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  • Ageing and Wellbeing in An International Context

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    This report opens up the policy debates surrounding population ageing beyond the traditional realm of healthcare and pensions. It explores how the well-being of older people can be incorporated into four other areas: relationships, work, learning and the built environment. These were all identified in the first phase of ippr’s Politics of Ageing project as important drivers of well-being. This paper provides examples of policies and programmes that have been successful in other countries. The aim is that these case studies will inspire new responses to ageing in the UK.

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    Ageing and Wellbeing in an International Context

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    This report opens up the policy debates surrounding population ageing beyond the traditional realm of healthcare and pensions. It explores how the well-being of older people can be incorporated into four other areas: relationships, work, learning and the built environment. These were all identified in the first phase of ippr’s Politics of Ageing project as important drivers of well-being. This paper provides examples of policies and programmes that have been successful in other countries. The aim is that these case studies will inspire new responses to ageing in the UK.

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    127 vistas36 páginas

    Ageing and Wellbeing in An International Context

    Cargado por

    IPPR
    This report opens up the policy debates surrounding population ageing beyond the traditional realm of healthcare and pensions. It explores how the well-being of older people can be incorporated into four other areas: relationships, work, learning and the built environment. These were all identified in the first phase of ippr’s Politics of Ageing project as important drivers of well-being. This paper provides examples of policies and programmes that have been successful in other countries. The aim is that these case studies will inspire new responses to ageing in the UK.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Descargue como PDF, TXT o lea en línea desde Scribd
    Marcar por contenido inapropiado
    de 36

    WWW.IPPR.

    ORG

    Ageingand
    Well-Beinginan
    InternationalContext
    ByJonathanClifton

    PoliticsofAgeingWorkingPaperno.3

    October2009
    ©ippr2009

    InstituteforPublicPolicyResearch
    Challengingideas– Changingpolicy
    2 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Contents
    Aboutippr ............................................................................................................................. 3
    Abouttheauthor................................................................................................................... 3
    Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... 3
    1.Introduction....................................................................................................................... 4
    2.Relationships ..................................................................................................................... 5
    3.Work ................................................................................................................................ 11
    4.Learning........................................................................................................................... 18
    5.Builtenvironment............................................................................................................ 25
    6.Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 31
    References ........................................................................................................................... 32
    3 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Aboutippr
    TheInstituteforPublicPolicyResearch(ippr)istheUK’sleadingprogressivethinktank,
    producingcutting-edgeresearchandinnovativepolicyideasforajust,democraticand
    sustainableworld.
    Since1988,wehavebeenattheforefrontofprogressivedebateandpolicymakinginthe
    UK.Throughourindependentresearchandanalysiswedefinenewagendasforchangeand
    providepracticalsolutionstochallengesacrossthefullrangeofpublicpolicyissues.
    WithofficesinbothLondonandNewcastle,weensureouroutlookisasbroad-basedas
    possible,whileourGlobalChangeprogrammeextendsourpartnershipsandinfluence
    beyondtheUK,givingusatrulyworld-classreputationforhighqualityresearch.
    ippr,30-32SouthamptonStreet,LondonWC2E7RA.Tel:+44(0)2074706100E:info@ippr.org
    www.ippr.org.RegisteredCharityNo.800065

    ThispaperwasfirstpublishedinOctober2009.©ippr2009

    Abouttheauthor
    JonathanCliftonisaresearcherintheCitizens,SocietyandEconomyprogrammeatippr.He
    completedanMAasaCommonwealthScholarattheUniversityofBritishColumbiain
    VancouverandholdsaBAinGeographyfromDurhamUniversity.

    Acknowledgements
    TheauthorwouldliketothankthelibrariansattheCentreforPolicyonAgeingfortheirhelp
    withaccessingmaterials,andthestaffatipprwhocommentedonanearlierversionofthis
    paper.Hewouldalsoliketothankallthosewhoparticipatedinippr’sseminar‘Ageingand
    well-beinginaninternationalcontext’inSeptember2009,whichhelpedinformthispaper.
    ipprwouldliketoacknowledgethegeneroussupportoffundingpartnersinthePoliticsof
    Ageingproject:CalousteGulbenkianFoundation,IntelHealthandtheNorthernRock
    Foundation.
    4 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    1.Introduction
    AgeingofthepopulationisnowarealityintheUnitedKingdom.Therearemorepensioners
    thantherearechildrenundertheageof16.Oneinfourbabiesborntodaywilllivetobeone
    hundred(HMGovernment2009).
    TheUKisnotaloneinfacingthechallengesofanageingpopulation.Whatusedtobean
    issueforEuropehasnowbecomeachallengefornearlyeverycontinentontheplanet.By
    2050onefifthoftheworld’spopulationwillbeagedover60.Thefastestincreaseswillbe
    seeninAsiaandLatinAmerica,wheretheproportionofthepopulationagedover60will
    doubleinlessthan20years.
    Thesechangesareacauseforcelebration–theresultofgainsinhealthcareandeconomic
    development.Buttheybringwiththemchallenges,too.Mostobviousaretheincreasing
    pressuresonhealthcareandpensions,withsomewarningof‘anunprecedenteddrainon
    publicfinances’(Nesta2009:3).
    Lessobviousisthechallengeofolderpeople’swell-being.WhiletheUKpopulationisliving
    longer,itisnotgettinganyhappier.UptoaquarterofolderpeopleintheUKareaffected
    bylowlevelsofdepressionandmanymoreareaffectedbylonelinessandisolation(Allen
    2008,Lee2006).Akeychallengeforthecomingyearswillbetobuildaresponseto
    populationageingthattakesthewell-beingofolderpeopleseriously.Thiswillrequire
    changestothewaywedesignourinstitutions,servicesandactionsinallwalksoflife–
    movingthedebatefarbeyondtheusualfocusonpensions,healthandsocialcare.

    Learningfromoverseas
    Theexperienceofageingisshapedbythecontextinwhichithappens.InJapan,for
    example,lifesatisfactionishighestamongtheover-65s,whereasinHungaryitlowestfor
    thisagegroup(DonovanandHalpern2002).AcrossEurope,ratesofdepressionamong
    olderpeoplevary–inAmsterdamtheyarehalfwhattheyareinMunich(Copelandetal
    2004).AfifthofAmericansintheirseventiesarestillworkingcomparedwithjust1percent
    inFrance(Harper2009).
    Theseinternationalvariationsdemonstratethatdeclineanddisengagementfromsocietyare
    notinevitableconsequencesofolderage.Variationsinculture,policy,services,environment
    andattitudesmeantheexperienceofageingisdifferentdependingonwhereyoulive.Itis
    opentochange.

    Aboutthispaper
    Thisreportopensupthepolicydebatessurroundingpopulationageingbeyondthe
    traditionalrealmofhealthcareandpensions.Itexploreshowthewell-beingofolderpeople
    canbeincorporatedintofourotherareas:relationships,work,learningandthebuilt
    environment.Thesewereallidentifiedinthefirstphaseofippr’s PoliticsofAgeingprojectas
    importantdriversofwell-being(Allen2008).
    Thispaperprovidesexamplesofpoliciesandprogrammesthathavebeensuccessfulinother
    countries.TheaimisthatthesecasestudieswillinspirenewresponsestoageingintheUK.
    Thisisthethirdworkingpaperinippr’sPoliticsofAgeingseries.ItfollowsreportsbyAllen
    (2008),whichmappedthewell-beingofolderpeopleintheUK,andbyMcCormicketal
    (2009),whichexploredhowpolicyacrossthefournationsoftheUKhasrespondedtothe
    challengeofageing.
    InthefinalreportwewillheardirectlyfromolderpeopleacrosstheUKaboutthethingsthat
    driveandhindertheirwell-being,andthedirectiontheywouldliketoseepolicyandpractice
    takeinthisarea.Butfirst,inthispaper,weturnourattentiontothelessonstheUKcan
    learnfromoverseasandhowthewell-beingofolderpeoplecanbeincorporatedintoawider
    rangeofpolicyareas.
    5 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    2.Relationships
    Researchhasshowntheimportanceofsocialrelationsforinfluencingphysicalandmental
    health(forexample,Cohen2004,Allen2008).Well-beinginlaterlifeisinextricablylinkedto
    socialsupportandparticipation.Anumberoffactorscontributetothenarrowingofsocial
    tiesinolderage,includingthedeathoffriendsandlovedones,childrenandgrandchildren
    movingawayandreducedmobilitymakingithardertotravel.
    Theerosionofsocialtiesposesaparticularchallengetoolderpeople.TheUKInquiryinto
    MentalHealthandWellbeinginLaterLife estimatedthat1millionolderpeopleintheUK
    aresociallyisolatedandprojectedthistoriseto2.2millionoverthenext15yearsifitisnot
    addressed(Lee2006).Perhapsmoreimportantthanactuallevelsofcontactwithother
    peopleisthefeelingofloneliness.Onthisscore,theevidenceisevenmoreworrying.One
    thirdofolderpeopleintheUKsaytheyarelonelyandafifthfeelisolated(Leadbeater2009,
    Actoretal 2002).

    Socialnetworksandwell-being
    Manystudieshavedemonstratedthatlonelinessandisolationcanbedetrimentaltohealth
    andwell-being.Hawkleyetal (2008)provideareviewoftheliteraturewhichlinksloneliness
    andisolationtodepressivesyndromes,poormentalhealthandcognition,nursinghome
    admissionandmortality.Lonelinessisalsoariskfactorforsuicidalideation,alcoholism,high
    bloodpressure,cardiovasculardisease,andpoorsleep.Lonelinessistherefore‘auniqueand
    underappreciatedpsychosocialriskfactorofclearrelevanceforthoseconcernedaboutage-
    relatedhealthproblems’(ibid:375).
    Thebenefitsofsocialtiesinclude:
    •Fewerdepressivesymptoms(Sugisawaetal 2002)
    •Decreasedriskofdementia(Wangetal 2002)
    •Reducedimpactofstressfullifeeventsondepression(KawachiandBerkman2001)
    •Improvedphysicalandmentalhealth(Cohen2004).
    Socialtiesareimportantbecausetheyprovide:
    •Instrumentalsupport,forexampleinformationandtangiblehelpfromfriends
    (Hutchinsonetal 2008)
    •Emotionalsupportandadvice
    •Positiveaffirmationandasenseofrespect(ibid)
    •Ameaningfulsocialrole(AlvesandSugiyama2006)
    •Stability,socialnormsandroutines(SuandFerraro1997)
    •Supportthatenablesolderpeopletoliveindependently
    •Connectionsandsupportthatenablepeopletoparticipateinactivities
    •Arelationshiptowhicholderpeoplecancontribute,whichisofgreaterbenefitthana
    relationshipwherethepersonissimplyapassiveconsumer(Leadbeater2009).
    Whilesocialactivityhaslongbeenseenasanimportantfactorforwell-beinginlaterlife
    (leadingtoaphilosophyof‘activeageing’),recentresearchhassuggestedsocialtiesmaybe
    themoreimportantingredient.Onestudyshowedthatthequalityofrelationshipsthat
    peoplebuildthroughactivitiesismoreimportantthantheactofparticipatingitself(Litwin
    andShiovitz-Ezra2006).
    6 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Buildingsocialrelationscanbeimportantforwell-beingeveninthepresenceofother
    barrierstoit.Forexample,thosewithserioushealthconditionscanimprovetheirqualityof
    lifethroughsocialties.Janzetal (2001)showedwomenwithheartdiseasewere4.5times
    morelikelytoimprovetheirqualityoflifeiftheyincreasedtheirsatisfactionwithsocial
    activities.InasimilarveinOliverJamesarguesthatqualityoflifeforthosesufferingfrom
    dementiacanbeenhancedorerodedbysocialties(James2008).
    Whiletherearemanybenefitstosocialrelationships,therisksshouldalsobetakeninto
    account.Somerelationshipscanbestressfulandabusive,whileothersmayprovidebad
    adviceorinformation.Qualityisthereforeasimportantasquantityandfrequencywhenit
    comestobuildingrelationships.

    Relationshipsandsocialexclusion
    Tacklingisolationandsocialexclusionshouldbethebedrockofanyattemptstoimprove
    olderpeople’swell-being.Socialexclusioncanbedefinedasbeingdeniedtheresourcesto
    realiseone’slife-chances–theopportunitieseachindividualhastoimprovehisorherquality
    oflife.Life-chancestendtobeseenasthepreserveofyoungerpeople,butitisimportantto
    rememberthatolderpeoplealsohavelife-chancesthatneedtobefulfilled.
    Policydesignedtotacklesocialexclusionhashistoricallyfocusedonintegratingyoung
    peopleandtheunemployedintothelabourmarket.Tacklingtheexclusionofolderpeople
    willrequireawiderfocus–onethatincorporatesbuildingrelationshipsandsocialtiesinto
    effortstotackleexclusion(Burchardtetal 1999,Gordonetal 2000,Scharfetal 2000).
    Whileaccesstoworkisimportantforthe‘youngerold’,enablingolderpeopletorealisetheir
    life-chanceswillprimarilyrequireimprovingcontactwithsociety,notthelabourmarket.
    Olderpeoplearepronetothreetypesofexclusion(Scharfetal 2000):
    •Participatory. Exclusionfrominvolvementincommunitylife,participatinginactivities
    beyondthelabourmarketandbuildingsocialcapital.
    •Spatial.Exclusionfromspacesandplacessuchasareasofthecityorneighbourhood.
    • Institutional. Exclusionasaresultofwithdrawalofservicesandagencies,forexample
    closure/withdrawaloflocalpostoffices,cinemas,pubs,churches,newspaperdelivery,
    shops,milkrounds,libraries,parksandcommunityhospitals.Theresultisreduced
    accesstoservices,greaterdependencyonothersandtheneedtotravelfurtherfor
    basicservices.

    Newapproachesforpolicy
    Afocusontheimportanceofrelationshipswillrequirenewapproachesforpolicy:
    Placerelationshipsfirst
    Publicserviceshavetendedtofocusonmeetinganindividual’simmediateneed.Theresult
    hasbeenalargelytop-downmodelofservicesprovidedbythecentralstate.Theassumption
    isthatmeetingbasiccareneedscomesfirst,andthatstrongrelationshipsareasecondary
    effectofbeingwellprovidedforinotherareas.Infactitisoftentheotherwayaround.
    Relationships‘providepeoplewithaccesstothebasiccaretheyneed’(Leadbeater2009:
    55).Ifpeoplehavestrongrelationshipsandconnections,accesstomanyoftheresources
    andservicestheyneedwillfollow.
    Acknowledgethenewchallenge
    Inthelast10yearstheGovernmenthasfacedthechallengesoforganisinghealthcare
    servicesandreducingpensionerpoverty.Theserequiredcentralisedresponsessuchas
    pensionreform,taxcreditsandpublicservicereform(withconsiderablesuccessinmany
    areas).Thechallengesofthenext10yearswillincludeanadditionalelement–theneedto
    promoteparticipationandrelationships(Leadbeater2009).
    7 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Oancea(2008:1)mapsoutthenewagenda:
    Governmentshouldhelpolderpeopletomaintainandfurtherdevelop
    socialnetworks,toengageinfulfillingsocialinteractionoutsideand
    beyondtheworkplace,andtocontributetosocietyoutsidetheir
    immediatefamilysetting.
    Createanewtoolkit
    Governmentresponsestothechallengeofageingpopulationshavetendedtofocusonwhat
    thecentralstatecanachieveandhavereliedonincreasedpublicspendingtodoit.Services
    havebeentargetedatanindividual’sneedinisolation,dealingwithonepersonandone
    problematatime(beitaspecifichealthproblem,income,housingormobility).
    Buildingandstrengtheningrelationshipswillrequireadifferentapproach.Anewtoolkitfor
    serviceprovidersisrequired.Thereisaneedfor‘everydayactivities’whichpeoplecan
    engagewithoveralongerperiodoftime.Leadbeater(2009:56)callsforanewsocial
    economy,arguingthatthis‘isachallengeofsocialandeconomicdevelopmentratherthan
    justofredesigningservices’.Weneedtodevelopnewformsofleisure,working,socialising,
    learningandcontributingthatdonotexcludeolderpeople.Examplesinclude:
    •Ireland’s‘Flexibus’programme,whichprovidesdoor-to-doortransporttolinkisolated
    people,cinemasandrestaurants
    •Time-bankschemeswherepeoplegetcreditsforhelpingothersinthecommunity
    •Newphoneandinternettechnologiestohelplinkpeopletogether
    •Schemessuchas‘TheGoodGym’wherepeopleincorporatebriefvisitstoisolated
    olderpeopleintotheirjoggingandcyclingroutes.
    Developinganewtoolkitwillbeabigchallengeforcouncilsandhealthauthorities.Focusing
    onrelationshipswillrequireadifferentinfrastructure,skillset,scale,andapproachthanthey
    aregenerallyusedto(Leadbeater2009).
    Targetbothweakandstrongties
    Policyshouldtargetbothweakandstrongsocialties.Weakties,suchascontactwith
    neighboursandserviceproviders,areimportantbecausetheybinddiversegroupstogether–
    theyactasa‘bridge’betweendifferentgroupsinacommunity.Theycanimproveasenseof
    community,attachmentandsafetyandmeanpeoplearemorelikelytostepinandhelp
    othersinsmallways.
    Strongtieskeepaclosegroupoffriendsorfamilytogether.Thesearecrucialforolder
    people’ssenseofwell-beingastheyaremoreeffectiveatpreventingfeelingsofloneliness
    thanweakties.
    Ensurerelationshipsaretwo-wayprocesses
    Researchhasshownthatelderlypeoplewhocontributemorethanotherstotheirsocial
    networkswillassesstheirhealthmorepositively(SuandFerraro1997).Contributingtothe
    socialorderisasimportantasreceivinghelp.Infact,formanyolderpeoplereceivingsupport
    cancreateafeelingofdependenceandmakethemfeeluncomfortable.Forthosewhoare
    moredependent,asenseofcontributingtoarelationshipisstillimportant.
    Twoconclusionscanbedrawnfromthis.First,providingaservicetomeetaneedisnot
    enough.Itisimportanttocreateaspaceinwhicholderpeoplecanbuildandcontributetoa
    relationshipaswell.Givinghelptoanolderpersonisonlyonepartoftheequation.Help
    givenbytheolderpersonisimportanttoo.
    Second,thewayinwhichsupportisgiventoolderpeopleisasimportantastheactual
    supportbeinggiven.Thesupportshouldenableolderpeopletocontributeandparticipate,
    8 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    notcreateafeelingofdependency.Servicescandoalottomasknecessityaschoice.For
    exampletheFlexibusserviceinruralIrelandisanessentialserviceforolderpeople,without
    whichmanyofthemcouldnotliveindependently,butitmarketsitselfasaregularbus
    servicewhicholderpeoplecanchoosetouse(Roberts2009).Ideally,serviceswillhelp
    strengthenrelationshipsinapreventativemanner,beforefailinghealthleadstoacuteor
    crisis-basedintervention.

    Belowwepresenttwocasestudies,fromJapanandIreland.

    Casestudy:HureaiKippu,Japan
    Relationshipsandwork
    Japan’spopulationstructureisoftentalkedaboutincrisistermsgiventhatthecountry
    hasoneoftheworld’smostrapidlyageingpopulations.Thefactthatitssocialcare
    systemisalmostentirelypubliclyfundedmeansageingcouldputaparticularstrainon
    publicfinances(OECD2005).ThisproblemismademoreacutebyJapanesereticence
    towardsimmigration–somethingothercountrieshavereliedontobothmitigatetheir
    ageingpopulationsandtoprovideasourceofcheaplabourforcarejobs.
    InresponsetothischallengeJapanintroduceda‘healthcarecurrency’,orhureaikippu in
    1991.Thisiseffectivelyatimebankschemewhichisdedicatedtocaringfortheelderly.
    Peoplewhovolunteergaincredits,thenumberofwhichdependsonthetimegivenand
    thetypeoftask,withmoreoneroustasksearningmorecredits.Thecreditsarestoredin
    thesamewayassavings–thecurrencyissimplyinhoursinsteadofyen(Kent2001).
    Theschemeoperatesinthesamewayasabank.Thismeansthatcreditscanbebanked
    forthefutureasaformofsocialcareinsurance,sowhenapersonneedssupportshecan
    drawonthecreditsshehasearned.Creditscanalsobetransferredtoothers.Many
    peopleprovidehelptoanelderlypersonneartothem,andthentransferthecreditsthey
    earntoanelderlyrelativelivinginadifferentpartofthecountry.Inthiswaytheycan
    ensuretheirrelativesreceivesupportwithoutactuallymovingtolivenearthem(Aldridge
    etal 2002).
    Theschemehasbeenprovedtoprovideahighstandardofcare.What’smore,the
    majorityofelderlyactuallypreferreceivingsupportunderthehureaikippu schemethan
    payingbyyen,becausetheybuildbetterrelationshipswiththeircarers.Theyalsoprefer
    ittoservicesprovidedbycharities,whichmakethemfeeldependent(Lietaer2001).
    Japanhasthusrespondedtothechallengeofcaringfortheelderlybyfocusingon
    ‘everydayrelationships’.Ratherthaninnovatingservicesprovidedbythestate,it
    innovatedmethodsofexchangeandpayment.Thesehavestrengthenedsocialtiesand
    encouragedfamiliesandcommunitiestoplaymoreofarole.Evidencesuggestsithas
    helpedfosterawidercultureofvolunteering,too.
    9 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Casestudy:SummerhillActiveRetirementGroup,Ireland
    Relationships
    StartedinaruralIrishvillagein1988byMaryNally,anurseunhappywiththelackof
    socialservicesavailableforolderpeoplelocally,theSummerhillActiveRetirementGroup
    nowhasaninternationalreach(Intel2009).
    Nallygatheredretiredpeopleintheareatogethertoformtheirowngrouptorespondto
    thechallengesofbeingolderandlivinginaremotesetting.TheirActiveRetirement
    Group(ARG)wasgrantedsomelandandaPortakabinbytheIrishHealthService,and
    setaboutorganisingtheirownactivitiesandfundraisingtoenablethemtogrowand
    employstaff(Intel2009).
    Therearecurrently90regularmembersofthegroup,aged55to95.ThePortakabinhas
    meetingrooms,alaundry,library,internetcafeandofficesandaimstoprovidea
    welcomingenvironmentforall.Thegrouporganisesanumberofservicesandactivities
    includingexerciseclasses,clothescleaning,achoir,regulardaytripsandholidays,
    outreachtoresidentsofanursinghome,monthlyvisitsbyachiropodist,visiting
    speakers,firstaidcourses,ITclasses,educationalclasses,concerts,dramaandart.They
    arealsopoliticallyactive–onissuesrelatingtoolderpeopleaswellastryingtobreak
    downbarrierswithgroupssuchastravellers,asylumseekersandnursinghomeresidents.
    Their‘MillenniumBus’providesdoor-to-doortransportforthosewhoneedit,ensuring
    peoplecanbebroughtintothecommunity(seewww.thirdage-ireland.com).
    Withthehelpofasocialentrepreneur,theSummerhillARGhasdevelopedtwonational
    organisations,includingatelephonehotlineforolderpeoplethatissoontoexpand
    internationally.Thephonelineisstaffedbyoldervolunteerstoprovidealisteningearfor
    theisolatedandlonely.
    Aswellexperiencingbenefitsfromtheserviceslistedabove,membersofthegroupgain
    fromasenseofbelongingandaffiliation,sharinginformation,achancetocontribute,
    havingapoliticalvoice,discountsatvenuesandshopsandachancetomeetothers.
    FurtherfeaturesthathavemadeSummerhillsuccessfulincludethefactsthat:
    • Itgreworganicallyinresponsetoalocalneed
    • Olderpeopleinitiatedtheprojectandhelprunit,thuscontributingto–notjust
    consuming–services
    • Thefocusisonbuildingrelationshipsandactivities,ratherthandistributingresources
    andservices
    • Itusesthewidercommunitytoenable‘ageinginplace’
    • Itseeslaterlifeasatimeofactivityandengagement,notdisengagementfrom
    society
    • Itisasocialenterprise–creatingadditionalresourcesbycollaboratingwiththestate,
    not-for-profitsandcommunities.
    10 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Summary
    Targetingrelationshipsandsocialtieswillbecentraltoimprovingolderpeople’swell-being,
    eveninthepresenceofotherbarrierstotheirqualityoflife.Thiswillrequirethestateto
    embraceadifferentphilosophy–movingawayfromcentralisedprogrammesthatdelivera
    serviceinisolation,towardsenablingandharnessing‘everydayrelationships’.
    Thiscanbedonethroughinnovatingmethodsofexchangetoencouragefamiliesand
    communitiestoplaymoreofarole(asinthecaseof hureaikippu).Itcaninvolvethestate
    providinginitialresourcestohelpsocialenterprisesdevelopinresponsetolocalneeds(asin
    thecaseofSummerhill).Itcaninvolvethere-designofservicestoenableolderpeopleto
    contributeandparticipate,aswellasreceivehelp(asinthecaseoftheFlexibus).Itcanuse
    technologytolinkpeopleintheirlocalcommunitiesandinwidernetworks(suchasthrough
    door-to-doorbusservicesandphonelines).Buildingandsupportingrelationshipsinthisway
    willhelpconnectolderpeopletotheresourcesandservicestheyneed.
    11 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    3.Work
    Ageingofthepopulationmostoftenhitstheheadlinesinrelationtoitsimpactonthepublic
    financesandpensionfunds.TheEconomist magazinerecentlyurgedreadersto‘stop
    thinkingforamomentaboutdeeprecession’andinsteadto‘contemplatetheprospectof
    slowgrowthandlowproductivity,risingpublicspendingandlabourshortages’thatcould
    resultfromourageingpopulation(TheEconomist2009).
    Acommonresponsetothischallengeistotrytoretainolderworkersinthelabourforce
    (Oancea2008,OECD2006).Europeancountriesinparticulararenowmakingbigeffortsto
    ensurepeopleworklaterinlife.IntheUK,theGovernmentannounceditisbringingforward
    areviewofthedefaultretirementageto2010,andtheConservativePartyhaspromisedit
    wouldraisethestatepensionageto66in2016.Theproblemisseentobethatwhilelife
    expectancyisincreasing,peopleareretiringearlier–onaverage,athirdofouradultlivesis
    nowspentinretirement.InthecountriesoftheOrganisationforEconomicCooperationand
    Development(OECD)lessthan60percentofthoseaged50–64areinemployment(OECD
    2009).
    Whilethemainargumentforpeopleworkinglaterinlifehasbeenthatitisasolutiontoa
    loomingpensionsgapanddecliningproductivity,changingthewayweworkandretirecan
    alsoimprovehealthandwell-being.Thebroadchallengeaheadistoinnovatenew
    approachestothreethings:working,thetransitionfromworktoretirementandretirement
    itself.Theimpactoftherecessiononretirementisuncertain–withsomepeopleworking
    longertooffsettheirlossesandothersbeingencouragedtoleavethelabourforcetosave
    companiescostsandcreatejobsfortheyoungunemployed.

    Workandwell-being
    Whileformanyretirementisahappytimeofrelaxation,forothers‘itisachallengingevent
    thatleadstolongperiodsspentaloneorinactive,feelingworthlessandhavingnopurpose’
    (Allen2008:30).
    Somefeaturesofretirementthatcannegativelyimpactwell-beinginclude:thelossofsocial
    engagement,lossofaroleinsociety,lackofidentity,financialinsecurity,inactivity,less
    senseofpurpose,andlessstimulation.Theimpactonwell-beingisespeciallybadifaperson
    hasnotbeenincontrolofthedecisiontoretireandhowtheygoaboutit.
    Workinglaterinlife(whetherfullorparttime)canhelpmitigatemanyoftheseproblems.
    Takingpartinvoluntaryworkwhenretiredcanalsobeimportant–providingsome
    continuitytonegatethelossofwork-relatedrolesandengagement(Alpassetal 2000).
    Thebenefitsofworkinginlaterlifeforwell-beinginclude:
    •Maintainingmeaningandsenseofpurpose
    •Engaginginproductiveactivities
    •Buildingandmaintainingsocialrelationships
    •Creatingasenseofidentityandvaluedrole
    •Providingfinancialsecurityandextraincome
    •Providingaregularactivityandroutine
    •Challengingsociety’snegativestereotypesofageing.
    Aswithmanyvariablesitishardtoprovecausalitybetweenworkandwell-being,anditmay
    bethatthosewhoarehappiestdecidetoworklonger.Causalitycanbeproved,however,by
    usinglongitudinalstudiesthatcontrolforothervariables,andanumberofstudieshave
    madeaconvincingcasethatworkcanimprovewell-being.
    12 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Workinginlaterlifehasbeenshownto:
    •Reducetheprobabilityofreportingpoorhealth(Calvo2006)
    •Improvemoodindicators(ibid)
    •Improveabilitytoperformactivitiesofdailyliving(washing,shoppingandsoon)
    (ibid)
    •Improvecognitiveperformancescores(Schwingeletal 2009)
    •Improvementalwell-beingandlifesatisfaction(ibid)
    •Reducedepressivesymptoms(ibid)
    •Buildcognitivereserve(theconnectionsbetweenbraincells),whichinturncandelay
    theonsetofdementia(Luptonetal 2009).
    ThesefactorscontributetoCalvo’sconclusionthat,‘thereisacausalrelationshipbetween
    workandwell-being’formostjobsandthat‘longerworkingliveswillhelpmostpeople
    maintaintheiroverallwell-being’(Calvo2006:4).Whileatoughmessageinthemiddleofa
    recession–whenyouthunemploymentisapriority–itisclearthattheneedtoemploy
    peopleintheirfiftiesandsixtiesshouldbetakenseriously.

    Whydopeoplenotworklonger?
    Potentialreasonsforlowlevelsofemploymentamongolderpeoplearesummarisedin
    Table3.1.

    Table3.1.Barrierstoworkinglaterinlife

    Barriersrelatedto •Wagecostsofolderworkersmakethemunattractive
    employer •Lessincentivetotrainolderworkers(aslesstimetorealisethebenefitoftraining)
    •Perceptionolderworkerscannotadapttochangeinworkplace
    •Discriminationinhiringandfiringpractices
    •Fewfacilitiesforphased-retirementandflexibleworking

    •Financialsecurity(resultofboominghousingmarketandgenerouspensionsofrecent
    Barriersrelatedtothe
    decades)enablesmorepeopletoretire
    individualworker
    •Peoplewanttoretire(resultofpushfactors‘toescapeworkplace’andpullfactors‘to
    enjoyretirement’)
    •Attitudethatthereisarighttoretire/shouldretireatcertainage
    •Poorhealthpreventswork
    •Careresponsibilitieswhichcannoteasilybecombinedwithemployment
    •Notmotivatedtore-train
    •Natureofworkmakesitunappealing(stressful,longhours,physical)

    Barriersrelatedto •Employmentservicestohelpolderpeoplefindworkarelimited
    governmentpolicies •Employmentpoliciesfocusonyoungworkers,especiallyduringrecession.
    •Pensionsandwelfarepolicieshaveencouragedearlierretirement(oratleastdonot
    supportworkinglonger)
    •Default,or‘forced’retirementage
    •Fewfacilitiesforphasedretirement
    •Limitedprovision(ortake-up)ofopportunitiestodeferstatepensionandincreaseits
    value.
    13 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Therearethereforedisincentivesandbarriersfacingolderemployeeswhocouldworklaterin
    life,aswellasanumberofincentivesandattractionstoretireearly.Governmentrhetoric
    exhortingpeopletoworklongerhasnotbeenmatchedwiththepoliciestoensurethereare
    jobsavailableforolderworkers.ThisleadstowhatSchuller(2009)termsthe‘agetrap’,
    wherepeoplearetoldtoworkforlongerbutjobsforolderpeopledonotappear.IntheUK
    onlyhalfofretiredpeoplesaytheywantedtostopworkingandathirdfeelforcedtoretire
    orcastaside(Lee2006).Thereisthereforeaneedtoincreaseboththesupplyofolder
    peopleableandwillingtowork,andthedemandforsuchworkers.Tacklingonesideofthe
    equationwithouttheotherwillsimplyleadtoimbalance.
    Therearesignificantdifferencesinthenumbersofolderpeoplewhocontinueworkinglater
    inlifeaccordingtonationalityandthesortofworkpeopledo.InFranceforexample,only1
    percentofpeopleintheirseventiesareemployedwhereasintheUnitedStatesitisnearly
    20percent(Harper2009).Thisreflectsdifferentpoliciesrelatedtoearlyretirement,different
    sortsoflabourmarket,differentlevelsofhealthaswellasculturalattitudestowardswork
    andretirement–allfactorsthatareopentochange.

    Enablingolderpeopletowork
    Thebarrierstoworkinglaterinlife,coupledwiththeattitudethatlifeafter60or65should
    beoneofleisure,willbetoughtoovercome.Ultimately,hardeconomicstalks,anditmay
    notbeuntillabourshortageshitfirmsthattheytaketheissueofretainingolderworkers
    seriously.Similarly,untilpensionpotsaredenteditwillbehardertoconvincepeopleofthe
    benefitsofworkinglonger.Earlyindicatorssuggestthatthefinancialcrisisandcollapseof
    thestockmarkethavealreadyledpeopletodefertheirretirementastheydrawonpension
    incomewhilestillworking(FinancialTimes2009a,2009b)and60percentofolderworkers
    saytheywillhavetoworklongerthanoriginallyplannedbecauseofthefinancialcrisis(Age
    ConcernandHelptheAged2009).
    Whilethesehardeconomicfactorsmightforcepeopletoworklonger,therearearangeof
    actionsthatcouldenableolderpeopletodosoonmorepositivetermsratherthanin
    reactiontoacrisis.Olderpeoplearepreventedfromstayingonatworkforarangeof
    factors,andtherefore‘pensionreformalonewillnotbesufficienttopromoteemployment
    opportunitiesofolderworkers’(OECD2006:11).
    Actionsareneededinanumberofareasandinclude:
    Adaptingtheworkplace
    •Appreciatetheworkthatolderpeoplearebettersuitedtoandadjustworkschedules
    accordingly.
    •Providebettertrainingopportunitiesforolderpeoplesotheyarenotata
    disadvantageintheworkplacetoyoungeremployeeswhoreceivemoretraining.Put
    moreemphasisonvocational,lifelongtraining.
    •Allowflexibleworkingtoenableolderpeopletofitworkaroundothertasks,suchas
    caringforloved-onesandseeingtotheirownhealthcareneeds.
    •Makethephysicalenvironmentoftheworkplacebettersuitedtoolderpeople–for
    examplebygivingthemmorecontroloverheating,lightingandusingbetterdesigned
    furnitureandfittings.
    Returningtoworkinlaterlife
    •Providebetteremploymentassistanceandhelpolderpeoplelookforjobs.
    •Targetretiredpeopletocomebackintotheworkforce–forexamplebyproviding
    ‘silverstart-up’fundsforolderentrepreneurstostartabusiness.
    14 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Rethinkingretirement
    •Removemandatoryretirementandbaseretirementmoreonabilitythananarbitrary
    agecut-off.
    •Provideopportunitiestophaseoutofworkintoretirement–soratherthanretiringfar
    inadvanceofthestatepensionage,peoplecancontinueworkinginareduced
    capacity.
    •Discouragepeoplefromleavingworkearly,eitherbyraisingtheentitlementagefor
    pensionsorprovidingafinancialincentivetoretirelater.
    •Educatepeopleaboutthebenefits,especiallytowell-being,ofworkinglongerand
    phasingoutofwork.
    •Providebetter‘pre-retirement’planningandmodelsofalternativewaystoretire.
    Thoseintheirfortiesandfiftiesneednewmodelstoaspireto,otherwiseattitudes
    towardsretirementwillnotshift.
    Voluntarywork
    •Providemoreopportunitiesforvoluntaryworkforretiredpeople,withproperstipends,
    conditionsandrecognitionoftheworkbeingdone.
    •Improveinformationaboutthevolunteeringopportunitiesthatareavailable,for
    exampleacentralclearinghouseor‘one-stop-shop’foropportunitiesthatare
    available.WhereVolunteerCentresalreadyexisttheyneedtobebetterpromoted.
    •Activelyaskpeopletovolunteer.Thevolunteeringrateisthreetimeshigherforthose
    whoareaskedtoparticipatethanthosewhoarenot(ExperienceCorps2005).
    •Peoplearemorelikelytovolunteerinretirementiftheyvolunteeredinmid-life.Itis
    thereforeimportanttoencouragevolunteeringforthoseinwork(forexampleby
    givingpaidleavetovolunteer),astheyarelikelytocontinuethisinretirement.
    Asthislistofactionssuggests,thetaskisnotjustoneforgovernment.Seizingthe
    opportunityformorerewardingyearsinworkandretirement‘willrequiretheco-operationof
    government,employers,tradeunionsandcivilsocietytoadoptandimplementanewagenda
    ofage-friendlyemploymentpoliciesandpractices’(OECD2006:14).Thecurrentchallenge
    istogenerateinnovativeprogrammesthatwillenable,ratherthanforce,peopletostayin
    workandtodothisinawaythatplacesolderpeople’swell-beingattheheartofthe
    retirementagenda.Thefollowingcasestudiesdemonstratehowothercountrieshave
    respondedtothischallenge,intherealmsofformalandvoluntarywork.

    Case-study:ExperienceCorps,UnitedStates
    Workandrelationships

    Workingin23cities,ExperienceCorpsisoneofthelargestsocialenterprisesforolder
    peopleintheUS.Itengagespeopletypicallyovertheageof55tovolunteerastutors
    andclassroomassistantsinprimaryschools.
    ExperienceCorpsisbuiltonamodelofintensivevolunteering.Memberscommitto
    10–15hoursofworkaweekforawholeschoolyear.However,thereisflexibilityin
    timetabling.Volunteersareprovidedwithtrainingandsupportandreceiveastipendof
    around$100–300amonth.Despitethehighworkload,nearlythreequarterswhostart
    theprogrammecompleteit(seewww.experiencecorps.org).
    Volunteersareoverwhelminglyfemale,reflectingthewiderproblemofattractingmen
    bothtovolunteerandtoworkinprimaryschools.Threequartersofthevolunteersare
    cont.nextpage
    15 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    retired;theresteitherworkorareunemployed.Asignificantnumber(25percent)are
    classifiedas‘lowincome’(CenterforSocialDevelopment2008a).
    Thebenefitsoftheprogramme
    AconsiderableamountofindependentresearchonthebenefitsofExperienceCorpshas
    beenconducted(Friedetal 2004,CenterforSocialDevelopment2009,Raley2003).The
    benefitsreachfarbeyondimprovingreadingandbehaviourinprimaryschoolclassrooms.
    Forthevolunteersitisameaningfulandvaluedactivity,itprovidescognitiveand
    physicalstimulation,anditenablessocialinteraction(withothervolunteersandteaching
    staffaswellaschildren).ThishasledsometoclassifyExperienceCorpsas‘apublic
    healthinterventionforolderadults’(Barronetal 2009:649).
    Factorsforsuccess
    • Stronginfrastructure.Paidstaffandprofessionalsystemsoverseerecruitment,
    coordination,trainingandsupervisionofvolunteers.
    • Volunteersreceiveastipend.Thestipendenablesagreaterrangeofpeopleto
    volunteerandtodosoformorehourseachweek,ensurespeoplearecommittedto
    seeingtheprogrammethrough,andservesasapublicrecognitionthattheworkis
    valued(CenterforSocialDevelopment2008c).
    • Effectiveinformationcampaigns.ExperienceCorpshasworkedhardtoovercome
    informationbarriers,forexamplebycontactingpeopledirectlyinareasnearschools
    andaskingthemtovolunteer(CenterforSocialDevelopment2008a).
    • Flexibleworkroutinecoupledwithfirmcommitment. Themixtureofasking
    volunteerstocommittoayear’sservicebutallowingflexibleworkscheduleshas
    enabledpeopletovolunteerandensurestheytaketheschemeseriously.
    • Designedwithfocusonolderadults.Theprogrammehasbeendesignedtocaterfor
    theneedsofolderadults,builtonamodelof‘activeageing’.
    • Teamenvironment. Supportisprovidedfromothervolunteersandstaffinthe
    schoolswheretheyarelocated.Workinginateamprovidesmoresupportandsocial
    networks.
    • Targetedmessage.Thelanguageusedwhenrecruitingandmanagingvolunteershas
    beencarefullytargetedtoolderpeople.ExperienceCorpshasresearchedwhich
    messagesworkbest.Forexampleitshowspeopleprefertotalkabouttheir
    ‘experience’and‘wisdom’asopposedtotheirageandthatitisbettertoreferto
    somebody’sjobtitle,suchas‘tutor’,thantocallthem‘volunteer’(ExperienceCorps
    2005).
    • Worksinpartnership.PartnersincludeAARP,apowerfulgroupforolderpeople,
    whichspreadsinformationaboutExperienceCorpstoitsmembers,andElderhostel,a
    universityforolderpeople,whichoffersfreecoursestothosewhovolunteerwith
    ExperienceCorps.
    16 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Casestudy:Phasedretirement,Norway
    Work
    Norwaystrugglestoretainworkersintheirsixtiesandexpenditureonpensionsisforecast
    tomorethandoubleby2050(RiskuandVidlund2008).Somepeopleleavethe
    workforceearly,someareforcedtoleaveworkataparticularageandmanyleavework
    suddenly.
    Norwayhasintroducedaseriesofreformstothepensionsystemthataredesignedto
    promotelongerworkinglivesand‘phasedretirement’.Thereformsareduetocomeinto
    effectfrom2010,asfollows:
    •Occupationalpensionswillbemandatory
    •Theminimumretirementagewillremainat62buttherewillbesignificantfinancial
    incentivestoworklater.Byremainingintheworkforceforlongeraperson’sstate
    pensionwillincrease,andviceversa.Theannualpensionwillincreasebyabout7.5
    percentforeachadditionalyearspentinthelabourforcewithoutdrawinga
    pension.
    •Peoplewillbeabletodrawontheirpensionwhilestillworking,withoutthepension
    beingreduced.
    •Therewillbenoupperlimitonpensionage.
    •Pensionswilladjustwithlifeexpectancy,creatingan‘actuarialsystem’.Thismeansif
    lifeexpectancyincreasesbyoneyearanindividualwillhavetoworkanadditional
    eightmonthsinordertoreceivethesamepensionentitlement.Someonebornin
    1983,forexample,willhavetoretireatage71iftheywanttoreceivethesamelevel
    ofpensionassomeonewhoretiresaged67today.
    •Pensionentitlementswillbeaccruedforunpaidcarework.
    •Therewillbeastrongerlinkbetweenlifetimeearningsandpensionbenefits.
    (RiskuandVidlund2008,HolmoyandStensnes2008)
    SimilarchangeshavealsobeenintroducedinSwedenandFinland(seeforexample
    Raisanen2009)andtosomeextentintheUK–whichnowallowspeopletodefertheir
    statepensioninreturnforincreasingitsvalueandisopeningupoptionsforpeopleto
    drawontheirpensionwhileworking.
    Asthesystemdoesnotcomeintoeffectuntil2010itssuccessisyettobeproven.
    Detailedprojectionsexpectittohaveasignificantimpactontheageatwhichpeople
    retireandthestateofthegovernmentfinances,butthatthiswillcomeatthecostofan
    increaseinincomeinequalityamongold-agepensioners(HolmoyandStensnes2008).
    Theuseofthepensionssystemisa‘hardincentive’thatgovernmentscanusetotryto
    encouragepeopletoworklongerandasaresultcanbeveryeffectiveatchanginghow
    peopleretire.Itcanworkincombinationwith‘softer’optionsthattrytomakeworkmore
    attractive,suchasimprovingtheworkplaceandthetaskspeoplearegiven.
    Theaimistocreateasystemwherepeoplehavemorechoiceoverwhenandhowthey
    retire,butthatencouragesthemtoworklaterinlife.Itbreaksawayfromthenotionthat
    retirementisasingle-stageeventatafixedage,reshapingitassomethingthatcanbe
    phasedinovertime.
    17 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Summary
    Longerworkinglivescanhelpolderpeoplemaintaintheirwell-being.Increasingthepension
    agewillnotbeenoughtoensurepeopleworklaterinlifeandonitsowncanberegressive
    asitreducesthecontrolpeoplehaveovertheirlives.Thechallengeistoinnovatenew
    approachestoworking,thetransitiontoretirement,andwhatretirementitselfconsistsof.
    TheexampleinNorwaydemonstrateshowthecentralstatecanadjustpensionsinamore
    radicalwaythansimplyraisingtheretirementage–bygivingpeoplemorecontroloverthe
    retirementprocesswithincentivestoworklaterandtheabilitytophaseoutofwork
    gradually.Thismeanstheycanfitworkaroundothercommitmentsandpreventsasudden
    cut-offfromthelabourforce.
    ThecaseofExperienceCorpsintheUSdemonstrateshowanot-for-profitorganisationis
    reshapingretirementbyencouragingolderpeopletovolunteer.Theevidencesuggestsif
    peopleareactivelyaskedtovolunteer,theirworkisproperlymanagedandflexible,andthat
    theyreceiveastipendandrecognitionoftheircontribution,thentheirexperiencecanbe
    harnessedandtheirwell-beingconsiderablyimproved.
    18 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    4.Learning
    Thischapterexaminesthebenefitsoflearninginlaterlifeandsomeofthechallengesand
    barrierstodoingso.
    Whileeducationhastraditionallybeenthepreserveoftheyoung,thereisagrowing
    movementtowardsamodelof‘lifelonglearning’.Ratherthanseeingdifferentstagesoflife
    dominatedbyakeyactivity– withyoungeryearsspentineducation,middleyearsinwork
    andolderyearsinretirementandleisure– weneedtoadapttoamoreintegratedmodel
    withelementsofeducation,workandleisurealltakingplacethroughoutthelifecourse.
    Learningcanconsiderablyimproveolderpeople’swell-being.However,stereotypesofageing
    asaprocessofcognitivedeclinemeanolderpeopleareoverlookedinthelearningagenda.
    Adulteducationisskewedtowardstrainingforthelabourmarket.Asaresult,aminorityof
    olderpeopleintheUKtakepartinformallearning(Jamieson2007).Thoseolderpeoplethat
    areinvolvedinlearningtendtobemiddleclasswithpreviousexperienceoffurther
    education.Thereisthereforescopetoreduceinequalitiesinaccesstoadultlearning.

    Thebenefitsoflearninginlaterlife
    Theindependenttwo-yearInquiryintoLifelongLearningfoundthat‘theevidencethat
    learningpromoteswell-beingisoverwhelming’(Field2009:5).Andarecentlycompiledlist
    offivekeythingsthatpeopleshoulddotopromotementalhealthincluded‘keeplearning’
    (nef2009).
    Thebenefitsoflearningcanbedirect(forexampleimprovedconfidence)orindirect (for
    examplegainingaskillthatimprovesemployability).Theyinclude:
    •Increasedsocialinteractionandthecreationofsupportnetworks
    •Buildingself-esteem
    •Buildingcompetencies
    •Feelingsofachievement
    •Beingandfeelingpreparedtomeetchallenges
    •Asenseofagencyandautonomy
    •Improvementsinemployabilityandearnings
    •Adaptiontonewtechnologies,socialchangeandchangesintheworkplace
    •Civicengagement
    •Improvementsincognitionandmentalagility
    •Anopportunitytostimulatenewinterests
    •Learningnewlifestylesandbehaviours,suchashealthierliving.
    Directbenefitsoflearning
    Theevidenceforthedirect impactoflearningonwell-beingcomeslargelyfromsurveysand
    somequalitativeresearch.OnestudycarriedoutintheUKcompileddatafromtheNational
    AdultLearningSurveyandface-to-faceinterviewsandfoundthat80percentoflearners
    reportedapositiveimpactoflearningonatleastoneofthefollowingareas:theirenjoyment
    oflife;theirself-confidence;howtheyfeltaboutthemselves;satisfactionwithotherareasof
    life;andtheirabilitytocope.Fourinten(42percent)reportedanimprovementintheir
    abilitytostandupandbeheardand/ortheirwillingnesstotakeresponsibilityandovera
    quarter(28percent)reportedanincreasedinvolvementinsocial,communityand/or
    voluntaryactivitiesasaresultoflearning(DenchandRegan2000).
    19 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    AnarrowerstudyofolderlearnersatBirkbeckCollegeandtheOpenUniversityfoundover
    two-thirdsreportingtheyfelthappier(Jamieson2007).Otherstudieshavefocusedonthe
    cognitivebenefitsofadultlearninganditsabilitytoguardagainstdepression(Hatchet
    al 2007,Schulleretal 2002)andlessentheimpactofAlzheimer’sdisease(Perneczkyet
    al 2009).
    Indirectbenefitsoflearning
    Thereisalargervolumeofevidenceoftheindirect impactthatlearninginlaterlifecan
    haveonwell-being.
    Adultlearninghasbeenshowntoberemarkablygoodatchangingattitudesand
    behaviour–withlearnersmorelikelythannon-learnerstostopsmoking,takeup
    exercise,increasemembershipoforganisationsandimprovetolerancetootherraces
    (Feinsteinetal 2003).
    Educationhasalsobeenshowntoimprovepeople’sabilitytomanagetheirlives,for
    examplethroughtakingbettercareoftheirfinancesandincreasingtheiruseofpublic
    services,factorsthatarelikelytoleadtoimprovedwell-being(HammondandFeinstein
    2006).Thiswillbeincreasinglyimportantaslabourmarketsbecomemoreflexibleand
    serviceprovisionmorepersonalised–meaningthatpeopleneedtohavetheskillsto
    managemorecomplexlivesandreapthebenefitsofthesechanges.
    Learningandtrainingcanimproveemployabilityandhelpolderworkersadapttochanges
    intheworkplace.Thisinturncanimproveresilienceandhelppreventunemploymentin
    laterlife–somethingcloselylinkedtomentalill-health(Jenkinsetal 2003,Field2009).
    Studycanbeimportantformeetingnewpeopleanddevelopingsocialnetworks.Ina
    surveyconductedonolderlearnersinBirkbeckCollege,London,meetingnewpeoplewas
    notregardedasanimportantreasonforenrollingonacoursebutafterwardswasviewed
    asoneofthebiggestbenefits,with89percentofwomenand67percentofmenlisting
    meetingnewpeopleasapersonalbenefit(Jamieson2007).Theimprovementtosocial
    capitalthatresultsfromlearningisoneofthemostcitedbenefits,asithelpsprovide
    placestoexchangeinformationandfindsupport(Mehrotra2003,Jarvis2004,Schulleret
    al 2004).
    Educationcanalsobeanimportantopportunityforintergenerationalpractice.Many
    schemeshavebeendevelopedthatlinkadultsandchildrenthroughlearning.Increased
    contactbetweenthegenerationshasbeenshowntoimprovewell-beingforolderpeople,
    especiallyinastructuredsetting(Hatton-Yeo2006).

    Risksassociatedwithlearninginlaterlife
    Whilethebenefitsoflearninginlaterlifeareclear,itisimportanttorememberthatthere
    arerisksinvolvedaswell.Therearerisksthat:
    •Assessmentaddspressureandstress
    •Poorcurriculumorsupportforthelearnerleadstodissatisfaction
    •Familyandpersonallifecanbedisrupted
    •Earliernegativeexperiencesofeducationmaybeevoked
    •Somepeoplemayhavetheirexpectationsraisedandbecomeunsatisfiedand
    unhappywiththeircurrentsituationinlife
    •Enteringanunfamiliarcultureandenvironmentcanchallengeidentity.
    (Field2009.Seealsowww.learninglives.org)
    Itisimportanttominimisetheseriskswhendesigningprogrammesforadultlearning,for
    examplebydesigningcoursesthatallowlearnerstodeveloptheirowncurriculum,have
    limitedorflexibleassessment,areavailableatconvenientlocationsandthatprovide
    sufficientsupportfromteachersandpeergroups.
    20 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Pressureforlifelonglearning
    Whilestateeducationpolicyhasremainedresolutelyfocusedontrainingyoungerpeople
    withskillsthatwillbeusefulfortheworkforce,thelast30yearshavewitnessedgrowing
    pressurefromotherbodiestoimprovetheprovisionoflearningopportunitiesforolder
    people.ThecreationoftheUniversityoftheThirdAgeinFrancein1973wasoneofthe
    earliestformallinksbetweenuniversitiesandretiredstudentsandhassincegrown
    internationally,includingintheUK.Thegrowthofdistancelearning,throughinstitutions
    suchastheOpenUniversity,hasalsobenefitedthoseolderpeoplewiththeresourcesto
    participate.TheEuropeanUniondesignated1996theYearofLifelongLearningandinMay
    thisyearUNESCO(theUnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganisation)
    hosteditssixthWorldConferenceonAdultEducation.

    Whatstopspeoplefromparticipatinginlifelonglearning?
    Itisessentialtounderstandwhatbarriersexisttopreventpeopletakingpartineducation.
    Thelackofparticipationinlater-lifelearningisoftenassumedtoreflectcognitivedecline
    anddecreasedmotivationamongolderpeople.Suchanapproachignoresthelived
    experiencesofpeople’slives(Findsen2005).Therearemanymaterialbarriersthatcan
    preventolderpeoplefromengagingineducationalprogrammes,fromlackofinformation
    aboutcoursestoprohibitivecosts.Table4.1summarisessomeofthekeybarriers.

    Table4.1.Keybarrierstoadulteducationforolderpeople

    Demand-side •Attitudethattheoldshouldnotlearn,learningisforyoungerpeople
    barriers •Notpreparedtoinvestinlearning
    •Lowperceptionofself-worthandability
    •Lackofrolemodels
    •Previouslyhadabadexperienceofeducation
    •Toobusytoenrolonacourse
    •Employment/retirementandwelfarepoliciespreventpeoplefrom
    enrollingoncourses
    •Weakpoliticalvoicetolobbyformoreprovision

    Supply-side •Lackofprovision
    barriers •Coursecontentisinappropriateoratwronglevel
    •Practicalitiesofcost,timingsandsoon
    •Policyandfundingprivilegeyoungpeopleandlearningforproductive
    workforce
    •Poortransportconnections
    •Uncomfortablefacilities
    •Lackofinformationaboutopportunitiesavailable
    •Agediscriminationoncertaincourses

    Thetwoguidingrealitiesofadulteducationarethatonlyaminorityareinvolvedinitand
    thatthosewhoareinvolvedtendtocomefrommiddleclassbackgroundsandhavealready
    benefitedfromtheeducationsystemearlierintheirlives.Thereisthereforeastrong
    possibilitythateducationforolderpeoplecanreinforceexistingsocialdivides(Benseman
    1996).Thestructuralconstraintstolearningshouldbetakenseriously.
    Threecasestudiesfollow.
    21 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    CaseStudy:SeniorNet,UnitedStatesandworldwide
    Learningandrelationships
    Therevolutionininformationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICT)hashugepotential
    toimprovethelivesofolderpeoplearoundtheglobe,throughnewwaysofshopping,
    working,communicating,learningandsharinginformation(Timmerman1998).Yetolder
    peopletoooftenmissoutastheresultofa‘digitaldivide’.
    Inresponsetothis,SeniorNetwasestablishedtoprovideolderadultswithaccessto
    computertechnologies.Sinceitsfoundingin1976ithasgrownenormouslyandnow
    teaches20,000studentsinlearningcentreseachyear,has100,000participantsusingits
    websiteeachmonthandreliesonthehelpof4,000volunteers(SeniorNet2006).
    FundingcomesfrommemberfeesandsponsorshipfromorganisationssuchasIBM,
    Microsoft,GoogleandtheUSDepartmentoftheInterior.Itisincreasinglyinternational
    inscopewithlearningcentresincountriesincludingMalaysiaandSweden.
    SeniorNethasestablishedlearningcentresinavarietyoflocations(suchaslibraries,
    collegesandcommunitycentres).Theyprovideover30coursesdeliveredbyvolunteer
    instructorsandmentors,whoarethemselvesolderpeople.Coursesrangefromsimple
    ‘computerfundamentals’and‘usinginternetandemail’,tomoreadvancedcourseson
    ‘digitalphotography’and‘buyingandsellingoneBay’.Theemphasisisoncreatinga
    low-pressureenvironmentandprovidingtheopportunitytopractice.
    TheSeniorNetwebsitehostsonlinecoursesanddistancelearningforthosewhoare
    unabletoattendlearningcentresandisaplacetoshareinformationinchatroomsand
    findemailpen-pals.Itprovidesinformationonarangeoftopicsincludinghealth,money,
    volunteeringopportunitiesandrecreation.
    Anexampleofoneofitsservicesisthe‘BooksandCulture’areaofthewebsite,which
    hostsaninternationalbookclubadministeredby27volunteersfromaroundtheworld.
    ThisprojectalsosparkedSeniorNet’sPrisonLibraryProject,whichisrunbyvolunteersto
    collectneworusedbookstodonatetoprisonlibraries,creatinga‘spill-over’ofbenefits
    asaresultofempoweringmemberswithtechnologyandlinkingthemwithlike-minded
    individuals(SeniorNet2006).
    Strengthsoftheprogramme
    TheSeniorNetprogrammehasbeenwidelyrecognisedwithawardsandpositivereviews
    inthemedia(seeforexampleNewYorkTimes 2007).Itskeystrengthsareasfollows:
    • Thefocusisonempoweringolderpeoplethroughtechnology,notapaternalistic
    focusonteachingandimpartingknowledge
    • Thecoursesseektobringpeopletogetherintoacommunityratherthanindividual
    learning
    • Themethodologyof‘seniorsteachingseniors’hasprovedveryeffective,asthe
    tutorshaveagoodunderstandingofolderlearners’needsandfears
    • Learnerparticipationindesigningandrequestingcoursesensurestheclassesare
    relevant,meetlearners’needsandareinteractive
    • Thestrongfocusonusingvolunteersenablesskillstobeharnessedandolderpeople
    tomakeacontribution,andkeepscostsdown
    • Classesarededicatedtoolderpeoplemeaningtheycanbedevelopedwithspecific
    needsinmind,forexample,creatingalesspressuredenvironmentandarelaxedpace
    • Amaximumof16participantsonacoursewiththreetofourinstructorsensures
    personalattention
    • Locally-basedcentrescantapintolocalnetworksofvolunteers,sponsors,students
    andsoonwhilegettingsupportfromnationalheadoffice.
    22 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    CaseStudy:EnglishLanguagePartners,NewZealand
    Learning,workandrelationships
    EnglishLanguagePartnersisNewZealand’slargestsettlementagencyformigrantsand
    refugees.Itisanot-for-profitorganisationthatdeliversEnglishlanguagetuitionand
    settlementservices.Itreliesheavilyonvolunteers,abouthalfofwhomareover55,tobe
    hometutors(ESOLHomeTutors2008).
    Theorganisationgreworganicallywithinindividualcommunitiesthatnoticedaneedfor
    hometutoringamongmigrantswhocouldnotattendformalclasses.Thenumberof
    tutorshadgrownfrom835volunteersin1982to3,500by2005,andtheorganisation
    nowreceivesgovernmentfunding(ESOLHomeTutors2006).
    TheworkofEnglishLanguagePartnersisbuiltonaphilosophyoflifelonglearning.
    Thosereceivingtuitionaregenerallyadults–someofwhomareoldermigrantswhohave
    cometojointheirchildreninNewZealand.Thebenefitsforthetuteesincludeacquiring
    languageskills,buildingsocialcontacts,asenseofpurposeandasenseofachievement.
    A95-year-oldRussianenrolledintheprogrammeexplained:‘thisislikemyfamily,Ilook
    forwardtocominghereeveryday’(Joshua2009).
    Learningisalsocentraltothetutors.Thevolunteersreceive20hoursofteachertraining
    andareawardedaqualificationrecognisedbytheNewZealandQualificationsAuthority.
    Learningcontinuesasvolunteersgointopeople’shomesandlearnaboutnewcultures,
    dealingwithotherpeopleandputtingtheirteachingtechniquesintopractice.
    ThesuccessofEnglishLanguagePartnerscanbeputdowntoanumberoffactors:
    • Theuseofvolunteerstodeliverlanguageservices.Anindependentreportcalculated
    thevalueofworkdonebyvolunteerswasthreeorfourtimesasmuchasitcostto
    runtheorganisation(ESOLHomeTutors2006).
    • Theservicedoesnotstopatlanguagetuition,butbuildscommunities,social
    networksandcapabilitiesacrossdifferentagegroupsandethnicgroups.
    • Aphilosophybasedonlearnerparticipationandsmallone-to-onetuitionmeansthe
    learner’sneedsareattheheartoftheorganisation.
    • Thelessonsareseenasasocialandculturalexchangebetweentutorandtutee
    ratherthanonepersonimpartingknowledgetoanother.
    • Theorganisationhasinvestedheavilyinmonitoringandevaluatingitsprogrammes,
    recentlyrunning20pilotschemestryingtoimprovelearnerfeedbackandassessment
    mechanisms.
    • Comprehensivetrainingforthevoluntarystaffisflexibleandbasedinconvenient
    locations.Follow-upseminarsandanannualconferenceprovideconstantsupport
    andprofessionaldevelopment.
    EnglishLanguagePartnershasthehallmarksofasuccessfulsocialenterpriseintheway
    thatit:
    • Harnessessocialcapital
    • Buildsrelationshipsbetweenpeople
    • Buildsindividuals’capabilitiestoliveindependently
    • Useseffectivemonitoringandimprovementmechanisms
    • Respondstoalocalneed
    • Enablestheparticipationofthepeopletheyareserving
    • Underpinstheworkofboththetutorsandtuteesinlifelonglearning.
    23 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Casestudy:UniversityoftheElderlyandCommunityEducation,China
    Learning
    LifelonglearningisnotanewconcepttotheChinese,whohavealonghistoryof
    educationthroughoutthelife-course(Kai-Mingetal 1999).Thisculturalandpolitical
    attitudetowardsadulteducationhaspermeatedChina’sresponsetoitsageing
    population.
    Chinahasintroducedasystemof‘UniversitiesfortheElderly’and‘Community
    Education’designedspecificallyforretiredpeople.The2006WhitePaperDevelopment
    ofChina’sUndertakingsfortheAgedboastedthatChinahad26,000institutionsof
    higherlearningforolderpeople,withatotalenrolmentof2.3millionstudents.Itwent
    ontopromisethat10,000moreseniorcitizens’universitiesandschoolswouldbe
    establishedacrossthecountry(ChinaDaily 2006).Thisispartofawiderefforttoprovide
    culturalservicesforolderpeople.
    Theseinstitutionsreceivegovernmentsubsidiesaswellascommunityandprivate
    sponsorship.Theeducationsystemforolderpeopleviewslearningopportunitiesas
    ‘welfareaswellaseducation–theoverallobjectiveistomakelivesafterretirement
    meaningful’(Kai-Mingetal 1999:128).
    Since2000Chinahasalsodevelopedaprogrammeof‘CommunityEducation’.
    Regulationsreleasedin2004outlinethepurposeofthisprogramme:
    Communityeducationshouldsafeguardlearners’basicrightfor
    learning,satisfytheneedoflifelonglearningandprovidethe
    chanceoflearning,trainingandeducationtoallthosepeoplewho
    arewillingtobeeducatedandtrainedregardlessofthelimitation
    ofageandacademicschoolingrecord. (ChineseNational
    CommissionforUNESCO[CNCU]2008:45)
    Communityeducationworksbyopeningupcommunityresourcessuchaslibraries,
    museumsandsportsclubsintoanintegratedlocalnetwork–linkedtocentralcolleges
    andschoolsforsupport.Branchesarerunbylocalcommunitiesandbyamixtureofpaid
    teachersandvoluntarystaff.Classesrangefromartandcalligraphytohealthandforeign
    languages.
    UnderlyingChina’sdevelopmentsineducationisarhetoricoflearningthroughoutthe
    lifecourse.Thereisastrongfocusonlifelonglearning,equalityofprovisionforall
    citizensandsatisfyingcultural–notjustlabourmarket–needs.Forexample,the
    ConstitutionofthePeople’sRepublicofChinaemphasisesthatallcitizenshavetheright
    toreceiveeducationandthe2004ActionProgrammeforVitalisingEducationtalkedof
    ‘buildingasystemoflifelongeducation’(CNCU2008:9-11).
    ConclusionsfromtheChineseexample
    Chinaisrespondingtoasetofuniquechallengesrelatedtorapideconomicandsocial
    development,notleastthechallengeofhavingalargenumberofelderlypeoplewhodid
    nothaveaccesstoeducationintheiryouth.However,itsresponsetotheissueofageing
    andlearningisstillinstructivetoothercountriesforanumberofreasons:
    • Itdemonstrateshowaculturalattitudesupportiveoflearningacrossthelife-course
    caninfluencepolicyandthedesignoftheeducationsystem.
    • Itprovidesanexampleofaninstitutionalresponsetothechallengeoflearninginlater
    life–buildinganentireeducationsystemofschoolsandcollegesforolderpeople.
    • Theaimsoftheeducationsystemgobeyondsimplytrainingyoungpeopleforthe
    labourmarket.Thereisalsoanemphasisonequalaccessforallcitizenstoeducation
    opportunitiesandonthebenefitsoflearningtoculture,societyandwellbeing.
    24 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Summary
    Learningcanbeanimportantdriverofwell-beinginlaterlife,thoughpublicattitudesand
    materialbarriersmeanlearningisoftenthepreserveoftheyoung.Thecasestudies
    presentedheredemonstratequitedifferentresponsestothisproblem.
    InthecaseofSeniorNetandEnglishLanguagePartners,opportunitiesforlearninggrew
    organicallyinresponsetolocalneeds.Theyinvolvedthecollaborationofolderpeople
    themselves,tappingintolocalneedsandinterests.Theskillsgainedwerepractical–
    languageteachingandIT–andhelpedtoempowerolderpeopleinotherwalksoflife.
    TheChinesecaseshowshoweducationinstitutionscanbebuiltandadjustedtoencourage
    learninginolderage,shiftingtheirphilosophytoassumethatolderpeoplearepartoftheir
    targetaudience.
    Behindallthecasestudiesisabeliefthateducationisaboutmorethanpreparingforthe
    labourmarket,anattempttotiepeopleintowidernetworks(betheyintheirlocal
    communitiesoronline),andafocusonlearninginalesspressuredenvironmentfora
    qualification.
    25 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    5.Builtenvironment
    Thedesignofhomesandcitieshasnotkeptpacewiththerealityofhowpeoplelivetheir
    lives.Housebuildingandplanningagreementshavebeenbasedonamodelofnuclear
    families,theable-bodied,workingresidentsandpeoplepreparedtotraveltoaccessservices.
    Yetitisolderpeoplewhowillaccountforhalfoftheincreaseinhouseholdsbetweennow
    and2026,meaningtherewillbe2.4millionmore‘olderhouseholds’intheUKthanthereare
    today(CommunitiesandLocalGovernment2008).Thewaywebuildhomesand
    communitiesmustreflecttherealitythatmanyolderresidentsliveontheirown,arenot
    workingandarenotverymobile.
    Despiteongoingeffortstoimprovethehousingstock,olderpeoplearedisproportionately
    affectedbypoorhousing.IntheUKathirdofolderpeoplelivingontheirownliveinhomes
    classedas‘non-decent’and13percentofolderpeopleliveinhomesthatareinserious
    disrepair(Allen2008,OfficeforNationalStatistics2008).Improvinghomesistherefore
    essential.Sotooisenablingolderpeopletogetoutoftheirhomes–morethan1million
    olderpeoplereportfeelingtrappedintheirownhomeand20percentfindaccessingtheir
    localhospitaldifficult(Nesta2009).

    Thebuiltenvironmentandwell-being
    Thereisagrowingappreciationinplanningandarchitectureoftherelationbetweenhumans
    andtheirenvironment.Whilethishastendedtofocusonpeople’sphysicalneeds,muchcan
    alsobedoneheretofacilitategoodmentalhealth.
    Moreeffortneedstobeputintoincludingolderpeopleinthedesignprocess(Summer
    2002).Designandplanningshouldbegroundedinabetterunderstandingofageing,
    behaviourandolderpeople’srelationshipwiththeirsurroundings,focusingontheirbroader
    well-beingaswellastheirphysicalmobility.
    Thelinksbetweenthebuiltenvironmentandwell-beingcanbedirect (forexampleviewsof
    greenspacereducelevelsofdepressionandnoisecancauseanxiety)andindirect(for
    examplestairsandlongwalkingdistancescanpreventpeoplefromleavingtheirhomesto
    socialise,inturncreatingisolationandloneliness).
    Thebuiltenvironmentcansupportolderpeople’swell-beinginthefollowingways:
    Reducingfearandanxiety
    Thequalityofolderpeople’shousingandthelocalenvironment–thingssuchastraffic,
    litter,crime,noise,andhousingquality–canhaveadirectimpactonresidents’well-being.
    Poorlymaintainedphysicalenvironmentscandirectlyunderminewell-beingandcontribute
    toisolation.
    Adetailedlookatsurveydatarevealsthatsomefactorsaremoreimportantthanothersin
    influencingolderpeople’sstressandanxiety.Perhapssurprisingly,litterandtrafficaremore
    importantforolderpeoplethanfearofcrimeandyoungpeopleinpublicspaces.Infact,
    middle-agedgroupsaremoreconcernedwithcrime,drugs,vandalismandteenagershanging
    aroundthestreetthanolderagegroups(ONS2008).
    Anotherstudyfoundthebiggestsourceofstressandanxietyforolderpeoplelivingin
    deprivedwardsinEnglandwasdeteriorationinthephysicalfabricofpublicspacesand
    buildingsandenvironmentalproblemssuchaspollution,noiseandtraffic(Scharfetal 2002
    citedinAllen2008).
    Specificfactorsrelatedtothebuiltenvironmentcanthereforebetargetedtoreduceolder
    people’sfeelingsofstressandanxiety.Trafficcalmingmeasures,littercollection,moretime
    tocrossatpelicancrossingsandurbandesigntoreducenoisemightbemoresignificantthan
    preventingteenagersfromhangingaroundordiscouragingvandalism.
    26 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Increasingphysicalactivity
    Physicalactivityhasbeenshowntobecrucialforimprovingwell-beinginolderpeople:
    •Itimprovescognitiveperformanceandmemory(Yaffeetal 2001,Weuveetal 2004)
    •Itprotectsagainstdepression(Strawbridgeetal 2002)
    •Itincreaseslifesatisfaction(SilversteinandParker2002)
    •Itcreatesopportunitiesforsocialising,fun,competition,makingnewrelationships
    (O’Brienetal 1991)
    •Itreducesstressthroughmusclerelaxation,moodimprovement,andselfconfidence
    (ibid)
    •Itpreventsordelaysphysiologicalchanges
    •Itpreventsordelayschronicdiseasessuchascardiovasculardisease,diabetes,arthritis
    (Singh2002)
    •Itimprovesfunctionalcapabilitysuchasmusclestrength,balanceandflexibility
    (KeysorandJette2001)
    •Itreducesthechanceoffalls(Skelton2001)
    •Itimprovesmobilityandenablesindependentlifestyles.
    Thephysicalenvironmentcanbecrucialtoenablingandpromotingphysicalactivity,for
    examplethroughthedesignoftownstoencouragewalking;theprovisionofplacesto
    exercise–bothoutdoorsandindedicatedcentres;enablingparticipationinactivities;and
    removingbarrierstophysicalactivitysuchastrafficandpoorlydesignedfacilities.
    Contactwithnaturalenvironment
    Exposuretonaturalenvironmentscanimprovewell-beingandlifesatisfaction,reducestress
    andhavea‘restorativeeffect’.Researchhasshown:
    •Visualcontactwithnaturalelementsimprovespeople’ssatisfactionandwell-being
    (Kaplan2001).
    •Exposuretonaturaldaylight(andvitaminD)hasconsiderablehealthbenefits,for
    example,improvedimmunesystem,bonestrength,moodandqualityofsleep(Alves
    andSugiyama2006).
    •Exposuretonaturereducesriskofdevelopingstress-relatedillness,increasespositive
    affectandleadstohigherattentionlevels(Hartigetal 2003).
    •Livingnearwalkablegreenspacesisassociatedwithincreasedlifeexpectancyand
    improvedhealth(Takanoetal 2002,deVriesetal 2003).
    Designingtownsthatenableolderpeopletobeoutdoorsandtoaccessgreenspaceis
    thereforeimportant.Thiscaninvolvestructuralchangessuchascreatingmoreparksand
    plantingtrees,designinghomesinnewwaystoensurewindowsandgardensoverlookgreen
    spaceandallowinnaturallight,makingsmall‘facilitating’changessuchasproviding
    benchesandcoveredseatingareasinparksandpublictoilets,andchangestoservicessuch
    asprovidingdoor-to-doortransporttoparksandactivitiestakingplaceoutdoors.
    Increasingly,horticulturalprogrammesandgardeninghavebeenusedasaformoftherapy,
    withparticipationleadingtoincreasedpsychologicalwell-beingandsenseofachievement
    (BarnicleandMidden2003,Milliganetal 2004).Thebenefitsoftheseprogrammescouldbe
    mainstreamedintourbanplanningandservicedeliverytargetedatolderpeople.
    27 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Increasesocialinteraction
    Asenseofcommunityandcontactwithotherpeopleisoneofthemostimportantdefences
    againstdepression.Thebuiltenvironmenthasaconsiderableimpactonthequantityand
    qualityofsocialinteraction:
    •Publicspaces,fromshoppingmallstopublicparks,arespaceswherepeopleinteract.
    Evenshallowcontact,suchaswithashopassistantorbusdriver,canbemeaningful.
    Publicspacesmustenableusebyallages(AlvesandSugiyama2006).
    •Spacesthatencouragepedestrianwalkingabovecarusefosterinteractionandcontain
    peoplewhoaremorelikelytoknowtheirneighboursandengageinsocialactivities
    (Leyden2003).
    •Socialengagementwithneighboursreducesfearofcrimeamongolderpeople(Kweon
    etal 1998).
    •Locally-basedcontactisespeciallyimportantforolderpeoplewhobecomelessmobile
    (AlvesandSugiyama2006).Environmentscanbedesignedtoenableneighboursto
    meeteachotherandsharespaces.
    •Ifpoorlydesigned,outdoorspacescanbeabarriertophysicalexerciseand
    participationinactivitieswithothers(Bertera2003).
    •Outdoorspacesprovideacontexttomaintainfriendships–forexamplebyallowing
    friendstomeetinapark,goshoppingtogether,gooutforameal.
    Thebuiltenvironmentcanthereforebedesignedtofostersocialcontactbetweenpeople
    andthisiscrucialforcounteringtheisolationandlonelinessthatmanyolderpeopleface.
    Enableindependentliving
    Maintainingindependenceisoftencitedasoneofthemostimportantfactorsforwell-being.
    Thereisagrowingemphasison‘ageinginplace’–enablingpeopletoageintheirhomes
    andneighbourhoods.Thisispartlydrivenbytheneedtokeepcarecostslow(byreducing
    theneedforpeopletoenterresidentialornursingcare),butalsobytherealisationthat
    peoplewanttoageintheirownhomesandthatthiscanbegoodfortheirwell-being.
    Homesareimportantforolderpeoplebecause:
    •Theycontainmemories,objectsofsignificance,asenseofidentity
    •Theyprovideemotionalandphysicalsecurity
    •Theyallowindependenceandareapracticaldemonstrationofindependence
    •Theyallowcontinuitywiththepastandmaintenanceofexistingrelationships
    •Peopleoftenhaveinformalnetworksofsupportneartheirhome.
    (Intel2009)
    Anthropologistshaveshownhowhomescanbedesignedtoimprovehappinessbyenabling
    independentliving.Examplesinclude:socketsbeinglocatedhigheronwalls,walk-in
    showers,largerbuttonsonremotecontrols,replacinglawnswithpatioswithraisedbeds,
    addinginteriorplantsandmoreevenpavingstones.Thereisconsiderablescopefornew
    technologyandproductstoenableolderpeopletobeindependent,includingexamplessuch
    astelecareandcommunityalertsystems.However,thesameresearchfoundthathomescan
    becomefossilisedaroundthepastandservetoremindpeopleoftheirageinganddeclining
    mobility.Itmadethecaseforadaptinghomestobemorefocusedonthefutureandasense
    ofability(Intel2009).
    Whileadaptingpeople’shomesisimportant,peoplecanonlyliveindependentlyiftheyare
    alsomobileoutsideofthehome(Intel2009).Beingmobilelinkspeopletoplaces,resources
    andservices.Itcanprovideaccesstohealthcareservices,shops,information,socialcontact,
    theoutdoorsandphysicalactivities.
    28 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Afocusonmobilityoutsideofthehomeforcesustorethinkhowwedesigntownsand
    provideservices.Examplesofpositivemeasuresincludeprovidingdoor-to-doortransportso
    thatpeopledonothavetowalkamiletogetabus,makingsuretransportgoestotheright
    placesattherighttimes–notjusttakingpeopletowork,changingcartechnologytoenable
    peopletodriveuntillaterinlife,makingtownsmorenavigablefortheelderlyanddeveloping
    devicestoassistpeopleoutsideofthehome.
    Paradoxically,livingindependentlycanrequiresupport,especiallyforfrailerolderpeople.
    Withoutthesesupports,individualsareleftunabletooperateindependentlyandaremore
    likelytogointocarehomes.

    Casestudy:University-LinkedRetirementCommunities(ULRCs),UnitedStates
    Builtenvironment,learningandrelationships
    Ona10-acresiteneartotheUniversityofCaliforniainDavis,anot-for-profit
    organisationhasbuilta‘UniversityRetirementCommunity’.Itcontainsarangeofliving
    optionsincludingindependentcottagesandapartments,assistedlivingunitsanda51-
    bedskillednursingcentrewitha14-bedAlzheimer’swing.Theunitsrangeinsizeand
    residentsareabletocustomiseanddecoratethemhowtheywish.
    Therearemanyamenitiesspecificallyfortheretirementcommunity,includingmeeting
    anddiningrooms,cafes,alibrary,fitnesscentreandparking.Butbeingsoclosetothe
    universitycampus,residentshaveaccesstomuchmore.Theycanusetheuniversity
    hospital,watchuniversitysportingmatchesandattendculturalevents.Lecturerscometo
    givetalks,andthereareopportunitiestoparticipateinclassesandmentorstudents.
    Theresidentsareassuredoffrequentintergenerationalcontactbecausemanyyounger
    studentsfromthecampushavepart-timejobsintheretirementcommunity,servicingthe
    shopsandcafes(HarrisonandTsao2006).
    Thisexampleispartofagrowingtrendforretirementcommunitiestobebuilton
    universitycampusesintheUS.About60suchUniversity-LinkedRetirementCommunities
    (ULRCs)exist.Retirementcommunitieshavebeensetupbyprivatedevelopers,not-for-
    profitorganisationsanduniversitiesthemselves(Halligan2004).
    ULRCsarebuiltonfourprinciplesthataredesignedtocounterlowexpectationsof
    retirement.Theyenvisionretirementwhere:
    • Learningneverstops
    • Oneisnevertotallydisengagedfromworkormeaningfulworksubstitutes
    • Cross-generationalinteractionstakeplaceroutinely
    • Personalgrowthisawayoflife.
    (Pastalanetal,nodate)
    Itconstructsmanyofthefoundationstowell-beinginlaterlifethroughaninnovative
    approachtothebuiltenvironmentandservicedelivery,whichusesanestablished
    infrastructureandcommunity.
    Therearealsoconsiderablebenefitstotheuniversity,includingjobsforstudents,
    financialbenefitsfromrentorsaleoftheland,olderpeoplecontributingtocampuslife
    (forexample,throughguestlecturingandvolunteering),andincreasingtheoneareaof
    diversitythatuniversitiesstrugglemosttoaddress:age.
    Whilecurrentlythepreserveofrelativelywealthyandeducatedolderpeople,thereis
    considerablescopetodevelopmoreopenmodelsofhousingforolderpeoplewithlinks
    touniversitiesinordertoshareopportunitiesforlearning,workandleisure.
    29 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Casestudy:‘Woonerf’,Netherlands
    Builtenvironment
    WoonerfistheDutchconceptofdesigningstreetssothatwalking,cycling,social
    activities,children’splay,parkingandlocalcartrafficcanallsharethesamespace.It
    ensuresthatstreetsarenotsolelydefinedbytheneedsoftraffic,insteadprioritisingsocial
    activitiesandpedestrians(Hamilton-Baillie2000).
    Woonerfisdesignedtobevisuallyappealing,toreducetrafficspeedandtopromoteother
    activitiesinstreetspace.Designscanconsistof:
    • Trafficspeedsof15mph
    • Carparkingbrokenupwithtreesratherthanregimentedlines
    • Playareasandseatingdemarcatedbybollards
    • Publicgardenswhichresidentscanpersonalise
    • Lightingdesignedtohelppedestrians,notcars
    • Positioningtrafficcalmingmeasuressuchasraisedjunctionsandspeedhumpstofit
    intotheoveralldesignoftheneighbourhood.
    Astrongfeatureofwoonerf iscommunityinvolvementindesigningtheirownstreetspace,
    meaningthereisnouniform‘look’.
    Themostcontroversialelementistheremovaloflinestodemarcateroadsandjunctions,in
    anattempttoforcetraffictogenuinelysharethestreets.Butthishasactuallyimproved
    safetyasitforcescarstoslowdownandbemorevigilant.
    Thebenefitsofthisapproachtostreetdesignarestriking–simplechangestothebuilt
    environmenthavemadetrafficspeedsof15mphinresidentialareasthenorm,have
    encouragedgreateruseofcyclingandwalking,increasedsocialinteractionandreduced
    noise.Italsogivesresidentsasenseofownershipoverthelocalenvironment.These
    benefitsareusuallyassociatedwithprovidingagoodenvironmentforchildren,butitis
    clearthattheytacklemanyoftheproblemsthatolderpeopleexperienceaswell.
    FromtheNetherlandstotheUK
    Woonerfs originatedinDelftandRijswijkinthe1970sandhavesincebecomesocommon
    theyaretakenforgranted.Therearenowover7,000inHolland,andtheprinciplehas
    influencedplannersacrossmuchofNorthernEurope(Hamilton-Baillie2000).Theprinciple
    wasintroducedintheUKas‘HomeZones’,with59projectsreceivingfundingundera
    dedicatedchallengefundin2001.Despitepositiveimpactassessmentsandsupportfrom
    localresidents,theschemehasnotbeenrolledoutwidelyandtherearefewerthan100
    HomeZoneschemesintheUK(Gill2006).Theschemesthathavebeenbuiltareless
    radicalthanEuropeanequivalents,withnolegalorstatutoryguidelinesforwhatthey
    shouldincludeandnorequirementforsharedsurfaceuse.ThisleadsGilltodescribepolicy
    receptionas‘morepassiveacceptancethanactivepromotion’(2006:11).
    PerhapsthemoststrikingelementofHomeZonesisthattheyareentirelyseenasthe
    domainofcampaignsforchild-friendlyneighbourhoods.Theywerelobbiedforbythe
    Children’sPlayCouncilandpromotedas‘costeffectivewaystomakewalkingsaferfor
    childrenandadolescents’(Preston1995).Giventheimportanceofthebuiltenvironment
    toolderpeople,andthepotentialbenefitofHomeZonestothem,theysurelystandto
    gainjustasmuchfromtheprogramme.Hamilton-Baillieconcludesthat:
    TherearenoinherentculturalorsocialdifferencesbetweenBritain
    andothercountriesincontinentalEuropewhichshouldinhibita
    changeinthebalancebetweenpeople,placesandtransport
    representedbythedevelopmentofHomeZones. (Hamilton-Baillie
    2000:22).
    30 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    Casestudy:PreventativeHomeVisits,Finland
    Builtenvironmentandrelationships
    Finlandhaspioneeredasystemofpreventativehomevisitsforolderpeople,inan
    attempttoshiftthefocusfromtreatmenttoprevention.TheyarepartofFinland’s
    NationalFrameworkforHighQualityServicesforOlderPeople whichplacesapremium
    onpreventionandmakinghealthyageingcentraltoallpolicyareas.
    Thepurposeofthevisitsisto:
    …assessandsupportindependence,toprovideinformationabout
    services,toidentifyriskfactorsendangeringtheperson’shealthand
    welfare,andtocheckthesafetyofthehomeandsurroundings.The
    likelyfutureneedforindividualservicescanalsobeestablished.
    (MinistryofSocialAffairsandHealth2008:23-24)
    Trainedprofessionalsenterthehomesofolderpeopletoassessthephysicalsurroundings
    butalsotoadviseonhealthandprovideinformationaboutavailableresourcesand
    services.Thesevisitsaretargetedatolderpeoplewhodonotyetneedhealthand
    welfareservicesbutaredeemed‘at-risk’,suchasthosewholivealone,areonlow
    incomes,aresusceptibletofalls,havechronicdiseasesandthoserecentlywidowed.
    Thevisitsareseenasawaytopreventpoorhealth,keepcostslow,enablepeopletoage
    intheirownhomesandensuretheyhaveamoreactiveretirement.Aparticularproblem
    wasseentobethatwhileadviceandhealthpromotiongoesoninearlystagesoflife,
    throughschoolhealthprogrammes,childcentres,maternityclinicsandoccupational
    healthintheworkplace,ittendstopeeteroutafterretirement.Finlandisthereforetrying
    toputanewinfrastructureinplacetocontinueeducationalworkaroundpromoting
    healthylivingandidentifyingproblemsearly(Voutillainen2009).
    Thevisitshavebeensuccessfulbecausethey:
    • focusonprevention–ensuringhealthierlivesandcosteffectiveforthestate
    • support‘ageinginplace’,helpingpeopletostayintheirownhomes
    • areapersonalisedapproachtoservicedelivery
    • focusonprovidinginformationtopeople,givingthemadviceontheoptions
    availablefortheircareandsupport,navigatingthemthroughthecomplexsystemof
    services
    • aredeliveredbylocalmunicipalities.

    Summary
    Thewaywebuildourhomesandcommunitieswillhavetoadjusttothegrowingnumbersof
    lessmobilepeoplelivingontheirown.Changestothebuiltenvironmentcandramatically
    improvethewell-beingofolderpeopleandoffsetthemountingpressureofcareand
    supportcosts.WhilethisisacknowledgedingovernmentpoliciessuchasLifetimehomes,
    lifetimeneighbourhoods,itisnotyetarealityinthephysicalfabricofmanyUKtownsand
    cities.Thecasestudiesreferencedheredemonstratehowthebuiltenvironmentcanbe
    designedtoconnectpeopletoservices,activities,otherpeopleandenablethemto‘agein
    place’.
    31 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

    6.Conclusions
    Fewcountrieshavebeenuntouchedbytheeffectsofageingpopulations.Thewaysocieties
    respondhaslaggedbehindtherealityofpeople’slives.Whilethestatepensionageinthe
    UKiscurrently60forwomenand65formen,manyareableandwillingtoworklonger.
    Educationisdesignedprimarilyforchildrenandyoungpeople,butadultsneedandwantto
    learnaswell.Wecanexpect20yearsofretirementbutonlyhalfofussaveadequate
    amountstofundthis.Andourcitiesandhomeshavebeendesignedlargelyfortheable
    bodied.
    Theunderlyingproblemisthatwehavedesignedourinstitutionsandcommunitiesaccording
    toanimageoflifeafter65thatisoutofdate.Laterlifeisfrequentlyseenasatimeof
    decline,dependenceanddisengagementfromsociety.Thechallengeistobuildasociety
    thatassumesolderpeopleshouldparticipateandbeactiveforaslongaspossibleandtothe
    bestoftheirability,notonethatassumestheyaredependentanddisengaged.Weneedto
    adjustinstitutions,servicesandcommunitiestosupportolderpeopletorealisethisvision.
    Respondingtothischallengewillrequirewideningtheagendabeyondtraditionalissuessuch
    ashealth,socialcareandpensionstootherareasthatdriveolderpeople’swell-being,
    includingrelationships,work,learningandthebuiltenvironment.
    Wehaveseeninthispaperhowcountrieswithdifferentpoliticalsystemsandculturesare
    respondingtoacommonchallenge.WhiletheUKcannotsimplyimportgoodmodelsfrom
    overseas,wecanidentifytheunderlyingprinciplesandapproachesthatmakeforsuccessful
    andinnovativeinterventionstoimprovethewell-beingofourageingpopulation.
    Thecasestudiespresentedinthispaperhighlightthenewapproachesthatwillbeneeded:
    •Apremiumwillhavetobeplacedonbuildingrelationshipsbetweenpeople
    •Localprovidersandsocialenterpriseswilltakecentrestage
    •Servicesshouldbepersonalisedtoallowindividualneedsinthisdiverseandgrowing
    populationtobetakenintoaccount
    •Responseswillhavetotapintopeople’sexperiencesanddailyroutinestoensuretheir
    buy-in
    •Olderpeopleshouldbeenabledtocontribute,notbeseenaspassiveconsumers
    •Olderpeoplewillneedinformationandadvicefromtrustedsourcestohelpthemmake
    themostoftheseopportunities
    •Thetransitiontolaterlifeshouldbephased,withelementsofworking,learningand
    retirementbeingintegrated.
    ArecentflurryofactivitybytheBritishgovernmentshowsthatageingisrisingupthepolicy
    agenda.TheEqualitiesBill,theGreenPaperonsocialcare,pensionreform,reviewofthe
    defaultretirementageandtheAgeingStrategy,BuildingASocietyForAllAges,arealltobe
    welcomed.Howeverthereremainsadominantfocusoncentralisedstateactionsand
    services,ratherthanwholesaleinstitutionalreform.Forexample,theannouncementofa£20
    millionfundforinformallearningopportunitiesisnomatchforshiftingentrycriteria,funding
    options,andthedesignofcoursesandbuildingsinexistinghighereducationtoenableolder
    adultstotakepart.Thecasestudiesinthispapershouldprovidesomefoodforthoughtas
    theageingagendadevelops.
    32 ippr|AgeingandWell-BeinginanInternationalContext

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