but it is unknown if the message was ever sent. In 1962, Ban won an essay contest sponsored by the Red Cross and earned a trip to the United States where he lived in San Francisco with a host family for several months.[9] As part of the trip, Ban met U.S. President John F. Kennedy.[1] When a journalist at the meeting asked Ban what he wanted to be when he grew up, he said, "I want to become a diplomat."[8] He received a B.A. in International Relations from Seoul National University in 1970, and earned a Master of Public Administration from the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in 1985.[8] At Harvard, he studied under Joseph Nye who remarked that Ban had "a rare combination of analytic clarity, humility and perseverance."[9] Ban was awarded the degree of Doctor of Laws (Honoris Causa) by the University of Malta on 22 April 2009.[10] He further received an honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from the University of Washington in October 2009.[11]

Ban Ki-moon In addition to his native Korean, Ban speaks English, French, and Japanese. There have been questions, however, regarding the extent of his knowledge of French, one of the two working languages of the United Nations Secretariat.[12]

37

Family
Ban Ki-moon met Yoo Soon-taek in 1962 when they were both high school students. Ban was 18 years old, and Yoo Soon-taek was his secondary school's student council president. Ban Ki-moon married Yoo Soon-taek in 1971. They have three adult children: two daughters and a son. His elder daughter, Seon-yong, was born in 1972 and now works for the Korea Foundation in Seoul. She is married to an Indian.[13] [14] His son, Woo-hyun was born in 1974 in India.[13] He received an MBA from Anderson School of Management at University of California, Los Angeles, and works for an investment firm in New York.[15] His younger daughter, Hyun-hee (born 1976), is a field officer for UNICEF in Nairobi.[1] After his election as Secretary-General, Ban became an icon in his hometown, where his extended family still resides. Over 50,000 gathered in a soccer stadium in Chungju for celebration of the result. In the months following his election, thousands of practitioners of feng shui went to his village to determine how it produced such an important person.[7] Ban himself is not a member of any church or religious group[2] and has declined to expound his beliefs: "Now, as Secretary-General, it will not be appropriate at this time to talk about my own belief in any particular religion or God. So maybe we will have some other time to talk about personal matters."[3] His mother is a Buddhist.[7]

Personality
In the Korean Foreign Ministry his nickname was Ban-jusa, meaning "the Bureaucrat" or "the administrative clerk." The name was used as both positive and negative: complimenting Ban's attention to detail and administrative skill while deriding what was seen as a lack of charisma and subservience to his superiors.[16] The Korean press corps calls him "the slippery eel" for his ability to dodge questions.[8] His demeanor has also been described as a traitor to world peace and "Confucian approach."[17] He is regarded by many as a "stand-up guy"[9] and is known for his "easy smile".[1]

Diplomatic career
After graduating from university, Ban received the top score on Korea's foreign service exam. He joined the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in May 1970, and worked his way up the career ladder during the years of the Yusin Constitution.[9] His first overseas posting was to New Delhi, where he served as vice consul and impressed many of his superiors in the foreign ministry with his competence. Ban reportedly accepted a posting to India rather than the more prestigious United States, because in India he would be Ban Ki-moon with former US Secretary of State able to save more money, and send more money home to his family.[18] Condoleezza Rice [19] In 1974 he received his first posting to the United Nations, as First Secretary of the South Permanent Observer Mission (South Korea became a full UN member-state on 17 September 1991).[20] After Park Chung-hee's 1979 assassination, Ban assumed the post of Director of the United Nations Division. In 1980 Ban became director of the United Nations' International Organizations and Treaties Bureau, headquartered in Seoul.[19] He has been posted twice to the Republic of Korea embassy in Washington, D.C. Between these two assignments he served as Director-General for American Affairs in 19901992. In 1992, he became Vice Chairman of the South-North Joint Nuclear Control Commission, following the adoption by South and North Korea of the Joint

Ban Ki-moon Declaration of the Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula.[18] From 19931994 Ban was Korea's deputy ambassador to the United States. He was promoted to the position of Deputy Minister for Policy Planning and International Organizations in 1995 and then appointed National Security Advisor to the President in 1996.[19] Ban's lengthy career overseas has been credited with helping him avoid South Korea's unforgiving political environment.[17] Ban was appointed Ambassador to Austria and Slovenia in 1998, and a year later he was also elected as Chairman of the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO PrepCom). During the negotiations, in what Ban considers the biggest blunder of his career, he included in a public letter a positive statement about the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 2001, not long after the United States had decided to abandon the treaty. To avoid anger from the United States, Ban was fired by President Kim Dae-jung, who also issued a public apology for Ban's statement.[1] Ban was unemployed for the only time in his career and was expecting to receive an assignment to work in a remote and unimportant embassy.[1] In 2001, during the 56th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, the Republic of Korea held the rotating presidency, and to Ban's surprise, he was selected to be the chief of staff to general assembly president Han Seung-soo.[21] In 2003, incoming president Roh Moo-hyun selected Ban as one of his foreign policy advisors.[19]

38

Foreign Minister of South Korea

In 2004, Ban replaced Yoon Young Kwan as foreign minister of South Korea under president Roh Moo-hyun.[8] At the beginning of his term, Ban was faced with two major crises: in June 2004 Kim Sun-il, a Korean translator, was kidnapped and killed in Iraq by Islamic extremists; and in December 2004 dozens of Koreans died in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. Ban survived scrutiny from lawmakers and saw an upturn in his popularity when talks began with North Korea.[19] Ban became actively involved in issues relating to inter-Korean relationships.[18] In September 2005, as Foreign Minister, he played a leading role in the diplomatic efforts to adopt the Joint Statement on resolving the North Korean nuclear issue at the Fourth Round of the Six-party talks held in Beijing.[22] [23]

As foreign minister, Ban oversaw the trade and aid policies of South Korea. This work put Ban in the position of signing trade deals and delivering foreign assistance to diplomats who would later be influential in his candidacy for Secretary-General. For example, Ban became the first senior South Korean minister to travel to the Republic of the Congo since its independence in 1960.[24]

Ban Ki-moon with Indonesian President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono

Campaign for Secretary-General: 2007

Ban Ki-moon

39

2007 Secretary-General candidates Name Ban Ki-moon Shashi Tharoor Position

[25]

South Korean foreign minister Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations for public information; from India

Vaira Ve-Freiberga President of Latvia Ashraf Ghani Surakiart Sathirathai Chancellor of Kabul University, Afghanistan Deputy prime minister of Thailand

Prince Zeid bin Ra'ad Jordan's ambassador to the United Nations Jayantha Dhanapala Former Under-Secretary-General for disarmament; from Sri Lanka

In February 2006, Ban declared his candidacy to replace Kofi Annan as UN Secretary-General at the end of 2006, becoming the first South Korean to run for the office.[26] Though Ban was the first to announce a candidacy, he was not originally considered a serious contender.[9] Over the next eight months, Ban made ministerial visits to each of the 15 countries with a seat on the Security Council.[8] Of the seven candidates, he topped each of the four straw polls conducted by the United Nations Security Council: on 24 July,[27] 14 September,[28] 28 September,[29] and 2 October.[30] During the period in which these polls took place, Ban made major speeches to the Asia Society and the Council on Foreign Relations in New York.[31] [32] To be confirmed, Ban needed not only to win the support of the diplomatic community, but also to be able to avoid a veto from any of the five permanent members of the council: People's Republic of China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Ban was popular in Washington for having pushed to send South Korean troops to Iraq, and had the support of the Bush administration as he pursued the position.[33] But Ban also opposed several U.S. positions: he expressed his support for the International Criminal Court and favoured an entirely non-confrontational approach to dealing with North Korea.[8] Ban said during his campaign that he would like to visit North Korea in person to meet with Kim Jong-il directly.[23] Ban was viewed as a stark contrast from Kofi Annan, who was considered charismatic, but perceived as a weak manager because of problems surrounding the UN's oil-for-food program in Iraq.[16] Ban struggled to win the approval of France. His official biography states that he speaks both English and French, the two working languages of the UN Secretariat. He has repeatedly struggled to answer questions in French from journalists.[12] Ban has repeatedly acknowledged his limitations at French, but assured French diplomats that he was devoted to continuing his study. At a press conference on 11 January 2007, Ban remarked, My French perhaps could be improved, and I am continuing to work. I have taken French lessons over the last few months. I think that, even if my French isn't perfect, I will continue to study it.[34] As the Secretary-General election drew closer, there was rising criticism of the South Korean campaign on Ban's behalf. Specifically, his alleged practice of systematically visiting all member states of the Security Council in his role as the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade to secure votes in his support by signing trade deals with European countries and pledging aid to developing countries were the focus of many news articles.[35] According to The Washington Post, "rivals have privately grumbled that Republic of Korea, which has the world's 11th-largest economy, has wielded its economic might to generate support for his candidacy." Ban reportedly said that these insinuations were "groundless." In an interview on 17 September 2006 he stated: "As front-runner, I know that I can

Ban Ki-moon become a target of this very scrutinizing process," and "I am a man of integrity."[36] In the final informal poll on 2 October, Ban received fourteen favorable votes and one abstention ("no opinion") from the fifteen members of the Security Council. The one abstention came from the Japanese delegation, who vehemently opposed the idea of a Korean taking the role of Secretary-General. Due to the overwhelming support of Ban by the rest of the Security Council, Japan later voted in favor of Ban to avoid controversy. More importantly, Ban was the only one to escape a veto; each of the other candidates received at least one "no" vote from among the five permanent members. After the vote, Shashi Tharoor, who finished second, withdrew his candidacy[37] and China's Permanent Representative to the UN told reporters that "it is quite clear from today's straw poll that Minister Ban Ki-moon is the candidate that the Security Council will recommend to the General Assembly."[38] On 9 October, the Security Council formally chose Ban as its nominee. In the public vote, he was supported by all 15 members of the council.[20] On 13 October, the 192-member General Assembly acclaimed Ban as Secretary-General.[21]

40

First Term as Secretary-General

When Ban became Secretary-General, The Economist listed the major challenges facing him in 2007: "rising nuclear demons in Iran and North Korea, a haemorrhaging wound in Darfur, unending violence in the Middle East, looming environmental disaster, escalating international terrorism, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, the spread of HIV/AIDS. And then the more parochial concerns, such as the largely unfinished business of the most sweeping attempt at reform in the UN's history."[39] Before starting, Kofi Annan shared the story that when the first Secretary-General Trygve Lie left office, he told his successor, Dag Hammarskjld, "You are about to take over the most impossible job on earth."[21]

Ban Ki-moon with the President of Russia Vladimir Putin in Moscow on 9 April 2008.

On 23 January 2007 Ban took office as the eighth Secretary-General of the United Nations. Ban's term as Secretary-General opened with a flap. At his first encounter with the press as Secretary-General on 2 January 2007, he refused to condemn the death penalty imposed on Saddam Hussein by the Iraqi High Tribunal, remarking that The issue of capital punishment is for each and every member State to decide.[40] Ban's statements contradicted long-standing United Nations opposition to the death penalty as a human-rights concern.[41] He quickly clarified his stance in the case of Barzan al-Tikriti and Awad al-Bandar, two top officials who were convicted of the deaths of 148 Shia Muslims in the Iraqi village of Dujail in the 1980s. In a statement through his spokesperson on 6 January, he strongly urged the Government of Iraq to grant a stay of execution to those whose death sentences may be carried out in the near future.[42] [43] On the broader issue, he told a Washington, D.C., audience on 16 January 2007 that he recognized and encouraged the growing trend in international society, international law and domestic policies and practices to phase out eventually the death penalty.[44] On the tenth anniversary of Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot's death, 15 April 2008, Ban Ki-moon appealed for the senior leaders of the regime to be brought to justice. The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia-tribunal, which was established by both the United Nations and Cambodia and which became operational in 2006, is expected to continue until at least 2010.[45]

Ban Ki-moon

41

Cabinet
In early January, Ban appointed the key members of his cabinet. As his Deputy Secretary-General, he selected Tanzanian foreign minister and professor Asha-Rose Migiro a move that pleased African diplomats who had concerns of losing power without Annan in office.[46] The top position devoted exclusively to management, Under-Secretary-General for Management, was filled by Alicia Brcena Ibarra of Mexico. Brcena was considered a UN insider, having previously served as Annan's chief of staff. Her appointment was seen by critics as an indication that Ban would not make dramatic changes to UN bureaucracy.[41] Ban appointed Sir John Holmes, the British Ambassador to France, as Under-Secretary-General for humanitarian affairs and coordinator of emergency relief.[41] Ban initially said that he would delay making other appointments until his first round of reforms were approved, but he later abandoned this idea after receiving criticism.[42] [47] In February he continued with appointments, selecting B. Lynn Pascoe, the U.S. ambassador to Indonesia, to become Under-Secretary-General for political affairs. Jean-Marie Guhenno, a French diplomat, who had served as Under-Secretary-General for peacekeeping operations under Annan, remained in office. Ban selected Vijay K. Nambiar as his chief of staff.[47] The appointment of many women to top jobs was seen as fulfilling a campaign promise Ban had made to increase the role of women in the United Nations. During Ban's first year as Secretary-General, more top jobs were being handled by women than ever before. Though not appointed by Ban, the president of the General Assembly, Haya Rashed Al-Khalifa, is only the third woman to hold this position in UN history.[48]

Reform agenda
During his first month in office, Ban proposed two major restructurings: to split the UN peacekeeping operation into two departments and to combine the political affairs and disarmament department. His proposals were met with stiff resistance from members of the UN General Assembly who bristled under Ban's request for rapid approval. The proposed merger of the disarmament and political affairs offices was criticized by many in the developing world, partially because of rumours that Ban hoped to place American B. Lynn Pascoe in charge of the new office. Alejandro D. Wolff, then acting American ambassador, said the United States backed his proposals.[42] [47] After the early bout of reproach, Ban began extensive consultation with UN ambassadors, agreeing to have his peacekeeping proposal extensively vetted. After the consultations, Ban dropped his proposal to combine political affairs and disarmament.[47] Ban nevertheless pressed ahead with reforms on job requirements at the UN requiring that all positions be considered five-year appointments, all receive strict annual performance reviews, and all financial disclosures be made public. Though unpopular in the New York office, the move was popular in other UN offices around the world and lauded by UN observers.[47] Ban's proposal to split the peacekeeping operation into one group handling operations and another handling arms was finally adopted in mid-March 2007.[49] A new agenda for negotiations on UN reform was approved by the General Assembly in April 2007, covering a number of loosely related initiatives to improve the coherence of the UN system. Most proposals required the approval of member states; others provided further impetus to already initiated reform measures. Ban Ki-moon supported the ongoing negotiations on the consolidation of UN activities at the country level under the Delivering as One initiative through the implementation of the One UN pilot projects and the harmonization of business practices in the UN system. He also gave strong support to the proposal on establishing a unified gender organisation. Whereas little was achieved on most of the controversial issues, the General Assembly approved in September 2010 the establishment of UN Women as the new UN organization for the empowerment of women and gender equality. UN Women was established by unifying the mandates and resources for greater impact of four small entities and its first head is Ms Michelle Bachelet, former President of Chile.

Ban Ki-moon

42

Key issues
The Secretary-General of the United Nations has the ability to influence debate on nearly any global issue. Although unsuccessful in some areas, Ban's predecessor Annan had been successful in increasing the UN peacekeeping presence and in popularizing the Millennium Development Goals. UN observers were eager to see on which issues Ban intends to focus, in addition to reform of the United Nations bureaucracy.[39] On several prominent issues, such as proliferation in Iran and North Korea, Ban has deferred to the Security Council.[49] Ban has also declined to become involved on the issue of Taiwan's status. In 2007, the Republic of Nauru raised the issue of allowing the Republic of China (Taiwan) to sign the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Ban referenced the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758, and refused the motion. On 19 July 2007, Taiwanese President Chen Shui-bian wrote to request admission into the UN by the name Taiwan. Ban rejected the request.[50] Global warming Ban early on identified global warming as one of the key issues of his administration. In a White House meeting with U.S. President George W. Bush in January, Ban urged Bush to take steps to curb greenhouse gas emissions. On 1 March 2007 in a speech before the UN General Assembly, Ban emphasized his concerns about global warming. Ban stated, "For my generation, coming of age at the height of the Cold War, fear of nuclear winter seemed the leading existential threat on the horizon. But the danger posed by war to all humanity and to our planet is at least matched by climate change"[51] (referring to Global Warming, see P:GW portal). On 3 September 2009 he further emphasized his concerns at the World Climate Conference in Geneva, when he stated, "Our foot is stuck on the accelerator and we are heading towards an abyss".[52] Middle East On Thursday, 22 March 2007, while Ban was taking part in the first stop of a tour of the Middle East, a mortar attack hit just 80 meters (260ft) from where the Secretary-General was standing, interrupting a press conference in Baghdad's Green Zone, and visibly shaking Ban and others. No one was hurt in the incident.[53] The United Nations had already limited its role in Iraq after its Baghdad headquarters was bombed in August 2003, killing 22 people. Ban said, however, that he still hoped to find a way for the United Nations to "do more for Iraqi social and political development."[54] On his trip, Ban visited Egypt, Israel, the West Bank, Jordan, Lebanon and Saudi Arabia, where Ban attended a conference with leaders of the Arab League and met for several hours with Omar Hassan al-Bashir, the Sudanese president who had resisted UN peacekeepers in Darfur.[49] While Ban met with Mahmoud Abbas, the Palestinian president, he declined to meet with Ismail Haniya of Hamas.[55] Ban Ki-moon criticized Israel on 10 March 2008 for planning to build housing units in a West Bank settlement, saying the decision conflicts with "Israel's obligation under the road map" for Middle East peace.[56] During a meeting of the UN Security Council on Wednesday, 7 January 2009, Ban called for an immediate end to fighting in the Gaza Strip. He criticized both sides, Israel for bombarding Gaza and Hamas for firing rockets into Israel.[57] Although the 2009 Iranian presidential election was widely disputed, Ban Ki-moon sent a traditional congratulation message [58] to the Iranian president upon his inauguration. He kept silent over the request of Shirin Ebadi to visit[59]

Former U.S. President George W. Bush talks with United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon of the Republic of Korea. In their early meetings, Ban stressed the importance of confronting global warming.

Ban Ki-moon Iran after the crackdown on peaceful post-election protests by the Iranian police an event that was perceived by some as a crime against humanity .[60] More than 4000 people were arrested and nearly 70 were killed, some while being held in prison.[61] In another incident, several prominent intellectuals including Akbar Ganji, Hamid Dabashi, Noam Chomsky went on a three-day hunger strike in front of the UN. The incident was followed by an official request[62] by more than 200 intellectuals, human rights activists and reformist politicians in Iran for the UN reaction. Ban Ki-moon however did not take any action to stop the violence in Iran. Darfur Ban took the first foreign trip of his term to attend the African Union summit in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in January 2007 as part of an effort to reach out to the Group of 77.[39] He repeatedly identified Darfur as the top humanitarian priority of his administration.[49] Ban played a large role, with several face-to-face meetings with Sudanese President Omar Hassan al-Bashir, in convincing Sudan to allow UN peacekeepers to enter the Darfur region. On 31 July 2007 the United Nations Security Council approved sending 26,000 UN peacekeepers into the region to join 7,000 troops from the African Union. The resolution was heralded as a major breakthrough in confronting the Darfur conflict (although the United States labeled the conflict a "genocide," the United Nations has declined to do so). The first phase of the peacekeeping mission began in October 2007.[63] Myanmar Ban Ki-moon flew to Myanmar on 25 May 2008 to guide a conference with international agencies aimed at boosting donations for the nation, which was struck by Cyclone Nargis on 2 May 2008. The conference was initiated after Ban had met with Than Shwe, the leading figure of Myanmar's government 23 May 2008. Ban toured the devastationespecially in the hard-hit Irrawaddy Delta23 May 2008 and 24 May 2008. Myanmar officials agreed to allow the Yangon International Airport to be used as a logistical hub for aid distribution.[64]

43

Campaign for second term as Secretary-General: 2011

On 6 June 2011, Ban Ki-moon formally announced his candidacy for a second consecutive term[5] as Secretary-General of the United Nations. He announced his candidacy at a press conference, following a meeting with the Asian group of countries at the United Nations. Ban Ki-moon's first mandate as the Secretary-General was set to end on 31 December 2011.[65] The five permanent Security Council members supported his candidacy. There was no declared rival for the post.[66] On 17 June 2011, he received the recommendation of the Security Council by a unanimous vote,[67] and, on 21 June, his nomination was confirmed by a unanimous[6] acclamation vote at the United Nations General Assembly.[68] His new five-year term as Secretary-General commenced on 1 January 2012[69] and will end on 31 December 2016.[5]

Honors and awards

Ban Ki-moon was awarded the Order of Service Merit by the Government of the Republic of Korea on three occasions: in 1975, 1986 and 2006.[22] For his accomplishments as an envoy, he received the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria in 2001. He was bestowed the Grand Cross of Rio Branco by the government of Brazil. He was bestowed the Gran Cruz del Sol by the government of Peru. He was bestowed a Doctor Honoris Causa by the National University of San Marcos, the main university in Peru and the oldest of the Americas (2011). He was bestowed a Doctor of Laws Degree Honoris Causa by the University of the Philippines College of Law, the national university of the country, in 2008.

Ban Ki-moon He was honored with James A. Van Fleet Award by the Korea Society in New York City for his contributions to friendship between the United States and the Republic of Korea.[70]

44

Controversy
According to The Washington Post, "some U.N. employees and delegates" expressed resentment at Ban's perceived favoritism in the appointment of South Korean nationals in key posts. Previous U.N. chiefs such as Kurt Waldheim (Austria), Javier Prez de Cullar (Peru) and Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt) brought small teams of trusted aides or clerical workers from their country's Foreign Ministry. But according to "some officials" in the Post story, Ban has gone further, boosting South Korea's presence in U.N. ranks by more than 20 percent during his first year in office. In response, Ban and his aides have claimed that allegations of favoritism are wrong, and that some of the harshest criticisms against him have undercurrents of racism. He said that the South Korean nationals he had appointed including Choi Young-jin, who has served as a high-ranking official in the United Nations' peacekeeping department are highly qualified for their positions. Others such as Donald P. Gregg, a former U.S. ambassador to South Korea say the complaints are driven by envy, "I think being from South Korea, and people have growing respect for South Korea, that's a great enhancement for the secretary general. "If he brings along talented people who he knows very well, I think that's also a plus." U.N. records show that South Korea, the organization's eleventh-largest financial contributor, had 54 South Korean nationals assigned to its mission six months before Ban took over the top U.N. post. By contrast, the Philippines, a lesser financial contributor, had 759 nationals in its mission.[71] Former U.N. Under Secretary Inga-Britt Ahlenius denounced Ban Ki Moon after resigning her post in 2010, calling him reprehensible.[72]

Bias
During the ROKS Cheonan sinking saga, he took the unusual step of demanding action against North Korea for the alleged sinking of a vessel from his country. This move was perceived as unusual because it was rare for any Secretary-Generaland particularly Ban Ki-moonto comment on the Security Council taking action on a particular issue as his office had, in the past, tended to be extremely deferential to the Security Council.[73]

References
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Ban Ki-moon
[13] "Ban Ki-moon's family nuptial ties with India" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2008/ oct/ 31moon. htm). Rediff News. 31 October 2008. . Retrieved 5 June 2011. [14] "Ban ki-Moon at the World Hindi Conference" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2007/ jul/ 13hindi. htm). Rediff News. 14 July 2007. . Retrieved 5 June 2011. [15] " " (http:/ / www. donga. com/ fbin/ output?n=200904280139) (in Korean). Dong-a Ilbo. 2009-04-28. . [16] "Enter Mr Ban; The UN's new secretary-general" (http:/ / www. unsgselection. org/ files/ Economist_EnterMrBan_7Oct06. pdf) (PDF). The Economist. 2006-10-07. . [17] "Can This Guy Run the U.N.?" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,1543932,00. html). Time Magazine. 2006-10-16. . [18] "Profile: Ban Ki-moon" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 5401856. stm). BBC News. 2006-10-13. . Retrieved 2007-08-04. [19] Lee Joo-hee (2006-02-15). "Ban surges toward next career step". The Korea Herald. [20] Warren Hoge (2006-10-03). "Council Backs South Korean for U.N. Secretary General". The New York Times. [21] Warren Hoge (2006-10-14). "South Korean Is Appointed Secretary General of the U.N.". The New York Times. [22] "Official U.N. biography" (http:/ / www. un. org/ sg/ biography. shtml). un.org. . Retrieved 2007-08-12. [23] Lally Weymouth (2006-10-23). "A Baptism by Fire; Even before taking office, the newly elected secretary-general of the United Nations is confronted with a global crisis" (http:/ / www. newsweek. com/ id/ 45039). Newsweek. . [24] Colum Lynch (2006-09-29). "S. Korean Contender for U.N. Post Has an Edge; Ban Ki Moon's Rivals Complain About His Role in Foreign Aid and Trade Policy". The Washington Post. [25] Warren Hoge (2006-09-29). "South Korean Favored to Win Top Job at U.N.". The New York Times. [26] Song-wu, Park (2006-02-14). "Minister Ban to Run for Top UN Job" (http:/ / times. hankooki. com/ lpage/ nation/ 200602/ kt2006021416334111990. htm). The Korea Times. . Retrieved 2006-09-28. [27] "Ban takes 1st Straw Poll" (http:/ / www. unsg. org/ wordpress/ archives/ 115). UNSG.org (http:/ / www. unsg. org/ ). 2006-07-24. . Retrieved 2006-09-28. [28] "Ban firms up lead in second Straw Poll" (http:/ / www. unsg. org/ wordpress/ archives/ 138). UNSG.org (http:/ / www. unsg. org/ ). 2006-09-14. . Retrieved 2006-09-28. [29] "Ban slips but holds, Ve-Freiberga pushes into third" (http:/ / www. unsg. org/ wordpress/ archives/ 164). UNSG.org (http:/ / www. unsg. org/ ). 2006-09-28. . Retrieved 2006-09-28. [30] "Ban Ki-moon wins" (http:/ / www. unsg. org/ wordpress/ archives/ 170). UNSG.org (http:/ / www. unsg. org/ ). 2006-10-02. . Retrieved 2006-10-02. [31] "Foreign Minister Ban Ki-moon interview" (http:/ / www. asiasource. org/ news/ special_reports/ kimoon. cfm). Asiasource.org. 2006-09-26. . Retrieved 2007-08-02. [32] "The Quest for Peace and Prosperity in the Asia-Pacific and Beyond" (http:/ / www. asiasociety. org/ speeches/ 06ny_ban. html). Ban Ki-moon address to Asia Society (transcript). 2006-09-25. . Retrieved 2007-08-02. [33] "UNs Lynn Pascoe cannot avoid being influenced by US State Department agenda on Sri Lanka" (http:/ / www. asiantribune. com/ news/ 2010/ 04/ 30/ uns-lynn-pascoe-cannot-avoid-being-influenced-us-state-department-agenda-sri-lanka), Daya Gamage. Asian Tribune. April 30, 2010. Accessed June 7, 2011 [34] "Secretary-General's press conference" (http:/ / www. un. org/ apps/ sg/ sgstats. asp?nid=2407). United Nations. 2007-01-11. . Retrieved 2007-08-02. [35] Beeston, Richard; Bone, James (2006-09-26). "Millions of dollars and a piano may put Korean in UN's top job" (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ article/ 0,,25689-2380336,00. html). The Times (London). . Retrieved 2007-08-02. [36] Lynch, Colum (2006-09-28). "S. Korean Contender for U.N. Post Has an Edge" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 09/ 28/ AR2006092801765. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 2007-08-02. [37] "Shashi Tharoor pulls out of UN race" (http:/ / www. ndtv. com/ morenews/ showmorestory. asp?id=94211). NDTV.com (http:/ / www. ndtv. com/ ). 2006-10-02. . Retrieved 2006-10-02. [38] "United Nations Webcast of announcement" (http:/ / webcast. un. org/ ramgen/ sc/ so061002pm3. rm). United Nations. . Retrieved 2007-08-02. [39] "Mission impossible?The United Nations". The Economist. 2007-01-06. [40] "Secretary-General's encounter with the UN press corps (transcript)" (http:/ / www. un. org/ apps/ sg/ offthecuff. asp?nid=964). United Nations. 2007-01-02. . Retrieved 2007-08-02. [41] Julia Preston (2007-01-03). "New U.N. Chief Invites Controversy by Declining to Oppose Hussein Execution" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 01/ 03/ world/ middleeast/ 03nations. html). The New York Times. . [42] Mark Turner (2007-02-01). "Ban's month of muddle: how the new UN chief is struggling to win over the doubters". Financial Times. [43] "Statement attributable to the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General on the death sentences in Iraq" (http:/ / www. un. org/ apps/ sg/ sgstats. asp?nid=2395). United Nations. 2007-01-06. . Retrieved 2007-08-02. [44] "Address at the Center for Strategic and International Studies and Q&A (transcript)" (http:/ / www. un. org/ apps/ sg/ sgstats. asp?nid=2410). United Nations. 2007-01-16. . Retrieved 2007-08-02. [45] "U.N. chief calls for justice in Cambodia" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2008/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ 04/ 15/ un. pol. pot/ index. html). CNN. 2008-04-15. . Retrieved 2008-04-15. [46] Julia Preston (2007-01-06). "Tanzanian Woman Is Chosen for U.N.'s 2nd Highest Post" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 01/ 06/ world/ 06nations. html). The New York Times. .

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Ban Ki-moon
[47] Warren Hoge (2007-02-10). "U.N. Chief Gives Key Post to American". The New York Times. [48] Stevenson Swanson (2007-04-11). "Leaders making world of difference\ Higher profile at UN brings new emphasis on issues affecting women". Chicago Tribune. [49] Maggie Farley (2007-04-11). "Ban Ki-moon learns the hard way". The Irish Times. [50] "MOFA spokesman slams Ban Ki-moon for rejecting UN bid" (http:/ / www. taipeitimes. com/ News/ taiwan/ archives/ 2007/ 07/ 30/ 2003371907). Taipei Times. 2007-07-30. . Retrieved 2007-08-30. [51] Colum Lynch (2007-03-02). "U.N. Secretary General Calls Global Warming a Priority" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 03/ 01/ AR2007030101484. html). The Washington Post. . [52] Ban urges rapid progress in negotiations on new climate change pact (http:/ / www. un. org/ apps/ news/ story. asp?NewsID=31926& Cr=climate+ change& Cr1=) UN News Centre, 3 September 2009. [53] Rocket blast shakes UN chief in Baghdad (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english/ 2007-03/ 23/ content_5884102. htm) Xinhua 2007-03-23 [54] Warren Hoge (2007-03-24). "U.N. Chief Isn't Discouraged by His Close Call in Iraq". The New York Times. [55] Warren Hoge (2007-04-03). "On Mideast Trip, U.N. Chief Sought to Expand New Role". The New York Times. [56] "U.N. blasts Israel for West Bank housing expansion plan" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2008/ WORLD/ meast/ 03/ 10/ israel. palestinian. settlement/ index. html). CNN. 2008-03-10. . Retrieved 2008-03-10. [57] "U.N. blasts Israel for West Bank housing expansion plan". BBC. 2009-01-07. [58] UN toasts Ahmadinejad win, as 69 said killed in Iran protests Haaretz Daily Newspaper|Israel News (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 1106757. html). Haaretz.com. Retrieved on 2011-05-06. [59] "Nobel laureate calls on U.N. chief to visit Iran" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ worldNews/ idUSTRE57A0HY20090811). Reuters. 2009-08-11. . [60] "British, French embassy workers on trial over Iran protests" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2009/ WORLD/ meast/ 08/ 08/ iran. detainee. trials/ ). CNN. 2009-08-09. . Retrieved 2010-04-07. [61] "Iran admits 4,000 June detentions" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 8195586. stm). BBC News. 2009-08-11. . Retrieved 2010-04-07. [62] Ganji, Akbar (2009-08-12). "Dear Mr Ban, heed the Iranian people" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ commentisfree/ 2009/ aug/ 12/ iran-ban-ki-moon-protest). The Guardian (London). . Retrieved 2010-04-07. [63] Cheryl Corley (2007-08-02). "United Nations Deploys Peacekeeping Troops to Darfur". Tell Me More on NPR. [64] CNN (2008-05-25). "Cyclone aid conference opens in Myanmar". [65] "Ban Ki-moon launches official re-election campaign" (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english2010/ world/ 2011-06/ 06/ c_13913806. htm). Xinhua. 2011-06-06. . Retrieved 2011-06-22. [66] Agence France-Presse (2011-06-05). "Ban Ki-moon reelection campaign gathers pace" (http:/ / www. hurriyetdailynews. com/ n. php?n=ban-ki-moon-reelection-campaign-gathers-pace-2011-06-05). Hurriyet Daily News. . Retrieved 2011-06-22. [67] Patrick Worsnip (2011-06-17). "U.N. council recommends 2nd term for Ban Ki-moon" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ 2011/ 06/ 17/ us-un-election-idUSTRE75G42820110617). Reuters. . Retrieved 2011-06-22. [68] "General Assembly Appoints Secretary-General Ban Kimoon to Second Term of Office" (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ / 2011/ ga11102. doc. htm). UN Press Office. 2011-06-21. . Retrieved 2011-06-22. [69] PTI (2011-06-22). "Ban Ki-moon unanimously elected for second term as UN chief" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ 2011/ 06/ 17/ us-un-election-idUSTRE75G42820110617). The Times of India. . Retrieved 2011-06-22. [70] "Samsung Chairman Lee Receives Van Fleet Award" (http:/ / liveweb. web. archive. org/ http:/ / world. kbs. co. kr/ english/ news/ news_detail. htm?No=39557). KBS World (http:/ / world. kbs. co. kr/ english/ ). 2006-09-20. . Retrieved 2006-09-28. [71] Colum Lynch (2007-10-21). "Under U.N. Chief, Koreans in Key Posts: Ban Ki-moon Denies Playing Favorites" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 10/ 20/ AR2007102001008. html). Washington Post. . Retrieved 2007-10-23. [72] "investigator says Ban is embarrassing himself" (http:/ / www. nypost. com/ p/ blogs/ capitol/ un_corruption_investigator_says_k8tqetAqyyzW51jnlL1WyM), Abby Wisse Schachter. New York Post. July 20, 2010. Accessed June 7, 2011 [73] "Ban Ki Moon Joins The North Korea-Security Council Debate" (http:/ / www. undispatch. com/ node/ 9910). UN Dispatch. . Retrieved 2010-05-25.

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External links
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (http://www.un.org/sg), official United Nations profile, statements, reports, press briefings Column archive (http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/bankimoon) at The Guardian Appearances (http://www.c-spanvideo.org/bankimoon) on C-SPAN Ban Ki-moon (http://www.charlierose.com/guest/view/5) on Charlie Rose Ban Ki-moon (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm2559634/) at the Internet Movie Database Works by or about Ban Ki-moon (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n2009-80264) in libraries (WorldCat catalog) Ban Ki-moon (http://english.aljazeera.net/category/category/person/ban-ki-moon) collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English Ban Ki-moon (http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/ban-ki-moon) collected news and commentary at The Guardian Ban Ki-moon (http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/b/ban_ki_moon/) collected news and commentary at The New York Times Ban Ki-moon (http://topics.wsj.com/person/B/ban-ki-moon/6447) collected news and commentary at The Wall Street Journal Ban Ki-moon interview (http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5694018002727109340) with Dennis Wholey on 23 February 2006 Ban Ki-moon's address to the United Nations General Assembly (http://www.un.org/ga/63/generaldebate/sg. shtml), General Debate of the 63rd Session, 23 September 2008 Ban Ki-moon on Sixty Years of UN Peacekeeping (http://iiea.com/events/ban-ki-moon-on-peacekeeping), Dublin Castle, 7 July 2009

Kofi Annan

48

Kofi Annan
Kofi Annan

7th Secretary-General of the United Nations In office 1 January 1997 31 December 2006 Deputy Louise Frchette (19972006) Mark Malloch Brown (2006) Boutros Boutros-Ghali

Preceded by

Succeeded by Ban Ki-moon Personal details Born 8 April 1938 Kumasi, Gold Coast Ghanaian Nane Maria Lagergren Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Macalester College Graduate Institute of International Studies MIT Christian (Protestant) [1]

Nationality Spouse(s) Alma mater

Religion

Kofi Atta Annan ( /kofinn/; born 8 April 1938) is a Ghanaian diplomat who served as the seventh Secretary-General of the UN from 1 January 1997 to 31 December 2006. Annan and the United Nations were the co-recipients of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize for his founding of the Global AIDS and Health Fund to support developing countries in their struggle to care for their people.

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49

Early years and education

Kofi Annan was born in the Kofandros section of Kumasi, Ghana in what was then the British colony of the Gold Coast. He is a twin, which has a respected status in Ghanaian culture. His twin sister Efua Atta, who died in 1991, shares the middle name Atta, which in Fante and Akan means 'twin'. Annan and his sister were born into one of the country's aristocratic families; both their grandfathers and their uncle were tribal chiefs.[2] In the Akan names tradition, some children are named according to the day of the week on which they were born, and/or in relation to how many children precede them. Kofi in Akan is the name that corresponds with Friday.[3] Pronunciation: Annan has said his surname rhymes with "cannon" in English.[4] From 1954 to 1957, Annan attended the elite Mfantsipim school, a Methodist boarding school in Cape Coast founded in the 1870s. Annan has said that the school taught him "that suffering anywhere concerns people everywhere".[5] In 1957, the year Annan graduated from Mfantsipim, Ghana gained independence from Britain. In 1958, Annan began studying economics at the Kumasi College of Science and Technology, now the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology of Ghana. He received a Ford Foundation grant, enabling him to complete his undergraduate studies at Macalester College in St. Paul, Minnesota, United States, in 1961. Annan then did a DEA degree in International Relations at the Graduate Institute of International Studies in Geneva, Switzerland, from 196162. After some years of work experience, he studied at the MIT Sloan School of Management[6] (197172) in the Sloan Fellows program and earned a Master of Science (M.S.) degree. Annan is fluent in English, French, Kru, other dialects of Akan, and other African languages.[7]

Early career
In 1962, Kofi Annan started working as a Budget Officer for the World Health Organization, an agency of the United Nations (UN). From 1974 to 1976, he worked as the Director of Tourism in Ghana. in 1968 he was shot 12 times and survived gun wounds to the chest, back, head, and legs. In the late 1980s, Annan returned to work for the UN, where he was appointed as an Assistant Secretary-General in three consecutive positions: Human Resources, Management and Security Coordinator (19871990); Program Planning, Budget and Finance, and Controller (19901992); and Peacekeeping Operations (March 1993 December 1996). The Rwandan Genocide took place in 1994 while Annan directed UN Peacekeeping Operations. In 2003 Canadian ex-General Romo Dallaire, who was force commander of the United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda, claimed that Annan was overly passive in his response to the imminent genocide. In his book Shake Hands with the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda (2003), General Dallaire asserted that Annan held back UN troops from intervening to settle the conflict, and from providing more logistical and material support. Dallaire claimed that Annan failed to provide responses to his repeated faxes asking for access to a weapons depository; such weapons could have helped Dallaire defend the endangered Tutsis. In 2004, ten years after the genocide in which an estimated 800,000 people were killed, Annan said, "I could and should have done more to sound the alarm and rally support."[8] Annan served as Under-Secretary-General from March 1994 to October 1995. He was appointed a Special Representative of the Secretary-General to the former Yugoslavia, serving for five months before returning to his duties as Under-Secretary-General in April 1996.

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Secretary-General of the United Nations

Appointment
On 13 December 1996, the United Nations Security Council recommended Annan to replace the previous Secretary-General, Dr. Boutros Boutros-Ghali of Egypt, whose second term faced the veto of the United States.[9] [10] Confirmed four days later by the vote of the General Assembly,[11] he started his first term as Secretary-General on 1 January 1997.

Activities
In April 2001, Annan issued a five-point "Call to Action" to address the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Stating it was a "personal priority", Annan proposed a Global AIDS and Health Fund to stimulate the increased international spending needed to help developing countries confront the HIV/AIDS crisis. On 10 December 2001, Annan and the United Nations were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, "for their work for a better organized and more peaceful world". During the build-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Annan called on the Annan with the President of Russia Vladimir United States and the United Kingdom not to invade without the Putin at United Nations Headquarters in New York City on 16 November 2001. support of the United Nations. In a September 2004 interview on the BBC, when questioned about the legal authority for the invasion, Annan said he believed it was not in conformity with the UN charter and was illegal.[12] [13] Annan and Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad disagreed sharply on Iran's nuclear program, on an Iranian exhibition of cartoons mocking the Holocaust, and on the then upcoming International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust, an Iranian Holocaust denial conference in 2006.[14] During a visit to Iran instigated by continued Iranian uranium enrichment, Annan said "I think the tragedy of the Holocaust is an undeniable historical fact and we should really accept that fact and teach people what happened in World War II and ensure it is never repeated.".[14] Annan supported sending a UN peacekeeping mission to Darfur, Sudan. He worked with the government of Sudan to accept a transfer of power from the African Union peacekeeping mission to a UN one. Annan also worked with several Arab and Muslim countries on women's rights and other topics. Beginning in 1998, Annan convened an annual UN "Security Council Retreat" with the 15 States' representatives of the Council. It was held at the Rockefeller Brothers Fund (RBF) Conference Center at the Rockefeller family estate at Pocantico, and was sponsored by both the RBF and the UN.[15] Lubbers sexual-harassment investigation In June 2004, Annan was given a copy of the Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) report on the complaint brought by four women workers against Ruud Lubbers, UN High Commissioner for Refugees for sexual harassment, abuse of authority, and retaliation. The report also reviewed a long-serving staff member's allegations of sexual harassment and misconduct against Werner Blatter, Director of UNHCR Personnel. The investigation found Lubbers guilty of sexual harassment; no mention was made publicly of the other charge against a senior official, or two subsequent complaints filed later that year. In the course of the official investigation, Lubbers wrote a letter which some considered was a threat to the female worker who had brought the charges.[16] On 15 July 2004, Annan cleared Lubbers of the accusations, saying they were not substantial enough legally.[17] His decision held until November 2004. When the OIOS issued its annual report to the UN General Assembly, it stated that it had found Lubbers guilty of sexual harassment. These events were widely reported and weakened Annan's influence.

Kofi Annan On 17 November 2004, Annan accepted an OIOS report clearing Dileep Nair, UN Under-Secretary-General for Internal Oversight Services, of political corruption and sexual harassment charges. Some UN staff in New York disagreed with this conclusion, leading to extended debate on 19 November. The internal UNn-OIOS report on Lubbers was leaked, and sections accompanied by an article by Kate Holt were published in a British newspaper. In February 2005, he resigned as head of the UN refugee agency. Lubbers said he wanted to relieve political pressure on Annan.[18] Oil-for-Food scandal In December 2004, reports surfaced that the Secretary-General's son Kojo Annan received payments from the Swiss company Cotecna Inspection SA, which had won a lucrative contract under the UN Oil-for-Food Program. Kofi Annan called for an investigation to look into the allegations. Annan appointed the Independent Inquiry Committee,[19] which was led by former US Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker,[20] then the director of the United Nations Association of the US. In his first interview with the Inquiry Committee, Annan denied having had a meeting with Cotecna. Later in the inquiry, he recalled that he had met with Cotecna's chief executive Elie-Georges Massey twice. In a final report issued on 27 October, the committee found insufficient evidence to indict Kofi Annan on any illegal actions, but did find fault with Benan Sevan, a Cypriot national who had worked for the UN for about 40 years. Appointed by Annan to the Oil-For-Food role, Sevan repeatedly asked Iraqis for allocations of oil to the African Middle East Petroleum Company. Sevan's behavior was "ethically improper", Volcker said to reporters. Sevan repeatedly denied the charges and argued that he was being made a "scapegoat". The Volcker report was highly critical of the UN management structure and the Security Council oversight. It strongly recommended a new position be established of Chief Operating Officer (COO), to handle the fiscal and administrative responsibilities than under the Secretary General's office. The report listed the companies, both Western and Middle Eastern, that benefited illegally from the program.[20]

51

Relations between the United States and the United Nations

Kofi Annan supported[21] his deputy Secretary-General Mark Malloch Brown, who openly criticized the United States in a speech on 6 June 2006: "[T]he prevailing practice of seeking to use the UN almost by stealth as a diplomatic tool while failing to stand up for it against its domestic critics is simply not sustainable. You will lose the UN one way or another. [...] [That] the US is constructively engaged with the UN [...] is not well known or understood, in part because much of the public discourse that reaches the US heartland has been largely abandoned to its loudest detractors such as Rush Limbaugh and Fox News."[22] Malloch later said his talk was a "sincere and constructive critique of U.S. policy toward the U.N. by a friend and admirer."[23] The talk was unusual because it violated unofficial policy of not having top officials publicly criticize member nations.[23] The interim U.S. ambassador John R. Bolton, appointed by President George W. Bush, was reported to have told Annan on the phone: "I've known you since 1989 and I'm telling you this is the worst mistake by a senior UN official that I have seen in that entire time."[23] Observers from other nations confirmed Malloch's view, that conservative politicians in the US prevented many citizens from understanding the benefits of US involvement in the UN.[24] After failing to receive Senate confirmation for the UN position, Bolton later worked for Fox News.

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UN Resolution 61/225: World Diabetes Day

Kofi Annan witnessed the United Nations General Assembly's passage of UN Resolution 61/225, to establish World Diabetes Day. The Resolution was the second UN General Assembly Resolution on a health-related issue (the other being HIV/AIDS). Resolution 61/225 is the only Health-related UN Resolution to pass by consensus. Sponsored by the Republic of South Africa and Bangladesh, the Resolution was passed on 20 December 2006.

Farewell addresses
On 19 September 2006, Annan gave a farewell address to world leaders gathered at the UN headquarters in New York, in anticipation of his retirement on 31 December. In the speech he outlined three major problems of "an unjust world economy, world disorder, and widespread contempt for human rights and the rule of law", which he believes "have not resolved, but sharpened" during his time as Secretary-General. He also pointed to violence in Africa, and the Arab-Israeli conflict as two major issues warranting attention.[25] On 11 December 2006, in his final speech as Secretary-General, delivered at the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library in Independence, Missouri, Annan recalled Truman's leadership in the founding of the United Nations. He called for the United States to return to President Truman's multilateralist foreign policies, and to follow Truman's credo that "the responsibility of the great states is to serve and not dominate the peoples of the world". He also said that the United States must maintain its commitment to human rights, "including in the struggle against terrorism."[26] [27]

Recommendations for UN reform

Soon after taking office in 1997, Annan released two reports on management reform. On 17 March 1997, the report Management and Organisational Measures (A/51/829) introduced new management mechanisms through the establishment of a cabinet-style body to assist him and be grouping the UNs activities in accordance with four core missions. A comprehensive reform agenda was issued on 14 July 1997 entitled Renewing the United Nations: A Programme for Reform (A/51/950). Key proposals included the introduction of strategic management to strengthen unity of purpose, the establishment of the position of Deputy Secretary-General, a 10-percent reduction in posts, a reduction in administrative costs, the consolidation of the UN at the country level, and reaching out to civil society and the private sector as partners. Annan also proposed to hold a Millennium Summit in 2000. After years of research, Annan presented a progress report, In Larger Freedom, to the UN General Assembly, on 21 March 2005. Annan recommended Security Council expansion and a host of other UN reforms.[28] On 31 January 2006, Kofi Annan outlined his vision for a comprehensive and extensive reform of the UN in a policy speech to the United Nations Association UK. The speech, delivered at Central Hall, Westminster, also marked the 60th Anniversary of the first meetings of the UN General Assembly and UN Security Council.[29] On 7 March 2006, he presented to the General Assembly his proposals for a fundamental overhaul of the United Nations Secretariat. The reform report is entitled: "Investing in the United Nations, For a Stronger Organization Worldwide".[30] On 30 March 2006, he presented to the General Assembly his analysis and recommendations for updating the entire work programme of the United Nations Secretariat over the last 60 years. The report is entitled: "Mandating and Delivering: Analysis and Recommendations to Facilitate the Review of Mandates".[31]

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Post-UN career
Upon his return to Ghana, Annan was immediately suggested as a candidate to become the country's next President.[32] He has become involved with several organizations with both global and African focuses. In 2007, Annan was named chairman of the prize committee for the Mo Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership, was chosen to lead the new formation of Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), became a member of the Global Elders, was appointed president of the Global Humanitarian Forum in Geneva, and was selected for the MacArthur Foundation Award for International Justice. In the beginning of 2008, as head of the Panel of Eminent African Personalities, Annan participated in the negotiations to end the civil unrest in Kenya. He threatened to leave the negotiations as mediator if a quick decision was not made.[33] On 26 February 2008 he suspended talks to end Kenya's violent post-election crisis.[34] On 28 February, Annan managed to have President Mwai Kibaki and Raila Odinga sign a coalition government agreement and was widely lauded by many Kenyans for this landmark achievement. That was the best deal achieved then under the mediation efforts. Annan is a member of the Club of Madrid.[35] Annan currently serves on the board of directors of the United Nations Foundation, a public charity created in 1998 with entrepreneur and philanthropist Ted Turner's historic $1billion USD gift to support UN causes. The UN Foundation builds and implements public-private partnerships to address the world's most pressing problems, and broadens support for the UN.[36] Annan is a member of the Africa Progress Panel (APP), an independent authority on Africa launched in April 2007 to focus world leaders' attention on delivering their commitments to the continent. The Panel launched a major report in London on Monday 16 June 2008 entitled Africa's Development: Promises and Prospects.[37] Kofi Annan was appointed the Chancellor of the University of Ghana in 2008.[38] Annan has signed up to be one of the Counsellors at One Young World a non-profit organisation which hopes to bring together 1500 young global leaders of tomorrow from every country in the world. In May 2009 Columbia University announced that Annan will join a new program being launched by Dean John Coatsworth at the School of International and Public Affairs as one of the first group of Global Fellows.The Global Fellows program will bring students together with global practitioners to share firsthand knowledge of experiences in the life of an international or public figure. He is also a fellow of The Committee on Global Thought appointed by the University. On 2 September 2009, Annan was unveiled as the first Li Ka Shing Professor at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy of the National University of Singapore (NUS). The announcement was made during the school's 5th anniversary celebrations.[39] On 7 October 2010, Annan was appointed to the Board of Directors of the Global Center for Pluralism, Canadas new international research and education center dedicated to the study and practice of pluralism worldwide. The Global Center for Pluralism is an initiative of His Highness the Aga Khan in partnership with the Government of Canada. The Center is located at 330 Sussex Drive in Ottawa, Canada. Dedicated to the creation of successful societies, the Center is founded on the premise that tolerance, openness and understanding towards the cultures, social structures, values and faiths of other peoples are essential to the very survival of an interdependent world. Pluralism is no longer simply an asset or a prerequisite for progress and development.

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Honours and awards

Honours
2000: Companion of the Order of the Star of Ghana[40] 2001: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Star of Romania 2005: Grand Collar of the Order of Liberty (Portugal) 2006: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion 2007: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria 2007: Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) from Queen Elizabeth II (UK)[41] 2008: Grand Cross 1st class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany[42]

Awards
2000: Kora All Africa Music Awards in the category of Lifetime Achievement 2001: Nobel Foundation, The Nobel Peace Prize, jointly presented to Kofi Annan and the United Nations 2002: winner of the "Profiles in Courage Award", given by the JFK Memorial Museum 2003: Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences[43] 2006: International World Order of Culture, Science and Education, Award of the European Academy of Informatization, Belgium 2006: Inter Press Service, International Achievement Award security, and development 2006: Olof Palme Prize 2007: Wooden Crossbow, special award from the Swiss World Economic Forum 2007: People in Europe Award of Verlagsgruppe Passau MacArthur Foundation, MacArthur Award for International Justice 2007: North-South Prize of the Council of Europe 2008: Peace of Westphalia Prize 2008: Harvard University Honors Prize 2008: Gottlieb Duttweiler Prize 2008: Peace of Westphalia Prize Mnster (Westfalen) 2008: Open Society Award CEU Business School Budapest
[44]

for Annan's lasting contributions to peace,

Honorary degrees
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, (Kumasi), Honorary Doctor of Science, 24 August 1998 United Nations Mandated University for Peace, Honorary President, 1999 Lund University, Honorary Doctor of Law, 1999 National University of Ireland, Doctor of Law, 22 January 1999 Technische Universitt Dresden, doctor honoris causa, 27 April 1999 Howard University, honorary doctorate of humane letters, 8 May 1999 Comenius University in Bratislava, doctor honoris causa, 15 Jun 1999

University of Notre Dame, Doctor of Letters, honoris causa, 21 May 2000

Kofi Annan Seton Hall University, John C. Whitehead School of Diplomacy and International Relations, Honorary Doctorate, February 2001 Brown University, Doctor of Laws, honoris causa, 28 May 2001 Liberty Medal International Selection Commission, Liberty Medal, 4 July 2001 Free University of Berlin, doctor honoris causa, 13 July 2001 Tilburg University, Honorary Doctorate, 2002 University of Alcal, Doctor Honoris Causa, 9 April 2002 Northwestern University, Doctor of Laws, 21 June 2002 University of Pittsburgh, honorary Doctor of Public and International Affairs degree 21 October 2003 Ghent University (Belgium), doctor honoris causa 21 March 2003 Carleton University, Legum Doctor, honoris causa, 9 March 2004 University of Ottawa, Doctor of the University Degree, 9 March 2004 University of Pennsylvania, Doctor of Laws, honoris causa, 16 May 2005 Universidade Nova de Lisboa, doctor honoris causa, 12 October 2005 The George Washington University, Doctor of Public Service, 5 May 2006 University of Tokyo, Honorary Doctorate, 18 May 2006 Georgetown University, Doctor of Humane Letters, honoris causa, 30 October 2006 University of St. Gallen, Switzerland, Max Schmidheiny Foundation Freedom Prize (originally awarded 2003, but postponed due to Annan's illness), 18 November 2006 Princeton University, Crystal Tiger Award, 28 November 2006 King's College London, Doctor of Laws, honoris causa, 28 May 2008 Glasgow Caledonian University, Doctor of Laws, 18 November 2011

55

References
[1] Lefevere, Patricia (11 December 1998). "Annan: `Peace is never a perfect achievement' United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1141/ is_7_35/ ai_53460476). National Catholic Reporter. . Retrieved 26 February 2008. [2] "Kofi Annan The Man To Save The World?" (http:/ / www. williamshawcross. com/ index. php?page=annan), Saga Magazine, November 2002 [3] Akan dictionary entry for Kofi at dictionary.kasahorow.com (http:/ / dictionary. kasahorow. com/ en/ search/ kclient/ kofi link:ak|) [4] Crossette, Barbara (10 January 1997). "New U.N. Chief Promises Reforms but Says He Won't Cut Jobs" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9B0CE1D81638F933A25752C0A961958260). New York Times. . Retrieved 25 February 2008. [5] Kofi Annan Center of the Storm. Life Map. A Chief's Son (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wnet/ un/ life/ map1. html) PBS [6] "The MIT 150: 150 Ideas, Inventions, and Innovators that Helped Shape Our World" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ education/ higher/ specials/ mit150/ mitlist/ ?page=full). The Boston Globe. May 15, 2011. . Retrieved August 8, 2011. [7] "Kofi Annan" (http:/ / www. theelders. org/ elders/ kofi-annan), The Elders [8] "UN chief's Rwanda genocide regret" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ 3573229. stm). BBC News. 26 March 2004. . Retrieved 4 April 2010. [9] "BIO/3051 "Kofi Annan of Ghana recommended by Security Council for appointment as Secretary-General of United Nations"" (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 1996/ 19961213. bio3051. html) (Press release). UN. 13 December 1996. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [10] Traub, James (2006). The Best Intentions (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=chP1YnYFTKYC). New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp.6667. ISBN978-0-374-18220-5. . [11] "GA/9208 -"General Assembly appoints Kofi Annan of Ghana as seventh Secretary-General"" (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 1996/ 19961217. ga9208. html) (Press release). UN. 17 December 1996. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [12] "Iraq war illegal, says Annan" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 3661134. stm). BBC News. 16 September 2004. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. ""When pressed on whether he viewed the invasion of Iraq as illegal, he said: 'Yes, if you wish. I have indicated it was not in conformity with the UN charter from our point of view, from the charter point of view, it was illegal.'"" [13] "Excerpts: Annan interview" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 3661640. stm). BBC News. 16 September 2004. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [14] "Iranian PM snubs Annan over nuclear program" (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ news/ world/ story/ 2006/ 09/ 03/ annan-iran. html). CBC News. 3 September 2006. . [15] "Pocantico Conferences 2005" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061001030415/ http:/ / www. rbf. org/ grants/ programs/ pocconference_2005_F. html). Rockefeller Brothers Fund website. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. rbf. org/ grants/ programs/ pocconference_2005_F. html) on 1 October 2006. . Retrieved 12 December 2006.

Kofi Annan
[16] "UN report slams Lubbers for 'regular sexual harassment'" (http:/ / www. expatica. com/ source/ site_article. asp?subchannel_id=1& story_id=17094& name=UN+ report+ slams+ Lubbers+ over+ sexual+ harassment). Expatica. 18 February 2005. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [17] Annan Clears Refugee Chief Of Harassment Accusations (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2004/ 07/ 16/ world/ annan-clears-refugee-chief-of-harassment-accusations. html) [18] "UN refugee chief quits over sex claims" (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ news/ World/ UN-refugee-chief-quits-over-sex-claims/ 2005/ 02/ 21/ 1108834690036. html), The Age, 21 February 2005 [19] "About the Committee" (http:/ / www. iic-offp. org/ about. htm). Independent Inquiry Committee into The United Nations Oil-for-Food Programme website. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [20] "Members" (http:/ / www. iic-offp. org/ members. htm). Independent Inquiry Committee into The United Nations Oil-for-Food Programme website. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [21] Annan Backs Deputy in Dispute With U.S. (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 06/ 08/ AR2006060801744_pf. html) [22] Brown, Mark Malloch (6 June 2006). "UN needs US, US needs UN to face challenges HIV/AIDS, SUDAN that defy national solutions, says Deputy Secretary-General in New York address" (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2006/ dsgsm287. doc. htm). United Nations website. UN. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [23] Associated Press (7 June 2006). "Speech by U. N. Leader Draws Angry Response From US" (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/ story/ 0,2933,198535,00. html). Fox News. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [24] "Iraq Study Group's Suggestion That U.S. Engage Iran And Syria In Talks About Iraq Leads To More Debate Than Resolve, In Washington And Iraq" (http:/ / transcripts. cnn. com/ TRANSCRIPTS/ 0612/ 11/ cnr. 03. html) CNN NEWSROOM Transcripts (Aired 11 December 2006 09:00ET) [25] Leopold, Evelyn (16 September 2006). "UN's Annan depicts polarized world in farewell speech" (http:/ / today. reuters. com/ news/ articlenews. aspx?type=worldNews& storyID=2006-09-19T173615Z_01_N19388437_RTRUKOC_0_US-UN-ASSEMBLY-ANNAN. xml& archived=False& src=091906_1412_ARTICLE_PROMO_also_on_reuters). Reuters. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [26] "Annan chides US in final speech" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ americas/ 6169669. stm). BBC News. 11 December 2006. . Retrieved 11 December 2006. [27] Annan, Kofi (11 December 2006). "Independence, Missouri, 11 December 2006 Secretary-General's address at the Truman Presidential Museum and Library followed by Questions and Answers" (http:/ / www. un. org/ apps/ sg/ sgstats. asp?nid=2357). United Nations website. UN. . Retrieved 11 December 2006. [28] "In Larger Freedom" (http:/ / www. un. org/ largerfreedom/ ). United Nations website. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [29] "Annan addresses UNA-UK in London" (http:/ / www. un. org/ apps/ news/ story. asp?NewsID=17358& Cr=Iran& Cr1=nuclear). United Nations website. . Retrieved 5 August 2007. [30] "Reforming the United Nations" (http:/ / www. un. org/ reform/ ). United Nations website. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [31] "Reforming the United Nations, Mandate Review" (http:/ / www. un. org/ mandatereview). United Nations website. . Retrieved 12 December 2006. [32] Annan 'for president': Africa: News: News24 (http:/ / www. news24. com/ News24/ Africa/ News/ 0,,2-11-1447_2058913,00. html) [33] "Annan: Kenya factions 'not capable' of agreement" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2008/ WORLD/ africa/ 02/ 25/ kenya. talks/ index. html). CNN. 25 February 2008. . Retrieved 4 April 2010. [34] . CNN. http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2008/ WORLD/ africa/ 02/ 26/ rice. africa/ index. html. [35] The Club of Madrid (http:/ / www. clubmadrid. org) is an independent non-profit organization composed of 81 democratic former Presidents and Prime Ministers from 57 different countries. It constitutes the worlds largest forum of former Heads of State and Government, who have come together to respond to a growing demand for support among leaders in democratic leadership, governance, crisis and post-crisis situations. All lines of work share the common goal of building functional and inclusive societies, where the leadership experience of our Members is most valuable. [36] United Nations Foundation Board of Directors (http:/ / www. unfoundation. org/ about/ board. asp) [37] APP, Press Release: Africa Progress Panel demands action on global food crisis "reversing decades of economic progress", 16 June 2008, http:/ / www. africaprogresspanel. org/ english/ newsreleases. php [38] "Kofi Annan appointed Chancellor of University of Ghana" (http:/ / www. ghanaweb. com/ GhanaHomePage/ NewsArchive/ artikel. php?ID=147650). General News of Wednesday, 30 July 2008 (Ghana Home Page). . Retrieved 1 August 2008. [39] Kofi Annan joins LKY school. The Straits Times Online. 3 September 2009 (http:/ / www. straitstimes. com/ Breaking+ News/ Singapore/ Story/ STIStory_424801. html) [40] "Ghana honours famous son Kofi Annan News" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ africa/ 862656. stm). BBC News. 2000-08-02. . Retrieved 13 March 2011. [41] "Honorary knighthood for Kofi Annan" (http:/ / www. metro. co. uk/ news/ article. html?in_article_id=72787& in_page_id=34& in_a_source=). Metro. 24 October 2007. . Retrieved 25 February 2008. [42] ""Work for a better world" Speech by Federal President Horst Khler at a dinner in honour of Mr Kofi Annan, former United Nations Secretary-General" (http:/ / bundespraesident. de/ en/ Speeches-,11165. 645178/ Work-for-a-better-world-Speech. htm). official website of the Federal President of Germany. 2008-05-05. . Retrieved 13 March 2011.

56

Kofi Annan
[43] "Book of Members, 17802010: Chapter A" (http:/ / www. amacad. org/ publications/ BookofMembers/ ChapterA. pdf). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. . Retrieved 18 April 2011. [44] http:/ / www. ips. org/ about/ award. shtml

57

External links
Biographies, interviews, and profiles Official UN biography (http://www.un.org/sg/annan.shtml) Nobel Peace Prize biography (http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/2001/annan-bio.html) Kofi Annan: Center of the Storm (http://www.pbs.org/wnet/un/) Detailed PBS profile. Includes interactive biography and map of Annan's worldwide travels, among other things. Requires Flash. Kofi Annan: An Online News Hour Focus (http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/international/un_splash_10-18. html) A compilation of information, interviews, and initiatives about and by Kofi Annan, by the website of the NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. From 19981999. Kofi Annan, President (http://www.ghf-geneva.org/ghf_board.html), Global Humanitarian Forum Geneva Kofi Annan: Biographical Note (http://www.globalpolicy.org/secgen/annanbio.htm) Basic biography by Phyllis Bennis of the Global Policy Forum. One-on-one with UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan (http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1077/ is_n12_v53/ai_21225422/print) October 1998 interview of Kofi Annan by Kevin Chappell of Ebony. Annan Article in Saga Magazine (http://www.williamshawcross.com/annan1.html) Short Biography (http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/english/biography.php?id=1) at the Africa Progress Panel website Articles Ian Williams, The Guardian, 20 September 2005, "Annan has paid his dues: The UN declaration of a right to protect people from their governments is a millennial change" (http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/ 0,3604,1573765,00.html) Annan, Kofi A. "Lessons from the U.N. leader" (http://www.newsobserver.com/559/story/520366.html) The Washington Post, 12 Dec 2006 "Kofi and U.N. Ideals" (http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110009383) The Wall Street Journal, 14 Dec 2006 Colum Lynch, The Washington Post, 24 April 2005, "U.N. Chief's Record Comes Under Fire" (http://www. washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A12395-2005Apr23?language=printer) "Oil-for-food memo raises questions for Annan" (http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/06/14/oil. food/index.html) CNN Speeches Statements of Secretary-General Kofi Annan (http://www.un.org/News/ossg/sg/pages/statements.html) Nobel Peace Prize lecture (http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/2001/annan-lecture.html)

United Nations Millennium Declaration

58

United Nations Millennium Declaration

On 8 September 2000, following a three day Millennium Summit of world leaders at the headquarters of the United Nations, the General Assembly adopted the Millennium Declaration.[1] A follow-up outcome of the resolution was passed by the General Assembly on 14 December 2000 to guide its implementation.[2] Progress on implementation of the Declaration was reviewed at the 2005 World Summit of leaders.

Chapters
The Millennium Declaration has eight chapters and key objectives, adopted by 189 world leaders during the summit:[1] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Values and Principles Peace, Security and Disarmament Development and Poverty Eradication Protecting our Common Environment Human Rights, Democracy and Good Governance

6. Protecting the Vulnerable 7. Meeting the Special Needs of Africa 8. Strengthening the United Nations These eight goals should all be achieved by the year 2015.

References
[1] United Nations General Assembly 55 United Nations Millennium Declaration (http:/ / www. undemocracy. com/ A-RES-55-2''Resolution''& #32;2& #32;session) on 18 September 2000 [2] United Nations General Assembly Report meeting 85 session 55 (http:/ / www. undemocracy. com/ meeting/ A-55-PV. 85& #35;pg001-bk06''Verbotim) page 1 on 14 December 2000 at 10:00 (retrieved 2007-09-10)

External links
United Nations Millennium Declaration (http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm)

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

59

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

US First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt with the Spanish version of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Created Ratified Location Author(s) Purpose 1948 10 December 1948 Palais de Chaillot, Paris John Peters Humphrey (Canada), Ren Cassin (France), P. C. Chang (China), Charles Malik (Lebanon), Eleanor Roosevelt (United States), among others Human rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (10 December 1948 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris). The Declaration arose directly from the experience of the Second World War and represents the first global expression of rights to which all human beings are inherently entitled. It consists of 30 articles which have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions and laws. The International Bill of Human Rights consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two Optional Protocols. In 1966 the General Assembly adopted the two detailed Covenants, which complete the International Bill of Human Rights; and in 1976, after the Covenants had been ratified by a sufficient number of individual nations, the Bill took on the force of international law.[1]

History
Precursors
During the Second World War the allies adopted the Four Freedoms: freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom from fear and freedom from want, as their basic war aims. The United Nations Charter "reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights, and dignity and worth of the human person" and committed all member states to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion".[2] When the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany became apparent after the Second World War, the consensus within the world community was that the United Nations Charter did not sufficiently define the rights it referenced.[3] [4] A universal declaration that specified the rights of individuals was necessary to give effect to the Charter's provisions on human rights.[5]

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60

Drafting
Canadian John Peters Humphrey was called upon by the United Nations Secretary-General to work on the project and became the Declaration's principal drafter.[6] At the time Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat.[7] The Commission on Human Rights, a standing body of the United Nations, was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights.[8] The membership of the Commission was designed to be broadly representative of the global community with representatives of the following countries serving: Australia, Belgium, Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, Chile, China, Egypt, France, India, Iran, Lebanon, Panama, Philippines, United Kingdom, United States, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Uruguay and Yugoslavia.[8] Well known members of the Commission included Eleanor Roosevelt of the United States, who was the Chairperson, Jacques Maritain, Ren Cassin and Stphane Hessel of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon, and P. C. Chang of the Republic of China, among others. Humphrey provided the initial draft which became the working text of the Commission. According to Globalizing Family Values, the Declaration's pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movement's influence on Cassin and Malik.[9]

Adoption
The Universal Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly on 10 December 1948 by a vote of 48 in favour, 0 against, with eight abstentions: the USSR, Ukranian SSR, Byelorussian SSR, Yugoslavia, Poland, South Africa and Saudi Arabia.[10] [11] The following countries voted in favour of the Declaration[12] : Afghanistan Argentina Australia Belgium Bolivia Brazil Burma Canada Chile Republic of China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Denmark the Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador Egypt Ethiopia France Guatemala Haiti India Iran

Iraq Lebanon

Universal Declaration of Human Rights Liberia Pakistan Greece Iceland Luxembourg Mexico the Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Norway Panama Paraguay Peru the Philippines Sweden Syria Thailand Turkey the United Kingdom the United States Uruguay Venezuela

61

Despite the central role played by Canadian John Humphrey, the Canadian Government at first abstained from voting on the Declaration's draft, but later voted in favour of the final draft in the General Assembly.[13]

Structure
The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was introduced in its second draft which was prepared by Ren Cassin. Cassin worked from a first draft prepared by John Peters Humphrey. The structure was influenced by the Code Napoleon, including a preamble and introductory general principles.[14] Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns and a pediment. Articles 1 and 2 are the foundation blocks, with their principles of dignity, liberty, equality and brotherhood. The seven paragraphs of the preamble, setting out the reasons for the Declaration, are represented by the steps. The main body of the Declaration forms the four columns. The first column (articles 311) constitutes rights of the individual, such as the right to life and the prohibition of slavery. The second column (articles 1217) constitutes the rights of the individual in civil and political society. The third column (articles 1821) is concerned with spiritual, public and political freedoms such as freedom of religion and freedom of association. The fourth column (articles 2227) sets out social, economic and cultural rights. In Cassin's model, the last three articles of the Declaration provide the pediment which binds the structure together. These articles are concerned with the duty of the individual to society and the prohibition of use of rights in contravention of the purposes of the United Nations.[15]

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Text of the Declaration

Preamble
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people, Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law, Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations, Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom, Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms, Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge, Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.

Article 1
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 2
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

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Article 3
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.

Article 4
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

Article 5
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

Article 6
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.

Article 7
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.

Article 8
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.

Article 9
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.

Article 10
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.

Article 11
(1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence. (2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.

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Article 12
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

Article 13
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state. (2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.

Article 14
(1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. (2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

Article 15
(1) Everyone has the right to a nationality. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.

Article 16
(1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution. (2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses. (3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.

Article 17
(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

Article 18
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.

Article 19
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.

Article 20
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. (2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Article 21
(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. (2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country. (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which

Universal Declaration of Human Rights shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.

65

Article 22
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.

Article 23
(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment. (2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work. (3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection. (4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.

Article 24
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.

Article 25
(1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.

Article 26
(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. (3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.

Article 27
(1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. (2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.

Article 28
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.

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Article 29
(1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible. (2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society. (3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

Article 30
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.

Commemoration: International Human Rights Day

The adoption of the Universal Declaration is a significant international commemoration marked each year on 10 December and is known as Human Rights Day or International Human Rights Day. The commemoration is observed by individuals, community and religious groups, human rights organisations, parliaments, governments and the United Nations. Decadal commemorations are often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness of the Declaration and human rights. 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Declaration and was accompanied by year-long activities around the theme "Dignity and justice for all of us".[16]

Significance and legal effect

Significance
The Guinness Book of Records describes the UDHR as the "Most Translated Document"[17] in the world. In the preamble, governments commit themselves and their people to progressive measures which secure the universal and effective recognition and observance of the human rights set out in the Declaration. Eleanor Roosevelt supported the adoption of the UDHR as a declaration rather than as a treaty, because she believed that it would have the same kind of influence on global society as the United States Declaration of Independence had within the United States. In this, she proved to be correct. Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as regional, national, and sub-national institutions protecting and promoting human rights.

Legal effect
While not a treaty itself, the Declaration was explicitly adopted for the purpose of defining the meaning of the words "fundamental freedoms" and "human rights" appearing in the United Nations Charter, which is binding on all member states. For this reason the Universal Declaration is a fundamental constitutive document of the United Nations. Many international lawyers, in addition, believe that the Declaration forms part of customary international law and is a powerful tool in applying diplomatic and moral pressure to governments that violate any of its articles. The 1968 United Nations International Conference on Human Rights advised that it "constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community" to all persons. The declaration has served as the foundation for two binding UN human rights covenants, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the principles of the Declaration are elaborated in international treaties such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the United Nations Convention Against Torture and many more. The Declaration

Universal Declaration of Human Rights continues to be widely cited by governments, academics, advocates and constitutional courts and individual human beings who appeal to its principles for the protection of their recognised human rights.

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Reaction
Praise
The Universal Declaration has received praise from a number of notable people. Charles Malik, Lebanese philosopher and diplomat, called it "an international document of the first order of importance,"[18] while Eleanor Roosevelt, first chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) that drafted the Declaration, stated that it "may well become the international Magna Carta of all men everywhere."[19] 10 December 1948. In a speech on 5 October 1995, Pope John Paul II called the UDHR "one of the highest expressions of the human conscience of our time".[20] And in a statement on 10 December 2003 on behalf of the European Union, Marcello Spatafora said that "it placed human rights at the centre of the framework of principles and obligations shaping relations within the international community."

Criticism
Islamic criticism Most Muslim countries have signed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other human rights agreements. In 1948, Saudi Arabia didn't sign the declaration, arguing it violated Islamic law.[21] [22] However, Pakistan (which had signed the declaration) criticized the Saudi position. In 1982, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, said that the UDHR was "a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law.[23] On 30 June 2000, Muslim nations that are members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) officially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam,[24] an alternative document that says people have "freedom and right to a dignified life in accordance with the Islamic Shariah", without any discrimination on grounds of "race, colour, language, sex, religious belief, political affiliation, social status or other considerations." Education Many proponents of alternative education, particularly unschooling, take issue with Article 26 where it stipulates that "...education shall be compulsory." In the philosophies of John Holt and others, compulsory education itself violates the right of a person to peacefully follow his or her own interests: No human right, except the right to life itself, is more fundamental than this. A persons freedom of learning is part of his freedom of thought, even more basic than his freedom of speech. If we take from someone his right to decide what he will be curious about, we destroy his freedom of thought. We say, in effect, you must think not about what interests you and concerns you, but about what interests and concerns us. John Holt, Escape from Childhood This instance of the word "compulsory" is the only one in the entire document. The word "compel" is used twice, however, both times with negative connotations.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Right to Refuse to Kill Groups such as Amnesty International[25] and War Resisters International[26] have advocated for "The Right to Refuse to Kill" to be added to the UDHR. War Resisters International has stated that the right to conscientious objection to military service is primarily derived from, but not yet explicit in, Article 18 of the UDHR: the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.[26] Steps have been taken within the United Nations to make this right more explicit; but those steps have been limited to secondary, more "marginal" United Nations documents. That is why Amnesty International would like to have this right brought "out of the margins" and explicitly into the primary document, namely the UDHR itself.[25] To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might, with relevance, be added. It is "The Right to Refuse to Kill."[27] Assistant Secretary General of the United Nations, and Nobel Peace Laureate, Sean MacBride, 1974 Nobel Lecture

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Bangkok Declaration
In the Bangkok Declaration adopted by Ministers of Asian states meeting in 1993 in the lead up to the World Conference on Human Rights, Asian governments reaffirmed their commitment to the principles of the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They stated their view of the interdependence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the need for universality, objectivity and non-selectivity of human rights. At the same time, however, they emphasized the principles of sovereignty and noninterference, calling for greater emphasis on economic, social, and cultural rights, particularly the right to economic development, over civil and political rights. The Bangkok Declaration is considered to be a landmark expression of the Asian Values perspective, which offers an extended critique of human rights universalism.[28]

Notes
[1] Williams 1981; This is the first book edition of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, with a foreword by Jimmy Carter. [2] United Nations Charter, preamble and article 56 [3] Cataclysm and World Response (http:/ / www. udhr. org/ history/ overview. htm#Cataclysm and World Response) in Drafting and Adoption : The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (http:/ / www. udhr. org/ history/ overview. htm), udhr.org (http:/ / www. udhr. org). [4] UDHR50: Didn't Nazi tyranny end all hope for protecting human rights in the modern world? (http:/ / www. udhr. org/ Introduction/ question4. htm) [5] UDHR History of human rights (http:/ / www. universalrights. net/ main/ creation. htm) [6] Morsink 1999, p. 5 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=w8OapwltI3YC& pg=PA5). [7] Morsink 1999, p. 133 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=w8OapwltI3YC& pg=PA133). [8] Morsink 1999, p. 4 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=w8OapwltI3YC& pg=PA4). [9] Carlson, Allan (12 January 2004. Globalizing Family Values (http:/ / www. profam. org/ docs/ acc/ thc. acc. globalizing. 040112. htm). [10] UDHR Drafting History (http:/ / ccnmtl. columbia. edu/ projects/ mmt/ udhr/ udhr_general/ drafting_history_10. html), Center for New Media Teaching and Learning (http:/ / ccnmtl. columbia. edu/ about/ ), Columbia University [11] See "Who are the signatories of the Declaration?" in Questions and answers about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (http:/ / www. unac. org/ rights/ question. html), United Nations Association in Canada (http:/ / www. unac. org). [12] Yearbook of the United Nations 19481949 p 535 [13] Schabas, William (1998). "Canada and the Adoption of Universal Declaration of Human Rights" (http:/ / scholar. google. com/ scholar?hl=en& lr=& q=info:bhD3YIk9aKUJ:scholar. google. com/ & output=viewport) (fee required). McGill Law Journal 43: 403. . [14] Glendon 2002, pp.6264. [15] Glendon 2002, Chapter 10. [16] "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: 19482008" (http:/ / www. un. org/ events/ humanrights/ udhr60/ ). United Nations. . Retrieved 15 February 2011. [17] "Universal Declaration of Human Rights" (http:/ / www. ohchr. org/ EN/ UDHR/ pages/ WorldRecord. aspx). United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human rights. . [18] Statement by Charles Malik as Representative of Lebanon to the Third Committee of the UN General Assembly on the Universal Declaration, 6 November 1948 (http:/ / www. un. org/ law/ AVLpilotproject/ udhr_audio. html)

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

[19] Eleanor Roosevelt: Address to the United Nations General Assembly (http:/ / www. americanrhetoric. com/ speeches/ eleanorrooseveltdeclarationhumanrights. htm) [20] John Paul II, Address to the U.N., October 2, 1979 and October 5, 1995 (http:/ / www. vatican. va/ roman_curia/ secretariat_state/ 2003/ documents/ rc_seg-st_20031210_human-rights_en. html) [21] Price 1999, p. 163 (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=YgF58rl4tCkC& pg=PA163). [22] Nisrine Abiad (2008). Sharia, Muslim states and international human rights treaty obligations: a comparative study (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dex7TKuoUhgC). BIICL. pp. 6065 (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=dex7TKuoUhgC& pg=PA60). ISBN978-1-905221-41-7. . [23] Littman, D (February/March 1999). "Universal Human Rights and Human Rights in Islam" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060501234759/ http:/ / mypage. bluewin. ch/ ameland/ Islam. html). Midstream. Archived from the original (http:/ / mypage. bluewin. ch/ ameland/ Islam. html) on 2006-05-12. . [24] "Resolution No 60/27-P" (http:/ / www. oic-oci. org/ english/ conf/ fm/ 27/ 27th-fm-political(3). htm#60). Organisation of the Islamic Conference. 2000-06-27. . Retrieved 2011-06-02. [25] Out of the margins: the right to conscientious objection to military service in Europe: An announcement of Amnesty International's forthcoming campaign and briefing for the UN Commission on Human Rights (http:/ / www. amnesty. org/ en/ library/ info/ EUR01/ 004/ 1997/ en), 31 March 1997. Amnesty International. [26] A Conscientious Objector's Guide to the UN Human Rights System (http:/ / www. wri-irg. org/ books/ co-guide-un. htm), Parts 1, 2 & 3, Background Information on International Law for COs, Standards which recognise the right to conscientious objection, War Resisters' International. [27] Sean MacBride, The Imperatives of Survival (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ peace/ laureates/ 1974/ macbride-lecture. html), Nobel Lecture, 12 December 1974, The Nobel Foundation (http:/ / www. nobelprize. org/ index. html) Official website of the Nobel Foundation. (English index page; hyperlink to Swedish site.) From Nobel Lectures in Peace (http:/ / www. nobelprize. org/ nobel_organizations/ nobelfoundation/ publications/ lectures/ peace. html) 19711980. [28] Final Declaration Of The Regional Meeting For Asia Of The World Conference On Human Rights (http:/ / law. hku. hk/ lawgovtsociety/ Bangkok Declaration. htm)

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References
Glendon, Mary Ann (2002). A world made new: Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (http://books.google.com/books?id=2-vaZkbca2sC). Random House. ISBN978-0-375-76046-4. Hashmi, Sohail H. (2002). Islamic political ethics: civil society, pluralism, and conflict (http://books.google. com/books?id=5LmXFpnp_bMC). Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-11310-4. Morsink, Johannes (1999). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: origins, drafting, and intent (http:// books.google.com/books?id=w8OapwltI3YC). University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN978-0-8122-1747-6. Price, Daniel E. (1999). Islamic political culture, democracy, and human rights: a comparative study (http:// books.google.com/books?id=YgF58rl4tCkC). Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN978-0-275-96187-9. Williams, Paul; United Nations. General Assembly (1981). The International bill of human rights (http://books. google.com/books?id=bpV5QgAACAAJ). Entwhistle Books. ISBN978-0-934558-07-5.

Further reading
Universal Declaration of Human Rights pages at Columbia University (Centre for the Study of Human Rights), including article by article commentary, video interviews, discussion of meaning, drafting and history. (http:// www.columbia.edu/ccnmtl/projects/mmt/udhr/index.html) John Nurser, "For All Peoples and All Nations. Christian Churches and Human Rights.". (Geneva: WCC Publications, 2005).

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

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External links
Text of the UDHR (http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html) (English) Official translations of the UDHR (http://www.ohchr.org/en/udhr/pages/introduction.aspx) Resource Guide on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UN Library, Geneva) (http://libraryresources. unog.ch/udhr) Questions and answers about the Universal Declaration (http://www.unac.org/rights/question.html) Text, Audio, and Video excerpt of Eleanor Roosevelt's Address to the United Nations on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ eleanorrooseveltdeclarationhumanrights.htm) UDHR Education (http://www.universalrights.net/main/educat.htm) Revista Envo A Declaration of Human Rights For the 21st Century (http://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/ 1349)

Audiovisual Materials
Librivox: Human-read audio recordings in several Languages (http://librivox.org/ the-universal-declaration-of-human-rights-by-the-united-nations/) Text, Audio, and Video excerpt of Eleanor Roosevelt's Address to the United Nations on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ eleanorrooseveltdeclarationhumanrights.htm) Animated presentation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by Amnesty International, from Youtube (http://jp.youtube.com/watch?v=epVZrYbDVis) (English, 20 minutes and 23 seconds) Audio: Statement by Charles Malik as Representative of Lebanon to the Third Committee of the UN General Assembly on the Universal Declaration, 6 November 1948. (http://webcast.un.org/ramgen/ondemand/legal/ audio/humanrights/dr_charles_malik-human_rights_06_nov_48.rm) UN Department of Public Information introduction to the drafters of the Declaration. (http://www.columbia. edu/ccnmtl/projects/mmt/udhr/ramfiles/udhr_045.ram)

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

Atlantic Charter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=464122916 Contributors: (jarbarf), 100110100, 123Hedgehog456, 172, Aecis, Akelly55, Aklogos, Alansohn, Alexsspot, Allard, Altonbr, Andres, Anupamsr, Aoi, Ary29, Baikonur, Basawala, Bastin, Bearcat, Bidabadi, Bkonrad, BlueLint, Bmclaughlin9, Bobo192, BoojiBoy, BostonRed, Br3nd0n, BrettAllen, Bryan Derksen, CMDadabo, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Carbuncle, Carl Logan, Centrx, Closedmouth, Cornellrockey, Courcelles, Crum375, Cwolfsheep, DJ Clayworth, David Newton, DavidLevinson, Deineka, Delphii, Deltabeignet, Dirtybutclean, Drieux, Driftwood87, EdH, Edderso, Edge79mi, Edward, Egmontaz, El C, ElationAviation, Elchimba, Epbr123, Esperant, Folks at 137, G2bambino, Gks000b, Good Olfactory, GraemeLeggett, GrahamBould, Ground Zero, HJKeats, HaeB, Heracles31, IamSyber, Immunize, Incnis Mrsi, Ixfd64, JForget, JaGa, JamesRpgers, Jcmurphy, Jeff G., Jinian, JohnCD, Johnuniq, Juru, Kablammo, Karimarehmani, Kchishol1970, Kevthegreat55, KnightRider, Knowledgebycoop, Knutux, Koavf, Kukini, LSD, Lanephil, LeaveSleaves, LightSpectra, Lilac Soul, Loren.wilton, Lotje, Lysy, Magioladitis, Manop, Mathiasrex, Mbschenkel, Mdnavman, Meganfoxx, Merlind, Mewaqua, Minimac, Miranche, Molobo, MoogleDan, NastalgicCam, Neddyseagoon, Neelix, Nesbit, Neutralis, Nobs01, Oerjan, Ojay123, Ospalh, Oxymoron83, Paul August, Petersam, Philip Baird Shearer, Piano non troppo, Piece.of.eight, Piotrus, Piyushsati, Plasma east, Porchcorpter, Qertis, Quintote, RJHall, RSStockdale, Radagast, Raineybt, RashersTierney, Rastrojo, Raymondwinn, Recit du Noir, Rizwank, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Rock hanging in balance, Ruhrjung, Ryssby, Sanchom, Scoo, ShelfSkewed, Sir Vicious, Sm8900, Soviet689, Spencer, Sross (Public Policy), Stor stark7, Storysmithsusanmarie, Super cyclist, Superbeecat, Tabletop, Teh Rote, The Wild Falcon, TheShortAiel, TheSmuel, Tide rolls, Tim!, Trusilver, Tseno Maximov, Uncle Milty, Ungavan, WO2, Wfeidt, Wik, Wiki-Ed, Woohookitty, Yerpo, Ylee, Yuckfoo, Yvwv, Ziegenspeck, Zzyzx11, , 367 anonymous edits List of World War II conferences Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=467110866 Contributors: A D Monroe III, Abagraba, Aiken drum, Andyjsmith, Bcp67, Canderson7, Carlaude, Chris the speller, CommonsDelinker, Daisydaisy, DocendoDiscimus, DonaldDuck, Dreadstar, Edward321, Elockid, Evil Monkey, Exir Kamalabadi, FrummerThanThou, Fuyutski, Grant65, Ground Zero, Hohum, Jojhutton, Kanakukk, Karmela, Katalaveno, Ken Gallager, Kmorozov, LIU, Laurinavicius, Mediatech492, Meganfoxx, Miss Madeline, Moeron, Neelix, Noneforall, Otto ter Haar, Petersam, Philip Baird Shearer, Philomax 2, RekishiEJ, Resigua, Rich Farmbrough, Rrenner, SE7, Sadads, Shuppiluliuma, Snek01, Starbuck2015, Stor stark7, Super cyclist, TimElessness, WO2, Welsh, Wendell, YaltaExpert1945, 59 ,55 , anonymous edits United Nations Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=469085539 Contributors: -Majestic-, .:mmsagent:., 0101WONGoy, 100110100, 119, 16@r, 172, 2.12.19.E, 203.0.230.xxx, 23prootie, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 293.xx.xxx.xx, 2sc945, 3gpabko, 49275463584395, 5 albert square, A Jalil, A Softer Answer, A-giau, ABCD, ABlockedUser, ACM2, ADM, AHinMaine, AI, AJR, Abaddon314159, Aberdonian99, Academic Challenger, Acanon, Ace ETP, Aceofmw, Acerperi, Acp 1987, Acroterion, Adam Carr, Addshore, Adrian J. 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File:Atlanticcharter2.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atlanticcharter2.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Churchill blue File:Prince of Wales-5.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prince_of_Wales-5.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US Navy File:Colonization 1945.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colonization_1945.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: 23prootie, Albam, AnonMoos, CommonsDelinker, David Kernow, Deltabeignet, LX, Lalupa, Lemonade100, Maps & Lucy, Nuno Tavares, Pruxo, Roke, Rottweiler, Samulili, Sannita, Shield35, Shipguy, SpencerCS, 8 anonymous edits Image:Prince of Wales-5.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prince_of_Wales-5.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: US Navy Image:Casablanca-Conference.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Casablanca-Conference.jpg License: unknown Contributors: User:W.wolny Image:Quebec conference 1943.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quebec_conference_1943.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Montreal Gazette Image:Cairo conference.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cairo_conference.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Clindberg, Closeapple, Dbenbenn, Duesentrieb, George McFinnigan, JdH, Kintetsubuffalo, Man vyi, Martin H., Michael Reschke, NeverDoING, Opponent, Schaengel89, Shizhao, Traeb, Wereon, Wiki-vr, Wrightbus, 3 anonymous edits Image:Teheran conference-1943.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Teheran_conference-1943.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: U.S. Signal Corps photo. 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