Mechanical Systems 2

Free-body diagrams
It is important to isolate different parts of a structure or body from its adjacent surroundings. In a line diagram this can be done by drawing a free-body diagram, which is a diagrammatic representation of all or part of the structure showing the forces affecting it. Example
Figure 1 If all the visual components acting on the structure or body were removed and replaced with their force value, a simplified diagram would allow a better understanding of how the forces are affecting the structure. Fbridge Fh
Fbus
Fv
Figure 2: free-body diagram Figure 2 is a simplified free-body diagram of figure 1. The forces representing the bus and the weight of the bridge act downwards and are ta en through the centre of the bus and the middle of the bridge. !ecause of the point of contact of the bus, the arrow is drawn through its centre. The forces Fh and Fv represent the forces that the supports have on the structure, therefore they also have to be shown. "e could be more detailed and draw the angled support for the bridge in the roc face. Free-body diagrams: task 1 #raw a free-body diagram of the aircraft indicating the downward forces and reactions with arrows. $se suitable lettering.
Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems
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Beams
)part from levers, structural beams and beam-related objects are also affected by forces and turning moments. For a hori*ontal structure to be stable +in e,uilibriumwhen being affected by forces in a vertical plane, the following conditions must be satisfied. i. The sum of the forces acting upwards must e,ual the sum of the forces acting downwards. upwards forces . downwards forces ii. The sum of the cloc wise moments about any point must e,ual the sum of the anticloc wise moments about the same point. That is cloc wise moments . anticloc wise moments +principle of momentsBeam reactions !eams, however, have to be supported differently from lever applications and this determines beam-support reactions. !eams, therefore, are supported in a number of ways, such as/ +a- simply supported at both ends +b- built in at both ends +this type of end-fi0ed beam is called an encastre+c- built in at one end only +this type of beam is called a cantilever+d- built in at one end only and simply supported at the other. 10amples of these methods are shown below. Types of beam support
+a-
+b-
+c-
+d-
)t the points of support, the downwards forces acting on the beam are resisted by the
'2 Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems
forces acting upwards. These upward forces are nown as beam reactions, or simply the reactions.
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Example 1 #etermine the reactions 4 and 4 for the simply supported beam +beam weights will be ignored in this case-.
1 2
Figure 1: free-body diagram
Ta e moments about 41 cloc wise moments . anticloc wise moments +15,555 6 2 m- 7 +855 6 2.8 m- 7 +9555 6 : m- . 42 8 m 42 . 25,555 6m 7 1285 6m 7 2:,555 6m 8m . 3585 6 )lso upwards forces . downwards forces
41 7 3585 6 . 15,555 6 7 855 6 7 9555 6 41 . 19,855 6 ; 3585 6 . (:85 6 Therefore the reactions for the beam supports are 41 . (:85 6 and 42 . 3585 6
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Beams: task 1 1. The span of a cantilever diving board is two metres and the downward load of the diver is 255 6. +a- "hat is the ma0imum reaction force in the board< +b- #raw a suitable free-body diagram. +c- "hat is the minimum reaction, 41, at the fi0ed end< +d- "hy would this not be a fi0ed reaction< 2. ) beam is simply supported at each end with a span of three metres. The beam carries a small lifting device having a weight of 1 6.
+a- =omplete a suitable free-body diagram. +b- "hen the lifting device is positioned at the mid-point of the beam and carries a casting weighing 2.8 6, what are the reactions at 41 and 42< +c- "hen the lifting device is positioned one metre from one end and carries a machine component weighing 9 6, what are the reactions at 41 and 42< '. The figure below shows a clamp on a milling machine table for fi0ing a component for machining. ) clamping force of 1255 6 is applied by the bolt to the component and rear-distance piece when the nut is fully tightened.
A
COMPONENT
100 mm
75 mm
:1
+a- #raw a free-body diagram to show the arrangement of the forces. +b- =alculate the clamping forces on the component +4)- and the distance piece +4=-. +c- >ow could the arrangement be altered to give a bigger clamping force on the component< :. The diagram below shows a free-body diagram of a hori*ontal beam, seven metres long, which is part of a bridge structure. The beam is simply supported at ) and #. #etermine the reaction forces at ) and #.
8. The supermar et trolley shown is a form of cantilever. +a- & etch the free-body diagram to indicate the major forces. +b- If the groceries are spread throughout the trolley, can it tip over< If not, why< +c- "hat happens if someone leans on the bac of the trolley< +d- "hat happens if someone applies weight to the front of the trolley< 4efer to your free-body diagram in your answers.
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9. The for lift truc must have a minimum downward force of 255 6 acting through the rear wheels. +a- #raw an appropriate free-body diagram. +b- =alculate the weight re,uired to balance the load on the lift with 42 . 5 6. +c- Find the additional weight acting through the centre of gravity of the truc to produce 255 6 at the rear wheels.
(. The total downward load when the truc shown below is empty is '5 6 and when fully loaded 88 6. #raw a suitable free-body diagram. Find the reaction in each of the a0les when the truc is empty and when fully loaded.
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2. ) car has been raised on a ramp to loo at the drive shaft. The downward load on the car?s rear and front a0les are 83(5 6 and '325 6, respectively. The wheelbase of the car measures 2.8 m. +a- #raw a free-body diagram. +b- "hat is the reaction at 41< +c- "hat distance +0- will 41 have to be from the front a0le to maintain e,uilibrium<
3. The car and caravan shown below have a ball-jointed tow-bar that connects the car and its caravan. The weights of each are shown, together with the reaction forces in the centre of all three wheels.
+a- #raw a free-body diagram for the car and caravan. +b- @oo ing at the caravan, calculate the force acting at the tow-ball. +c- =alculate the reaction forces 41 and 42.
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Gears
Aears are toothed wheels designed to transmit rotary motion and power from one part of a mechanism to another. They are fitted to shafts with special devices called eys +or splines, etc.- that ensure that the gear and the shaft rotate together. Aears are used to increase or decrease the output speed of a mechanism and can also be used to change the direction of motion of the output. The type of gear wheel most commonly used is the spur gear. Simple gear train Aears wor by interloc ing or Bmeshing? the teeth of the gears together as shown in figure 1.
Figure 1 "hen two or more gears are meshed they form a Bgear train?. The input gear, which causes the system to move, is called the Bdriver?C the output gear is called the Bdriven?. !oth gears are mounted and supported on separate shafts. Example Figure 2 below shows a method of increasing the output speed of a mechanism.
Figure 2 If driver gear ) has 2: teeth and it ma es one complete turn, then 2: teeth will have passed point D on the diagram. If driven gear ! is meshed with driver gear ), then for every tooth of gear ) to pass point D, one tooth of gear ! must pass this point. If 2: teeth of gear ) pass point D, then 2: teeth of gear ! must pass point D. To be
Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems :8
able to do this, gear ! must ma e two complete revolutions but in the opposite direction. Movement-multiplier ratio in gears The ratio of change in speed between the gears is called the movement-multiplier ratio. The ratio of a gear system is found by dividing the number of teeth on the driven gear by the number of teeth on the driver gear. This can be used to calculate the output speed of a gear system. %ovement ratio . number of teeth on driven gear number of teeth on driver gear Example For the gear system shown in figure 2 the gear multiplier ratio is
Aear 4atio = 12 2: 1 = or 2 / 1 2
This means that if gear ) was rotating at 155 rpm +revolutions per minute- cloc wise then gear ! would rotate at 255 rpm anticloc wise. Aears can also be used to decrease the speed of a mechanism, as shown in figure '.
Figure
Aear 4atio = 2: 12 2 = or 1 / 2 1
If gear ) is still rotating at 155 rpm in a cloc wise direction then gear ! will now rotate at 85 rpm in an anticloc wise direction. It is sometimes necessary to obtain a change in speed without changing the direction of the driven gear. >ow can this be done< !dler gears
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To get the driven gear to rotate in the same direction as the driver, a third gear is inserted in the system. This idler gear has no effect on the multiplier ratio of the system. The si*e of the idler is not important and is normally a small gear, as in figure :.
Figure " The multiplier ratio for the simple gear train in figure : is still 2/1. If gear ) still rotates at 155 rpm cloc wise then the output of gear ! will rotate at 85 rpm cloc wise. #atchet and pa$l ) wheel with saw-shaped teeth round its rim is called a ratchet. The ratchet wheel usually engages with a tooth-shaped lever called a pawl. The purpose of the pawl is to allow rotation in one direction only and prevent rotation in the opposite direction. ) ratchet and pawl mechanism is shown in figure 8.
Figure %
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) crane-winding mechanism shown in figure 9 ma es use of a ratchet and pawl to allow rotary motion in one direction only. The crane can be wound up, but the tension force in the cable cannot unwind the winch because of the ratchet mechanism.
CABLE WINCH DRUM RATCHET CRANK HANDLE
PAWL BAR
Figure & Task 1: simple gear train $sing the mechanical components within Crocodile Clips build a simple gear train, similar to the ones in figure (, where the driven gear will rotate at twice the speed of the driver gear. +$se the 1 rpm motor.-
Figure ' Gears: task 2 Eou now how to build a simple gear train that will increase the speed of rotation of the driven gear compared to the driver gear. From a selection of four gear wheels ; 2 t, 19 t, 2: t and :5 t ; design and build a simple gear train that will provide the biggest increase in speed between the driver and driven gears. & etch your results and calculate the multiplier ratio of your system. +) circle can represent a gear wheel.Gears: task 3 %odify your simple gear train so that it will give you the biggest decrease in speed between the driver and driven gears, but this time with both the input and output gear rotating in the same direction. & etch your results and calculate the multiplier ratio of your system.
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Gears: task 4
In the printed version of these materials, issued to &cottish schools in )ugust 2551, this page contained embedded copyright material. For copyright reasons that material has been removed for this website version. In order to see the completed te0t for this page &cottish schools are advised to refer to their copy of the printed version. For other users the complete pac is available from @earning and Teaching &cotland, priced F2:.55.
$sing your =#-4G% The New Way Things Work, try to answer the following ,uestions from Principles of Science +Aears and !elts- in an interactive way. 1. "hat are the four types of gear systems listed< +a- 10plain how two of them operate. 2. "hat is the gear ratio when two '5-teeth bevel gears come into contact< +a- "hat action do bevel gears carry out< +b- "hat is another name for bevel gears< '. #oes the spur gear on a lawnmower rotate ,uic er or slower than the largergeared roller wheel< :. 10plain how a worm and worm wheel +cran - are used in a windscreen wiper< +a- "hat is the gear ratio if the worm wheel has 1( teeth< +b- >ow could the wiper be made to wor at different speeds< 8. "hat is a differential on a car< +a- "hat types of gears are used< 9. & etch the graphical symbol when gears determine the movement of cloc hands from seconds to minutes in a mechanical cloc . +a- &how how the ratios of the system can be calculated.
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Gears: task 5 =alculate the multiplier ratio for the simple gear train below and then find the output speed and direction if gear ) rotates at 285 rpm in a cloc wise direction. &how all your wor ing. ) . 25 teeth ! . 8 teeth = . '5 teeth Ans er %ultiplier ratio
+ A
+ B
+ C
Gutput speed Gears: task ! For the simple gear train shown below, find the following. +a- The gear that rotates in the same direction as ). +b- The multiplier ratios of ) to !, ) to = and ) to #. +c- The speed of !, = and # if ) rotates at 855 rpm. ) . 85 teeth ! . 15 teeth = . 28 teeth # . 155 teeth
7 A
7 B
7 C
Ans ers +a-
+b-
) to !
) to =
) to #
+c-
!.
=.
#.
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(ompound gears If gears are re,uired to produce a very large change in speed, for e0ample if the multiplier ratio is 155/1, then problems can arise with the si*e of gear wheels if a simple gear train is used. This problem can be overcome by mounting pairs of gears on the same shaft, as shown in figure (. This arrangement is described as a compound gear train. This type of gear train can also be used to provide different outputs moving at different speeds and in different directions.
Figure ' The compound gear system in figure 2 shows how the shafts are connected between the Bpairs? of gears. Aears ! and = are connected and rotate at the same speed. To calculate the multiplier ratio for the gear train it is necessary to calculate the ratio for each pair of meshing gears.
Figure ) Example The multiplier ratio for the system shown in figure ( is as follows. The multiplier ratio for the first pair of meshing teeth is
4atio of )! = driven driver = 25 25 = : /1
The multiplier ratio for the second pair of meshing teeth is

4atio of =# = driven driver = 95 15 = 9 /1
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The total multiplier ratio is calculated by multiplying both ratios/

Total ratio = : 1 9 1 = 2: / 1
For an input speed of 155 rpm, the output speed would be less than 8 rpm, that is, :.1( rpm. *orm and $heel )nother way of ma ing large speed reductions is to use a worm gear and wormwheel, as shown in figure 3. The worm, which loo s rather li e a screw thread, is fi0ed to the driver shaft. It meshes with a wormwheel, which is fi0ed to the driven shaft. The driven shaft runs at 35 degrees to the driver shaft. "hen considering the speed changes in most worm gear systems, you can thin of the worm as if it were a spur gear with one tooth. It is a single tooth wrapped around a cylinder.
Figure + Example The multiplier ratio between the gears in figure 3 is

%ultiplier ratio = driven driver = '5 1 = '5 / 1
This would mean that for a motor rotating at 155 rpm, the output driven gear would rotate at only '.'' rpm.
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Bevel gears !evel gears, li e worm gears, use shafts at 35 degrees to each other, as shown in figure 15.
Figure 1, The food whis shown in figure 11 uses bevel gears not only to change rotary motion through 35 degrees, but also, by using different si*ed gears, to increase the speed of rotation. The one shown gives a speed increase of 1/8.
Figure 11
Gears: task " Hroduce the greatest possible speed within a compound gear train using spur gears with 2 t, 19 t, 2: t and :5 t. This can be done using computer simulation if available with the 1 rev motor constant speed motor as a power source. =omplete the following. & etch or print out your results. & etch your gear train graphically +as in figure 2-. =alculate the multiplier ratio for your system.
Gears: task # Two pairs of bevel gears, all of e,ual si*e, are used to model the wind generating system shown below. The output from these bevel gears can be connected to the compound gear system of the previous assignment. =alculate the output speed if the vanes of the windmill are rotating at 15 rpm.
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G ENERATO R
Gears: task $ The compound gear train shown below is driven by a motor that runs at 1555 rpm. =alculate the multiplier ratio of the motor to the output shaft and then the output speed. &how all your wor ing. ) . 25 teeth ! . 95 teeth = . :5 teeth # . 85 teeth
A D C O UTPUT
M O TO R
-ns$er %ultiplier ratio .
Gutput speed .
Gears: task 1% ) motor with a single worm wheel output rotates at 855 rpm. Eou are given the following si*es of worm gears from which to select. +a- . 15 teeth +b- . 28 teeth +c- . 85 teeth 10plain which gear should be connected to the motor to give the slowest output speed and why. "hat is the output speed<
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Gears: task 11 The motorised winch shown below runs at a speed of 1255 rpm. The drum is to rotate at 28 rpm. =alculate/ +a- the multiplier ratio re,uired to produce the speed reduction +b- the number of teeth gear ) must have to meet this re,uirement. ).< ! . '2 teeth = . 18 teeth # . :8 teeth 1 . 12 teeth F . :2 teeth Ans er
C D E
A M O TOR
DRUM
%ovement ratio .
B F LO AD
6umber of teeth in ) .
)lso calculate for the above system the following. If the radius of the drum is 85 mm, what is the speed of the load being raised< +)nswer in mIs-
Ans er
@ifting speed .
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Gears: task 12
$sing your =#-4G% The New Way Things Work, try to answer the following ,uestions from Principles of Science +Aears and !elts- in an interactive way.. 1. >ow is a ratchet and pawl used in a car sear belt< 2. 10plain how #erailleur gears and the shifter change the gears in a bicycle. '. "hat selection of gears should be made to cycle/ +a- on a level surface< +b- uphill< +c- downhill< :. "hat type of mechanism could be used in a window roller blind< >ow does the roller blind wor < 8. ) simple mechanism is used to assist a car?s steering. +a- "hat is this mechanism< +b- >ow does it wor < +c- "hat other mechanical function is used in the steering arm< 9. Transferring forces over distances is achieved in wind turbines and windmills. "hat mechanical device is used and why are they selected< (. ) belt driven fan is used in a car?s cooling system. "hy<
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2. ) stepper motor is used in a computer system?s disc drive. +a- "hat mechanical system does it drive< +b- "hat effect does it have on the system< 3. )n escalator uses two types of mechanical systems. "hat are they< 15. ) belt drive is used from a motorised spindle in a record player turntable. #oes the belt speed up or slow down the turntable<
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Tor.ue and /rive Systems

Tor,ue is the amount of turning produced by a force. The turning or twisting action e0erted by a force or number of forces will cause or tend to cause rotary motion. #rive shafts in cars, tools turning, belt-and-pulley systems, etc. are all affected by tor,ue. ) simple e0ample of this is when the propeller of a model builder?s toy boat connected to a rubber band is twisted by torsion forces. "hen the propeller is released, the rubber band, having been under the twisting effect, releases energy to drive the boat through the water. Example 1 >ow much tor,ue is re,uired to tighten the nut if the force re,uired is :8 6 and the radius of the tool is 255 mm.
Figure 1 Tor,ue . force radius . :8 6 255 mm
Example 2 ) belt drives a pulley with a diameter of 255 mm. If the effective belt tension tending to turn the pulley is 285 6, find the wor done per revolution. "hen a force of P newtons acts at the rim of a pulley of r metres radius, then the wor done per revolution is 0 2 r C that is, P newtons circumference +2r-. Therefore, the wor done per revolution . tor,ue +Pr- 2
(285 6 =2 '.1: 5.1m ) = 18( J
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0o$er transmitted by a belt drive Example 3 The effective pull on a belt drive is :25 6 when driving a 855 mm diameter pulley. The speed of rotation is 225 revolutions per minute. Find the power. "hen a force, P newtons, acts at the rim of a pulley, of r metres radius, revolving at n 2 rn. revolutions per second, the power or wor done per second is given by H Hower .force +P newtons- circumference +2r- revolutionsIs +nThus power, or wor doneIs . tor,ue +Pr- angle rotated throughIs +2n. 2nT
The effective driving tor,ue . force radius . +T1 ; T2- diameter +d2 T1 is the tension on the tight side. T2 is the tension on the slac side. Therefore power transmitted . dn +T1 ; T2Hower = d n ( T1 T2 ) 225 :25 95 = 21:5 watts or 2.:2 " = '.1: 5.8
Tor&'e: task 1 +a- =alculate the power transferred if a 2'5 mm diameter pulley wheel revolves at 28 revolutions per second. The pulley has one belt and the tension in the tight side of the belt is :'9 6, while in the slac side it is 129 6. +b- ) shaft transmits 12 " when rotating at 255 rpm. "hat is the tor,ue in the shaft< +c- ) railway traction motor develops 185 " when the train moves along the trac . The rail wheel rotates at 1855 rpm. Find the tor,ue in the driving a0le. +d- )n electric motor e0erts a tor,ue of 2' 6m and rotates at 2255 rpm. Find the power of the motor. +e- The effective pull on a belt is '95 6 when driving a :55 mm diameter pulley. The speed of rotation is 285 rpm. =alculate/ the power without slip the power with three per cent slip. +f- #uring a machining test on a lathe, the tangential force on the cutting tool was found to be 225 6. If the wor -piece diameter was 125 mm, what was the tor,ue on the lathe spindle<
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Belt-and-chain drives %any mechanisms ma e use of rotary motion, often provided by someone turning a handle or by an electric motor. !ut to be useful, this rotary motion has to be fre,uently transmitted from one part of a mechanism to another, often with a change of speed. "hile gears can be connected together in a simple gear train, if too many gears are used there can be large efficiency losses due to friction. There are two simple means of transmitting rotary motion over relatively large distances. Gne is to use a belt wrapped around two or more pulleys as shown in figure 1. The belt is tightened or tensioned by pulling one of the pulleys out and loc ing it in place. Hulleys are thin metal discs with a groove cut into the circumference of the disc.
DRIVEN PULLEY
40 mm
2
DRIVER PULLEY
160 mm
Figure 1: belt-and-pulley symbol The tensioned belt transmits the rotary motion from pulley 2 to pulley 1. The belt is angled as shown in figure 2 to give better grip to prevent the belt from slipping. ) change in speed can be accomplished by varying the diameter of the driver pulley and driven pulley.
Figure 2: vee belt for e1tra grip =hanges in direction can be achieved by crossing the belt as shown in figure '. In belt-drive systems, the belt must be crossed between the two pulleys if the direction of the output shaft is to be opposite to that of the input shaft.
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D R IV E N D R IV E R
Figure !elt drives are used in a wide variety of situations. They are made from a composite of two materials, rubber and string. The string helps to prevent the rubber from stretching too much. #rive belts are ine0pensive to produce. They are easy to replace and need little maintenance, as they do not re,uire lubrication. They also absorb shoc loads. For instance, if a belt drive is used to transmit the power from a motorcycle engine to the rear wheel and the bi er tries to Bwheelie?, the belt tends to slip, preventing damage to the engine. !elt drives are found in many household machines such as washing machines, vacuum cleaners +figure :-, tumble dryers and so on.
Figure ": vacuum cleaner drive belt (ri)e systems: task 1 %any machines and mechanisms use belts and pulleys to transmit rotary motion. "rite down any machines or mechanisms that you now of which use belts and pulleys.
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(ri)e systems: task 2 #raw a universal systems diagram for one of your above answers.
(ri)e systems: task 3 #raw a symbol for two pulleys that produce a decrease in speed and with a change in direction for the driven pulley.
Multiplier ratio for belt drives Hulley systems can be used to transmit rotary motion over a large distance. The input rotary motion is often from a fi0ed-speed and fi0ed-tor,ue electric motor. Tor,ue is a turning force produced by mechanisms and is measured in newton-metres +6m-. =hanging the ratio of the diameters of the pulleys can vary both the speed of the output and the tor,ue at the output.
MOTOR
DRIVE PULLEY 40 mm
120 mm
Figure ": belt-and-pulley system
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Example The motor in figure : is connected to a pulley of diameter 125 mm. This is the driver pulley. The driven pulley has a diameter of :5 mm. The multiplier ratio of the pulley system is the diameter of the driven pulley divided by the diameter of the driver pulley. %ultiplier ratio . diameter of driven pulley diameter of driver pulley :5 125 .1 ' or 1/'
For the system in figure : the multiplier ratio is Example
%otor speeds If the motor speed is 1255 rpm, the output can be found by dividing the input speed by the multiplier ratio. The output speed can also be found from the multiplier ratio/ input speed output speed Gutput speed . input speed multiplier ratio 1255 rpm 1I' '955 rpm
Gutput speed . Gutput speed .
In figure : the speed of the motor is increasingC there must be some loss to compensate for this gain. The loss is in output tor,ue. In general, as the output speed increases, the tor,ue decreases. )s the speed decreases, the tor,ue increases and this affects the turning force. 1lectric motors are rated at certain tor,ues for specific voltage supplies.
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(ri)e systems: task 4 @abel the line diagram of the belt-drive system shown below using the following terms. driver pulley driven pulley belt
IN P U T
O UTPUT
(ri)e systems: task 5 +a- In the above system, when the driver is turned, does the driven pulley turn faster or slower than the driver< Ans er
+b- If the diameter of the driver pulley is :5 mm and the diameter of the driven pulley is 15 mm, what is the multiplier ratio< Ans er
+c- If you placed a chal or tape mar er at the top dead centre of each of the two pulleys and turned the driver pulley once, how many revolutions would the smaller driven pulley ma e< Ans er
Example Figure 8 shows a belt-drive system for transmitting rotary motion from an electric motor to a spin-dryer system in a washing-machine drum. The motor has an output tor,ue of 255 6m at 1555 rpm. =alculate the multiplier ratio of the system, the speed of the drum and the output tor,ue produced by the drum.
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PIN DRUM
50 mm
ELECTRIC MOTOR 1000 RPM 250 mm
Figure %: $ashing-machine spin dryer Ans er

%ultiplier ratio = = diameter of driven pulley diameter of driver pulley
285 85 = 8/1 The output speed of the drum = = input speed multiplier ratio
1555 rpm 8 = 255 rpm

Gutput tor,ue = input tor,ue = 255 6m 8 = :555 6m multiplier ratio
) variety of output speeds and output tor,ues can be achieved by using stepped-cone pulleys, as shown in figure 9. The drive motor is attached to one set of pulleys and the drive belt can be moved between the various pairs of pulleys to give a selection of speeds.
Figure &: stepped-cone pulley system
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Gne of the advantages of belt drives is that they will absorb shoc loads by slipping. >owever, e0cessive slipping will create inefficiency in the system. )t the same time, if the belt is too tight the pulley bearings could be damaged. Gne method of eeping the belt correctly tensioned is to use a spring-loaded joc ey pulley, as shown in figure (.
D R IV E N
D R IV E R
!O C K E Y PU LLEY
Figure ': a 2oc3ey pulley for tensioning Toothed belts !elt drives tend to use their ability to slip to their advantage. >owever, where slippage would damage a mechanism, toothed belts have been developed that retain the advantages of normal belts but do not slip. %any cars have toothed belts +for e0ample timing belts- to control the opening and closing of the inlet and outlet valves in the car engine. If the belt slipped, the pistons would collide with the valves, damaging the engine. These belt drives are ,uiet, re,uire little maintenance and are easily changed if re,uired +figure 2-.
Figure ): toothed belts (hain drives "here large forces have to be transmitted, and there can be no slippage allowed, chain drives are used. Instead of a pulley, a toothed wheel nown as a sproc et is used to drive a chain. The chain in turn drives another toothed wheel. Gnce again, the speed can be varied by ma ing the sproc ets different si*es.
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Figure +: Bicycle-chain drive Figure 3 shows an application of a chain drive that is familiar to everyone. This can help to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of chain drives. "hen cycling, if you want to go faster suddenly, you stand up and put e0tra weight +force- into the pedals. This force is transmitted to the bac wheel by means of the chain. If the chain were to slip, what would happen< $nless the chain and sproc ets are worn, the chain will not slip and the e0tra force will carry out its tas in allowing you to go faster. =hains are very strong, and unless badly worn, they will not slip. >owever, they have to be oiled regularly, and both the chain and sproc ets are prone to wear. They are also more e0pensive to ma e and buy than belt drives. =hain drives are also much noisier that belt drives. (ri)e systems: task ! @oo at the chain drive shown below.
D R IV E N D R IV E R
+a- "hen the driver is turned, does the driven gear turn faster or slower than the driven sproc et<
+b- If a mar was placed at the top of the large and small sproc ets and the driver sproc et rotated, how many times would the driven sproc et rotate<
+c- 10plain in technological language how the chain could be ept at the correct tension.
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+d- "hat is lubrication and why is it important to eep the chain well lubricated<
+e- #raw a system diagram for a tensioned chain drive.
+f- Is the above system an open or closed looped system<
Multiplier ratio for chain drives =alculating the multiplier ratio, output speed and tor,ue of a chain drive system is very similar to calculating them in belt-drive systems. Example ) pedal cycle has 95 teeth on the driver sproc et and 15 teeth on the driven sproc et. "hat is the multiplier ratio of the chain-drive system<
%ultiplier ratio = = number of teeth on driven sproc et number of teeth on driver sproc et
15 95 = 1/ 9
(hain tension =hain-drive systems must also have a means to tension the chain. If the chain is overtensioned there will be e0cessive wear on the chain, sproc ets and bearings in the system. In some bicycles and even motorcycles, the chain is tensioned by gently pulling the wheel bac until the chain is tight and then tightening the loc ing wheel nuts. >owever, to give better control, a spring-loaded joc ey wheel such as that used in #erailleur gears on racing bi es and mountain bi es is used, as shown in figure 15.
Figure 1,: /erailleur gears
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Example The bicycle shown in figure 11 has two rear sproc ets, one with 85 teeth and the other with 25 teeth. The driver sproc et has 255 teeth. =alculate the output tor,ue for the two rear sproc ets if the input tor,ue is 25 6m.
Figure 11: a t$o-gear bicycle Ans er First find the multiplier ratio for the two driven sproc ets.
%ultiplier ratio of small sproc et = = number of teeth on driven sproc et number of teeth on driver sproc et
85 255 = 1/ : %ultiplier ratio of l arg e sproc et = = number of teeth on driven sproc et number of teeth on driver sproc et
25 255 = 1 / 2 8
The output tor,ue for each si*e of sproc et can now be found.
Tor,ue +small sproc etGutput tor,ue ( small ) = = = input tor,ue 25 6m 1 / : 8 6m multiplier ratio
Tor,ue +large sproc etGutput tor,ue ( l arg e )
= = =
input tor,ue multiplier ratio 25 6m 1 / 2 8 2 6m
93
Example ) motorcycle uses a belt drive to transmit power from the engine to the rear wheel as shown in figure 12. If the engine rotates at '555 rpm, what will be the rotary speed of the rear wheel<
WHEEL PULLEY
50 mm ENGINE DRIVE PULLEY
150 mm
Figure 12: motorcycle belt drive Ans er The rotary speed of the driver pulley multiplied by the diameter of the driver pulley is e,ual to the rotary speed of the driven pulley multiplied by the diameter of the driven pulley. 4otary speed of driver pulley . diameter of driver pulley 4otary speed of driven pulley diameter of driven pulley
rotary speed of driver pulley dia of driver pulley diameter of driven pulley '555 85 = 185 = 1555 rpm
4otary speed of driven pulley =
The rotary speed of the rear wheel is 1555 rpm.
(5
(ri)e systems: task " =alculate the multiplier ratios for the following belt-drive systems. They are driven from ) to !. )lso indicate with an arrow the direction of rotation of ! assuming ) is cloc wise.
B A "0 150
5 A 160
25 100
100 A
"0 #0
B 120 4 A "0 40 4#
160
(1
(onverting motion
"e now that there are four inds of motion. These comprise/ +a- rotary +b- linear +c- reciprocating +d- oscillating. %any mechanisms involve changing one type of motion into another. For e0ample, the rotary motion of a pillar-drill handle is changed to the linear motion of the chuc and drill bit moving towards the material being drilled. (ams ) cam is a specially shaped piece of metal or plastic which can be used to change an input rotary motion to an output motion that is oscillating or reciprocating. The cam operates by guiding the motion of a follower held against the cam, either by its own weight or by a spring. )s the cam rotates, the follower moves. The way that it moves and the distance it moves depend on the cam?s shape and dimensions. The two main types of cam and follower are shown below. 1. The circular or eccentric cam +figure 12. The pear-shaped cam +figure 2-
FO LLO W ER FO LLO W ER R E C IP R O C A T IN G M O T IO N
E C C E N T R IC CAM
R O TA R Y M O T IO N
R O TAR Y CAM
Figure 1 Gther, more comple0, shapes can also be used. (am motion
Figure 2
Hear-shaped cams are often used for controlling valves. For e0ample they are often used on motor-car camshafts to operate the engine valves. ) follower controlled by a pear-shaped cam remains motionless for about half a revolution. #uring the time that the follower is stationary, the cam is in a dwell period. #uring the other halfrevolution of the cam, the follower rises and then falls. )s the pear-shaped cam is symmetrical, the rising motion is the same as the falling motion.
(2
VA LV E O P E N
VA LV E C LO E D
CAM
TRO KE
R O T A T IO N
Figure
Figure "
Figure %
Figure ' shows the valve fully opened as the follower is in contact with the highest point of the cam, its crown. Figure : shows the valve closed as the follower is in contact with the lowest point of the cam, its heel. Figure 8 shows the valve about to open at the end of its dwell period. "hen not on the Bdwell? part of the cam cycle, the follower rises and falls and the valve opens and closes. The distance between the highest and lowest points on the cam profile is called the stro e of the cam. The distance the valve opens is the same as the stro e of the cam. In a car engine, cams are fi0ed on a camshaft. )s each cylinder has two valves, an inlet and an e0haust valve, there are two cams on a camshaft for each cylinder, as shown in figure 9.
Figure &
('
(ran3 slider =ran slider mechanisms involve changes between rotary and reciprocating motion, as shown in figure (. The cran rotates while the slide reciprocates. The longer the cran the further the slider will move. The two main ways that cran -slider mechanisms are used are described below.
CRANK L ID E R
Figure ' 14 #eciprocating motion to rotary motion =ar engines use reciprocating pistons, which are connected to a cran shaft by connecting rods, as shown in figure 2. )s the pistons move up and down the connecting rods push the cran shaft round. 1ach piston moves down in turn, so eeping the cran shaft turning.
Figure )
Figure +
24 #otary motion to reciprocating motion ) power hac saw, shown with guards removed in figure 3, uses an electric motor to power a cran , which is connected to a saw frame. The saw frame is free to slide on the Barm?. )s the cran rotates it causes the frame to slide bac wards and forwards on the arm. The longer the cran the further the saw frame will move.
(:
*on)erting motion: task 1 The pear-shaped cam and follower shown represent a simple loc ing mechanism.
A LO C K B O LT
1. 6ame parts ) and ! ) ! 2. >ow much of a turn does the wheel have to ma e to push the loc -bolt closed< Tic the correct answer.
K turn
L turn
1 turn
2 turns
'. =omplete the system diagram for the movement of the loc . Input @oc Gutput
%otion :. "hat does the spring do<
%otion
(8
*on)erting motion: Task 2 The cam-and-valve mechanism is part of a car engine and is shown in figure 2. =omplete the systems diagram to show the input and output motion of the mechanism.
VALVE
PRING COLLAR 42 mm 20 mm
CAM
Figure 1,
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMmotion
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMmotion
If the cam on the valve mechanism turns half a revolution from the position shown on the diagram, what distance does the valve move< MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMmm
(9
*on)erting motion: task 3 ) cran -and-slider mechanism is used in a fabric-testing machine, as shown in figure 11.
85 mm
Figure 11
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMmotion
MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMmotion
+a- "hat is the distance from ) to !< +b- "hat effect does the wire brush have on the fabric<
((
#ac3 and pinion ) rac -and-pinion mechanism is used to transform rotary motion into linear motion, or linear into rotary motion. ) round spur gear, the pinion, meshes with a Brac ? that can be thought of as a spur gear with teeth set in a straight line +figure 1-.
P IN IO N
RACK
Figure 1 Aear wheels are normally made from metal or plastic. Hlastic gears have the advantage that they are much ,uieter running and need less lubrication. The rac and pinion can transform rotary motion into linear motion and linear motion into rotary motion in three ways. 1. %ovement of the rac in a straight line causes the pinion to rotate about a fi0ed centre +figure 1 above-. 2. 4otation of the pinion about a fi0ed centre causes the rac to move in a straight line as used in a pillar drill +figure 2-.
Figure 2
(2
'. If the rac is fi0ed and the pinion rotates, then the pinion?s centre moves in a straight line, ta ing the pinion with it li e the movement of the carriage along the bed of a centre lathe +figure '-.
HEAD TO CK BED C A R R IA G E
RACK
Figure
P IN IO N B E H IN D APRON
+a,k and pinion: task 1 ) rac with 155 teeth per metre is meshed with a pinion that has 15 teeth.
Figure " 1. If the pinion rotates one revolution, how far does the rac move< 2. >ow many revolutions does it ta e to move the rac from one end to the other<
(3
+a,k and pinion: task 2 ) rac with 155 teeth per metre is meshed with a pinion that has 15 teeth. 1. If the pinion rotates one revolution, how far does the rac move< 2. >ow many revolutions does it ta e to move the rac from one end to the other< '. Figure 2 below shows a rac and pinion mechanism being controlled by a stepper motor. If the movement of the motor is (.8 degrees per pulse, what is the number of pulses re,uired to move the rac 85 mm<
Figure %
25
+a,k and pinion- ,ams and ,ranks: task 3

$sing your =#-4G%/ The New Way Things Work, try to answer the following ,uestions from Principles of Science +=ams and =ran s- in an interactive way. 1. @oo at how cams are operated. For what two operations are cams used< 2. 6ame the two types of cran input system. 6ame one type of movement conversion that ta es place. '. #raw a system diagram for a windscreen wiper. >ow does the system wor in terms of the cran and the connecting rod< :. "hat does a cran shaft do in a four-stro e car engine< 8. =ams are connected to the camshaft in a four-stro e car engine. "hat is their purpose< 9. )n electric motor drives a cran in an electric shaver. >ow does this affect the cutting process< (. ) shutter in a movie camera uses a cran . 10plain what it is used for. 2. ) gauge, which uses gears and a lever as a cran , is used to read the depth of a diver. "hat is it called< 3. #raw a system diagram for a lawn sprin ler. "hat does the cran mechanism do in a systems operation< 15. "hat effect does a cam have on a cylinder-loc door<
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(ouplings 4otary machines employ a variety of methods of transmitting motion from one part of a machine to another. The motion is often transmitted through shafts, which are round metal rods. Gften these shafts must be connected together to transmit the motion. &hafts are joined using a device called a coupling. In small models, such as those used in schools, simple sleeves or tubes of plastic use friction to drive two shafts, which are pressed into the sleeve. &tronger couplings are re,uired for industrialsi*ed machines. -ligned shafts "here shafts are in line with each other they are joined either with a flanged coupling or a muff coupling. )ll couplings must be B eyed? to the shafts they are joining to give a positive drive. Figure 1 shows a flange coupling and a muff coupling.
Figure 15a6: flange coupling
Figure 15b6: muff coupling 7on-aligned shafts "here shafts meet at a slight angle, some method of compensating for misalignment must be used. "here the misalignment is small, a fle0ible coupling +fle0i-coupling-, using either rubber or a mi0ture of rubber and steel, is used. The rubber is fle0ible enough to compensate for small changes in angle +figure 2-.
P ID E R
F L E $ IB L E DI C
22
Figure 2: fle1i-coupling "hen the alignment is more than a few degrees out, a universal joint is used. ) universal joint can transmit motion through an angle of 25 degrees. Figure ' shows >oo e?s universal joint. The two yo es are free to pivot on the central Bspider?. %odern universal joints use needle roller-bearings between the spider and the yo es.
Figure : universal 2oints Bearings Harts of mechanisms that slide over each other use flat bearings. Flat bearings tend to be made from cast iron, brass or bron*e. !rass and bron*e bearings, which are softer than the materials sliding through or over them, will wear. They are sometimes called wear strips. "hen badly worn they are replaced. =ast iron is a self-lubricating material and is very strong when compressed.
L ID IN G B E A R IN G U R FAC E
RAM
B E A R IN G A D !U TM E N T
M A C H IN E C A T IN G
Figure 1: a flat bearing and $ear strip "hen a shaft is turned, it must be supported in some way. Friction opposes motion, and when a shaft is turning there is li ely to be heat and wear at the supports. The amount of heat and wear due to friction will vary with the materials used, the forces involved and the speeds involved. Narious types of bearing and bearing materials have been developed to reduce friction in mechanisms. !earings that support a round shaft are called journal bearings. "hen a journal bearing has to ta e some a0ial load, it must have a shoulder to ta e this load. "hen a shaft has
Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems 2'
a large a0ial load, it must have a thrust bearing. Figure 2 shows a combined thrust and journal bearing.
Figure 2: combined thrust and 2ournal bearing Journal bearings are made from a variety of materials/ the most common are bron*e and white metal. !ron*e is used where slow, heavy loads are carried. "hite metal, an alloy of tin, copper and antimony, which is soft and melts when overheated, is used in systems with light loads. Hlastic and nylon bearings are also very common. Split bearings )s bearings are designed to wear, it stands to reason that they must be able to be removed and replaced. "hen the bearing support is at the start or end of a shaft, it is simple to remove and replace it. >owever, when a shaft is very long, it may be supported at several points along its length. To ma e it easy to remove and replace bearings, split bearings are used +figure '-.
CAP
L U B R IC A T O R O IL F IL M HAFT
TOP
HELL B E A R IN G
O IL G R O O V E BO TTO M HELL UPPORT O R H O U IN G
Figure : a split bearing "hen the bearing wears, the bearing housing can be separated by removing the two nuts. The bearing shells can then be removed and replaced. 6otice that the inside of the shells has a groove. This groove is normally fed by a reservoir of oil, which helps to lubricate the shaft and bearing, thus reducing friction. ) car big end is a common e0ample. Ball-and-roller bearings !all and roller bearings change the action of rubbing to that of rolling. !all and roller bearings use hardened steel balls or rollers, which rotate inside an inner and outer case.
2:
The outer case or Brace? presses into a housingC the inner race is a press fit on the shaft. These bearings are used in high-speed, high-force applications.
O UTER RACE CAG E B A L L B E A R IN G
IN N E R R A C E
!all
Thrust ball
4oller
6eedle roller
Figure ": ball and roller bearings (lutches "e want to reduce friction in moving parts. To achieve this bearings are used, surface contact area is minimised and lubricants are used. >owever, without friction between the tyres and road, cars would not be able to stay on the roads or even start to move. =lutches are devices that allow two rotating shafts to be connected and disconnected. There are two types of clutch, the positive clutch and the friction clutch. ) dog clutch is a positive clutch. This has four interloc ing bloc s +dogs- on one shaft that can be interloc ed with four dogs on the other shaft.
Figure 1: a dog clutch "hen the clutch is engaged, the two dogs are interloc ed and the drive shaft rotates the driven shaft. "hen the clutch is disengaged, the two shafts are separated. In clutch systems, the two shafts must be carefully aligned.
28
Hositive-drive clutches re,uire the drive shaft to be stationary when the two clutch plates are brought together. Friction clutches can be engaged and disengaged while both shafts are still turning. Friction clutches rely on the friction between the plates to transmit the power from one shaft to another. Figure 2 shows a simple e0ample of a friction clutch.
ENG AG ED
D R IV E R H A F T IN M O T IO N
D R IV E N H A F T T A T IO N A R Y
Figure 2: a simple friction clutch Figure ' shows a multi-plate system used for large transmission forces or limitedspace applications.
Figure : a multi-plate clutch
29
*o'plings: task 1 1. "hy are couplings used in mechanical systems<
2. "hat term is used in ma ing sure that a coupling has a positive drive<
'. "hen alignment is a problem in shafts what mechanical device can be fitted<
:. "hy can friction be a problem in mechanical devices<
8. "hat conse,uences may occur if friction is not overcome<
9. Thrust bearings are often used in rotating systems. "hat is the main advantage in using this type of bearing<
(. If a bearing is re,uired in the middle of a long shaft, how can the problem of changing it be overcome<
2. >ow does lubrication wor within the bearing housing<
3. &ome shafts re,uire to run at high speeds with limited friction. >ow can this be done<
15. 10plain the term Bdog clutch?.
2(
*o'plings: task 2
$sing your =#-4G% The New Way Things Work, try to answer the following ,uestions from Principles of Science +Friction- in an interactive way. 1. Friction is a force that tries to resist M M M M M M. 2. !all bearings are used in a dentist?s drill. >ow does this wor < '. >ow does friction assist in stopping a bicycle< :. Friction is a main feature in a car?s brea ing system. 10plain what part friction has in assisting both front and rear wheels to stop. 8. 6ame and e0plain a situation where friction assists in a car?s road holding capabilities. 9. "hen the front bra es of a car are applied, friction occurs. "hat effects are produced and how can these be reduced< (. >ow does friction affect the clutch of a car< 2. >ow do bearings assist in the operation of a road repairer?s pneumatic drill<
22
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Free-body diagrams

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Figure 1: free-body diagram

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Ans ers +a-

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

The multiplier ratio for the second pair of meshing teeth is

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

The total multiplier ratio is calculated by multiplying both ratios/

Figure + Example The multiplier ratio between the gears in figure 3 is

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

-ns$er %ultiplier ratio .

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Tor.ue and /rive Systems

Figure 1 Tor,ue . force radius . :8 6 255 mm

(285 6 =2 '.1: 5.1m ) = 18( J

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Figure ": belt-and-pulley system

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

For the system in figure : the multiplier ratio is Example

Gutput speed . Gutput speed .

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

ELECTRIC MOTOR 1000 RPM 250 mm

Figure %: $ashing-machine spin dryer Ans er

1555 rpm 8 = 255 rpm

Figure &: stepped-cone pulley system

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

+e- #raw a system diagram for a tensioned chain drive.

+f- Is the above system an open or closed looped system<

Figure 1,: /erailleur gears

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Tor,ue +large sproc etGutput tor,ue ( l arg e )

input tor,ue multiplier ratio 25 6m 1 / 2 8 2 6m

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

50 mm ENGINE DRIVE PULLEY

4otary speed of driven pulley =

The rotary speed of the rear wheel is 1555 rpm.

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

%otion :. "hat does the spring do<

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems

Standard Grade Technological Studies: %echanical &ystems