VI

Vol. 16

1989

DR.

S. RADHAKRISHNAN BIRTH CENTENARY SPECIAL ISSUE

EDITORS
Dr. Ramcsh
S.

Betai

Dr. Yajncshwar S. Shastri

L.

I).

INSTITUTE OF INDOL.OGY,

AHMED ABAD

Vol.

XVI

1989

DR.

S. RADHAKRISHNAN BIRTH CENTENARY SPECIAL ISSUE

EDITORS
Dr. Yajneshvar S.

Dr. Ramesli S. Beta!

Shastri

L. D.

INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY,

AHMEDABAD

Published by

Bamesh

S. Betai

Acting Director L. D. Institute of Indology

Ahmedabad-9

and

Printed by

KRISHNA PRINTERY
966, Naranpura Old Ahmedabad-380013
Village

Price

Rupees 50-00

CONTENTS
1.

The BhagavadgttS and Dr. Radhakrishnan

Social Philosophy of Dr.

Dr.
Dr.
Prof.

G-

K. Bliat
Joshi

2.

.Radhakrishnan

H. M.
C. V.

11

3.

Reason and
Philosophy

Intuition in Dr. Radhakrishnan's

R av al

30

4.

Dr. Radhakrishnan on the Philosophy of the Upanisads

Radhakrishnan and Christianity Dr. Radhakrishnan on ''Kalki or Future
of Civilization"

Dr. R.

S. Betai

41

5.

Dr. Bharati Savan

Dr. R.
S. Betai

58

6.

84

7.

An

Appreciation of Radhakrishnan's Trans-

Jag

Mohan
V.

89

lation of

"The Bhagvadgita"

Being and Differance-Radhakrishnan and Derrida

Dr. Radhakrishnan on Buddhism
10.
:

M.

Baxi

108

a Glance

S.

G.
J.

Kantawala

120
128

Compatibility of Radhakrishnan's Metaphysics with his Epistemology and Ethics

Dr.

A. Yajnik

i.

41.

21

a. v.

Radhakrishnan-Bibliography

Comp. Saloui

Joshi

33

Q
Other
Articles

39

1-

Jayanta on the Buddhist Definition of

Perception

Nagin

J.

Shah

2.

Doctrine of

Maya A

Critical

Study

Dr. Yajneshwar
S.

18

Shastri
42

3,

4.

EDITORIAL
It is

with
as

great pleasure
a

that

we

publish

Vol-XVI

of our

Journal

volume entitled "Dr. S. Radhakrishnan Birth Centenary Special Volume" that was planned during the Birth centenary of the scholar and pundit who was rightly adjudged as a year great special Ambassador of Indian philosophy, Religions and culture to the world,
'Sarnbodhi'
special

We

are

happy

that

the contributors

deal with several facets of the

scholastic personality of the ideal scholar and philosopher of Himalayan are sorry that some of the facets heights that Dr. Radhakrishnan was.

We

of

his contribution

could not

be included

in this
time.

volume because some

invitees could not prepare their Papers in

We
It is

are thankful to the local contributors

who co-operated by

corre-

cting proofs of their

own

papers.

sincerely hoped that the world of scholars and interested readers some thing positive and original in every paper that is printed The volume can very well claim to give a correct, precise and clear picture of the grand personality of one of the noblest sons of mother India.
will find

in this special Issue.

Editors

Our
1.

Contributors in ihis Special

Volume

Dr. G. K. Bhat (Late)

Former Professor of Sanskrit in Maharashtra Government and former Director, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune.
2.

Dr. H.

M.

Joshi

Prof- of Philosophy,
3.

M.

S. University,

Baroda-

Prof. C. V. Ravai Prof, of Philosophy (Retd.), Gujarat

Government

Service.

4.

Dr. R. S. Betai

Former Director,
Professor

Institute of

Indology,
L.

and

Director-in-charge,

Dwarka. At Present, Hon. D. Institute of Indology,

Ahmedabad.

5.

Dr. Bharati Savan

U. G.
6.

C. Research Awardee

Shri Jag Mohan Executive Secretary, Nameclia,

New

Delhi

7.

Dr. M. V. Baxi
Prof, of Philosophy and Principal, G. L,
S.

Arts College, Ahraedabad.

8.

Dr.

S. G.

Kantawala
Institute,

Former
(Retd.),
9.

Director, Oriental

Barocla

and

Prof,

of Sanskrit

M.

S.

University, Baroda.

Dr.

J. A. Yajnlk

Prof, of Philosophy and Director, University

School of Psychology, Education and Philosophy, Gujarat University, Ahraedabad.

10.

Dr. Bhavana Trivedi

Lecturer in Philosophy, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad.

11.

Dr. N.

J. Shall

Reader
12.

in Sanskrit, L.
S. in

D.

Institute of Indology,

Ahmedabad.

Dr. Y.

Shastri

Reader
13.

Philosophy, Gujarat University,

Ahmedabad.

Dr. K. R. Chandra

Reader
14.

in Prakrit,

Gujarat University,

Ahmedabad.

Dr. R. M. Shah
Lecturer in Prakrit, Gujarat University,

Ahmedabad

15.

Saloni Joshi

Lecturer in Prakrit, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad.

16.

Dr. Jaydev A-

Jani, Sanskrit Dept.,

M.

S.

University,

Baroda.

(sft

^iq^q-s^

I)

*ra?r

ssrenifSm mil

llvii

,f%^ft

The

Soviet

Union

THE BHAGAVADGlTA AND

DR.

RADHAKRISHNAN
Dr. G. K.

Bhat

If the

betterment of
east

Gita takes the pride of place for man seeking a way towards human life, so does Dr. Radhakrishnan for thinkers in the

west, and especially for Indians. An Indian of remarkable pre-eminence, an intellectual politician, who rose to the rank of President of India, a life-long Bhasyakara of Indian philosophy and religion, an independent thinker and a philosopher in his own Dr. Radha-

and the

right,

also a Sanskritist,

krishnan could well be described as a sage of the twentieth century. Being it would be interesting to see how Dr. Radhakrishnan

looks

upon the Glta and what

it

signifies,

according to him, for mankind.

Dr, Radhakrishnan's views on the Gita are expressed in his monumental volume on Indian Philosophy, and more elaborately, along with an English translation and notes, in his text-edition of the Gita (George Allen and Unwin Ltd., Great Britain), which was first published in 194

and has been reprinted

There
tive type
is

several times.

no dearth of books on the Gita, both of the text-interpretain several

and of discursive type, and

languages beginning with

the Sanskrit

other countries.

down to the present-day languages of India and of several The comman man worships the Gita as a Divine
Mother,

and accepts her teaching as the nectar of milk, milked for him by the Divine Krsna from the cow of the Upanisads. The intelligent man equally revers the Gita, but is sometimes puzzled by the inconsistent or conflicting statements

of

some Acarya, Bhasyakara

found in the Text, and then chooses to follow the lead or Interpreter. The scholar, with due revestill

rence and devotion to this unique Text, enters

into a search for

the

original Gita and attempts to seek an explanation for the apparent contradictions and the mixture of diverse thought-currents that seem to
exist in the Glta and that his intellectual approach refuses to slur over by a mere feeling of devotion. But then, we have several different views, and interpretations of the Glta from the old tradition of Sanskrit BhSsya-

kafas

like

Sankaracarya,

down
sity

to

modern

through Saint-philosophers like JrTanesvara, thinkers like Tilak or Mahatma Gandhi. Such a diverthe intellectuals
is

of views

among

little
it

bewildering to the

common,
one's,

intelligent

man

of the

world,

although

may

not

affect

any

including that of the intellectuals and the scholars, for and devotion to this unique Text.

feeling

of reverence

What
the
first

is

Dr. Radhakrishnan's approach to

it

this

basic

situation? In

place,

is

necessary to acknowledge, both in an academic

in

and
the

intellectual

way, evolution of Indian thought, philosophical and

the chroonological position that the Gita takes

religious.

D. Radhakrishnan

points out that,

"The Bhagavadgita

is

later

than the great

movement represented

by the early Upanisads and earlier than the period of the development of the philosophic systems and their formulation in sutras. From its archaic constructions and internal references, we may infer
that
it

is definitely

work of

B. C.)

"

the pre-Christian
14).

era.

(fifth

Century

(Text ed. Inlr. p.

It is clear,
;>.

then that the Gita cannot be

read

as

an exposition

of

particular system of thought, nor can a philosophic system be imposed on it. The colophon at the end of every chapter indicates that the

Gita

is

both metaphysics and etlucs-brahmavitlya and yogaSHslra, "the science of reality and the art of union with reality." But the teaching of the Gita is not presented as a metaphysical system thought out by an individual thinker or school of thinkers. "It
has emerged from the religious
life
is

set forth as

tradition

which

of mankind".

us that "the different elements which, at the period of the composition of the Gita, were competing with each other within the Hindu System, are brought together and integrated into u comprehensive synthesis, free and large, subtle and profound. The teacher refines and reconciles the different currents of thought, the Vedic cult of sacrifice, the Upanisad teaching of the transcendent the
tells

Dr. Radhakrishnan

Brahman,

vata theism and tender piety, the SSrhkhya dualism and the yoga meditation." (Ibid., pp. 13-14). In other words, the teacher of the Gita is 'a profound seer who sees truth in its many-sidedness and
believes in its

BhSga-

saving power.

The

Gita, thus,

.merely
of the

lumt.of time or space, embracing with

"represents not any Sect of Hinduism but Hinduism as a whole not Hinduism but religion as such, in its universality, without
its

spmt, the crude fetishism of the savage to the creative affirmations of. the saint." (Ibid.,. p. 12)

human

synthesis the .whole

from

gamut

'Understood in
scholarly attempts

this light

and on

this

chronological
in

background the
the

to discover the old

and the new

G^the

so

called

revision of

the

Gita

by the doctrines of a particular

irrelevant to the

system of

thought, would appear to be not only

the Git it but merely
intellectual

basic purpose of

exercises. For, if any mingling of the thought-currents of the day was to be done, and a refined, integrated synthesis

was

to be.

worked

out,

it

Gita. This should also

mean

that

whole, as "an organic unity" which elements of Hindu life and thought.

was done already by the author of the w e must accept the Gita as it is, as a draws and synthesises all the living

By its official designation, the Gita is called an Upanisad, because that body of literature is its main inspiration. But the Cits also accepts the "assumptions which are a part of the tradition of past generations and
embedded
ggle
in

the language

it

employs."

As

a result,

"the fratricidal stru-

is made the occasion for the development of the spiritual message based on the ancient wisdom prafria pwani, of the Upanisads" (Ibid; p. 13). Viewed thus, it would be clear, again, that the Mahabharata context, the

dialogue pattern, the lack of a coherent systematic development of thought as in a metaphysical essay, the rambling discussion and and
repetitions
the archaic language too are
all

elements of the
is

composition of the Gita

and must be treated

as such. It

futile to criticise these

plain about them, or feel

that the Gita presents, of unwarranted beliefs and profound truths. Dr. Radhakrishnan says that

elements, comoccasionally, a jumble

arise from
religious

the different opinions about the teaching of the the fact that in the Gita are united

Gits seem to

currents of philosophical
courses.

and

thought diffused along

flicting

time in

apparently conbeliefs arc worked into a simple unity to meet the needs of the the true Hindu spirit, that over all of them broods the grace of
p.
15).

many and devious

Many

God."

(Ib'ut.,

Whether the Gita succcds

in this

or not
felt",

is

a matter

for individual opinion.

But "the Indian tradition has always

Dr. Radha-

apparently incogruous elements were fused together in the mind of the author and that the brilliant synthesis he suggests and illuminates, though he docs not argue and prove it in
fosters the true life of the spirit".
(//>/</.,

krishnan

tells

us,

"that the

detail,'

p. 15).

If, intellectually speaking, the Gita is brahmavulyS and yogafustra rolledinto one, it follows that the Gita is concerned with the science of

reality

Gun tackles in the upanisadic spirit by asserting the supreme, transcendental reality of Brahman and the immortality of the soul. The nature, of Brahman and Atman is described here in terms and
the.

on the one hand, and with the art of linking the individual with reality, on the other. The first of these concerns, namely of the science of reality,

Upanisads. But the aim of the Gita

is

language of the not an inquiry into the nature of

to be pre- occupied metaphysical reality alone, and it cannot allow itself with it. Its other concern with the need of man would not let it do so.

Unless the knowledge of needs of man in seeking

tinuonsly before

reality

is

somehow

harnessd to
leading
to

fulfil

the practical

spiritual progress

union with reality,

conknowledge would be divorced from life. The Gita keeps this concern itself. And, at the same time, it does not lose touch with different thoughts and religious beliefs that were assimilated into the stream
of tradition. The explanations, the teacher of the Gita gives, are naturally coloured by these concerns and considerations. Thus, while accepting the

Brahman, the Gita is yet able to accept Cr e ator of the universe, as the immanent aspect of reality. and pumsa known to us from the Samkhya system of thought, are similarly accepted and placed below fsvara, as the material and living aspects which make up the totality of the universe. The process of
abstract, transcendental concept of

Isvara as the

The

prakrti

evolution and the operation of three gunas which characterizes and diversifies the evolutionary products are accommodated in the explanation of
creation. All this, however,
is

kept free of doctrinaire insistence and fluid.

latter as a part

The
is

intimate relation between Brahman-Isvara and the soul, for instance,

emphasised by describing the

and parcel of the Divine,

without any formulation as in the Vedantic systems of thought. In fact, the terminology that the Gita uses does not possess that precise connotation which it acquired in the various systems of thought. At the same time, the Glta's presentation looks like a meeting place of familiar thoughts and ideas, so that it has the effect of not disturbing any mind

drawing

from any

tradition or culture. Thus, while

materialistic outlook, the

condemning the Vedas for their Gita accepts the principle of yajna as an act of

surrender of the lower in the interests of the higher, giving it the context of life's activities. The Glta's god is Vasudeva-Srikrsna. He is Brahman. But the Gita is prepared to accommodate any kind of god, even of lower or savage order. It only emphasises in principle that the imprint of diviis scattered at nity large in the universe (vibhuti), and the truth is that the many-sidedness of the universe is derived from the One; the One is in the many; and the many are in the One; 'woven like a of
string

beads in a thread'. This knowledge of reality is vouchsafed by the Gita through the exposition of jndna and vijnana and its direct impact is conveyed by the vision of the visvanipa.

The other concern of the Gita is with the art of union with reality, with the integration of the individual with spiritual truth. In this regard,' Dr. Radhakrishnan points out that "the truths of be apprespirit can hended only by those who prepare themselves for their reception by

rigorous discipline.
the heart from
all

We

must cleanse the mind of

all

distraction

and purge
p.

corruption, to acquire spiritual wisdom".

There

(Ibid.,

12.)

is

no doubt that the yoga discipline that the Gita

comes relevant in this context as a systematic mode of cleansing the body and the mind, acquiring a control of the senses, achieving mental conIt is

speaks' of

be-

centration and a state of samtWii in which there is a perception of reality. evident that the author of the Gita uses the
(Pataiijala)

for this purpose

and

finds a valid place for

it

in the life

yogaiSstra of man."

But before man gets spiritual-minded and starts preparing himself for receiving the truths of has to live his common spirit, he life and confront the day-to-day situations. He.has to act, and accept the consequences of his actions, whatever they may be. This is the problem of the common man. The world in which man lives is a
hnn, which he cannot suppress or deny. The question is whether this a different order of reality from the order of spiritual truth. And further question is if the two orders are different, are they related ?
staggering reality

to

is

In the language of philosophy the two orders of reality are called transcendental and empirical. The direction of philosophical thought his been towards generally regarding the empirical order as on a lower

somet.mes as an impediment to progress to the higher order of the school of thought came near dismissing the empirical
order
it,

leve'l

spirit'

as

illusion, treating

at least,

<m

as not

relation to the transcendental order.

worthy of the name of Such a philosophical

reaJitv 'in

attitude

ever valid, is not likely to help man much in solving his practical problems of hfe. The greatness of the Gita as a gospel of life is
universally
felt in

how

this particular context.

life

such situations as
raises the question

bound to be The Gita does not connive at

opening
section
action.

poses. In

fact,

the

representative of

of the problem of human humanity who is completely

baffled

the problem of his duty. In the first few chapters the teacher of the Gita provides an answer to the question of man's duty and action.

of the Gita Arjuna stands as and bewildered bv

The answer is, of course, well-known. What is worthy of note is the combination of the pragmatic conception of action and the doctrine of is brought to bear on this problem. In recognising karman as the very life of the universe, the cause of its continuity and functioning, the Gita not only accepts the necessity of action but also the reality of the universe which is operated by action. The talk of renouncing karman is, therefore, idle; for, it means only substitution of one action by another kind of action. If renunciation is necessary, it must come
devotion that

from

within, ft

is

on these

lines that the

GUa

develops

its

philosophy of

karmayoga, which has

the soundness of scientific thinking

is

and the

validity

of practical utilization. The discovery of the GHa returns from the action done, and not the action
that chains

that the desire to get

is

him down to a low life. liberate performance of action without expectation of any reward or profit man from the bondage of life. In addition, when actions are further done as a dedication to God, considering oneself as an instrument through whom God has chosen to work, one reaches the vicinity of God Himself.

man's enemy itself, The conquest of such desire and

The answer
conduct
miss the
is

that the Gita gives to the problem of action of

and

right

"the traditional answer

Hindu

religion",

but

we cannot
:

new

Dr. Radhakrishnan says emphasis in the Gita's statement.

it

"The

whole setting of the Gita points out that

is

an exhortation

to action.

Work
work

is

inevitable

till

we

attain [spiritual]

freedom.
attain
it,

We
we

have to work have

Vol.
to
I.,

for the

sake of freedom, and when we

of the
divine."

as instruments

(Indian

Philosophy,

p. 568).

or the solidarity of the In other words, "the true ideal is Jokasamgraha, in the world. The good man should world. The spirit of the whole works The best with it and aim at the welfare of the world

co-operate burdens to bear". people have the largest

(Ibid-, p.

567).

of karman a Dr. Radhakrishnan, thus, sees in the Gita's exposition and empirical orders of reality. close relation between the transcendental orders cannot be divorced. To do so According to the Gita, the two violate be to divide man into outer desire and inner quality, and to

would

is that which helps us to the the integrity of human life. "Good work and the perfection of spirit. Right conduct is liberation of the individual our real unity with man, and nature; wrong God, whatever expresses of reality". is whatever does not bring out this essential structure

conduct

Of course, the common man needs (Indian Philosophy, Vol. I,', p. 566). of union with the spirit. It is here help to work his way to the reality But that right action, yogic discipline and religious devotion help him.
is liberated, has attained unity with the supreme self, his contact or responsibility with the world does not really end. While the philosophical ideal of moksa and the infinite destiny of the individual apart from

once he

human
duties

ascetic ideal of the saihnyasin

society must be recognised, the insistence of the Gita on social and obligations has also to be recognised. And it means that the is not favoured by the GHa.

Dr. Radhakrishnan says

"He
for

(the sanyasin)

may be

all.

Mahadeva, the

ideal ascetic, seated

aloof from society; yet he has compassion in the Himalayan snows,

readily drinks poison for the saving of humanity". (Indian Philosophy L y' Vol. I, p. 580).

rary

"Every scripture", says Dr. Radhakrishnan, "has two sides, one tempoand perishable, belonging to the ideas of the people of the
period

and the country in which it is produced, and imperishable, and applicable to all ages and countries". (Preface, Text eel, p. 5). The way the Gita touches and solves problems which confront man as an individual and as a member of the society of the world, makes it a valid text
for

huma-

nity.

Its

direction

towards
life,

spiritual

religion,

without

necessities

of

human
Dr.

obliterating

the

and

reverence.

makes it a Radhakrishnan

scripture
is,

worthy of

man's
to

respect

therefore,

inclined

look on

the Gitri mainly as a theistic scripture that attempts to integrate the two orders of reality and help man to find his place in the scheme of
the

universe and with the

Supreme

Spirit.

"For

the Gila", Dr.

Radhakrishmm

says,

"the world

is

the scene of

an active struggle
interested.
all

in

between good and evil in which God is deeply pours out his wealth of love in helping man to resist that makes for error, ugliness and evil.. The Gild is interested the process of redeeming the world", (Text ed-, Intr.

He

pp, 25, 26).

Apart from its metaphysical and ethical value, the Gita gion to man. Dr. Radhakrishnan writes
:

gives a reli-

"The chief problem, facing The Gita is specially suited

us today

is

the reconciliation of mankind.

it

for the purpose, as

attempts to reconcile

varied and apparently antithetical forms of the religious consciousness and emphasises the root conceptions of religion which are neither

modern but eternal and belong to the very humanity, past, present and future". (Preface, Text ed., p.
ancient nor
Tradition recognises
intellectual

flesh
6)

of

inquiry, strenuous

self-sacrifice, fervent

devotion, ceremonial observance

to the divine.

and yogic exercises

as

means

of access

reason, will,

Dr. Radhakrishnan points out that, "Man is a complex of and emotion, and so seeks the true delight of his being

through all these". (Indian Philosophy, Vol, I. p. 553). The beauty is that the GltS recognises that different men are led to the spiritual vision by
different approaches;
it

synthesises

them

therefore,

and

believes in the
all

effectiveness of a

combined attack".

"The harmonising ideal which

these different methods

have

in

view

is

the increasing

solidarity of

the

individual with the universe presided over by Purusottama." (Ibid,, p. 554).

oldest extant

Dr. Radhaknshnan adopts the text followed by Satikara "as it is the commentary on the poem". His translation is accurate and
to different interpretations

faithful. In his notes he calls attention

troversial verses, without taking any special positions.

Yet

his

explanations

on conof

of the concepts in the Gita are very illuminating. For example lokasamgmha (BG. III. 20) according to him "stands for the unity of the world,

some

the inter-connectedness of society".

into a condition of physical misery
life is to

He

adds. "If the world

is

not to sink

be decent and
religion
is

dignified,

and moral degradation, if the common religious ethics must control social actions.
society,

The aim of
on earth.

to spiritualize

to establish a

brotherhood

We

must be inspired by the hope of embodying

the

ideals in earthly

institutions.

When

Indian world
age

lost

its

youth,

it

tended to

other-worldly. In a tired

we adopt

the gospel

of renunciation

become and

endurance. In an age af hope and energy

the

we emphasize

active service in

world and the saving of civilizativn". [Text ed., Notes, pp, 139-140). commenting on the concept of avatars (BG. IV. 7-9), Dr. Radhakrishnan first points out that "Dharma literally means mode of bein<.
Similarly,

So long as our conduct

acting in

is in

conformity with our essential nature,

is

we are

the
is

right

way.

Adharma

non-conformity
into the

to our nature".

"Avutara

the

descent

of the Divine

cosmic function of the

can
rise

avatara
to

from

their

animal

is to point out a spiritual mode of existence by providing

human world", and the "the way by which men

us with an example of spiritual life. The Divine nature is not seen in the incarnation in its naked splendour.." The lives of the avataras "dramatize
for us the essential constituents of

human
Dr.

life

ascending to the fulfilment

of

its

destiny". (Ibid., pp. 155, 156). In explaining the verse na buddhibheIll,

dam janayed ajiianam..(KG.

26).

Radhakrishnan directs spiritual

beliefs

and social workers not to disturb

the

simple

of the

common

people, their innocent

joys,

feasts

and

festivals,

devotion of any kind, The elements foundation of religion. In the lower

they are vital to those only
if

of duty, sacrifice
forms, they are
in

illiterate or and religious and love are the

mere symbols; but

who

believe

them.

They

they are imposed on those

who cannot

become intolerable accept them and when

love and not disturb them

they are suggested to be absolute and final forms of human thought. Till then, we must approach the followers of simple faith with respect and
heedlessly.

immense

synthesis by accomodating gods of groups, (see, Text ed., Notes, pp. 142-143.)

The Hindu pantheon presents art all kinds and of diverse

It

has been said about Dr. Radhakrishnan that he was essentially a

life.

philosopher of
to
life.

To him
in the

thought was meaningless unless

it

was

related

He

is

grieved to find that,

"We

are taught to

fly

in

the air like

birds,

and to swim

water like

fishes,

but
is

how

to live on the earth

like

men we

do not know". For him service

prayer.

"We

worship the
be
its

creator by working for a

new

creation, a

new

society". It should not be

surprising therefore that Dr. Radhakrishnan should find the Gtta

after his

to

own
is

heart. In the true spirit of the

GHa

his

exposition

of

teaching

sing all that

broad-based, aiming at the essential harmony, and emphasiis significant for man's understanding of the true religion of
It is

the spirit that

lifts him up to Divine height. Radhakrishnan stands by and for the Glta.

in this

sense that

Dr.

SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY OF DR. RADHAKRISHNAff

.

Dr.

H..M.

Joshi

In contemporary Indian philosophy

beliefs
Sri

Hinduism and Indian

traditional

came under critical review. Thinkers such as Mahatma Gandhi, Aurobindo, Tagore and Radhakrishnan have elaborately dealt with the principles of Hinduism and traditional features in their several writings
and books. and

Among

such principles of Hinduism are casteism, four Puru-

sharthas, four Asliramas, status of

collective

women

in society,

family,
is

monogamy
product of
progress'
life' in

growth of
is

society.

The name 'Hindu'

historical happening. It

the Indian cultural

development and
racial

since the times of

India.

Rigveda which influenced the races and

life

During the course of centuries many

races lived together

and

built

up

certain definite practices-principles of

betterment of inner living as 'Hinduism'.

and thinking, standards of well as values which came to be known as

.

Metaphysics of Rigveda is monistic and Idealistic. Radhakrishnan accepts the Monistic nature of Reality and the truth of several Gods as grounded in one Supreme Brahman. Fourfold 'Varna', castes is rooted in

Purusha Sukta which

is

part

of

Rigveda.

The import .of

'function',

'Division of work' has been understood but the deterioration of the origi-

nal intention in later times has not been seen through.

of

Brahmanism and
is

its

the impact consequent ritualism the main import of Purusha

distorted.

Under

Sukta

lost sight of

and

Radhakrishnan does not express

note
of injustice

this

deterioration in clear terms. He, however, takes

to 'lower'
'Slvudras'

done
to

class

in

Hindu

society

and gross

discrimination

shown

by the so-called upper

class.

Radhakrishnan wrote three books in succession concerning Hinduism social issues of casteism and women. They are, (i) Hindu View of Life, (ii) Eastern Religions and Western Thought and (iii)
aiid related

Relligion and Society.

delivered at

'Hindu
1926.

View
this

of

Life'

are

his

Upton
,

Lectures
to

Oxford

in
in

In

book

Radhakrishnan
is

attempts

defend caste-system
ful

Hindu

Religion. Caste-system

the result of care-

and dynamic thought of the Hindu mind. It is not only the device of the division of labour but it was the arrangement of inward and outward flow of persons and races in India. In the second book 'Estera Religions

and Western Thought' Radhakrishnan appears to think caste

:

as result of

12

'class*

division

between 'twice-born' and the

opposite
a

Shudra.

It

is

in

'Religion and Society' that

Radhakrishnan

offers

liberal

interpretation

and advocates- change

in

psychological attitude,

approach
divisions

and

treatment

of 'Untouchables' in Hindu Society.

In 'Religion individual

and

Society'

he

writes,

'Caste

are

based on

1 In the beginning there temperament which is not immutable'. 2 A Smriti was only one caste. We were all Brahmins or all Shudras. text says that one is born a Shudra and through purification he becomes

a Brahmin.

The

caste groups are

more trade
industrial

guilds

in

charge
the

of

the

cultural, political,

economic

and

sections

of

community.

Hinduism has drawn

loid races

to its fold the Aryan, the Dravidian and the Mongowhich had drifted into the Ganges valley from the East, the

Parthian, Spythian

and

Hun

invaders

from beyond the

Himalayas.

In

Mahabharata, Indra tells the emperor Mandhatru to bring all foreign 3 In the period of the people like the Yavanas under the Aryan influence. Rigveda we have the distribution between Aryan and Dasa and there were

no

rigid divisions

manas the four

birth.

classes
t is

among the Aryans themselves. In the times of Brahbecame separated into rigid groups dependent on
trace

The Smri

the

innumerable castes to

intermixture of the

four Vanias

by means of Anuloma and Pratiloma

It
is

marriages-

The

four

orders supersede the original racial differences.

a classification

based

on

social facts

Yavanas

(Greeks), the

and psychology. In the Mahabharata we are told that the Kiratas, the Daradas (Dards), the Chinas (the
(Scythians),

Chinese), the Sakas

the

pahlavas

(Parthians), the

Savaras

(Pre-Dravadian

tribes) and several other Non-Hindu peoples belonged to one or the other of the four classes. 4 These foreign tribes were absorbed into Hindu society. The sort of social adjustment fay which foreigners

followed
the

the

general

traditional
into

and

common

law

of the
very
early

society,

foreigners

admitted

the

Hindufold

from

times.

So long they were treated as Hindus. The great Empire-builders, the and the Guptas to the Nandas, the Mauryas were, according Orthodox view, low-born. The Gupta emperors married Licchavis

who were
Race
.

regarded

as

Mlecchas.

Latterly

some Hindus have married

European and American women.

arid Society

...
strong racial
differences

Though
riot

opertated, intermarriages

had

been

unsatisfactory.

homogeneity among them. When marriages between heterogeneous race-persons took place then standards of binding, norms of promise and mutual progress became loose. However, the castes

With the marriages of a certain kind of unity and'

Owing to the inflow of many men and women of such divergent

races in Indie

races brought

13

heredity were regarded as

became rigid and orthodox Brahmins took advantage of this situation. The standard of quality and action was lost sight of and birth as well as norms of casteism. The aim of casteism in a racial harmony by absorbing newcomers specific epoch was to achieve
and giving them definite work and quality. Four castes were thought to be four moulds into which different vocations, people with several aptitudes and abilities can be adjusted.
every

The

basis

of Varna

Dharma

is

that

human
by

being must try to

ideal

fulfil

the law of development. Thts

it

is

the

ideal set

Hinduism. In course of time

may

have been

distor-

ted

by

certain

communities

and races.

It is

held

by sages

and

wise

cosmic forces.

persons that distinct qualities and traits of development are determined by One should follow one's own 'Dharma' rather than spend
else's

time on somebody

advice and imitation.

In ancient times sages and seers

did not try to

regulating

the

conduct

of society

implement the principles of heredity and classification in a have changed their rigid way. In special cases individual and community class. Vishvamitra, Ajamidha and Puramidha were admiand occupation

Brahmin class. Vishvamitra had composed Vedic Hymns. Yaska in his Nirukta says that of two brothers, Santanu and Devapi, one became a Kshatriya king and other a Brahmin priest at a sacrifice. 'We are Brahmin not on account of birth or the performance of rites, not by study or family, but on account of our behaviour.' 5 Even if we are born Shudras, by good conduct we can raise ourselves
tted to the status of the to the highest status.

Manu

limits the right to study the

Dharmashashtras
all

to

Brahmins,

while

Sankara

holds

that

members

of

castes

can

read them.

Radhakrishnau emphatically asserts that 'Our habits are to be based on principles of cleanliness, not on taboos. Pollution by touch must be given up. The sin of untouchability is degrading and the prejudice should
be removed. Bhagavad Geeta points out that there are only four Varnas based on natural aptitude and vocation, and two classes of persons,
divine (daiva) and

demoniac

(asura).

Places of worship,

public wells and

ghats,

public utilities such as cremation grounds, bathing educational institutions should be open to all.

hotels

and

Sacraments

There are sixteen sanskaras

or

sacraments
birth,
(ii)

main sacraments,
to study or

(i)

Jatakarma or
of

among which four Upanayana or initiation

or

are
in(iv)

reflection

Brahman,

(iii)

Vivaha

marriage and

14

Arya Samaj women ceremony. In the period of the UpaniThe student used to go to the hut of the teacher or forest-Ashrama of Gum with fuel in his hands and expressed the desire to get knowledge. The story of Satyakama' Jabala
are given
shads.

Antyeshti or final ceremonies. Radhakrishnan believes that 'The sacrament of Upanayana is of Indo-Iranian This is not true. In the times origin'. of Rigveda Upanayana was given both to man and woman. Woman who put on the sacred thread was called Brahmvadini. In
15

and intiated Upanayana was

into thread

a simple ceremony.

brings out the significant point that caste

is

reflection of

Brahman and

immaterial in the study

is

and
'the

it

is

the truthfulness which

essential in

iclatiouship

between teacher and taught.

Radhakrishnan says that

of
all

it

is

essential

that

the important sacrament

Upanayana should be permitted

are capable of
,s

for

all

Hindus,

men and women

It
is

for

the highest

goal

of

spiritual

open to three upper classes; the Bhagavata says that for women, Shudras and degraded Brahmins there is no access to the Ved and the compassionate sage has provided for them the epic 'Mahabharata' In ancient times the prohibition of Vedic study was not so strict Sankara^ oharya says that while the Shudra has no adhikara for Brahmvidya based on a study of the Veda, he can attain spiritual development even as

the Ved.c path

insight.

said thai

VriuraandDharmavyadhadid, and
the

attain to

spiritual

free

font of wisdom. Jaimini Shudras could perform Vedic

om (moksha)
even

states
rites. 1

that

according to Badad

le

'Whatever might have been the case in

the

our spiritual inheritance should be thrown open to all themselves Hindus.' 'Gayatri prayer is coeval I di and must be taught to all men and women hishTnJ symbol of the true religion which is ure renewal. Radhakrishnan accepts Individual as the founta n

past

it

is
tl

essenthl that
I

wl

'

e his suggesti

fch

2 L hi ^ "* ^ ^^- r 1 ? ^n
''

Xlt *
.

syrapathetic
f

real

symbol of the Absolute Reality.*

:^

ceasing..

God

15

Aryans and Non-Aryans

Radhakrishtiaa points out that Hinduism is a missionary religion if not in the sense of individual proselytism then at least in the sense that whole tribes or communities have been absorbed by Hinduism. 'Hinduism has come to be a tapestry of the most variegated tissues and almost endless diversity of hues'. 9 It would be difficult indeed to get anything coherent out of such a heterogeneous mass of doctrines and
practices.

This very heterogeneity

of content

makes
in the

for

tolerance.

It

is

to

be

remarked however that HO reformer

long

centuries

of

Hinduism

has escaped the bentem and contempt of the orthodox or the tribulation which goes with an exquisitely organised excommunication.

holds that

'It is

Radhakrishnan matter of history that vast masses of the original nonfold as Shudras, a
class

(a threefold division of society as contrasted with the later fourfold division). As against the old

Aryan population were absorbed by the Aryan which was not included in the Vedic trivarnikas

dogma of

the Aryan superiority over the Dravidian, recent historical discoveries have gone to show that the Aryans were unable to resist the pressure of Dravidian ideas to such an extent that it has become a
real

riddle to determine
is

with any definiteness whether the Hinduism of to-day more Aryan or more Dravidian. 10 Moreover the excavations of Mohenjodaro and Harrappa in 1911 by John Wheeler and his team have

at least shown that there was no such so-called Aryan invasion from north-western India. There are at least two hundred and more such sites in western and northern parts of India where it is shown that Aryans and Dravidians lived together and there was very systematic city-dwelling and articles of decoration as well as life with well-facilitated amenities

This city-dwelling has shown further that there was pre-Mohenjc in which civilization Vedas and Upauishads were a part life. There is shown no historical landmark when Aryans entered India and as a race attempted to overpower and dominate the
utilities.

Harrappa

of cultured

supposed hostile Dravidians. The said battles Rigveda are symbolic of two parts of inward

and
life

their

descriptions in

and

forces

evident in

human

struggle expressed in 'symbolic' metaphors by poets. It is however a fact that Aryans and Dravids have mixed and they lived their lives together. There were at times conflicts of ideas and ways of living. This
is

evident in the lives of heroes of

Ramayana and Mahabharata. Vasudeva

was" an Aryan but his wife Devaki was Dravid as she was sister of Kansa later 011 killed by Lord Krishna. Similarly Shishupala and Jayadratha were non-Aryans with whom Lord Krishna had to fight. In

who was

Ramayana Ravana was non-Aryan but Mandodari,

his

wife

was Aryan

16

who advised Ravana not

from the
forest. It

although he had abducted her C. seems that Aryavarta of about three thousand B. Iran and Afghanistan on the north and was very wide, expanding upto Gandhari and Kaikeyi reveal in the South. The names upto Cambodia those countries such as Gandhar which is Afghanitint they came from castes or Varnas were an The four Russia. stan and Kekaya in present different heterogeneous races in India. to include and absorb
to touch .S'eeta

attempt

was a

and distortion of classification of caste which There was deterioration to harmonise the divergent elements of society
social organic attempt

'Shudra

period of Dhamiashashtra and down the original noble intention of Shruti laid authors misinterpreted has attempted to show the democratic Purusha Shukta. Radhakrishnan
1

md

'country.

There was

a kind of

disgust

shown towards the

fourth

and

the especially in

Smritis the

in

It character of Hinduism.

is,

of course, difficult to show this in the face of

last
fit

in rigid casteism prevalent

alone to go their own way. Even in truth share are 'aboriginal tribe' not getting its due the present century there to are 'Untouchables' who do not get entrance in the Hindu fold. There Till then it level. to not are higher uplifted and they Hindu temples is democratic in its social temper. cannot be said that Hinduism

Human

beings are not

all

Hindu society for the equal and are not all

left

so

many

centuries.

to achieve the highest

most of them have been

Class and Stages of Life

The
so

principle

rigidly

followed

not of the four stages of lifelike that of four castes is definite in Hindu society although it has a certain
in

following
times

twenty

country. among certain sections of people into when the longevity has been considerably decreased, the division for each stage of life is bound to be shortened. Monkfive
years

the

In

modern

hood

is

not the only aim of

life.

Household and family have a

life

positive

contribution to healthy
gress.

and proportioned growth of

an
age
step.

and

social pro-

Of

course, persons such as

Buddha, Mahavir and Sankaracharya

early
drastic

decided to take Samnyasa at

of

life

and Indian
certain

society

as such has not rejected such a

When
The

period and

individuals

are taken into cognizance,

ascetic

Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism

ideal

have

been

in

their

main

character.

of

Samnyasa

has been exalted in certain periods and schools of Hinduism. Although on the slender many of the Samnyasins really lead an idle life and sponge
earninngs of the
masses,
there

have been quite a good

of a

number who
moral
arid,

have been great teachers, holding aloft the ideals

spiritual
life,

high

17

Radhakrishuau has pointed out the degradation of caste in Hindu with hostility and as 'lower' society to 'class'. Shudras were looked upon
times caste is regarded people by so-called higher class people. At achievement of Hinduism, but looking to the rigidity devthat of its original eloped in later period it cannot be justified except Unforwell-intentioned cosmic view regarding work and social harmony.
class

as a significant

nature associated tunately its distorting interpretation lent its hereditary even with the rules of marriage permissible only within a caste and only within a sub-caste. Moreover the recent demand of the Dravidians after to the tendency is a pointer to the fact that

amounting
centuries

separatist

Aryans and Dravidians have not been

sufficiently

mixed

in

blood

in the country. To rectify this .and in ideas to orientate one people a Radhakrishnan says in 'Religion and Society' that 'To be in too great

circumstances shows hurry to make fundamental concessions to changing but never to a lack of confidence in the principles of our own tradition; 11 He says further, 'From a study of the imperichange at all is stupid.' we must our on been evolved history, have past shable principles that of human dignity, develop new institutional safeguards for the protection institutions and . radical changes in our social habits and

freedom

justice.

are essential, if India

is

to

be saved from physical and

spiritual death.'

Status of

Woman
woman was
social

In ancient Vedic society

regarded

as

'Ardhanigini',

'a

queen of the House' and the was regarded as symbolic of

institution as well as the

and

spiritual

relationship of

ceremony of 'Vivah' man and

in
reli-

woman. Man was regarded

to

be imperfect without woman and

held to be essential. In 'yajna' gious ceremonies the presence of wife was wife used to sit by the side of the husband to perform offering and sacrificial
rites.

Man

and

woman
in

were believed to be equal and there was no domipolitical

1

nance of either

social,

or

cultural

vocations.

The
in

ancient
society

symbol of 'Ardhanarishwara

signifies the equal role

of

woman

of quality, and function between man and woman. Rearing children, nursing, grace and household duties are specially belonging to woman. Of course like Spartan education women in India were too educated in archery, horse-riding and

and

spirituality.

However

there is

marked

difference

in the forest universities

archers. 'In the houses as well as spear-bearing. Kautilya mentions women. of India, boys and girls were educated together'.

of 'Atreyi studied under Valmiki along with Lava and Kusha, the sons Rama.' 13 However the belief persisted in Smriti period and in later middle
3

18

ages that

women

are inferior to

men

in

intellectual

quality

and

power.

initiation Such a belief gained momentum and in Manusmriti woman's to be substituted by marriage. into study and Brahmacharya was thought of She was thoxight to be dependent on man and later under the impact
foreign races she

institutions, ceremonies,

was held to be part of property. Just as in religioiis customs, castes and other beliefs, the infiltration of
similarly
it

other races influenced their forms and change,

made impact

upon the

status of

women

in society.

forms of Polyandry, Polygamy, abduction and other illegitimate marriage were the result of mixing of races and social expediency. Radhakrishnau says in this conncection that 'Monogamous marriage is not a. natural condition but a cultural state. The traces of promiscuity belong
to the

Pre-Vedic stage, as the institution of marriage

14

is

well

established

by the time of RigVeda.'

for

Manu

argued that

women

should

have all
rites. :tri

the sacraments but without the Vedic formula.

The only Vedic sacrameiit

sacrificial
is

them

is

marriage.
for

wifeless

man

is

not eligible for

For
to

Manu and

Manu and

Dharmashashtra,

woman

'a fragile

plant,,

be cared for and nourished by man.'

When

in later times the position,

of

woman

deteriorated the Bhakti religion arose responding

and satisfying

seceral religious needs of

woman.
is

The marriage
ideal loses

ideal
its

among Hindus
worth when

quite high but in practise

this

much of

for a long

time

Polygamy was sanleft in

ctioned, infant marriages were

common and women

were

ignorance.

laid

In epic like Rarnayana the ideal of marriage as monogamy was strictly down. It is true that marriage has got sanctity and it is indissoluble.

Yet if a woman intends to remarry in case her husband dies or has been proved insane, is a eunuch or diseased, then she is not permitted to do so while a man is permitted to remarry even when his first wife is
living.
in

Customs and conventions prevalent in Hinduism are Hindu society. Widdow remarriage is looked
in

prejudicial to

women
:
.

upon, with
is

frown

and

contempt by people

Hindu

society whereas

man who

widowed is

regarded to be free to marry

more wives;
in parts

It is

only recently in 1954 that

Hindu Code
over there
century.
is

Bill

was passed

enforcing

monogamy and endowing

is

certain rights in succession to

women

aiid daughters. It

true that

world

spread out
part of
<

movement
it,

for liberation of

women

in the present

So as a

in India also

women

largely have arisen

and been
'

demanding equal

Owing

rights for marriage, property and other legal matters. to influence of external races such as Turks, Mongols and

Muslims the customs Of wearing bangles, putting curtain on the face^ by women, child marriage and polygamy took stronghold in Hinduism- Putting

19

curtain oil the face was never a

It

was a

distinct Islamic influence

is

marriage

believed to be

contract
its

custom among women in ancient India. on Indian culture. Moreover in Islam which can be terminated by its
influence on

utterance with the result that

Hindu

society

was
her

grievous.
lar-

Woman

was regarded as a
life.

chattel in family

and her

privileges

were

gely curtailed. In a joint family

woman

could not

enjoy

individual

respectable

In

modern

times there

visible
life.

young men and women towards rush towards urban life deserting

a notable change among Hindu individual separate families. There a

is

rural conditions

and community

Aims

of Life

life, Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha provide for adequate channelisation of desire, security, spx, love, aspiration for right-

Four aims of

eousness

and
'It

liberation in

writes that

life and human communication. Radhakrishnan seems never to have entered into the heads of Hindu leg-

islators that

anything natural could be

all

offensively obscene, a singularity

which pervades
their

their writings, but

in India,

is

no .proof

of the

depravity

of

both as regards theory and practice, possesses an importance which it is impossible for us even to conceive.' 30 Radhakrishnan says that 'when natural instinct of sex is guided by brain and 17 heart, by intelligence and imagination, we have love.' Marriage as an
expression and development of love. The of marriage and householder. 'As on the all living beings depend support of the mother, so do all the stages of life depend on the support of the householder. Home is not what is made of wood, and stone, but where, a wife is, there is the
institution
is

morals. Love

a device for the

Hindu view

.thinks highly of the ideal

home.' 18

become

saints but to strike

life.

The Hindu view regarding marriage does not advise persons to means in satisfying passions as part of achie'Spiritual

ving comprehension of

freedom

is

to

be

secured

not by

arbitrary suppression of desires but by their judicious organisation.' Again, 'The highest ideal even in sex matters is that of non-attachment, to use

the relations

when valuable and forgo them without

trouble.'
iu

Radhakria
'sacra-

shnau advises persons to understand and approach marriage

mental

spirit'.

While exhorting the married' relationship Radhakrishnan is cautious about separation, breakdown and undesirable unions between husband divorce when separation is found to be and wife. He favours inevitable. It is true that in -later period of Hinduism birth of a son was looked upon with welcome in family whereas birth if a daughter was of marriage priest to the wedding sadness and ill-luck. Even the blessings

20
bride in later

ety.

Hindu period were to the effect that she may become the mother of eight sons. This was unfortunate development in Hindu sociThere was a time in eighteenth and nineteenth century when in Hindu
society

among Kshitrayas daughters were

deplores

tortured

and done to death

third

right in their childhood.

Males married second and

this

time in
attitude
in

order

to get male issue. Radhakrishnan

unhealthy

tow-

ards daughters in family.

conditions a. son
is

He

says, 'In patriarchal families

and

primitive

daughter. This mean that parents loved their daughter less. An educated dauthe of the ghter pride family.'^ He tries to defend the preference for boys. 'There is also the difficulty of procuring suitable husbands, and

economically

more

valuable

than

does not
is

even after marriage there future. This difficulty of

ference for boys

is

a large element of chance

girls
is

in

regard to the

securing happiness for

the cause of presex.' 20

and not any unfairness to the female

Radhakrishnan is appreciative of healthy marriage relationship and expresses optimism if marriages are largely successful in society. The ideal
of family, monogamy and four stages of life which are although traditional and much is to be desired, to improve upon them, yet when in counof Europe and U.S.A., divorce and desertion of married responsible
are

tries
life

common,

these ideals build

up the

pillars

of healthy social

and

cultural life. In Sweden the statistical analysis of married life and later desention indicate that sixty percent of married couples live outside their family life and prefer desertion of spouse and children. Radhakrishnan

advocates the healthy creatively mental and spiritual union of husband and wife. Of course such an ideal may be in contravention of modem
earning couple
industrial

and struggling to adust

life.

machine and market

to the hardships of business and In India too many couples in urban

areas live and continue to adjust to such

demands of ecconomic

stress

and strain. Emotional and mental tensions as well as anguishes are bound to crop up among the couples during such adjustments. They may affect and disturb the harmonious relation between husband and wife. However
the ideal and standard of mental and creative union helps the couple and make progress in the long run. Radhakrishnan says in this connection. 'The marriage relation is intended to contribute to both life family to

and mind. While woman

assigned to her,

is

entangled

more
in

in

the activities which

life

has

man

in

engaged more
to serve

creation

of mind.

It

is vital

and rear family. If woman is engaged in activities which prejudice the work of preservation, she comes into conflict with her own inner nature. She is the giver of joy and the inspker, of activity and she canqot do her part successfully if she immi> man.

national service to

work hard,

Modern woman,

is

discontented

with

her role

of child-

ii

rearing

and home-making and

21

wishes to

devote

herself

to

some other

'higher activity'.

'A
its

faithful
is

monogamous marriage
difficult.

is

the ideal to be
art

aimed
with

at,

realization
joy.

.Marriage
life

is

an

which
but

involves

though both pain

and
and

The

Uma won

suffering.

begin marriage. Shiva not through her personal beauty but through austerity Kalidas in his 'Abhijnana Shakuntalarh' shows how two

difficulties

of

do not

end,

loving souls are worked through suffering into

fitness for

shape

and moulded

into

each other.'

It

is

in

marriage meaningful as well as worthy. In great plays of the masters, the object of love is heightened by austerity which brightens the value of love and consequent union. The sublimity of love is achieved by making the lovers aware of the contingencies and mercurial nature of life. If the partners
it

either before

the element of suffering undergone by partners or after which makes marriage and life more

in

marriage think that

soft,

life is

them
zies

weak

in face

a bed of roses throughout, then it will make of ordeals and dangers of life. It requires a hard
resist

metal, courage and psychic

of

life

temper to and circumstances.

and react to the wild fren-

guideline of the significance

legitimate forms of marriage as against improper forms of it Since aaci ent times there have been at least eight forms of marriage prevalent in Hindu fold. Many of these cannot be traced to the

The ceremony of marriage should be educative and indicating of marriage. So Hindu seers have shown

-i

Hmdiusm
deleting

are approved while the other four are disapproved. ** Paishacha, Rakshasa, Asura Gandharva Arsha, Daiva, Prajapatya and Brahma are the forms of

them when they are outworn. Four forms

period of Rigveda has the tendency to presserve old beliefs and customs without

approved
is

marriage

in

Hindu
is

disapproved and

that in which the bride

low type. The bride is deceived or loses control over herself by taking drugs or drink and in such a frame of mind she yields to the husband Rakshasa form of marriage refers to a period when women were regarded as prizes of war. In certain cases conflict and clash
regarding

society. The Paishacha form of marriase overpowered by the husband. It is of a verv

women

Rukmim, Shubhadra and Vasavadatta helped their husbands, Krishna Arjuna and Udayana respectively. In the Asura form of marriage the husband buys the bride for a price. 'It is marriage by purchase 'This form was in practise but was not approved. These three forms of' marri'

occur

age are disapproved.

Choice.

The Gandharva form of marriage is based on mutual approval, and 'Kama Sutra regards this type of 23 The most marriage as ideal.'

22
that of Dushyanta and Shakuntala

interesting case of this type of marriage

is

which

is

the theme of 'Shakuntala' of Kalidasa. As Gandharva unions were

brought about without the recitation of mantras, to give them sanction union. 24 it was laid down that ceremonies should be performed after the This is meant at least for the Dvija, three classes. In the Arsha marriage the father of the bride is permitted to accept a cow and a bull from the
son-in-law. 'This
is

a modified form of Asura marriage

and

is

held

low

among

the approved form of marriages. In the Daiva form the sacrificer offers his daughter in marriage to the officiating priest. It is called Daiva
the

because the marriage is settled during the course of the performance of to the Gods. It is not generally approved, as during the sacrifice, religious ceremony itself the priest selects the wedding bride. In the Pra-

japatya marriage the bride is offered to the bridegroom with due rites and the couple are enjoined to be inseparable companions in the discharge of their religious duties. Many marriages are like those of Urvashi and

Pururava, merely
her soul. This
is

union

is

contractual where the woman yields her body but not not proper respect for sex -relationship. 'The physical the outward sign of an inward spiritual grace. 'The Brahma form

is the one approved and popular among all classes and in it and love shall be lasting and genuine. The present conventions and forms tend towards the Brahma ideal, though other forms such as Gandharva and Ashura forms are found prevalent.

of marriage

the couple pray that their friendship

Customs and Radical reform

external races invading

H-ogress.

The customs of child-marriage and Sati are the result of influence of upon India during particular epoches of historical As regards the custom of Sati only one name is found in

indent Indian History which is the name of Madri, wife of king Pandu ,n Mahabharata. Ancient Vedic literature and Manu Samhita do not advocate early or child marriage. Manu even permits girls to remain unmarried if suitable husbands cannot be had. She can live till her death at her father's home rather than be given in marriage to an unworthy man. 2 s Early marriages, as distinguished from child marriages, arranged by parents, in consultation with their sons and daughters, have been the norm in India.
after the renaissance in the beginning of the nineteenth century, both the abovesaid evils of Hindu society have diminished. Sharada Act has prohibited child marriage and Sati is also stopped by law. Of course these evils are ingrained with the ignorance of the masses in India. With education and persuasion there is of

Now

hope

fighting

against

these evils.

Certain orthodox priests and heads of Muthsr,also

are close-minded

and

23

they do not like India t -make progress. They suffer from uiyopea with regard to social change and value. The recent case of 'Sati' in Rajasthan is a remnant of ignorance of village masses and their fanatic outlook.
Generally marriages should take place between members of groups

who

belong

to

homogeneous

social

and cultural

level

having understanding and

harmony among them. However certain rules in Hindu orthodox institution .regarding norm of marriage such as it should be within one's caste,
outside the paternal line that is 'Gotra' are improper and out of date. To maintain one's Gotra while marrying is not feasible also as 'Gotra'

Book of Rigveda such Kaundinya, Shandilya, Bhargava and such others under which specific as well as education of Mantras of RigVeda. This family took initiation
refers to the belonging to particular head of the

as

event occurred thousands of years ago. How can this 'Gotra' and its retention by the descent of line help in modern times ? It must have -hanged after so much lapse. Of course marriage among cousin, brethern and in the same paternal line is not healthy as the norm in rnarrage is
that of the opposite blood and its group. Even then this practice is found in South India and it is prevalent among Mahommedans. It is largely under the common interest of members to preserve the property and allied

investment.

It

cannot be made rule for healthy society.

Breeding of healthy children is the care of social leaders and planners. There should be rnarrige among the opposites which is the rule of nature. and low castes are social fixations which may be removed in pro-

High

'Cultural differences among castes gressive society. Radhakrishuan says, are gradually diminishing, inter-caste marriages will again be on the the spirit of Hindu Dharrna.' 26 to violate said be cannot increase and

girl is

allows a man to marry a girl from even inferior families if the a jewel among women- Mahanirvaua Tantra mentions the Shaiva that the woman form of marriage and lays down only two conditions of marriage and that she has no is not within the prohibited 'degree need not be looked into.' 27 Under the husband. Questions of age and caste the Civil Marriage Act, Special marriage Act of 1954 present conditions, of different faiths is possible without also marriages between two persons

'Manu

demanding

their formal renunciation of religion.

when both
Her
ft

are forbidden and yet there are occasions Polyandry and Polygamy The are permitted. Polyandry prevailed in certain communities.
is

well-known instance
father

that of Draupadi's
at

marriage

with

five

brothers.
it

King Drupad was aghast

dificujt to

the

proposal

and

said

was

opposed

to the codes, but Yudhisthir argued that family traditions justify

is

and

it

know what

is

right in

all

cases. 28

Polygamy was

24

the privilege of princes and noblemen.

Common

persons

were

ordinarily

monogamous. But the Shashtras allow a husband to contract a second marriage with the consent of his wife. Though polygamy is becoming rare it is still practised. Of course with the law of judisial separation and
provision of maintenance to be given to wife and for child if child is under the care of the wife, divorce is not easily granted and if granted the husband would not be able to afford it economically. Even in Mahomme-

dan

religion vvh^re a

husband can have four

wives

women

have raised

and there are indications of reform. Moreprotests through organisation over for husband to marry four wives becomes an economic liability.

On

economic grounds monogamy becomes fair relationship and just ideal. However Radhakrishnan admits the orthodox Hindu mind and belief
expressed in
is

Manu

Samhita, 'The unfairness to

woman

in

Mann Samhita

found when he says that good wife should adore a bad husband.'

In RigVeda there are found references to remarriages of widows. Arjuna accepted as wife the widowed daughter of Airavata, Naga king and had by her a son. Satyavati was sought in marriage by King Ugrayudha shortly after the death of her husband. Kautilya in his Arthashashtra writes, 'On the death of her husband a woman wishing to lead a

virtuous

life

shall at once

receive

not only her endowment,

money and

jewellery but also the balance of the

dowery due to her. If she is desirous of a second marriage, whatever her father-in-law or her husband or both had given her. If a widow marries any man other than the person selected by her father-in-law, she shall forfeit whatever had been given to her by her father-in-law and her husband.' 29 Apastatnba opposes the marriage of widow. Amitagati in his Dharma Pariksha (1014 A. D.) refers to widow marriages. Alberuni records that remarriage of widows was prohibited

custom and

by

became extended to child-widows also. There widows used to marry their brotherin-law (Devarah), brother of the deceased husband when the widow has
this prohibition

are reports that near about 250 B. C.

a son she gets a share of the family property.

In recent years as women have begun to get education there is awakening among them and there is a trend towards widow remarriage. In Surat (Gujarat) during nineteenth century Narmadashanker who started the first Gujarati Weekly paper 'Dandio', advocated widow re-marriage

and did

sufficient social reformative

in this direction.

society

and

in helping

work to awaken the popular opinion Arya Samaj has done a significant reformative work in widows for restitution in household life in
wrong
in

table manner.

Dayananda Saraswati

respecwrites in his 'Satyartha Prakash' to the

effect that there is nothing

remarriage of widow

if

it is

arranged

25

sations

with mutual understanding. In the present century education has also generated certain amount of economic independence for women. Maheela organiin different states have been establishing institutions, hostels; home
rehabilitation and supervising the situation of broken unions and families. There are of course cases of women commtting suicide, being burnt by in-law persons, cruelty by husbands and immoral traffic. This is seen declining during the last hundred years. In case of selection of spouses casteism is lastly receding among Dwijas and during Gandhi Age people

for

married spouses of Shudra

caste

There

are lacs of Indians residing in foreign countries such as

and obtained blessings of Mahatma Gandhi. U. K. and

in case of marriage of TJ. S. A- and they have largely abandoned casteism

their children especially.

durrent Problems
India
is

facing the

problem of over-population and birth-control has

prevalent
to check

become the major demand of present times. There are two views In India as regards the measures to be adopted with respect
births
of

more

children in

the family.
is

One

is

for natural

moral check

over passions whereas the other view other aritificiat medical checks over conception and birth of baby on mass scale. Radhakrishnan says, 'Control of births by abstinence is the
3 ideal and yet the use of contraceptives cannot be altogether forbidden.' It is at times argued that birth control is an unnatural interference with

for the use of contraceptives and

the process

of nature. Radhakrishnan argues that 'We have interfered with the process of nature by inventions and discoveries. If we argue that ancient things are more natural than modern, then polygamy and promismore natural. Birth control is fast becoming in cuity should be regarded as some countries as natural as wearing clothes, on account of the present

social climate with

its

economic insecurity and the longing of parents to

life.'

provide
It
is

their children proper starting in

true that these measures are not properly used by people

and

they are taken up merely as instruments of pleasure and license. Women intend to avoid pregnancy and men do not want to take the responsibility for the pleasures

and

acts.

If

we watch

the

recent

techniques of

we can observe the propaganda, advertisement and modelling of women, heavy impact of western culture and unconscious imitation by people in

urban

areas. After independence

there

is

craze

for

foreign

goods

and

The one time styles in costumes, dress and mannerism among people. movement and demand of people for 'Swadeshi' is lost sight of and
4

26

of Star-Hotels people have begun to take advantage of commitment to Indian values of self-restraint,
nationalism and spirituality
social
is

in big

cities.

Sense

sacrifice,

devotion,

diminishing

among

leaders

and thinkers of

change

in present India.

Once again
rich
in

as a result of capitalistic trends

is

in society

the chasm between

and poor persons

the
city

increasing.
Fifty

The

largest slum-dwelling of

Asia

is

of

Bombay.

percent
the

persons of Indian population are living below poverty line and

pro-

blem of maintaining legitimate standard of living has become grievous. With the decline in economic standards there is deterioration in moral
norms and appreciation of social and cultural value among the masses. So the misuse of scientific measures for improving conditions is rampant in society. Esepccially among young men and women there is dearth of
scientific

moral and spiritual training with the result that the conciliation between measures and moral uplift and evaluation are lacking.

Government should undertake

facilities to

the

work of providing adequate housing

the poor and slum-dwellers. Children are the future citizens of

and they should be properly looked after by society and state. Poor people do not mind having more children but as they are ignorant, they do not know how to educate and rear them so as to enable them to become better men and women in society." At
the country

present

familv
in

planning centres,

Gram Panchayat and

social

workers arc

engaged

helping the rural people to adopt measures to check birth of ren. It should not be limited to certain class and

more

child-

religion. a national problem. So people of all classes and religions should understand problems of population, price rise, waste of food and water as national and each one should attempt to eradicate evils of economic
It is

and

social nature.

Radhakrishnan

is

very keen to defend the

liberal

regarding marriage, divorce, succession and family.

inerpret

He

outlook of Hinduism has attempted to

so

Hinduism

in

wider and universal connotation

as

to

make

it

Non-Hindus. It is the 'Open System' of and become members of World culture and As Religion. Dayananda Sarasvati said 'Krinvanto Vishvam Aryam'. The whole world should embrace Hinduism in its pure and Universal

amenable even to supposed

Hindu

inviting others to join

Similarly Radhakrishnan appeals to the citizens of the world to appreciate the rational and detached character of Hinduism incorporating all good and noble elements of different religions and philosophies of the world Wherever limitations and shortcomings are found in society and institutions of India, Radhakrishnan is optimistic about their removal in due
time.

spirit

As

course of

regards the status of

women

in

Hindu

society there

is

a hod e O f

27

liberation of

of Indian

every generation has produced millions of women of fame but whose daily existence has helped to

women from the yoke of custom and ingorance. The image woman is standing as loving, sacrificial and noble, 'India in who were never fond
civilise

the

races

and
and
arc

whose warmth of
strength in suffering

heart,

self-sacrificing zeal,

when

subjected

to

trials

unassuming of extreme

loyalty
severity,

among

the glories of this ancient race.' 31

The

ideals of Secularism,

Demo-

cracy and Socialism laid down in our constitution are not .entirely new to Indian society and people. Radhakrishnan attempts to carve out the 'universal image of Hindu society and Religion which can be acceptable
to all

women and men

alike-

As such

there are several facts of orthodoxy,

historical dialectic

and ignorant masses which stand against such ideals of egalitarian social framework. However there is a potentiality of improving, and rectifying building up better social construction in which men and

women

share equally the disabilities and prospects of commissions and omissions of the dynamism of society.

would be

In the metaphysical background of Hinduism the original principles the forms of ultimate belief and guidelines for general activities

of people at large. They will

not

be directly

and

positively
life.

helpful

in

solving present riddles and problems of social and political

Moreover
and

during last forty years and

more

nations are moving towards interrelationcultural

if

ship implying broader agreements in economic, educational, social fields. Nationalism of 1920-MO is on the wane. Even

nations are
at interna-

poor, orthodox and conventional, they cannot afford to connive

tional market, racial discrimination, calamities, ideologial changes, treaties, border disputes, positive and negative actions and reactions of liberal

nature

among neighbouring and

or

other

countries.

As Radhakrishnan has
'Cultivation

said in 'Kalki

the

Future

of Civilization',

of

brother-

hood and fellowship among the nations is the indispensable prerequisite. The nation we hate is the nation we do not input. The peace of the world depends on drawing together of the minds and consciences of cul32 It is a tured men and the growing commerce of knowledge and ideals.'
union of nations by mutual consent and goodwill wherein the uniqueness
of each nation is preserved and permitted to flourish in larger federation. Indian society requires positive thinking and adjustment in the context of non-alignment and forces of international politics of our times.

Problem of work and National

uplift

The
lation of

progress of the nation depends

power of money

in wider

upon output of goods and circu market of consumers and buyers. Of

28
of

course India

is

committed

to

good ami

benevolent

uses

wealth

for

larger betterment of
in

uplift
ires

of the people mankind. However the present problem and satisfaction for contributing to the country is to find proper work Indian of view society requand state. From social point
of society

new

orientation towards

work

for all

and collective welfare of groups

Indian
society

and

institutions. It

has been the convention of

to respect

old persons and moral and spiritual fervour household, family, child-rearing, conditions of physical, economic and of people and society. In changing to become economically free, social significance it has become imperative
secure and self-reliant. Earning and maintaining family
is

the responsibility

of the married couple. With soaring prices and demands of modern society, no mature and educated member of family can afford to sit idle and look to
others for maintenance.

For centuries

wife, old persons

and dependents

in

Indian society have continued to remain non-earning members. Especially in rural areas people like to remain idle and pass time without positive
activity.

Now

times are lastly changing.

Women

have

to a certain extent

started undertaking jobs in schools,

banks,

offices,

railways, post-offices

and

industrial undertakings.

There should be more number of

tions in society

women

to take

up

different

voca-

and help

in liberating the forces

for upliftment of society

citizens' rights in a free
rise

and

state.

of stagnation and lethargy Right to work should form a part of

nation and everybody should take

up

for collective

Radhakrishnan has not attended to the problem of 'work' in society to be done by persons whether young or old. Nations such as U. K-, U. S. A., Japan and Germany as well as U.S.S.R.
have shown hare-speed in progress owing to their citizens being diligent and hardworking. It is a modern problem raising the value of labour and collective work for progress of society. At some stage of life the question of work and service of society requires to be attended to by men and

and harmony

in the country.

women

alike.

References and Notes

1.

Sattvadhiko braJmianah syat ks'atriyastu rajodhikah tamodhiko bhaved vaisyo gunasamyat tu sudrata.

2.

Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
bharata XII. 188.

1-4.

11-5;

Manu

I.

31.

cf.

Na

also
ida

Maha-

Vise ? o'sti
hi

3.
4.

brahmana purvasrstam Sand Parva 65.

VarnlnSm Sarvam brahman

karmabhir varnatam gatam.

mig

SSnti Parva 55. See also

Manu. X.

43, 44.

5.

Na yonirnapi samskaro na eva tu karanam.

Religion and Society
1947;
:

ca

xantatih

karanam

dvijatvasya

vritcain

6.

Radhakrishnan

George Allen
3,
5.

& Unwin

Ltd.

London;

p. 135.
27.

7.

Nimittarthena badarih sarvadhikarakam syat-I. dvaja Srauta Sutra, V. 2, 8.; Katyayana. I. 4.

See also Bhara-

8.

My

Search for Truth

Life
:

Radhakrishnan

1946 edition,
20.

p.

40.

9.

Hindu View of

Radhakrishnan. P.
:

10.

Philosophy of Radhakrishnan
shing

Edited by Paul Schlipp

Tudor

Publi-

11. 12. 13.

Company New York. 1952; p. 761. Religion and Society: Radhakrishnan: p. 138
Ibid. p.

138

Malatiraadhava, Bhavabhiiti along with boys.

Ibid. p.

Ibid. In his

makes Kaniandaki study

14.
15.

145.

ayajniko va

esa

yo

apatnikah-Taittiriya
:

Brahmana
Ellis.
:

II.

2.26.

1617.

Studies in Psychology of Sex

Havelock

VI. 129.

Religion and Society; p. 146.

18.
19.

Na Griham

KasthapasSnaih Dayita yatra tad grhaui-Nltimanjari.

Cf.

68.

Kanyayam Kulajivitam-KumSrsambhava VI. 63. dharmapara kulasri loke nunam ramanlyaratnam.

Religion and Society; 152.
Ibid. p. 154.
Ibid. p.

also Vidyavatl

20.
21.

22.
23.

165.

Devala, quoted by Kulluka on

Religion and Society. 166.
IX. 89.

Manu

VIII. 226.

24.
25.

26.

Religion and Society, Vayojati vicaro'tra

p.

173.

27.

Saivodyahe
that in

na vidyate/AsapindSm
a

bhartrhlnam

udvahecchambhu sasanat.
28.

Apastamba mentions
Ill,

some communities
(II.

single

woman

is

given in marriage to a whole family.

29.
30.
2.

27.3)

As quoted

in

'Philosophy of Radhakrishnan', Volume edited by Paul

p.

Schilipp; p. 782.
31.
32.

Religion and Society;

198.
:

Kalki

or

the

Future of Civilization
1948, p. 67.

S.

Radhakrishuan

Hind

Kitabs Ltd.,

Bombay;

REASON AND INTUITION IN DR. S, RADHAKRISHNAN'S PHILOSOPHY

Prof. C. V.

Eava!

Introductory

The

critics

of Indian Philosophy at

home and abroad have lamented

that "the creative period in Indian Philosophy" stopped at the close of the Hindu period in Indian history. They hold that the subsequent develop-

ment

in contemporary Indian philosophy has nothing of the grandeur or the majesty of the imposing systems of philosophy of the age of the Darshanas or of the great Indian Acharyas. There is no such originality

in

the

modern Indian Thinkers

or Bergson.
is

as in the systems
in

of Kant, Hegel, Whitecreative

head

Indian

philosophers lack

independent

thinking. There

now an atmosphere of
is

intellectual stagnation.

The above

criticism

not

justifiable

and

it

is

unfair and not correct

like

to describe like this the contribution of the

contemporary Indian thinkers

Gandhiji, Tagore, Sri RamkrishnaParamahansa, Sri Aurobindo, Vivekanand, Vinobaji and Dr. Radhakrishnan. They entertain a global view and stand
for a synthesis. Assimilation

and not exclusion, toleration and not dogmagreat Indian thinkers of this century have
in

tism characterise their attitude. This trend has elicited the admiration of
persons like

Lord

Russell.

The

made

significant

and

substantial contributions

the

different

fields

of

philosophical discipline. They have certainly enriched our understanding of the nature of reason and intuition or Spiritual Experience and their impor-

tance and role

in man's life. They start enquiry into the deeper truths of metaphysics and religion with utmost seriousness and devotion. They in man's life in the interest world and seem to be deeply show great they

interested in the spiritualization of

man's secular

life.

Dr- S. Radhakrishnan

contemporary interpreters and exemplar's of India's wisdom harmonised with the best in modem thought, Prof. Radhakrishnan stands second only to Gandhiji and R. Tagore. Glowing tribute has been given to this worthy son of India by eminent thinkers of the world. The space here, does not
ancient cultural ideas and philosophic

Among

the

permit us to go into a few of them.

all

the details.

However we

shall

mention here only

31

C.E.M. load
of liason officer.

in his

'Counter

attack

from the

East'
fulfills

writes" .. the
today
is

function, the unique function

which Radhakrishnan
to

that

He

seeks
the

build

bridge

between
energy

the traditional

wisdom of the East and

Rishi,

new knowledge and

in

of the West." 1

"Dr. Radhakrishnan combines

himself the essential charactiristics of a

an Acharya, a saint, a reformer, and also a brilliant expounder and 2 "When I consider the all-inclusive range of interpreter of Hinduism." Radhakrishnan's philosophical vision as indicated by his published
writings, I

am reminded of the Iranian "God must place a high value on a

ling

scholar of 900 years ago

creative spirit

Al Biruni" 3
Dr. Radhaas reveato

such

as

krishnan. His words should be added to

our sacred scriptures

thus

much

of

eternal

truth." 4

He

is

almost

elevated

an

a Guru without disciples. He established no did not believe in institutionalizing his message of universalism. One is compelled to admit graciously the genius of a man who has profoundly influenced the development [of the Indian philosophical thought, the study of comparative philosophy and religion, the process of promoting the East-West unity, and the search of a spiritual religion.
incarnatioual level.

He was

Asramas.

He

The

distinguishing

charactiristics

of

his

dynamic idealism are

deep

spiritual note,

values.

The

a catholic outlook, a quick appreciation of the eternal constructive metaphysician in him has given us a rough outline
Spiritual

which can generally be described as

His
fields
:

Humanism.

title

to lame rests on

his diligent

and enormous

work

in

two

(i)

Interpretation of India's

constructive metaphysics and the formulation

philosophy and religion and (ii) his of the characteristics of a

true spiritual religion. He has some thirty volumes to his credit. As an expositor, he has the genius to explain clearly the most abstract and difficult

problems

in

interpretative

and partly constructive,

philosophy in a most lucid manner. His works are partly but a 'holy fervour', a 'synthetic
the diverse manifestations of
his writings,

outlook'

and a 'constructive passion' are evident althrough. The search

for a unity

among

human

culture takes

him

through a zigzag course. In

into
sided,

we

find

an engaging
so

fruitful entry
is

the

heart

and mind of
It

India.

His

exposition of

ideas

many-

not sequential.

illustrates his

way of thinking

characteristic

of India's intellectual giants.

The vision of a universal spirit behind all human phenomena releases of his mind which finds a sacred home in everything human. makes him specially feel that "There is a certain kinship of the spirit among the religious geniuses who have made the mark on history, who join hands across the centuries and bid us enter into the kingdom of the Spirit," 5
the shackles
It

32

from 'ratio'. It means the term 'Reason' is derived Etyniologically. sense of all, reason might be defined as "In" the most generalised defines -Intuition' as Runes D. D. in intelligence."" the relational element by a knowing subject of itself, "the direct and immediate apprehension of universal, of other minds, of external world,
relation

of

its

conscious states,

of values
ict

Intiution or of rational truths."*

is

defined by

Webster as the

tion.

direct knowledge' or 'certainty without reaor process of 'coming to 'immediate cogniIntuition is direct apprehension' or soning or inferring.' as a direct, immediate and certain way intuition understand
1

We

can

of knowledge which dispenses

sense-experience.

with the

logical

modes of reasoning and

The East lays emphasis on the development of the powers of intuition of intelligence. Whereas the Eastern and the West on the critical faculty
idealistic, spiritualistic, axiological and intuitive, the systems are mainly scientific and existential. Western outlook is rational, intellectual, realistic, and conceives that there are is a synthetic philosopher

Radhakrishnan

different grades
scientific,

of consciousness and
realistic,

ways

mathematical,

and

rational

of knowing. Knowledge is and also extends to intuitions,

axioms and values. Man's awareness is-broadly speaking-of three kinds, or the sensethe (i) Perceptual (ii) the logical and the (iii) intuitive, Jffi^
mind,
fMll'I

or logical intelligence and

3?Tff 3

which for our present purposes,

may be defined us spiritual intuition. All these belong to human consciousness. The human mind does not function in fractions. We need not assume that at the sense level, there is no work of intuition or at the level of intuition there is not the work of the intellect. When intuition
is

defined as integral insight, the suggestion

in
it.

is

that the

whole mind

is

at

work

Intellect,

emotion and

will are

the fragmentary

manifestations of the

piritual energy
all

of man. They are not cut off from one another, because

spring from the

same

spiritual fount.

How

do we know the

spirit ?
It

The
cted to

spirit

can not be subjected to epistemology.

analysis, because the rational

can not be subje-

human
its

hending

truth. Consequently, the rational

mind is incapable of appremind needs to be exhausted.

use

The process

therefore,

does not eliminate

the rational

the

of reason

or logic
it

altogether; rather,

when

mind
itself.

realizes

its
is

own

limitations,

makes room

for the spirit to reveal

Reality
its

unknown, nor completely known. Reality in

by the discursive understanding, which

neither completely wholeness cannot be grasped

distinguishes, seperates

and

relates.

33

The
unity

final
is

unity at which thought aims

is

beyond

all

concepts.

opposed to the

intellectual duality

and the

intellectual

The Absolute account of

the Absolute remains a negative one.

Radhakrishnan thinks that

operates in a
that

knowledge

is

gained

by intuition which

mode

of presentational immediacy.
real is intuitive.

knowledge of the
insightis

He

He thus takes the position equates intuitive knowledge and

spiritual

integral

'Spiritual

certainty

is

conveyed by
insight

knowledge,

which

not merely perceptual or

super-logical. It
is

conceptual.
integral

logical but

called

This knowledge is not aor intuitive know

to

ledge, in

which the knower and the known are one;

know reality

is

here to be reality." 9

Reason and Intuition

Reason
is

an

essentially

universal concepts

and in

this

human phenomenon. It is respect man alone

word reason

the capacity

to use
reason.

can

claim

Radhakrishnan
to him, reason

tries

to use the

in a wider sense.

According

is not mere abstract or formal in nature, but it is higher and synthetic. Reason operates through the whole of mind. "It is the in action, the indivisible root from which all other faculties arise." 10 He also draws a distinction between reason and intellect. Accord jri

whole mind
to him,

mind as

a whole can

know

of

intellect. Intellect is

abstract and
is It

things which are beyond the purview partial, but reason is comprehensive

and synthetic. Reason sort of contemplation.

superior to understanding
is

or

intellect.

It

is

a principle of the identity of opposites.

Intuition is subjective experience. It is a higher source of knowledge than reason. Reason does not give immediate knowledge. It works under

the limitations of senses

free
is

and categories
is,

of mind,

whereas intuition

is

from

all

such influences. Intuition

the very basis of reason.

In
like

Reason
are

not discarded but thoroughly subordinated to intuition.

S.

the philologic
is

sophy of Dr-

Radhakrishnan, words

reason,

intellect,
11

used in dual sense, as excluding and including opposition between reason and intuition in his

intuition-

There

no

philosophy.

opposition remains between intellect and intuition,

The seeming and not between reason

and

intuition. Reason can not fathom the depth of Reality. It is inadequate in so far as it fails to realise the transcendent or tbe Absolute. Reason can not restore the living whole. It distorts and mutilates Reality.

Reason and

intuition are interdependent.

pervasive features of experience,

intuitive function;
ethical,

The postulates of thought, number and causality provide scope

intuitions

the
for

and there are

of logical, scientific, aesthetic,

physical and religious types.

34

Intuition probes into the nature of God and intuitive seers shrink from precise statement and definitions because definition involves relation and comparison, which are obviously the function of reason. It is due to this reason that the seers and the mystics all over the world take recourse

to symbolic language in order

to give expression

to the deeper

spiritual

experiences of their life. To Dr. Radhakrishnan, logic and language are the lower forms or a diminution of intuitive knowledge, and thought is
a

means

reality,

of partially manifesting this knowledge. Thought can thus reveal but needs verification as it involves the duality of knowing and

being. "Strictly
valid only
till

speaking logical knowledge

intuition
arises.

is

non-knowledge, Avidya,

is

Intuition

is

experienced

when we break
back to the
pri-

down
meval

the shell of our private egoistic existence,

spirit in

and

get

us from which our intellect

In intuition, 'the ego disappears'

and

'the individual

and our senses are derived." 12 becomes the instrulimitations of

it

ment of

the Universal',
its

lifted

above the

the ego. If in-

telligence has

being turned towards the Universal Self

develops intui-

tion or true
it is

knowledge or wisdom. "Intuitive knowledge is not non-rational; only non-conceptual. It is rational intuition in which both immediacy

and mediacy are comprehended." 13 The intuitive consciousness is the totality of vision. Radhakrishnan agrees with British Idealist Bradley when he says "We can form the general idea of an absolute experience in which

phenomenal distinctions are merged, a whole becomes immediate

4 stage without losing any richness.'"

at higher

Intellect

and intuition
intellect

The
superficial

breaks

the

qualities

into

static

concepts.

It gives

us

the truth of it. Intellect impart knowledge of Reality; it is valid only so long as the intuition does not manifest in us. In intellectual knowledge, the distinction between the subject and the object remains always there. It is verified and developed through progressive inquiry. To know reality, we must transcend
3oes not

knowledge of

reality. Intuition reveals

d 1S cursive thinking.
creative

Intuition

is

direct

is discovery, essentially involved "Direct perception or simple and steady looking upon an object is intuition It is not a mystic process, but the most direct and penetrating examination -muiduon possible to the human mind."

works

and immediate perception. In

all

of art

and

intuition

Reality

is life,

which are dead, immobile and timeless. If the reality would have remained unknown
s

movement, concrete continuity and logic gives us concepts all knowledge were
for ever

one

abstmcti

35

the final

is to a part. It comprehends intellectual knowledge. Intuition is knowledge by identity. It is and supreme knowledge, whereas the intellect grows and develops from error to truth. Both intuition and intellect belong to the self. Intui-

Intuition

is

related to intellect as a whole

sense

and

tion carries with

it

its

own

guarantee;

it
it.

has

the character

of

revelation.

Genius and creative work depend on

Intellect and more profoundly,

intuition
feels

are

not disconnected;
sees

in

intuition,
truly,

one thinks
intellect

more deeply and

more

While

involves a specialised fact, intuition employs the whole life. In intuition, we become one with the truth, one with the object of knowledge. "The object known is seen not as an object outside the self, but as a part of the self." 15 Intellectual cognition also is not quite infallible. It is not free

from doubt. Logical arguments are challengeable and can be rejected on the strength of equally strong arguments. Its main tool' is 'analysis' and so it fails to the 'whole' grasp nature of objects. But this does not -suggest that intellect and intuition are -quite opposed to each other. In fact, intuition needs intellect for the expression, elaboration and justification of its results. Intuition in itself is dumb. Its results in order to be communi-

cated to others have to be put in understandable

and

intelligible

form;

and for
intuition,
intellect

this, intellect is

without which

needed. Intellect, on the other hand presupposes its deliberations can not start. The function of

that something

is 'analysis' but there must be something to be analysed, and must be a 'whole'. The whole as a whole can be grasped by intuition alone. That gives to intuition its primacy. Intuition depends, on the intellect and also transcends it. Dr. Radhakrishnan "Intuition is

says,

not independent but emphatically dependent on thought, and is immanent in the very nature of our thinking. It is dynamically continuous w'.th thought and pierces through the conceptual context of knowledge to the
living
reality under it. It is the result of a long and arduous process of study and analysis and is therefore higher than the discursive process from which it issues and on which it supervenes." 16 Intuition should not be

confused with anti-intellectualism,

"Intuition which ignores intellect

It
is

is

useless.

compatible but vitally

against reason.

united,

intuition

not antagonistic to the intellect. The two are not only inis beyond reason, though not

As

it

is

the

response of the whole

is

man

to

reality,

it

involves the activity of reason also," "Intuition

for doctrines
llectual

not used as an apology

justified

which either could not or would not be

It is

on

intefit

grounds.

not a shadowy sentiment or pathological

fancy

for cranks

and dancing dervishes."

Application of reason and intuition in the

fields

of

Science,

Arts,

Ethics

and Religion

Reason and

intuition operate in

each

and

every

sphere

of

human

knowledge. Let us see

the different fields of

how Dr. Radhakrishnan shows their application iti human activity, namely Science, Arts, Ethics and

Religion.

Reason shapes the outer structures whereas intuition fathoms the depth of inner truth. There is mutual participation of reason and intuition
in

the different fields. According

to

Dr.
life

Radhakrishnan "The cognitive,

are

the aesthetic and the ethical sides of

only

sides,

however vital

and

significant, the religious includes

them

all". 17

Science
application of reason and intuition in the field of science has been much confused due to the misunderstanding that science is solely a matter of observation and reason. It is true that scientific laws are ascertained and determined by reason and higher mathematical but
their discovery

The

knowledge

is

also often the result of inspired

soitte

flashes

creative

work

of intuition. All

in science is

by intuitive

experience. Dr.

krishnan observes
tive

Radha-

"The great scientific discoveries are due to the intuigenius of the creative thinkers and not the plodding processes of the
"amid much that
Intuition
is

entangled and dark we have flashes less the product of reasoning than whereas reason proves it The art must not discovery be confused with the logic of proof.

intellect",

wondrous

of
of of

insight which appear

revelation.'

discovers,

forset

that

we invent by

intuitron '

logS
Art

is

Radhakrishnan though we prove b y

tes into

every evoice is not music; or a lump of colour of stone is not a piece of artistic

Reason works on the formal or external structure of art, whereas intuition penetrathe mner essence. Reason adds to the value of art (eg musicessence.
is

Art has got

its

formal structure

as

well

as

inner

not

of the tl whole self). Art

^ 'V
m
its

sculpture).

Even

if art is
"

XPreSSed
is

" D0t thC " arrOW One mode of integral insight.

painting; a piece the self-exnre-

(It is

the P "In aesthetic

o nion cognition.

'9

Art

perfection,

merges

into ethics.

37

Ethics

Radhakrishnan
which we have to
well.

lays

understand

emphasis on the mysterious nature of the universe not by reason alone but by intuition as

Reason and intuition equally work in ethics and yield moral consciousness. When a man is faced with two alternative nnd conflicting situations in matters of ethics, his reason alone helps him to choose the right course. vision to resolve the and of Integral helps right wrong any given situation. Reason educates conscience and by intuition one attains automatically the knowledge of his duty. Moral virtue is not simply a matter of reason but
out of the depth of souls, e.g. Socrates 'Virtue is knowledge'; but knowledge is not mere rational knowledge but it is knowledge which springs from the deeper levels of man's being. Dr. S. R. says-"The deeper a man is rooted in spirit, the more he knows directly. To one of ethical
arises
this
:

sensitiveness, the path of

duty

is

as clear as any

knowledge we possess."
consciousness

"He, whose
not
in
2

life is

directed

by

insight expresses his deeper

poenis and
(e.g. lives

pictures as

the

artist

does, but in a superior type of

life."

of Buddha and Christ).

Religion

Every true religion

is

based on intuition and the religious

in the culture
intellect

life

com-

mended by prophets, saints and seers consists through the harmonious perfection of emotion,
in its

of intuition

and

will.
it.

Religion

deeper aspects transcends reason. But it need not decry does play an important role in religion also. Otherwise
it

Reason

distinguish right faith from superReason should not be eradicated from the spheres of religion and theology. It shapes our religious beliefs and experiences. There is a level of religious life in which reason has to play a superior role. Religion finds its fulfilment in supra-rational or spiritual or intuitive experience. Creativity in cognitive, aesthetic, ethical or religious activity springs from
stition.

would be

difficult to

thought

which
basis

is

intuitive or spiritually quickened.

rches, therefore, the heart

from which

it

Radhakrishnan reverently, seaof every great religion to discover the intuitive To this springs. purpose, he specially devotes his book

'Eastern religion and western thought'.

dict the spirituality

Radhakrishnan thinks that the materiality of the world does not contraof God. As a matter of fact, spirit comprehends matter.
universe or world
is

The

the

manifestation of the
is

spirit.

Spirit

is

not
uni-

opposed to matter. If integral experience

verse as

the

awareness of the
discord

harmony, how do we explain the

tension and

existing

in the
is

universe? Dr. Radhakrishnan writes

the

'For the intellect, the unity

the harmony is an spirit, immanent aspects of Reality

only a postulate, an act of faith, for

reality'.

experienced

The transcendent and

the

are woven together in his integral knowledge or integral experience. He takes integral experience both in the ontological as well as in the epistcmological senses; for, according to him, integral experience is not only
a

mode

of knowing but also a

mode of
the

being. Being

is

to

be taken in

the sense of both

knower and

known.

The

deepest convictions by which

we
are

live

and think and the

root

principles of

our

thought

and

life

not derived

from

perceptual

experience or logical knowledge, but from intuition. Great truths are not

proved but seen.

REFERENCES
1.

See: load C.E.M. Counter attack from the East, George Allen and

Unwin. London, 1933, page

2.

38.

See

Row
J.

K.

S.,

'Dr. Radbakrishnan's service to Hinduism' article

in Dr.

P. Atreya's

Dr.
:

S.

R. Souvenir Vol. Darshan International,

Moradabad,
3.

1964, page

579.
:

Chatterjee Suniti

Kumar

"Dynamic Hinduism and Radhakrishnan"

and
4.

article in P.

A. Schilpp (Ed) Tudor Publi. page 507.

:

Shirner William A. in Atreya's (Ed.) Souvenir Vol. page 429 (article

"Radhakrishnan
5.

Man
:

and the Universe")

His personal statement Contempo-Indian Philosophy page 493-94. Quoted by Dr. D. M. Datta : The chief currents of contempo-philo.
Univ. of Calcutta,
II

Ed. 1961, page 135-36.

6.

Hasting James

(Ed.) Encyclo. of Reli. and Ethics, page 125.

7.
8.

Dictionary of Philosophy, page 149.

See

Indian Philosophy, Vol.

Idealist

I,

page 234.
Vol.
11,

9.

See

view of

life,

page 128 and Indian Philosophy,

page 534 and page 639.

1011.

See Dr.

Idealist

view of

life,

page

134.

Publi.
12.

Arapura J. G. Radhakrishnan Bombay, 1966, page 63.

Idealist

and

integral

experience,

Asia

See

view of

life,

page

146.

30
13. 14. 15.
16.

Ibid,

page 153.

Bradley F. H. Appearance and Reality, page 160

See
See

Idealist

view of

life,

page 160.
II

Contemporary Indian Philosophy, Muirhead Lib. of philo. Geo-ge Allen and Unwin, London, 1952 page 486-87.
See
See See
Idealist

Ed.

17.

view of

life,

page

158.

18.
19.

Ibid.. page 138-140.

Reply to
Idealist

critics in P.
life,

A. Schilpp's Vol. (Tudor) page 793.

page 157.

20.

See

view of

Selected Bibliography

Dr. Radhakrishuan

S.

An

idealist

view

of

life,

George Allen and

Unwin, London

1961

-Do-

Indian Philosophy Vol. II 1951

-Do~
Radhakrislinan and Muir-

The

sophy,

reign of religion in contemporary PhiloMac Millan and Co. Ltd. London, 1920.

head (Ed.)
Schilpp Paul Arthur (Ed.)

Contemporary Indian Philosophy, George Allen and Unwin London 1958, III Ed.

The Philosophy of
Publi. Co.

S.

Radhakrishnan,

Tudor

N. Y. 1952(

Radhakrishnan

S.

Fragments of Confession
Reply to
Critics

Tudor )
51

-DoSharmu D.
S.

Studies in the renaissance of Hinduism B. H. U. 1944.

Sinha R. C.

ref. to Sri

Concepts of .Reason and Intuition (with sp. Aurobindo, Prof. K. C. Bhattacharya

S.

and

Radhakrishnan) Janaki

Prakashan,

Patna, 1981.

Arapura

J-

G,

Radhakrishnan and
Publi.

integral experience,

Asia

Bombay,

1966.

Ewing A.
Stocks
J-

C. L.

Reason and

Intuition,

Oxford Uni. London, 1942

Oxford, 1939

Reason and

Intuition,

Harris Ishwar C.

Radhakrishnan-profile of a Universalist, Minerva, Calcutta, 1982

40

Browning R.
Nagaraja Rao P, and
others (Ed.)

Reason and
Schilpp P. A.

types

of intuitions (Tudor) Ed.

Radhakrishnan Reader-an anthology, Bharatiya

Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1969

Kaul R. NJoad C. E- M.

Immediacy,

Reason and Existence, Udayana

1965

Publi. Allahabad,

Counter attack from the East, George Allen and Unvvin London, 1933.

Naravane V.

S.

Modern Indian Thought, Asia

1964.
Idealistic

Publi.,

Bombay

Raju

P. T.

thought of India, Combridge, 1953

DR.

BADHAKRISHNAN ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE UPANISADS

Dr. R. S. Beta!

"Knowledge of Brahman
those
etc.,
it

is

called
it,
it

Upanisad because

in

the

case

of

who

devote themselves to
unloosed, or

the bonds
destroys

of conception,
altogether,
therein

birth,

become

because

them

or the

decay because
highest

God

leads the pupil very near to 1 is seated." (Samkara)

Brahman, or because

The Upanisads that record and give expression to the philosophical experiences of seers of different strata of intellect and intuition as also
the consequent realization, that are written

not precisely at one time, have posed several problems. One of the problems is that even though most later philosophers run to the Upanisads as the 'highest proof speculation and systematization, we cannot derive one single unified philosophical system, very often even from

parama pramana-for philosophical

the

same Upaniaad, much

less

repetitious, contradictions

from different Upanisads. There are apparent and varied approaches in the Upanisads. More
affairs.

than one reason have led to this state of

One

basic reason

is

that

they are an expression of the intuitive experience of different seers, keen on not only knowing but experiencing Reality; they are experiences of many and therefore varied. That leads Dr. Radhakrishnau to state that
:

though the Upanisads are essentially the outpourings or poetic deliverance of philosophically tempered minds in the face of the facts of the production of a single author, life, not being systematic philosophy, or
"..
..

or even of the
scientific;

and

satisfactory,

same age, they contain much that is inconsistent and unbut.. ..they set forth fundamental conceptions which are sound and these constitute the means by which their own

innocent errors, which through exclusive emphasis have been exaggerated, 2 can be corrected."

But

all will

agree that there

is

unity in the midst of diversity in the

philosophy of the Upanisads, and it is possible with the derivation of some fundamental concepts, to derive this philosophy, at least in broad
outline.

Even

the

commonest of
this

the

common
of
the

in India have atleast

some
Dr,

conception of these basic

principles

Upanisadic philosophy.
states
:

Radhakrishnan analyses
6

philosophy.

He

42

and "Notwithstanding the variety of authorship

the period

of

tire

treatises,

covered by the composition of these half-poetical and half-philosophic; there is a unity of purpose, a vivid sense of spiritual reality
i

them

all,

which

become

clear

and

distinct

as

we descend the

streai

of time."-'

Scope of Differing

But the very nature

sadic teachings are not

of the

Upanisads
cannot be

is

such
is

that

this

task

deriving one philosophy, one systematic thinking,

difficult.

The Upan:
systemati

and

they

strict

doctrinal

thinking set in one mould, but the actual attempts at and the consequen visioning of the secrets of Reality. The struggle of man's soul to rise t the highest, his visioning, his experience cannot necessarily be one. The leads Radhakrishnan to probe deeper into the philosophy of the Upan sads. All schools of philosophy seek their inspiration in the

and

Upanisad

all

read their

most schools could read

their

own philosophy in these works. The very fact tha their own philosophies in these works prove
also
:

importance

as

their

diverse

and complex

structvire.

Radh:

krishnan rightly states

"When

disputes arise,
as

all

schools
the

turn

to

the

Upauisads.
as 'well

Thanls
as
th
ti

to the obscurity

well

as

richness,

the

mystic

suggestive quality of the Upanisads, the use them in the interest of their own

interpreters

have been able

religion

and philosophy.'"*

Thus, even though

futile,

it would not be very much fruitful, if not actual! to try to derive one systematic doctrinal philosophy from the

remain undisputed in their importance as the mainspring c philosophy almost. That is the reason why the Upanisads areth prime works of Trasthanatrayl' of Indian philosophy. Even the' latter twc the Gita and the, Brahmasutra base their philosophical thought on th Upanisads.
nisads, they
later
all

Upa

Not mere metaphysics

One more remarkable feature of the me, e metaphysrcs, mere Adhyatma

probes ,nto the
reality

of

Upanisads is that they are no philosophy or mere mysticism etc Ma

Consequ^ there develops :n his milld aspiration for the Highe are the problems of Karma, religious consciousness, ethics ev , n d sufS mg, and so on. Actually, in the different stages of his SWh,n' one or the other solution to these. AH thesS

life,

into the deeper secrets

of

T?

vlT

43

solutions arc given by the Dpanisads; on all these they have something positive to contribute, something that persists in the outlook of the Hindu even to-day, after -more than 2500 years. But in the Upanisads these are not questions to be discussed in isolation or independent of one another.

They

are

interwoven
of man's

with

the

central

awakening

consciousness

to

the

theme of the Upanisads, that is innermost realies of life, his

vision of the

subjective At man and realization of the objective highest reality, i.e.. Brahman, his experience of identity of Atnian with Brahman and the consequent release and Ananda. Radhakrishnan lists the contribution of the upanisadic thinking on all these questions, but every time

these are in fusion with the central

theme discussed above. The Upanisads

thinking

are thus,

unity
life,

in

diversity
(ii)

(i)

in the realm of the highest philosophical

questions of
his
is

and

in

the

fusion of the

on these other
strikes at reality,

questions with the central theme.

Radhakrishnan here

grasp

is

perfect,

his

understanding and interpretation of the Upanisads

sound and scholarly.

Teaching of the Upanisads

Radhakrishnan

rightly stresses

the

fact that finding

out the original

teaching of the Upanisads and pin-pointing it to some fixed ideas is a task indeed. It is possible to arrive at the real teaching of the Upanisads, only with an unprejudiced and open mind. Our mind in the present century
is

saturated with so

many pre-conceived

a loss to arrive at a fixed decision

philosophical theories, very often poles apart, the authority and word of the Upanisads.

theories of Acaryas and we are at on the matter. Actually, all pre-conceived seek and find consistency in

We

can

arrive at the central

in

teaching of the Upanisads

only

if

we adopt the approach advised

an

upanisadic statement

"Know what is unknown and forget what is known." 5 This also speaks for the richness of the upanisadic thinking. But all the Upanisads, with their varied approaches and thinking have something common to contribute by way of teaching. Radhakrishnan claims to divest his mind
of the later philosophical thinking and to interpret point of the seers who composed these.

them from

the view-

Problems

The Upanigads record the

struggles,

the

Sadhana of

different

men

aiming at spiritual perfection, their practices, and pursuits after the reality of life, their attempt at knowing the infinite and the eternal- Naturally all problems move round this central struggle of man. This effort at higher

44

realization

makes

man

conscious of his problems which are narrated.

these.

The

Upanisads also answer words

:

Radhakrishnan

stresses this

point in these

"Only
eternal
life.

the

infinite

gives

durable

happiness.

In

religion

we

are for

All these force the

upon us the conviction of

a timeless being, a

the fulfilment of our object of philosophical quest, spiritual reality, to lead desires and the goal of religion. The seers of the Upanisads try existence is infinite (sat), absolute truth which us to this central reality
(cit)

and pure delight (ananda)."

That
to the
reality
life,

is

the reason

why he
(i)

rightly stresses that the

Vedas are inferior

in this

Upnisads in that of man's life and

even though the Vedas raise the questions on

they
arc

the universe,
(ii)

more

interested

not so the Upanisads,

the
(iii)

higher than that in the Vedas,

sacrifice,

taught by the Upanisads is the religion of the Vedas centres round

religion
(iv)

not so in the

Upanisads,

the Vedas

lift

man

high to

the

highest conceivable world

7

known
why

as Svarga, the

Upanisads scale
that

far higher

heights.

That

is

the reason

the Upanisads,
yet
stress

Vedas to be of supernatural

origin,

though considering the Vedic knowledge is

aim.
at.

much

inferior to true divine insight that the

Upanisads

Radha:

krishnan brings out the superiority of Upanisadic knowledge thus "In the Upanisads we find a return to the fresh springs of spiritual life. They declare that the soul will not obtain salvation by the performance of

can be obtained by the truly religious life, based on an of the universe. Perfection is inward and spiritual, not outward and mechanical." 8
sacrifices. It

insight into the heart

Nature of Reality

Man's
secrets.

inner urge

Reality, often starts with his effort at

This Self of man,

is

and the consequent desire to know and experience knowing his Self and its subtlest Atman, is subjective that leads him to the
Consequently the Upanisads discuss
is

objective that

Brahma^

first

the
:

individual Self

and then Atman. This

because, as Radhakrishnan says

the subject which persists throughout the changes, the common factor in the states of waking, dream, sleep, death, rebirth and final deliverance. It is the simple truth that nothing can destroy. Death does not touch it nor vice dissolve it. Permanence, continuity, unity, eternal activity are its characteristics. It is a world self-complete. There is
is

"It

outside of

nothing

it

or set against

it,"

45

When man
be stripped of
state

desires to go
all

that

is

nearest to the secrets of the Self, it should alien. Man should thoroughly grasp the real
etc.

of his body, mind, ego, dream state

that
is

and

get his

self,

stripped

of

all

alien to

the subtlest details.

tion. It

Upanisads probe into these question in The object is dependent on the subject for realisaindividual
into
Self

it.

The

is therefore necessary to know first Ihe Atmau and then Brahman. When man probes
its

and

the Self in this

manner, he recognizes
states
:

infinity, its

absoluteness.

An

upanisadic mantra

"When, following
the

his realization,

one grasps the identity of

all

thus

Atman), what attachment or sorrow could be there ?" 1 o xj lc Se]f becomes universal. That leads man to universal consciousness. Radhakrishnan states-

(in

"We are obliged to accept the reality of a universal consciousness which ever accompanies the contents of conscious and persists even when no contents. This fundamental which is the preidentity, supposition of both Self and not-self, it called the Atman. None can 11
there are

doubt

its

reality."

Thus, in his onward march towards perfection, towards tion and universal realisation, man starts with his
ness because he feels that-

self-realisa-

subjective

conscious-

too much with us. Our Self is lost in feelings, desires and imaginations and does not know what it really is. Leading 'the life of mere objectivity, absorbed in the things of nature, ever busy with the active pursuits of the world, we do not want to waste a moment's thought on the first principle of all things-the Self of man." 12
is

"The world

Man

starts with his Self

is

and ends

in the realisation

of the universal

an experience of realisation in which ultimately the and objective is lost. The Self or Atman is the Universal Brahman. Radhakrishnan has analysed the fundamental problems of the Upanisads with the analysis of the Indra-Brahma conversaconsciousness. It
distinction of subjective
tion in

Chh. Upan, and the three

in

states

of the

soul

followed

by

the

fourth, the turiya

this

experience
"It
is

is

MSndukyopanjsad. The extreme difficulty also acknowledged when Radhakrishnan statesthe

of

impossible for us finite beings to define the

character
it

of the

ideal reality,

though the Upanisads are

quite emphatic that

is

not a
truth

blank. Yet to refute false ideas of the highest

that
it
is

no

point the abstraction, they indulge in inadequate concepts." 13

and to

46

Bniliniau -Brahman

iuitl

Adrian
there
is

Naturally enough

vast

difference

of

opinion

regarding the

It is interesting to note that after Atman, objective reality that is .Brahman. Brahman is next in discussion in the Upanisads. RacHiakrishnaii concedes
tiiat

the conclusions arrived at are so

it is

varied,

and.

at

places

statements

are so abstract that

for their

possible for the later Acaryas

in

to find authority

own

varied theories

the words of one or the other Upanisad.

In the

Kena and

(he

Mundaka

Upaiiisads

the

Sadhaka

pupils ask

some

lundamental questions in this regard. Some basic questions on the origin of life and origin of the universe had struck the Rgvedic mind also.

Man becomes keen

to

know

if

some

the changing universe. In his onward march in the Sadhaka gradually reality, in his SSdhana,
principles;

unalterably fixed principle underlies the realm of pursuit of

comes
limited

to strike at different

with every principle he lias only

understanding and
highest
to seek

he strives further.

He

in

this

process

ultimately

comes to the

principle or reality conceived by the

Upanisads.

On

his

march

Reality gradually
Vijnfina

man comes to matter, prana (vital principle), Manas, and Knanda- The final realisation in the Upanisads is in Ananda
states
:

that

is

Brahman. Here Radhakrishnan

delight
is

"Ananda or

the

highest

fruition,

where the
the

knower, the

known and

the

knowledge

become

one,

Here
is

philosophical quest

terminates, the suggestion being that there

This Anands

is

nothing higher than Ananda. active enjoyment or unimpeded exercise of capacity. It is

not sinking into nothingness, but the perfection of being." 14 Thus, in the Upanisads, Ananda is the most inclusive of all, though Radhakrishnan

wonders whether it is possible to go still higher. The Upanisads up to this. Radhakrishnan stresses the point in this manner
:

go

''It is

the

aim of the Upanisads

to point

out that elements of duality

and externality persist at the intellectual level, however much we try to overcome them- In knowledge and morality we have the subject-object relation. There must be something higher than mere where exisintellect,

tence

is

nces requires that

no longer formulated in terms of knowledge. The unity of we must transcend the intellectual level." 15

existe-

But Radhakrishnan concedes that there is very great opinion about the precise meaning of Ruanda and

difference

of

consequently of Braman.

We may add that so many of the upanisadic statements will also support the Suddhadvaita of Vallabha and Dvaitadvaita of Maclhva. Hard and fast,

The ananda of the Upanisads answers to the highest Brahman accepted by RamSnuja as also the Nirguiia Nirakara Brahman accepted by Sankara.

47

on what precisely Brahman rigid and absolute, all-aggreeable statements to be had in the Upanisads. Actually all these varied stateis, arc not
ments hold equal authority according
Similar
is

to tradition.

we come across with regard to the question 'Brahman and Atman'. Brahman and Atma.ii are the cosmic and. are held that to be identical. Experience or realisation psychical principles
the varied thinking that

of the identify of the

two

is

said to be the final

aim of the Sadhana of

man

in several

references. This

though we many add

is the basic doctrine on the question, that even with regard to this identity, there can be
:

varied views. Radhakrishnan rightly states

"This identity of subject and object

is

not

vague
were

hypothesis, but

the necessary implication of all relevant thinking, feeling

and
it

willing.

The

human

cannot think, conquer and unconquerable and unlovable.""'

self

love

nature,

'unthinkable,

With
cult to
all else,

all

this

Kadhakrishnan concedes that

difficult to deny.

^r=rfff%
is

Tatl vamasi

is diffi-

understand but also

It

clear

that here, as in

Radhakrishnan derives what he thinks to be the highest specula-

tion in the Upanisads.

different ideas

But there arc varied conceptions of Brahman corresponding to the on At man. He lists the most important ones as follows
:

(1)

The

highest

Brahman, which

is

ananda.

is

just

Atman

realised in the

turlya state.
(2) (3)

Brahman Brahman

is is

self-conscious isvara, with a force opposed to him.

soul

Hiranyagarbha or the cosmic between lavara and the soul of man.

or sutrutman

coming

(4)'

Brahman
Supreme
'Awn'
is

is

cosmos or Virat when Atmaii

is

identified with the body.

(5) (6)

Self

beyond cause and

effect is

Brahman,
It
is

Sabdabrahman

in concrete

character.
it

the symbol of

concreteness and completeness standing as cipal qualities of the Supreme.

(7)

does for the three prin-

The ultimate

reality

is

sat,

chit

and

ananda,

spirit

personified

as

Brahma, Visnu and Siva

in later literature.

The Upanisads narrate and support

all

these

varied conceptions of

Brahman and Atman.

It

may

here be added that the two

in

words.

'Brahoften

man' and 'Atman' are used

senses arc

interchangeable,
in

they

are

synonymous. The conceptions

described

the

Upanisads not for

48

their

own

sake, but for the

ultimately Brahma-realisation.
stresses the

Sadhaua leading to self-realization which is That is the reason why Radhakrislman

in

importance of these conceptions

these words

not an abstract monism that the Upanisads offer us. There is difference but also identity. Brahman is infinite not in the sense that it excludes the finite, but in the sense that it is the ground of all finites,
"It
is

etc."

17

Radhakrislman also
to

refers

to

the

contradictory

predicates attached
intellect

Brahman by

the Upanisads.

When

he discusses the question of

life

and intuition

as the

means

to probe into the secrets of

and the con-

sequent self-realisation that it leads to, so many Upanisads describe this Ultimate Reality in contradictory predicates. Here, the purpose is to stress
that

though

this

whole universe

is

Brahman, Brahman

is

beyond

all

con-

ception that man's intellect can grasp or reach. It is natural Reality that is Brahman should be conceived to be the be-all
nll

that the

and end-

of this universe with also

that

mind

moves

fester.

its concept of time and the concept of This reality should, of necessity, be conceived to

be far above everything with

partly
explains
seers

all

traits

that

we can

conceive to

of.

This

the

contradictory

predicates

attributed

Brahman.
threefold

The

of the

Upanisads

associate

Brahman with

the

etc. in the universe and associating it with every atom process of creation in this universe, conclude that this universe is Brahman. But the creator
etc.
is

naturally conceived to be far

other predicates of

Brahman. The

fsopanisacl lightly says of

is

above the creation and therefore the Brahmanfaster in

"This one, though not moving

movement than

the rnind,"
all

and "It

is

far

and yet near,

18

it

is

inside

of

all

and yet outside of

in

this universe."

The Kena Upanisad

etc." 19

says

rniud but that by which the

"That which is not conceived of by the mind functions, that precisely is Brahman,
:

That is again the reason why exceptional dependence upon borders on self-deception according to the same isaopanisad

Vidya"

"Those who worship

Avidya

are

engrossed

in

blinding

darkness.

Deeper darkness than this is the lot of those who are engrossed in Vidya. But one who knows Vidya and Avidya both at a time, crosses over death 20 by Adidya and enjoys immortality by VidyS."

The Upanisads want

Supreme
Principle
is

to stress that our intellect, in

its

pursuit of the

confounded by these contradictory predicates though

49

no genuine reason to be confounded. Here, Radhakrishnan stresses the limitations of mere intellect and lays down the importance of intuition and intuitive experience from the viewpoint of the Upanisads. Intellect, by
there
is
its

very limitaions, cannot, on

''Causality
is

its

own comprehend

Reality.

He

says

changes in the world. But Brahman is free from subjection to causality. There is no change in Brahman though all change is based on it. There is no second outside it, no other distinct
the rule of
all

from

it.

We
may

have to sink
be, even

all

plurality in

succession in time, interdependence of

reason,
realize

relations
their

Brahman. All proximity rest on it." 21

in space, Intellect,

yoga

etc.

have

own

limitations

and mystics
theories of

Brahman by

intuition that

leads

to

illumination.

The

cause and effect which logically apply to all else perhaps, do not apply to Brahman. In the Gita Krishna says "They are in me though I am 22 This is an idea on the same lines. Radhakrishnan adds not in them-"
:

"It
direct

is

attained by the mystics in their

moments of

Illumination.

It is

knowledge or immediate

insight. In the mystic experience the soul

of the highest. It is lost in awareness, conte23 Here it is that all mplation and enjoyment of the Ultimate Reality." the aspirations of the human mind are fulfilled. But intellect and intuition
finds itself in the presence

complementary and mutually dependent also. They often go hand in hand as the Upauisads agree. Actually mere intellect and mere intuition have their own capacities as also limitations- Both going hand in hand,
are

simultaneously,

is

necessary, for a

man

struggling to

realize

the Self as

the supreme end

of

life
is

and

all

philosophical

aspirations.

Yet

to the

Upanisads
or

intuition
in
its

more dependable than

and

intellect

Atman

true, subtle perspective

reality is

because Brahman matter of com-

the mind but by the whole Self of man that shall get prehension, not by merged in it and come to a stage when all sense of distinction, allduality, all that knowledge yields, everything gets disintegrated into the Supreme
Reality.

With

all this

the upaniaadic doctrine

is

not pessimism.

What

the

upanisdic doctrines

expect

us to
it is.

proper perspective

and

as

know and realize is everything in its This knowledge of Reality culminates in

the knowledge of the

Supreme

Reality.

Radhakrishnan also

refers to the individual Self that constantly feels

the need to probe into reality, to grasp the secrets of life, to attain Self has self-realisation. But in its march in Sadhana, the individual

to
its

own limitations that must be got over. This is due to the lower nature and he is ruled by the ego in in man- He is the enjoyer of the world to know that him. Philosophical experience of self-realisation leads him
7

50

the finite

cannot subsist cm
real only

its

own and

therefore

it

is

unreal on

its

own

and becomes
slates
:

hf reference to

the Infinite.

Radhakrishnan

lightly

"When we are delivered in life, our condition the bond, of conditional mukta,, who is freed from
is

that

of the

Jlvan-

existence.

Hie
state

embodied without much outer change. His appearance continues as he has complete control does not affect the being whom it clothes, 24 its knows externality." over the bodily frame and
conditioned man upto a certain stage to get over this the finite attains to the Infinite, the and then intuition works. When end of all spiritual life, therefore and aim final the reaches Supreme, man thinking probes_deep and of all philosophical pursuit. The Upanisadic Atman the individual or finite Self from the
Intellect helps

state

that

and subtle when it separates is infinite and from Brahman, though

and ultimately
all

in fact all attain

in
this

to

unity

in

realisation

doubts are

set at rest

philosophical

pursuit.

Release-Moksa

By

this

time

we have
is

the spiritual attainment

ground, that free

man

is necessary before man enters Divine negation of the ego and fixation in the from conditional existence and samsaru. In this

noted that what

context Radhakrishnan deals with the question of final release or nioksa,

popularly

known

as liberation.

The question

is

taken up by him after he

This is questions of ethics and religion in the Upanisads. and because, to the Upanisads, the highest state of religious consciousness
deals with the
realisation
is

Moksa-

Man

is

liberated

from samsara, from the ego,

is

from

the conditioned existence; this release

viduality, giving

complete disintegration
it

of indi-

up of

isolation

and yet
is

is

not mere nothing.

a desire for mokxa. Perfection,

Man's

desire for self-realisation

Infinite

in fact

from imperfection,

from the

finite is

philosophical sadhana. In fact

realisation of 'what
is.'

it is

That

is

the reason

the goal of man in his spiritual, the fullest expression of the Self, it is why the highest state of Auanda,

of rapture and
Naturally
this

ecstasy,

is

a state in

which

man becomes one

is

with the creator.

condition of the highest bliss

the

condition of freedom-

thinking, language, conception, worldly experience etc. are too to describe it. It is therefore described in the Upanisads
it

Our

poor

cannot possibly ;be described

alternative. It

in

precise, clear terms.

by metaphors; That is vagueness

the

in the opinion of

Radhakrishnan, but we must add that

Upaniads

had no

was therefore natural that

it

should lead to different

theories of liberation in the days that followed. However, Radhakrishnan summarizes the central concept of moksa in the Upanisads in these words :"

"Moksa

literally

means

release,

release

from

the

bondage
is

to

the

sensuous and the individual, the narrow and the

self-enlargement and freedom..
soul growth.
viduality
is

finite. It is

the result of

The path of deliverance

is

the path

of

The

Reality in which

the highest,

and

that

we are to abide transcending our indi25 the reality asserted by the Upanisads."

Ethics

In his Introduction to 'The Principal Upauisads,' Radhakrishnan starts with the importance of ethical life to the Upanisads because practice of

moral virtues and good acts is necessary. Man's ego has no self-sufficiency and to a great extent man shapes his present and future life. In his 'Indian philosophy' he starts his discussion of the Ethics in the Upanisads

by

referring to objections raised against the possibility of Ethics in philo-

sophical discussion and system.

The

objections are mainly these

(0
(ii)

If all is

one as the Upanisads

is

state,

how
is

can there be moral relations

to realize the

If the absolute

perfection,

what

the need

accom-

plished
(iii)

?
is

If

man

divine in nature, there

is

no room

for any ethical endeavour.

Radhalcrishnan answers these

objections

from the

viewpoint of the

Upanisads and then discusses the nature of Ethics of the Upanisads. The ethical doctrines accepted and described by the Upanisads are based on the fundamental concept of the Upanisads that the final aim and end of
life

of

man

is

self-realisation, that

is

also realisation of the universality of

the Supreme Principle that is Brahman. Man also realises the identity of Atman with Brahman that leads to Moksa. Though divine, man in his
finite state

has an element of non-being that exposes him to

evil,

to Avidya
that all

etc.

(Principal Upanisads, p. 104 onwards).

The Upanisads accept

living beings, conscious or unconscious though they

may

be, are on their

march to spiritual uplift. Man who feels finite and imperfect has an inner large and push that make his Self struggle for the Infinite and Perfection. That stresses the need of sublimation and here the ethical principles step' in. The ideal of ethical principles is thus so high that all ethical principles are subsidiary to man's highest goal in life as man, Only he moves consciously towards the Divine. Radhakrishnan analyses in his scholarly discussion the following ethical principles of the Upanisads that follow

the ideal stated above.

52

(1)

life

of reason
in

is

life

of unselfish devotion to the world. This

context

unselfish

devotion

the

philosophical
as the

amounts ultimately to
is

becoming holy. Renunciation

(2)

dominant path

deliverance.

it is essentially inward. Morality is not external and superfluous, Motive in moral conduct and inner purity are therefore basically important.

to

all living beings is (3) Like the Self of man, the whole world with be looked upon as born of God. That is the reason why self-love is said to be at the root of all kinds of love. Only 'egoism' is objected

against.
(4)
terests.

Love of

the eternal

is

real

love with intrinsic worth.

Man
What

must renounce
is

necessary

is

endeavours but positively not all indetachment. The Upanisads distinguish between
selfish

animal and other

false desires.

desires, selfish desires

in

and

desire for salvation, true

and

Desires are not bad

themselves

but bad indeed are atta-

chments and

mental reactions that they lead to.

the body all means of cleansing (5) The Upanisads permit of animal instincts as also even flimsy human instincts plus the means to solitude etc. are puricontinence, rise man. of fasting, Cleansing, higher in the G its 27 are means for this. ficatory of the body. The vratas described
(6)

and mind

Code of

duties for control of passions, peacefulness of mind, freeselfishness, restraint, liberality,

dom from narrowness and

down

mercy

etc. are laid

as training of the mind and man's sublimation, so that he rises in state of cultivation of quietude, balance, equaaspiration and comes to a

nimity etc. These

(7)

make man

deserve to probe into spiritual

rise.

Retirement from the mortal conditioning

too
is

world after

fulfilling
etc.

duties to society and a life of purity, humility, asceticism,

is

detachment
in

recommended. This

striving after liberation at the

(8)

means to the end proper time and age.

ultimately a
Jill

form of

Observation of Mramadharma to
spirit.

the

whole of

life

with the

power of the

This

is

again
life

to

make man detached by slow and

self

gradual steps from the worldly

(9)

to develop his spirituality the highest.

Observation of rules of caste as duties to ones

and to

society,

so that

on one

side the social

is

fabric

is

held intact

and on the other there

hatreds

softening of divisions
is

and it grows strong, and undermining of class

and

antipathies.

This

necessary because

God

is

the inner soul

equally of all mate truth.

and therefore

all

have the right to

rise higher to

the

ulti-

(10) Man must become moral in the real sense of the term and he becomes moral only when he rises to religion and religious consciousness. The possibility of religious realisation is the presupposition of all morality.

Man

rises
all

higher and highest by religion and one who

laws.

rises the highest is

above

The Upanisads, with these ethical principles accept the necessity of a good, decent, noble life in the world. Yet these are ethical principles of the Upanisads as a means and not the end even if they be good on their
own. They are a means
in
life

to the rise of
satisfaction

man from

the interest of flesh, of

to the higher stage

worldly attachment, of the

of the egoism

physically, mentally, emotionally so that ultimately

man

rises spiri-

tually.
is

the end and truth of these ethical principles. "Moral activity not an end in itself. It is to be taken over into the perfect life. Only
is

This

this has transcendental worth."

Religion

listic religion.

"In the Upanisads we find a criticism of the empty and barren rituaSacrifices were relegated to an inferior position. They do
final liberation..

not lead to

when

all

things

are
29

Gods

there

is

no point

in offering to

religion of the

anything, except one's self." Naturally enough the Upanisads is not and it cannot be religion in the ordinary sense of the term as a sect, its practices, external marks, certain faith and

him

values and a God.

It

The Upanisadic conception of religion is very wide. is on the whole a means again and not the end- It is meant to transform the whole nature of man, so that it rises higher from lower levels and
is

endowed with

in this sense will

realisation.

They and worship. This may be followed by practices of yoga and the become the means to self-knowledge, atma-darSana. Man next prepares for God-realisation and here come the three stages of man's leligion-Sravana, manana and nidiahyusana. Sravana is listening to, understanding and grasping traditional values. Naturally this is to be done
faith

a wider spiritual outlook. Naturally enough a man religious come to stand on the threshold of higher and highest therefore teach the religion of Sraddha and Upiisaiia,

three

with

faith.

man and
lism.

The Upanisads accept tradition as a source of strength for they are vehemently opposed to what one might call traditionais

Manana

personal reflection thereon by which

"we attempt
etc."

to

form

clear ideas by the logical process

of inference,

analogy

(Principal

Upanisads, p. 133). Nidishyasana or contemplative meditation is meant to transform logical ideas into spiritual perception or darSana. This brings

man on
flesh,

the threshold

of the
is

secrets

of truth

and

the

highest

truth.

Religion in this sense

worldly attractions,

meant to take man's personality higher from attachment; it is meant for mental, emotional
That
is

and

spiritual sublimation.

the reason

why Radhakrishnan

states

54

"The Upauisad

religion

is

the feeling of reverence

and love
in .the

for

the
'

great spirit. Such meditation

is

spiritualised bhakti. It recognises also that

the distinction between subject and

religious

object

melts

away

heart
All

of

fervour."- 10

It is

meant

to lead

man

to

perfection.

other

modes of

religion permitted by or not protested against

by the Upanisads
etc.

are preparatory to this. Prayer, worship of a personal

god

are accepted

but not for themselves. Radhakrishnan therefore specifically states

"The
worship,

unity of

spirit, is

the

first

principle of the
is

upanisadic
with

doctrine.
religious

Divine cmanence
it

is

its

central fact. If that

inconsistent

means only that theism has no place for true true theism must accept divine immanence." 34

religion, since a

Karma and Rebirth

Tne
judge
is
is

first fact to

be noted

is

that the law of

Karma

is

within,

the

within

in

form of the

Atman
Vedas
this

the wi elder of this law.

awakened consciousness of man, the The world-order is referred to in the

as

Rta and

the world-order must go on.

Varuna

is

the

ruler

of
in

world-order.
life.

The law

of

Karma

thus works in the world as also

man's

We

are told that man's

actions in his past births.

and birth are determined by his The law works and works in the most dispalife

ssionate manner.
a

But

this

should not

mean any pessimism. Man can

by his
actions.
(i)

to

good extent shape

his future as he shaped his past

The

law of

Karma
is

in the

Upanisads
(ii)

is

thus

going on of
his

the world-order

being shaped by past actions and shaping Though within limits, man has free-will and he can shape his future, even partially he can better his present. The belief in the law of rebirth is a natural corollary to the law of Karma. Man's new birth will be shaped and determined by his actions in previous
his

which

a must and

man

future by actions again.

births.

The Upanisads adopt

this

law and describe and rebirth,

Here,

in details the
it
is

manner

in

which
there

man
till

dies

and

is

reborn.
is

Karma

emphasised,
acts,
ethical

are
rules

true knowledge

obtained.

virtuous

and

religious consciousness help

man.
is

Thus, a sense of individual responsibility

emphasised. The

law

is

not inconsistent with social service. Actually in social serviceman disintegrates his ego and therefore attains to a stage when his actions do not bind him. It has therefore a chance to become a means to free ones self

from Karma. Disinterested work or work for the good of the world help man to attain to freedom. Thus, the law of karma is there, but it does not negate individual effort. In a sense the law works only at lower level. Once man enters the higher stage of the spirit, he transcends the finite and becomes infinite- This shows also that karma has

psychological

55

aspects,

an impact, impression, on the mind and mail

law
is

It leaves does nature and the world. The may repeat his actionsnot held to be inconsistent with theism by the Upanisads; the law consistent with the reality of absolute Brahman. Radhakrishnan statcsit

influences the

mind

as

it

is

"Only

the

karma theory can

give us a just

universe. It brings out the living rational nature

mechanism by which spirit works.. 32 aspects of the same reality."

Conclusion

conception of the spiritual It is the of the whole Freedom and Karma are the two

In order to impart a sort of completion to his interpretation of the other quesphilosophy of the Upanisads, Radhakrishnan discusses some tions also. But the questions discussed and analysed here from the viewa complete of almost point Radhakrishnan, are enough to give to us
picture of his understanding of the upanisadic

philosophy. Radhakrishnan

here succeeds

in giving a clear

picture

of

the

immense

wealth

ol

the

Upanisadic thinking

in all its variety

and vastness.

He

successfully shows

philosophy. He bases his analysis on the original sources from the Upanisads and is therefore on sound lines and proof. His reason is perfect almost and his style lucid and dignified. He writes with ease and confidence. At
this thinking

how

has become the basis for all later

and places he brings in western philosophical thinking of comparison and in order to make himself more clear.
that in referring to the

concepts

However,

by way it may

Upanisads by later philosobe added and again to Sankara and some times also to phers, he refers again would perhaps have been better clarified Ramanuja. Many of his thoughts and Madhva. But he is mainly a if he had referred also to Vallabha 33 As far as follower of Sankara whose philosophy is too much with him. he is felt that should have it discussed doctrinal discussion is concerned,
use of the

problems of Bhakti and Yoga in greater details- With this ouc the exception ol it must be accepted that perhaps with has treated the philosophy of the Dasgupta, no other philosopher-writer is an important contribution of the Upanisads better. The treatment scholar to a near correct and precise understanding of the philosophy of
the

suggestion,

the Upanisads.

1.

Introduction to his Bhasya on Taitiriyopanisad

sqfoqftfa
ftsfcllt;'
1

^Sttt
^IW
<&'

^Vqw
^f%
I

efrqftlJTfacJcEnpf^" !'

Sra

Also vide 'Principal Upanisads', Intro, p. 19

56

2.

'Indian Philosophy', Vol.

1.

p. p.

1.38

Also 'Principal Upanisads',

3.

'Indian Philosophy', Vol. 'Indian Philosophy', Vol.

3?faHra'

I,

19-20, also p. 99 p. 139

140.
I

4.
5.

I,

p.

Also on

p.

]4|

ftwni

fttUaqfforeai^
I,

6.
7.

'Indian Philosophy', Vol.

p.

150

The

difference

between Svarga

and

what

the

Upanisads aim at

is

aptly suggesed by Kalidasa in his Sakuntala in his verse

8.

'Indian Philosophy', Vol.

'Indian Philosophy', Vol.

I, I,

p.
p.

14?
152
I

9.

10.

%T

*tt?

V.

%T$: ^rSfflll^^:
I, I, I,
I,

11.
1213.
14.

'Indian Philosophy', Vol.

'Indian Philosophy', Vol.
'Indian Philosophy', Vol.

p. p.

159

154
162
165
1(5

p.
p.

'Indian Philosophy', Vol.

15.
16.

'Indian Philosophy'. Vol.

I,

p. 165 Also p.
p.

Indian Philosophy', Vol.

'Indian Philosophy*, Vol.

I,

170 173
p.

17.

I,

p.

Also vide 'principal Upanisads'

18.
siTR&'T,'

59

ffl%T

5i^T ...... etc.

31 C*
19.
?I?ffl*

g^T
20.

5TU

&
!l

...... etc.

3??q'gn: af^Rjf^I
flrll
T

^T

II

21.

'Indian Philosophy'., Vol.

I,

p.

175.

Also p. 176

22.

Also vide 'Principal Upanisads' p. 64 ff (Gita 7-12) *n-g tig ^ qft

I

23.

24.

'Indian Philosophy' Vol. I, p. 177 Vide also 'Principal Upanisads' p. 95-98 'The Principal Upanisads'-Intro. p. 121

57

25.

Indian Philosophy' Vol. I, Also 'Principal Upanisads'

Vide 'Principal Upanisads'

p.
p..

209
118

26. 27. 28.

p.

105 onwards also.

Vide 'Bhagavadglta',

16.

to 5
p. 230
p-

'Indian Philosophy' Vol.

I,

Also 'Principal Upanisads',

29. 30-

106

'Principal Upanisads', p. 'Indian Philosophy' Vol.

49
I,

p.

233
136

Also
31.

'Principal Upanisads' p.
I,

'Indian Philosophy' Vol.

p.

236
138-139

Also
32.
33.

'Principal Upanisads' p.

'Indian Philosophy' Vol. I, p. 248 He takes Sankara's view to be the most representative of the principal doctrines of the Upanisads., vide Indian Philosophy Vol. 2, p. 467
Select Bibliography

1.

Indian Philosophy. Vol.

2.

The

Principal Upanisads
S.
S.

S-

Radhakrishnan

3. 4.
5.

Religion and Society

R.

Hindu View

of Life

R.
S.

6.

7.
8.

Eastern Religion and Western thought S. R. Heart of Hindustan S. REast and West in Religion

R.

An

Idealist

View of Life

S.

R.

etc.,

etc.

RADHAKRISHNAN AND CHRISTIANITY

Dr.
Bharti Savan

Christianity has flourished in India

era.
is

The Syrian

Christians of

from the beginning of the Christian Malbar believe that their form of Christianity

apostolic, delievered directly from the Apostle Thomas. that their version of the Christian faith is distinctive and

They contend
independent of

the forms established by St. Peter and St. Paul in the west.

heretical

work of the third century called 'The Acts of Thomas' tells us that the Apostle was unwilling to go to India, and therefore the Lord contrived to sell him as a slave to Abbanes, the representative of
Gondophares,

The whole story was dismissed an incredible until in 1834 a coin was found in the north-western corner of India bearing the name Gondophares. Dr. Radhakrishnan remarks here that "from this we can gather, not that the Apostle went to India in the
the ruler of India.
it

first century-though is not improbable-but that there were close relations between India and the Christians of Persia and Mesopotamia before the third century What is obvious is that there have been Christians in the west coast of India from very early times."' In connection

Christianity spread all over the

"Christianity began

humbly among

with the topic how world, Dr. Radhakrishnan observes that a band of
disciples

prophet

remembered the earthly life of Jesus, the ministry of a revolutionary who announced the speedy coming of the kingdom and demanded repentance. The Gospels give us what the apostles and the others had to tell of the life and doctrine of Jesus."2
Birth of Jesus Christ

who knew and

mentioned

born. After hearing this, king Herod ordered to destroy all newly born babies in Bethlehem. Here Dr Radhakrishnan finds some similarity regarding the birth of Christ and Krishna He writes ".. ..it reminds us ofKarhsa murdering all the children 'of his sister except the last, at the time O f krsna's birth, for he was told that he would be killed by a child born of his
:

who came to pay their respects to told Herod that a great king was

King Herod ruled Judea for nearly forty years from 37 B C. He in the Gospel in connection with the birth of Jesus The
Jesus on his
birth,

is

Magi
star

guided

by a

He is of the opinion thatthe .eco has a striking resemblance to Krsna's birth to h, S

throne-

sister,

who would

story.

59

Christians

believe

and

accept

that

Christ

was conceived

in

the!

womb

of the blessed virgin Mary by the power of the Holy Spirit, without the means of man. This emphasizes the fact that the birth of Christ was not at all an ordinary but a supernatural birth, in virtue of
called, "the

which he was

connection with the birth of Jesus

son of God". The most important element in was the supernatural operation of the

possible.

passages of Scriptures

it was only through this that the birth by virgin becomes The doctrine of the virgin-birth is based on the following "Therefore the Lord himself shall give you a his sign, Behold, a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son, and shall call name Imrnanuel." Isaiah. 7.14;" Now the birth of Jesus Christ was on

Holy

Spirit, for

this wise

When

as

his

mother Mary was espoused

to

Joseph,

before

they came together, she was found with child of the Holy Ghost Joseph, thou son of David, fear not to take unto thee Mary thy wife
for that which
1
:

is

conceived in her

is

of the

Holy

Ghost."

St.

Matthew

18,

20.

matter

- birth is a Question is sometimes asked, whether the virgin of doctrinal importance. Brunner rejects the doctrine of the miraculous birth of Christ and holds that it was purely natural. Karl

The

Earth recognizes the miracle of the virgin - birth, and sees in it a token of the fact that God has creatively established a new beginning by conthe Messiah is senscending to become man. The wonderful birth of Jesus,
supported by the Bible and he was a Son of God, his brith was altogether different.

of God. And being a Son

The birth of Jesus Christ is predicted in Old Testament. Enoch, the Saint of antiquity mentioned in Genesis (V- 23), preaches the coming world judgement, and proclaims 'the son of Man' who was to appear
in order to rule with righteous as their

head in the time of the new

'the
in

age.

The four
Elect one'

titles

attributed to Jesus

'the Christ',

and the

'Son of
:

God'

are

all

found

the

Righteous one', 'the Now Testament.

The name Jesus

Christ

4 The name Jesus is the Greek form of the Hebrew Joshoshu, Joshua The generally accepted opinion is that it is derived from the or Jeshu 5
.

to explain how root 'Yasha' hiph; hoshia, to save, but it is not easy Johoshua became Jeshua. Probably Hoshea, derived from the infinitive, of 6 idea redemption. The was the original form expressing merely the of the imperfect, may have been added to express which is the
,

Yod,

sign

with the interpretation the certainty of redemption. This would best agree 7 For another derivation form of the name given in New Testament. Jeho (Jehovah) and Shuq, that is helf (Gotthilf).

60

If Jesus
is

is

the equivalent

the personal, Christ is the of the Old Testament

official

name

of Messiah.

It

anoint), and thus

means
during

"the anointed
the
old

one."

Mashiach (from Kings and

8

priests

mashach to were
called

"

regularly anointed

dispensation.

The king was

of the

the anointed of Jehovah." 9

Only

single

instance

anointing

11 of a prophet is recorded, 10 but there are probably references to it. The oil used in anojiiting these officers Symbolized the spirit of

consecrated

God, 12 and the anointing represented the transfer of the Spirit 13 The anointing was a visible sign of person.
office;

to
(a)

be

an
a

appointment to

(b)

the establishment

of

sacred

relationship
(c)

and the consequent sacrosanctness of the person anointed; 1 * and communication of the Spirit to the anointed one. 15

The Old Testament

refers to
it.

the anointing of the Lord 18 , and

the

New
found

Testament also refers to

in

Formerly references to it were also Psalms and proverbs, 18 but to-day Hebraists assert that the word
"

17

nasak, used in these passages means

to set up rather than "to anoint." word points to the reality of the first thing symbolized in the anointing. 19 Christ was set up or appointed to His offices from eternity, but historically his anointing took place when he was conceived 20 and when he received the Holy Spirit, by the Holy Spirit, especially at

"

But even

so the

the

time of his
'

baptism.
'

21 It

served to quality

The name
with the

Christ

was

first

applied to

the

article,

but

gradually

developed into a proper' noun,

him for his great task. Lord as a common noun and was

used without the

aricle. 22

Teachings of Jesus

Jesus left nothing written.

believed

that

his

return

as

judge

For some years after his death, his disciples andt he consummation of this age

were imminent.
In
the

words

of Dr. Radlmkrishnan

"Jesus"
.
.

religion

was one of

love and sympathy, tolereuce and inwardness He did not profess to teach religion but only defended spiritul life.. He learned and taught in the synagogues of the Jews". 23 He observes "Christianity is a syncretistic faith, a blend of various earlier creeds. The Jews, the Greek and the Roman as well as the races of the Mediterranean basis have contributed to it, with the result that, in spite of its anxiety for system, this is lacking. Its ideas about God, to take one example, vary between a loving father a severe judge, a detective officer, a hard school master and the head of

anew

the clerical profession," 24

61

Jesus speaks from his personal experience." teaching is not mine but His that sent me.. He that speaketh from Himself seeketh his own

My

glory,

but
(

He
may

that seeketh the glory of

)

true."

The

Bible St. John. 7 .16-18.

say "I say unto you."
experience.

ever they

Him that sent him, the same is He setsa side all authorities. WhatHe takes his stand on truth as

verified in his

"Truth, for him" writes Dr. Radhakrishnan, "is not a historical fact but spiritul life. His teaching brushes aside all the legalistic encumbrances of the Jewish religion and holds that in the two old commandments
everything recquired of

man was summed

up."

25

Love and Suffering

that"
While

While quoting the words of Jesus Christ, Dr. Radhakrishnan says 'Thou shalt love the Lord thy God.' 'Thou shalt love thy neighthyself.' Jesus' religion

bour as

affirmed these two central says

that

simplicities." 26

quoting

St.

John

he

the

law

was

given

through

Moses and

John brings out the concept of love preached by Jesus in a very appealing manner. He says "Beloved, let us love one another, for Love is of God. Every one that loveth is born of God and knoweth God. He that loveth not knoweth not God. For God is Love."
Jesus. St.

grace and truth

came through

life is

of neighbour is taught by all religions but the capacity to love Dr. Radhakrishnan believes that growth in spiritual the only force which gives as the capacity to love our neighbour even when we are not naturally inclined t<0 do so. He quotes the
is

Love

difficult to attain.

Epistle

not hence, even of your

you ? Come they war in y^nr members." Conflicting desires Within men lead to strains and conflicts among men. Here Dr. Radhakrishnan gives an advice which is simple yet hard in practise
St.

of

James- "whence come wars and fightXig among

desires,

that

-that we must be at harmony within ourselves. He quotes St. Teresa's words- "Christ has no body now on earth but yours, yours are the feet with which he goes about doing good; yours are the hands with which
he blesses."

He

also quotes

William Law,

the great

eighteenth

Century

I do not mean any natural tenderness, which is more or according to their constitution; but I mean a larger principle of Soul; founded in reason and piety which makes us tender, kind and gentle to all our fellow creatures as creatures of God

mystic- "By love

less in

people

and for

his

sake-"

Turgeniev once commented on love thus-"it seems to me that to put oneself in the second place is the whole If significance of life
. .

meat

62

makes
lest I

my

brother to offend,

make

krishnan asks us-If

how much
religion ?

I will cat no flesh while the world standeth, brother to offend." After quoting Turgeuiev, Dr. Radhawe are to be so particular even in matters of diet, should we be Ui matters of social life and more

my

respectful

Dr.

Radhakrishnan

compares

Buddha's

words with the

Christian

"Not by hate is hate destroyed, by love alone is hate Ye monks, if robbers and murderers should severe your joints would 'not be fulfell into anger, threat and ribs with a saw, he who 27 To love one's enemies, to blessjthem that curse, filline my commands."
concept of Love.
destroyed-

to do good to cloak with

teachings

them that hate, to turn the other cheek, him who takes the coat, to give all to him who
Jesus. Jesus asks us to forgive

to

leave

the

asks, are the

.of

our

bretheren

even

if

they

times seven.' 28 St. Paul said,-In Christ there is sin against us. 'Seventy bondu nor free, but yet are neither Jew nor Greek, Barbarian, Scythian,
all

one

man

29 in Christ Jesus.

Jesus asks us to

assume a responsibility

for

the whole humanity.

When

Jesus tells his disciples for the first time that he

must

suffer,

Peter reaproacb.es

him

"Be

it

far

from

thee,

Lord
:

this shall

not

be

"Get thee behind unto thee" and Jesus repulses him with sharp words 30 The Gospel tradition shows clearly this change of emphasis me, Satan." in Jesus' teaching, and the new note served to heighten the significance
of
his

message.

The

intercessory

and

expiative

power of
cross

suffering

is

emphasized

in Christianity.

Jesus' appeal

on
is

the

"Father, forgive
his love for his

them

for they

know not what

they

do"

piece

of

people.

Love and
is

suffering

go hand

in

hand.

Dante

looked

at

the

lovers

all the ages the Supremest Crown of sorrows. "Suffering not punishment but the prize of fellowship" says Dr. Radhakrishnan. "It is not always a misfortune. It often helps us to grow." 31 Here Dr. Radhakrishnan is very far from the actual Biblical .meaning of

wearing through

suffering.

The

sufferings

of

life,

are the result of the entrance of sin into the world.

is

Scripture and experience both teach us that sin

universal,
lies in

and according
fall

The whole
of
Sin

to the Bible, the explanation for this universality life of Jesus was a life of suffering.

the

of

Adam.
of
the

The
of

sufferings

saviour were not purely natural,

but also the result

positive

deed

God. 32
:

The sufferingsof li

fe,

which are the result of the entrance of

sin into

63

world, are also included in the penalty of sin. Sin is one of the saddest but also one of the most comman phenomenon of human life- It is a part of the comman experience of mankind and therefore forces itself
ttie

upon

the

attention of

all

those

who do

not deliberately close their eyes to the

realities

There are direct statements of Scriptures that point to the universal sinfulness of man. 33 And several passages of Scriptures teach
life.

of

human

that sin

is

the heritage of

man from

the time of his birth, and

it

is

therefore

present in human nature so early that the result of imitation. 34

cannot possibly be considered as

It is quite impossible to give a unified and comprehensive classification of actual sins. The Old Testament makes an important distinction

between
i.e.

sins

committed presumptuously and

sins

comitted

unwittingly

The former could not be and were punished with great severity, while the latter could be so atoned and were judged with far greater leniency. Hence Dr. Radhakrishnan does not deal with the concept of sin, it is not
atoned by
sacrifice

35 as a result of ignorance, weakness or error.

necessary

to go

into

the

details

though

it

is

considered to be of

great

value by

Christian thinkers.

The nature and

"

status of

Man

of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul." Genesis 2-7. Thus, according to the Bible, man was created in the image of God, and is therefore God-related. As man is created in the image of God, 3B he is distinguished from all other creatures and stands supreme

And

Jeliovah

God formed man

as the head and crown of the entire Creation. The terms 'image' and

'likeness'

have been distinguished

'image'

in various ways.

Some were

of the

opinion that

has reference to the body, and 'likeness' to the soul. Augustine held that the former referred to the intellectual, and the latter, to the moral
faculties of the
soul.

Bellarmin

regarded 'image' as a designation of the

and 'likeness' as descriptive of that which was supernaturally added to man. Calvin goes so far as to say that-it cannot be denied that the angels also were created in the likeness of God, since as Christ declares, 37 our highest perfection will consist in being like them.
natural
gifts

of man,

But the

angels are never represented as Lords' creation in the Bible.

Dr. Radhakrishnan observes that

"Man

is

made

in

the likeness of

own image. The vast cosmic impulse has embodied itself in an active and purposeful force in the world. His duty is not 38 The unity of God and man is not to mark time and wait on chance." seen in Christianity. Man is man. He can never be God. He is the creaGod,
in his
is

him.

He

64

tion of God. So, the relation

between God and

man

is

the

relationship

in the image of God, he of creater and creation. As man is created God is infinite, finite manner. shares some of the qualities of God in a form like and transcendent. Few qualities of God in a limited

personal

creativity are intelligence, morality, love, righteousness, justice,

found in man.

the is that physical body is important teaching of Christianity the source of evil." real and significant. It is not evil, nor is it uecessarly faiths Writes Charles A. Moore in his article "The fundamental of living

"An

39

Christianity."

Since the body

is

real

and since
St.

man

is

to use Aristotalian
'a substance'

into Christianity by language brought composed of soul and body, the good
in the world

Thomas Aquiuans
is

life

to be lived in the

body and

where the body may

act.

Creation of World

The

God

created the

"In the beginning Bible begins with the very simple statement heaven and the earth-" Genesis 1.1. The great significance

of the opening statement

of the Bible

had a beginning.
40

The

Scripture

the world lies in its teaching that speaks of this beginnings also in other

places.

the Bible

Dr. Radhakrishnan compares the creation of the world mentioned in And the earth was without form and void; and daikness of 1 God moved upon the face of the water;* with the Vedic hymns of
:

creation.

42 While quoting The /edic seer uses the same metaphor of water. of the waters" from the Bible "The spirit of God moved on the face of the Bible which mentions Dr. Radhakrishnan mentions other version

'brooded'
Colleges).

on

the

water.

(Genesis

:'

He

further states that the

spirit

Cambridge Bible for Schools and of God brooded over the waste
life.

and the
is

void,

and brought forth

light

and

This symbol of brooding

is

an egg

where the world taken from the traditional cosmogony, and God is figured as a bird brooding over it.

compared

to

He

is

of the

of a bird like deity is responsible for opinion that the brooding power the production of life and light. He quotes from the Upanisads where the the world - egg is found. 43 He also over God of brooding metaphor the inward travail of the spirit with the 'brooding'

accepts 'Tapas'

which

is

44 responsible for the creative work.

first

He remarks "The
Genesis
in

successive
to
this

acts of creation detailed in the

chapter of

are

due

power of
itself."

the spirit

which creates world after

world

order to realize

45

He

then
:

He

says

moves from the beginning of creation to our present time. "In the beginning, says the Bible, was the void, we have it

65

still."

He

quotes the words of Jeremiah

all

wilderness and
(4-26),"

cities

thereof were broken down,

''when the fruitful place was ,a it is the state of chaos.

a

and

says that
is

wealth.. our world

we live miserable lives in nude one which has torn

world

of

off its old

clothes

enormous and

has failed to procure new ones.. We must identify ourselves with the spirit of God moving on the face of the waters, enter into the very spirit
of the universe and become
its

vehicle." 40

The Holy

Trinity
"trinity"
it
is

The word

not

quite as expressive as

the

Holland word
three, without

simply denote the state of being any implication as to the unity of the three.
'Drieeenheid' for

may

According to Dr. Radhakrishnan "The doctrine of trinity not only of God but also tried sought to provide a place for Jesus in the unity to correct the one-sided view of God adopted in the Old Testament. God on high (the Father), but is also is not merely the infinite majesty seated
the heart of love (the Son) and
the

immanent

principle

of

the

world
the

process (the Holy son and the Holy

47

Spirit)."
spirit

He

compares the

view of the

Father,

to the Vedantic formula of

joy.

Brahman

as Sat, Chit

and Anaud-reality, wisdom and

Let-

us examine what the Bible speaks about the doctrine of trinity. Fathers It has always bristled with difficulties. Some of the early church and even some later theologians, disregarding the progressive character

of God's revelation,

was completely

gave the impression that revealed in the Old Testamentit

the

doctrine

of Trinity

On
does

the

other

hand
a

Soci-

iiiaus and Arminians were of the opinion that mistaken. The Old Testament all. Both are

was not found

iiot

there at
full

contain

but does contain several revelation of the trinitarian existence of God, of the trinity indications of it. The Bible never deals with the doctrine
as

an

abstract

truth,

but

reveals the

trinitarian

life

in

its

various

relations as a living reality,

to a certain extent

in

connection

with

the

works

of redemption.

of creation and providence, but particularly in relation to the work in Its most fundamental revelation is a revelation given

facts rather than in words.

And

this revelation increases in clarity in

the

measure

in which the redemptive

work

of

God

is

more

clearly

revealed,
Spirit.

as in the incarnation of the

Son and outpouring of the Holy

The proof
of Jehovah

for the Trinity has sometimes been found in the distinction '< and Elohim, and also in the plural Elohim, but the former

66

is

entirely

unwarranted and the

The

New

Testament

carries

Godhead. If in the Old Testament Jehovah Redeemer and Saviour of his people,'* in the New

in the

later is, to say the least, very dubious with a clearer revelation of the distinctions
is

represented as the

God H is

dearly stands out in that capacity."

And
in

if in

fear him,5

Jehovah that dwells among Israel and in the New Testament it is the

Testament the Son of the Old Testament

of those
that
that
in

the

hearts
Spirit

the Church. 51

Holy

dwells

Testament offers the clear revelation of God sending His Son into the world." and of both the father and the son, sending the spirit* We find the Father,** and the Holy Spirit praying to God in the hearts of believers" Thus the separate persons of the Trinity are made clear. Now how far does the concept of Trinity correspond with the concept of Brahman as Sat, Chit and Ananda ? There is nothing common except the numbers among them.

The New

the three persons

At the time of baptism, the Son and the Father speaks from heaven and Holy Sprnt descends in the form of a dove.se Jesus aho mentio them "..baptizing into the name of the Father ard of the Son and of the Holy Spirit." (St. Matthew. 28.19)."
:

The name Son

the
is
is

'Father'

applied

m
is

is applied to the second person

God
and

in
is

Christ

first person, the called 'Sou of God' i e

the

name
Jesus

represented as the
Spirit

Son of

God

in the Scripture.

Holy

The name of
Spirit

applied in the third person as

God

is

or

'the

Spirit

of God.'

The

Significance of Cross

suffering, earthly defeat but victory" writes Dr. Radhakrishnan. "'Through suffering li es the liberation/'^ let us examine the Christian view of the

"The

cross

means physical

soiritml

Now

way

to

problem of human sin and brings out that men into fellowship with God is one of the central ideas in the New Testament ".. ..For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received that Christ died for our sins and accordance with the
It

deals with the

death of Christ

scriptures.""

In almost every letter Paul refers in one form or another to the death of Christ using variety of expression referring to Christ's death His blood, His cross and His crucifixion. The

New

death of Christ as a

Testament denotes the

sacrificial

death.

It

distinctly associates

Testament

ritual sacrifice for sin

given

on

the great

the main priest at the mercy seat. 60

Day

it with the Old of Atonement by

67

"The mystery of Cross.. he who truly

life is

creative sacrifice. It

is

the central idea of the

loves us will have to suffer for us, even to the point of death," Says Dr. Radhakrishnan. The life of Jesus is the best example of it. We see the victory over evil in the garden of Gethsemane, and also in the cell where Socrates drank the heinlok. Dr. Radhakrishnan is right

when be we make

states that Jesus

who

suffered

and died

is

the living God.

significant only

He

directly appeals to us by telling-"The Cross

it

becomes

when

our own, when we undergo crucifixion." 01

Crucifixion was not a Jewish but a Roman form of punishment. It was accounted so infamous and ignominious that it might not be applied

to

Roman

citizens,

but only to the

sum

of mankind,

to

the meanest

criminals and slaves.

By dying

that death, Jesus

met the extreme demands

of the law.
Salvation

Faith

in

God

(Christ), purity

of heart

and

God's

forgiveness

and

grace are component parts of the road to salvation in Christianity.

Dr.

Radhakrishnan
life-

"
says

Jesus
to

did
it

account of the future

His references

in

not give any definite the parables of the

beliefs of

Sheep and the Goats, Dives and Lazarus, are coloured by the
not believe

the age in heaven and hell, as geographical areas, .. Jesus evidently did in a long interval between death and judgement, for the rich
glutton and Lazarus had their punishment and reward almost immediately after death. Jesus was not misleading the repentant thief when he said

"Today
official

shalt thou

be with

me

in

paradise

(St.

Luke

xxiii.

1,

43).

The
judgIt
is

view that the dead

is

will rise with their physical bodies

for

ment
very

after death

not supported by

these

statements

of Jesus."

difficult to accept

give any definite

Dr. Radhakrishnan when he says that Jesus.did not account of the future life 61
.

The

Bible teaches

that the soul of the believer

when separated from

the body, enters the presence of Christ. Paul write to the Philippians that he has a "desire to depart and to be with Christ." (Phillipians. 1.23).

And
shalt

Jesus gave the penitent malefactor the joyous assurance "To-day thou be with me in paradise" (St. Luke 23.43). And to be with

Christ is also to be in heaven. In the light of II Coronthiaus 12.3,4. "Paradise" can only be a designation for heaven. Moreover Paul says that "if the earthly house of our tabernacle be dissolved, we have a building

from God,

house
5.1).

not

made

with

hands,

eternal

in

heaven".. (Ilnd

Coronthians.

Westminster Catechism, one of the great commentators

68

wicked after death "are cast into on the Bible says that the souls of the reserved to the in torments and utter darkness, hell, where they remain "Besides these two Moreover he adds judgment of the great day." souls separated from their bodies, the Scripplaces (heaven and hell) for
:

on this ture acknowledged! non," The Bible sheds very little direct light that can really come into consideration here is subject. The only passage 62 Here Dr. Radhakrishnan clearly the parable of the rich rnoud Lazarus. of heaven and hell consistent with states that ''The only interpretation
the teaching and character of Jesus
ces in the souls.
hell its opposite.
is

that they refer to qualitative chan-

Heaven symbolises the improvement

of the

soul

and

And

there are grades in

hell,

as well as in heaven,
life." 63

many

mansions in God's Kingdom, and each man will go dance with the strength of his faith and the merit of his

to hi> place in accor-

Dr. Radhakrishnan compares the Christian concept of salvation with He there the Hindu law of Karma in his book the Heart of Hindustan. that our conduct determines our future. The law of Karma is criticisays sed as being too mechanical true that the problem of the

and

inconsistant
to salvation

with

Divine

Love.

It

is

way

has

been
ages

the

cause of a
there

major debate
tion
is

in

Christian

thought through the

and

being
salva-

to strongly divergent opinions concerning the question as

gained by
faith or

whether
is

by works. Essentially, Christianity

is

a religion

of

faith.

The

Christian concept of salvation

in sharp contrast with

responsibility
as

the
in

doctrine of Karrna

and

absolute individual

found

Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.

The reward of the righteous

merely an endless
life,

is

described as eternal
all
its

life,

that

is,

not

but

life

in

fullness

without
fullness

the present. 64 imperfections and disturbances of

is

The

any of

of the
this
life

enjoyed in
65

communion with God which

is

really the essence of eternal

life-

They

will see

God

in Jesus Christ face to face, will find full satisfac*

tion in him, will rejoice in him,

and

will glorify him.

!

Here,

let

us see

some few

things about Hell

In connection with the

calls the

subject 'hell' the Bible certainly uses local terms right along. It

place of torment gehenna, a name derived valley) and Hinnom or beneyhinnon, that

from the Hebrew 'ge' (land or is, Hinnou or Sons of Hinnorn-

This

name was originally applied to a valley southwest of Jerusalem. It was a place where wicked idolaters sacrificed their children to Moloch

by causing them to pass through the fire. Hence it was considered impure and was called in later days "the valley of tophet (spittle)", as an utterly
despised region. Fires were constantly burning there to consume the official of Jerusalem- As a result it became a symbol of the place of eternal

torment.

ture speaks of those

The Bible speaks of a "furnace of fire" 06 and a ''Jake of Jive"" 7 which forms a contrast with the "sea of 08 glass like unto crystal." Scripwho are excluded from heaven as being "outside" and as being "cast into hell." In Hell is a where there is a
short,

place

total

absence of the favour

of God, and positive pain and suffering are

being experienced.

According to Dr. Radliakrislian Salvation

consciousness or awareness of
teaching of the Bible.

in Christianity is achieving

God

man. According to
Actually
ship between

God or the union with God; 69 not the The Bible does not accept the unity of God and Christianity, man is man, and he can never be God.
of the
sin,

man is a creation of God but because God and man has been broken. Dr. Radhakrishnan "is the easiest way to reach only way to salvation is the grace of God- If of comparative the most religion,
perhaps
is,

the

relation-

"Love
one
is

for

God"
in

writes

salvation." 70 In fact

the

thinking

terms

significant aspect of the

way

to

salvation in Christianity
grace, that

is the absolute necessity of God's forgiveness and the free gift of salvation to men, who by their very nature

cannot achieve salvation of their own

ability.

The Resurrection

of the
is

Dead
a

The
over the
it

resurrection

work

of the triune

God.

In

some

cases
71

we

are

simply told that

God

raises the dead,

is

no person being
to the
Spirit.

work of

resurrection

ascribed

is

also designated as a

work

of the

Holy

Morespecified. 72 and indirectly, son, 73

There were some

in the

days of Paul who regarded the resurrection

as spiritual, 74 and there are a spiritual resurrection. But

many
the
is

in the present day

is

who

believe only in

Bible

very

explicit

in

teaching

the

resurrection of the body.

ction,'
5

Christ

called the "first fruits" of the resurre-

and "the firstborn of the dead." 76 This implies that the resurrection was a bod'ly resurrection, and theirs will be of the same kind.
Dr. Radhakrishnan has a doxibt
here.

He

observes

that

at

death

Lazarus

is

taken

up

directly into Paradise and the rich

is

man

goes to hess.
:

the Son of
(St.

probably suggested by Matthew "As Jonah was three days three nights in the belly of the whale so shall Man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth,"
:

Jesus' resurrection after three days

Matthew

in conflict with

Cross

Here Dr. Radhakrishnan writes "This view is what Jesus is alleged to have said to the thief on the thou shalt be with me in Paradise.' There is immediate 'To-day
12.40).

entrance into blessed fellowship with God.

The moment of death

is

the

moment of

exaltation," 77

70

Here let us see what Bible tells regarding resurrection. The New Testament has more to say on the resurrection of the dead than the Old Testament, because it brings the climax of God's revelation on this point death in the resurrection of Jesus Christ. According to Scripture, physical
is

Lilc a termination of physical life by the separation of body and soul. and death are not 'opposed to each other as existence and non-existence', the of but are opposites only as different modes of existence. The Soul
thief

on the

Cross

went

to

heaven

with

Christ.

that the soul of the believers at death enter

an

intermediate place

The Bible teaches and

Philippians

remain there until the day of resurrection. Paul writes to the 78 And that he has a "desire to depart and be with Christ."

Jesus gave

the penitent malefactor the joyous assurance "To-day Shalt them be with me in paradise." 79 And to be with Christ is also to be in heaven-

is,

not an entirely

According to Scripture there will be a resurrection of the body, that new creation but a body that will be in a fundamental

sense identical with the present body,

for every
earth.
will

God

will

not

create

new body
in the

man, but
the

will raise

up the very body that was deposited

the
it

same time Scripture makes it perfectly evident that the body be greatly changed- Christ's body was not yet fully glorified during period of transition between the resurrection and the ascension; yet

At

that will take place,

the

had already undergone a remarkable change. Paul refers to the change when he says that in sowing a seed we do not sow body that shall be; we do not intend to pick the same seed out of

the ground.

Yet we do expect to reap something that is in a fundamental sense identical with the seed deposited in the earth. While there
a certain identity
it,

is

between the seed sown and the seed

that:

develops out

of

yet

there
is

is

also a remarkable difference.

Thus

the

resurrection

of

the dead

explained.

Conclusion

Dr. Radhakrislman
this century.

He

is

but also a thinker

who can handle concepts

contribution
lies

is undoubtedly one of the greatest thinkers of not merely a scholar, a historian of Indian thought,

as concepts,
his

whether Indian
Christianity.

or western. His great

in

interpreting

Besides his books,

'Easterns

Religions

and Western thought', 'Heart of

Christianity are scattered in
18, 1930 at the his

Hindustan', his interpretations regarding

lectures
:

The Jowett
I,

lectures given
Series

on March

Settlement, London.
College, Oxford,

Mary Word

on Comparative Religion given at Manchester

on Oct.

22, 1929;

Sermon

Oxford, Nov. 1929; Beatty

delivered at Manchester College

is

Memorial

lectures Series

published

in

71

book

under

the
is

title-'East

and

West-some
the
title

reflections.'

collection

says "Christianity triumphed as it encouraged mysticism, preached an eschatology of hope and had a noble ritual. It appealed to the lowly it taught that in the eyes of God the slave was equal to the emperor. It ordained brotherly love and fellowship." 80
as

He

of 'Ocassion' speeches and uniformity of the Christion concept though his knowledge regarding the Christian doctrine is very deep ;,nd sound. He quotes from the Bible, verses in connection with what he wants to say. And in that we see his love and respect for the Christian doctrine
writings.'

of his lectures

published under
there
is

As such

no

Radhakrishnan's main aim

in the

is

to

show

that

man

is

basically the

same
the

same

East and the West, that human thought runs along lines, and that man everywhere is a creature in

basically

quest of

his spirit,

although the cultural forms to which he

says that Jesus' teaching has an ascetic
all

belongs may be different. note which is characteristic

He
of

true

religions.

He

has

described

the

most

original

and

significant

principles

of Christianity

in a scholarly

and

lucid way.

FOOT NOTES
1.

2.

uuwin Ltd. London. Second edition 1955. p. 34. Eastern Religion and Western Thought by Dr. Radhakrishnan. Oxford Uni. Press, London. Second edition. 1940. p. 186-187.

&

East and West-Some reflections, by Dr. Radhakrishnan. George Allen

3.
4.

Now

East and West-some reflections by Dr. Radhakrishnan. after the death of Moses, the servant of the Lord, it

p.

70. to pass,

came

that the

Lord spake unto Joshua

the son of

Nun, Moses' minister. The Bible. Joshua. 1.1.

And he Shewed me

Joshua the high priest standing before the angel of the Lord, and Satan standing at his right hand to resist him.
-

The

Bible. Zechariah. 3.1.

5.

6.

Which came with Zerubabel, Jeshua, Nehemiah, Seraiah The number of the men of the people of Israel. The Bible. Ezra. 2.2. These are the names of the men which Moses sent to spy out the
land.

And Moses

called

Oshea the Son of

all

Nun

Jehoshua-

The

Bible.

Numbers.

13.16.

And Moses came and

spake

the words of this song in the ears of

the people, he and Hoshea the son of Nun.

The

Bible.

Deuteronomy.

.32.44,

72

7.

And
for

she shall bring forth a son, and thou shalt call his
shall

name

Jesus:

lie

save his people from their

sins.

The
8.

Bible. St.
it

Metthew.

1.21.

Then

shalt

thou take the anointing

oil,

and pour

upon

his

head,

and anoint him.

The
If

Bible.

Exodus.

29-7.

the priest

that
let

is

anointed to do sin
for his sin,

according

to the sin

of the

people, then

him bring

which he hath sinned, a young

for a sin offering.

bullock without blemish unto the

Lord

The
Tomorrow about
this

Bible. Leviticus 4.3.

time

I will

send thee a

man

out of the land of

Benjamin, and thou shalt anoint him to be captain over my people of the hands of the philistines; Israel, that he may sayc my people out for I have looked upon my people, because their cry is come unto me,

The
Then Samuel took
be Captain over
a vital of
it

Bible. I Samuel. 9.

16.

kissed him, and said-Is

oil, and poured it upon his head, and not because the Lord hath anointed thee to

his inheritance ?

The

Bible. I

Samuel.
battle.

10.

1.

And Absalom, whom we

therefore

anointed over us,

is

dead

in

Now

why speak ye not a word of bringing the king back ? The Bible. II Samuel. 19.10,
this

9.

Behold,

day thine eyes have seen

how
:

that the Lord had delivered

:

thee to-day into mine hand in the cave

kill thee but mine eye spared thee, and I said, I will not put forth mine hand against my Lord; for he is the Lord's anointed.

and some bade me

The
10-

Bible.

Samuel. 24.10.

And Jehu
prophet

the sou of Niinshi shalt thou anoint to be king over Israel:

and Elisha the son of Shaphat of

in thy

Abelmeholah

shalt thou anoint to

be

room.

The
11.

Bible.

Kings. .19.16.

Saying,

Touch not mine anointed, and do

my

prophet uo harm.
Bible. Psalm.

The
12.

105.15.

The

spirit

of the Lord

God

is

upon me; because

the Lord hath

ano-

inted me to preach good tidings unto the meek; he hath sent me to bind up the broken-hearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives, and the opening of the prison to them that are bound-

The

Bible. Isaiah. 61,1,

73

13.

And

the spirit of the

Lord

hesy with them, and

slialt

come upon thee and thou be turned into another man.

will

slialt

prop-

The Bible

I Samuel. 10-6-

And the among them.

spirit

of

God came upon

him,

and he prophesied

The
Then Samuel took
his brethren
:

Bible I Samuel 10.10.

the

horn of
spirit

oil,

and anointed him in the midst of

and the

of the Lord

came upon David from

that

day forward. So Samuel rose up, and went to

Ram ah.
Bible.
I

The
14.

Samuel, 16.13.
this

And

he said unto

his

men, The Lord forbid that

is

should do

thing unto

my

master, the Lords anointed to stretch forth mine

hand

against him, seeing he

the anointed of the Lord.

The
15.

Bible. I

Samuel 24,6

Now
us,
is

he which established us with you in Christ, and hath anointed God; who hath also sealed us, and given the earnest of the

Spirit in our hearts.

The
16.

Bible. II Corinthians. 1,21, 22.

The kings of

the

earth set themselves,

and the

rulers

take

counsel

together, against the Lord,

and against

his anointed.

The
~~

Bible Psa.hu 2-2

Thou
thy

lovest righteousness, ami liatest wickedness r therefore God, God, hath anointed thee with the oid of gladness above thy

fellows.

The Bible Psatov 45J

17.

For of a

truth against thy holy child Jesus,

whom

thou hast anointed,

the

both Herod, and Pontius Pilate, of Israel were gathered together.

with the Gentiles, and

people

The

Bible. Acts 4.27

How God
with power
'"'

anointed
:

Jesus of Nazareth

with the

Holy

Ghost and
all

who went about doing good, and

evil;

healing

that were

oppressed of the ''''

for

God

was with him-

The
18.

Bible.

Acts 1038

Yet have

I set

my

king

upon my

holy

hill

of Zion.

The
I

Bible. Psalms 2;6

was

set

W as10

up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth The Bible. Proverbs 8.23

74
the Spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the Lord.

19.

And

The
Behold

Bible. Isaih 11.2

my
:

servant,
I

whom
my

uphold, mine elect,

in

whom my

soul

delighteth

have put
Gentiles.

spirit

upon him, he

shall bring forth judg-

ment

to the

The
20.

Bible. Isaih 42.1

shall

And
tliee
:

the angel

answered and

said

unto
of the

her, the

Holy Ghost
shall

come upon

thee,

and the power

therefore also that lioly thing

which

overshadow Highest shall be bora of thee shall

be called the son of God.

The
21.

Bible. St.

Luke

1.35

went up straightway out of water and, lo, the heavens were opened unto him, and saw him. Spirit of God descending like a dove, and lightening upon - The Bible. St. Matthew

And

Jesus,
:

when he was

baptized,

the the

3.16

And

Straightway

coming up out of

the water,

he

saw the heavens

1.10

opened, and the Spirit like a dove descending

upon him. The Bible. St Mark

Holy Ghost descended in a bodily shape like a dove upon him, and a voice came from heaven, which said, Thou art my beloved

And

the

Son; in thee

am

well pleased.

The

Bible. St.

Luke

3-22

And John
heaven
'."".'

bare

record,

saying,
it

saw the

Spirit

descending

from

like

a dove, and

abode upon him.

The

Bible.

St.

John. 1-32
:

hath sent speaketh the words of giveth not the Spirit by measure unto him.

For he

whom God

God
St.

For God
John
3.34

The
22.

Bible.

Systematic Theology by Louis Berkhof.

The Baimer of Truth

Trust.

Edinburgh. 1981. Eleventh Edition, p. 313

23.

East and West in Religion by Dr. Radhakrishnan. George

Allen

&

Unwin
24.

Ltd.

London. Second

edition. 1949. p. 58

Ibid. p. 62

25.
26. 27.

East and West-Some Reflections, p. 72

Ibid. p. 72

Suttanipata Verses 149-150. (trans

by Mrs. Rhys Davids).

15

28.

Jesus saith unto him, I say not unto thee, Until Seven Until Seventy times Seven.

times

but,

The
29.

Bible. St.

Matthew

18.22.

But

now man
do

ye also put off

all

these; anger, wrath, malice,

to

fillthy

communication out of your mouth. Lie not

have a quarrel against any
:

blasphemy, another If

any
also

even as Christ forgave you, so

ye.

The
30.

Bible. Colossians 3.8, 13,

his
disciples,

From
that
elders

that time forth began Jesus to shew unto

how

he must go unto Jerusasalem, and suffer many things of the aad chief priests and scribes, and be and be raised killed, again the third day. Then Peter took him, and began to rebuke him, this shall not be unto thee. saying, Be it far from thee, Lord But
:

Get thee behind me Satan thou thou savourest not the things that be of God, but those that be of men.
:

he turned, and said unto Peter,

art

an offence unto me

for

The
31-

Bible. St.

Matthew 16.21-23
'

East and West in Religion by Dr. Radhakrishnan. p. 29

All
his

32.

we like sheep have gone astray; we have own way; and the Lord hath laid on him
Yet
:

turned

every

one

to
all

the iniquinty of us

....

it

pleased the Lord to

shalt

grief

when thou

make

him; he hath his soul an offering for

bruise

sin,

put him to he shall

see his seed, he shall prolong his days,

shall

and the pleasure of the Lord

prosper in

his

hand.

The
33.
If

Bible. Isaiah 53.6,

10.

they sin against thee (for there

is

no man that sinneth

not),

and

thou be angry with them, and deliver them to be the enemy, so that they carry them away captives unto the land of the enemy, far or
near.
,

The

Bible. I kings 8.46

And

enter not into judgment with thy servant

living

for in thy sight shall

no man

be

justified.

The
-

Bible.

Psalms 143.2

Who

can

say, 1

have made

my

heart clean,

pure from my sin ? The Bible. Proverbr. 20-9

I

am

Far there

is

not

just

man upon

earth,

that

doeth

good,

and

sinneth not.

The

Bible. Ecclesiastes. 7.20

76

As

it

is

written, there

is

no a righteous, no, not one.

The
For
all

Bible.

Romans.

3.10

liave Sinned,

and come short of the glory of God. The Bible. Romans. 3.23

But the Scripture hath concluded all under sin, that the promise by faith of Jesus Christ might be given to them that believe. The Bible. Galatians. 3-22
It
is

we say that we have no sin, not in us.. ..If we say that

liar,

we deceive ourselves, and the truth we have not sinned, we make him
The
Bible.
?
1

and

his

word

is

not in

us.

John.

1.8,

10

34.

Who

can bring a clean thing out of an unclean

I

not one.
Bible. Job. 14.4

The
Behold,

was shapen

in iniquity;

and

in sin did

my mother conceive

me.

Whatsoever abideth

in

him sinneth not

The Bible. Psams. 51-3 Whosoever Sinneth hath

3.6.

not seen him, neither known him.

35.

Ye
him

shall

one law
is

for

The Bible. 1 John. him that sinneth through ignorance, both

of
Israel,

for

that

born

that sojournetli

among the children among them.

and for the

stranger

his

commandment,

Because he hath despised the word of the Lord, and hath broken that soul shall utterly be cut off; his .inquity shall

be upon him.

The
36.

Bible.

Numbers.
after

15.29, 31.
:

And God
and
let

Said, Let us

make man

in

our image,

our likeness

them have dominion over the lish of the sea, and over the fow of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male
and female created he them.

The
37.

Bible. Genesis. 1-26,

27

For

in the resurrection

they neither marry, nor are given in marriage,

but are as the angels of

38.
39.

God

in

heaven.

The Bible. St. Matthew 22.30 East and West in Religion by Dr. Radhakrishnan. p. 78. The Indian Philosophical Congress. Silver Jubilee Commemoration

Voume.
40.

1959. p. 159

And

which made them

he answered and said unto them, Have ye not read, that he" at the beginning made them male and female.

The

Bible. St.

Matthew.

19.4

77

But from the beginning of the creation

female.

God made them

The
Bible. St.

male

and
10.6

Mark.

In the beginning
the

was the word, and the Word was with God, and

Ward was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All were made by him; and without him was not anything made that was made And the light shineth in darkness; and the darkness
things
. .

comprehended

it

not.

The

Bible. St. John. 1.1-5.

And Thou,
earth;

Lord,

in

the beginning hast laid

the

foundation
:

of the

and the heavens are the works of thine hands

The
41. 42.

Bible.

Hebrews.

.1.10

The

Bible. Genesis. 1.2

STl^rcTOT

Iffrassf^'

sfas*

43.

Aitareya Upanisad, 1.4;

krishnan. p. 76
.

iii.2.

East and West

in

Religion by Dr. Radhais

The question regarding the creation of the world

Upanisads also
:

found

in

other

44.

He

performed tapas, having performed tapas

II. 6.1.

he

produced

all

this

whatsoever. Taitiriya Upanisad.

45.
46.

Brihadaranyaka Upanisad.

1.2.6

East and West in Religion by Dr. Radhakrishnan p- 77 East and West in Religion by Dr. Radhakrishnan. p, 77, 78, 79

47.

&
48.

Heart of Hindustan by Dr. Radhakrishnan. Pub. by G. A. Natesan Co., Madras. Sixth Edition, p. 79
I

For

know

that

my

redeemer

liveth,

and

that"

he

shall stand at the

latter

day upon the earth.

The
.
. . .

Bible. Job.

19.25.

Lord,

my

Strength, and

my

redeemer.

The

Bible. Psalms. 19.14

And
their

they remembered that redeemer.

God

was

their rock,

and the high

God

The
They forget God
their Savioiir,

Bible. Psalms. 78.35

in Egypt.

which had done great things

The

Bible. Psalms. 106.21

78

Fear not, them

saith the

worm

Jacob, and ye

men of

Israel; 1 will help thce,

Lord, and thy redeemer, the Holy

One The

of Israel.
Bible. Isaiah. 41-14

As

for our redeemer, the

Lord of hosts

is

his

name, the

Holy one

of Israel,

The
I

Bible. Isaiah. 47.4

the Lord

am

thy Saviour and thy Redeemer, the mighty

One of Jacob.

The
49.

Bible. Isaiah. 60.16

And

she shall bring forth a son, and thou shall call his

name

Jesus:

for he shall save his people

from

their sins.

Matthew, 1.21 To give knowledge of Salvation unto his people by the remission of their sins To give light to them that sit in darkness and in the shadow of death, to guide our feet into the way of peace,
.

The

Bible. St.

The

Bible.

St.

Luke.

1.77,

79

..indeed the Christ, the Saviour of the world.

The
But Peter
said.

Bible. St. John. 4.42

Ananias, why hath Satan filled thine heart to lie the Holy Ghost, and to keep back part of the price of the laud.

to

-The
Christ hath redeemed us from the curse

Bible. Acts. 5.3

curse for us
a
tree.

for

it

is

written,

Cursed

is

of the law, being made a every one that hangeth on

The

Bible. Galatians. 3.13

Because for the work of Christ he was nigh unto death, ding his life, to supply your lack of service toward me.

not

regar-

The
Looking
great
for that blessed hope,

Bible. Philippians. 2.30

and the glorious

all

appearing

of the
us,

God and

our Saviour Jesus Christ,

iniquity,

who gave

himself for

that he might

redeem us from

and purify

unto

himself

a peculiar people, zealous of

good works.

The
50.

Bible. Titus. 2.13, 14

at

Blessed be the

Lord out

of

Zion,

which

dwelleth

Jerusalem.

Praise ye the Lord.

The
Behold,
signs
I

Bible. Psalm.

134.21.

and the children

for

whom
Israel

the

and

wonders

in

from the

Lord hath given me are for Lord of hosts, which

dwelleth in

Mount

Zion.

The

Bible. Isaiah. S.I 8

79

he said unto me, Sou of man, the place of place of the soles of my feet, where will I dwell
Children of Israel for ever,
Israel

And

my
in

throne, and the

the midst of the

the

and

my

holy

name,

shall

house of

no more defile, neither they, nor dom, nor by the carcases of their kings
So

their kings,

by

their

whore-

in their high places.

The
shall ye

Bible.

Ezekeil. 43.7.
in

know

that
:

am

the Lord your

God

dwelling

Zion,
shall

my

holy mountain

then

shall

Jerusalem be holy,

and

there

no strangers pass through her any more.

The
^

Bible. Joel. 3.17

I will

for, lo, Sing and rejoice, O daughter of Zion dwell in the midst of thee, saith the Lord. And
:

come and
nations

many

shall

be joined to
will dwell in

the Lord

in that day,

and

shall

be

my

people

and I

the midst of thee, and thou

slialt

know

that the

Lord

of hosts hath sent

me unto

thee.

The
51.

Bible. Zechariah. 2.10, 11

to

And

they were all filled with the Holy Ghost, and began with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance.

speak

The

Bible. Acts. 2.4

in the flesh, but in the Spirit, if so be that the Spirit dwell in you. Now if any man have not the Spirit of Christ, he is none of his.. But if the Spirit of him that raised up Jesus from the dead dwell in yon, he that raised up Christ from the dead shall

But ye are not

of

God

also quicken

your mortal bodies by

his Spirit that

dwelleth in you.

The

Bible-

Romans.

8.9, 11

Know God dwelleth

And

and that the Spirit of ye not that ye are the temple of God,
in

you

The
because yc are sons,

Bible.

Corinthians, 3.16

God

hath sent forth the Spirit of his Son

into your hearts, Crying

Abba, Father.

The
In

Bible.

Galatians. 4.6

whom

ye also are builded

Spirit-

together

for

an

habitation

of

God

through the

The

Bible. Ephesians. 2.22

Do
in

you think

that the Scripture saith in vain, the Spirit that dwelleth

?

us lusteth to envy

The
52.

Bible- James. 4.5

is

That which
the Spirit
is

is

bom

of the flesh

is

flesh;

and that which

born of

Spirit.

The

Bible. St. John. 3.16

80

But when the fullness of the time was come,

God

sent forth his Sou.

The
In this sent

Bible. Galatians. 4-4

was manifested the love of

only

God towards us, because

the

that

God
live

his

begotten

Son

into

world,

that

we might
1

through him.

The Bible.
53.

John.

4.9

But the Comforter, which

send in

is

the

Holy Ghost,
all

whom

the Father will

all

my name,

he shall teach you

things,

and bring

things

to your remembrance, whatsoever I have said unto you.

The
But when the Comforter
the Father,
is

Bible. St. John. 14.26

come,

whom

I will

send unto

even

the

Spirit

of truth,
:

which proceedeth

you from from the

Father, he shall testify of

me

The
54.

Biblethee,

St.

John. 15.26

At

that time Jesus answered

and

said, I

thank

Father, Lord
things

of heaven and earth, because thou hast hid

wise and prudent, and hast

these

from

the
so,

revealed

them

unto

babes.

Even

Father

for so

it

seemed good

in thy sight.

The

Bible. St.

Matthew.

11.25, 26

O my
less

Father,

if it

be possible, let this

cup pass from

Bible. St.

me

neverthe-

not as

I will,

but as thou wilt.

The
Father, glorify thy
saying,
I

Matthew. 26.39

name. Then came there

glorified
it,

voice
it

from heaven,

have both

and

will glorify

again.

The
35.

Bible, St. John. 12.28

:

Likewise the Spirit also helpeth our infirmities

for
Spirit

we know not
itself

what we should pray for

intercession for us with

as

we ought

but the

raaketh

growings which cannot be uttered.

The
56.

Bible.

And

Romans,
out

8.26

Jesus,

when he was
lo,

water: and,
Spirit of

God
lo
I

And
in

whom

am

him, and be saw the descending like a dove, and lighting upon him a voice from heaven, saying, This is my

baptized, went up straightway the heavens were opened unto

of the

bdoved

well pleased.

'

-The
57.

Bible. St.

Oo
_ye

Matthew. 3.16 them

in the

17

therefore,

and teach

all

58.
59.

of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Occasional Speeches and Writings by Dr. Radhakrishnan.

nations, baptizing

name

The

Bible.

Corinthians. 15.3

81
it was weak through the flesh, For what the law could not do, in that the likeness of sinful flesh, and for sm, sending his own Son in

60.

God

condemned

sin in the flesh.

The

Bible.

Romans.

8.3

that ye may be a new lump, as Purge out therefore the old leaven, for us Christ our passover is sacrificed ye are unleavened. For even
:

The
61.

Bible.

1.

Corinthians. 5.7

62

'

95 Heart of Hindustan, by Dr. Radhakrishnan. p. fine which was clothed in purple and There was a certain rich man, And there was a certain every day linen, and fared sumptuously And sores. of full his at laid gate, which was beggar named Lazarus, from the nch mans be fed with the crumbs which fell
:

desiring to his sores. And it came moreover the dogs came and licked table into and was carried by the angels to pass, that the beggar died, And in also died, and was buried; Abraham's bosom the rich man ater Abraham in torments and seeth
: :

hell
off,

he

lift

up

his eyes,
in his

being

and Lazarus

bosom.

-And

Radhakrishnan, p. 95 Heart of Hindustan, by Dr. everlasting punishment these shall go away into
life

righteous into

eternal.

^^

but the

^^ ^
for glory

To them who by

and honour and immortality,

in well doing patient continuance eternal life.

seek

61

And

ict
shall

of

be

the out of heaven saying, Behold, taber; heard a great voice dwell with them, and.they God is with men, and he will shall be with them, and be himself God and Ms
people,

^nfGod
S hall

f
66.

from their eyes; and there shall wipe away all tears shall there neither sorrow, nor crying, neither be no more death, the former things are passed away. for in ,nre oain pain tor be any more Bible Revelation. 21.3
.

^^
:

And

shall cast

them into a furnce of

fire

there shall be wailing and

gnashing
67

of teeth.

^^ ^^ ^
fire.

And
death

cast into the lake of death and hell were was not found written

This
the

MattheW( 13<42 is the second

And whosoever

was

cast into the lake

of

fire.

^^

book of Me
15

82

68.

And
and

in

four beasts

before the throne there was a sea of glass like unto crystal the midst of the throne, and round about the throne, were full of eyes before and behind.
:

The
69.

Bible, Revelation. 4.6

331.

Occasional
(lecture
:

Speeches

and

writings,

Indian Religious

by Dr. Radhakrishnan. p. Thought and Modern Civilization.)

70.
71-

Ibid.

Jesus answered

and said

unto

them,

ye

do

err,

not

knowing

the

Scriptures, nor the

power of God.
The
Bible.
St.

Matthew.

22.29

But we had the sentence of death

trust in ourselves,

in ourselves,

that

we

should not

but in

God which

raiseth the death.

The
72.

Bible.

II

Corinthians. 1.9

Father raiseth up the dead, and quickeneth them; even quickeneth whom he will .... Verily, I say unto you, The hour is coming, and now is, when the dead shall hear the voice of the Son of God and they that hear shall live ____ And
as the

For
so

the

Son

shall
life,

come

forth; they that

and they that have done

have done good, unto the resurrection of evil, unto the resurrection of damnation.

The

Bible.

St.

John. 5.21, 25, 29

For the Lord himself

dead in Christ

shall

descend

the voice of the archangel,

from heaven with a shout, with and with the trump of God and the
:

shall rise first

The
73.

Bible.

2.

Thessalonians. 4.16

But

you, he that raised

him that raised up Jesus from the dead dwell in up Christ from the dead shall also quicken your mortal bodies by his Spirit that dwelleth in you.
if

the Spirit of

The
7.4.

Bible.

Who

Romans,

8.11
is

concerning the truth have erred, saying that the resurrection

past already; and overthrow the faith of some.

75.

Timothy. But now is Christ risen from the dead, and become the firstfruits of them that slept But every man in his own order Christ the
. :

The

Bible. 2

2.18

fruits;

afterward they that are Christ's at his Coming.

first-

~ Tne

Bible.

Corinthians. 15-20. 23

The

Bible. Colossians. 1.18

83

77.
78.

Eastern Religions

And Western

Thought, by Dr. Radhakrishnan.

p. 175

The The

Bible. Philippians. 1.23

79.
80.

Bible. St. Luke. 23.43

East and
Allen

West-Some

Reflections

by

Dr.

Radhakrishnan.

George

&

Unwin. London.

First edition. 1955, p. 69

Bibliography

1.

East and West

George Allen and Unwin Ltd. Ruskin House, London. Second edition. 1949.
East and
Allen and

in

Religion, S. Radhakrishnan. Pub.

2.

West-Some Reflections. S. Radhakrishnan. Pub. George Unwin Ltd. Ruskin House, London, First edition. 1955.
and Western
Press.
S.

3.

Eastern Religions

Oxford University
4.

Amen

Thought. S. Radhakrishnan. Pub. House, London. Second edition- 1940.

Pub.
:

Heart of Hindustan.
Co.; Madras. 1949.

Radhakrishnan.

G.A. Natesan and

5.

Systematic Theology, Louis Berkhot. Pub. Trust Edinburgh. Eleventh edition. 1981.

The Banner of Truth

6.

The Indian

Philosophical Congress.

Silver

Jubilee

Commemoration

Volume. 1950.
7.

AuthoriHoly Bible. -Translated by His Majesty's special Command zed King James Version. Pub. Collins' Clear Type Press. London 1959York. and New
:

DR.

RADHAKRISHNAN ON "KALKI OR FUTURE

OF CIVILIZATION"
Dr. 1.
S.
Beta!

."Man

himself seems terrifyingly near the

knowledge of

how

to des-

and terrifyingly far from troy his planet in a blazing chain of reaction, 1 the self-control necessary to avoid using his knowledge." G. G. Simpson.

Any man can

of realizing
his

say, just with a superfioous glance

at the events that

are happening in the world to-day that

own

self.

He

struggles

and happiness of his life, but the he is running after the things that he fails to understand. deep into the mysteries of life and unravels so many of its
the attainments that follow bring in store for

is faced with a unique problem and struggles for the comforts way he conducts himself shows that

man

He

probes

secrets, but

him

qualities

of joys and

sorrows, happiness and

sorrow

both.

Ambition, greed and materialisim

are his guiding principles; thirst for power, pride and vanity are his Gods. Freedom amounting to licence is his ideal and the ethics. The evident
result is that
his

he seems to march with a rather quickened

own

end, end
is

pace to meet amounting to self-annihilation. The reason of all this

turmoil

that he has lost hold over his

is

own

self,

but to his utter mispast.

fortune, he

not prepared to take a lesson from the

He

has

for-

gotten the truth that "the extent to which

ourselves and to plan our future to read the riddles of the past."

we can hope to understand depends in some measure, on our ability

But
it

seems that

man

is

not much

interested in reading the riddles of the past. It seens that he wants to shake off the past that he feels is too much with him; hardly realizing that the past is too much with him; it is in his very blood, veins, in his mind and conscience. As a result he stands at cross-roads. One road leads to progress and happiness and the other to extinction and sorrow. He is not able to decide which path he should tread

dhana man seems to

towards
it;

feel.-"! am in the know of Dharma but not activated know Adharma but know not how I can avoid 2 it".

upon. Like Duryo-

more than
tion as

Dr. Radhakrishnan, in his 'Kalki or Future of Civilization', written half a century back, looke upon the present state of civilizaone of its periodic crisis." (P-l). He says-

85

"The world
tutions

is

casting off

its

old garments. Standards, aims

and

insti-

which were generally accepted even a generation ago are now challenged and changing; old motives are weakening and new forces are
springing up.
vividly

Anyone
of

who
its

has

an

insight

into the

mind
its

of the age

is

conscious

restlessness

and uncertainty,
its

dissatisfaction

with the existing economic and social conditions and new order which is not yet realized." (P. 7).

yearning for the

Dr. Radhakrishnan attributes

to

this

unsettlement in
is

human
because

civilization
"its

modern

science as one of the chief factors. This

its

pace

of progress has become latterly too fast and

for

range too wide and deep

our quick adaptation." (P. 7). This is all the more true to the modern world with its hydrogen bombs and chemical weaponary, man's astounding researches in all the spheres-medical, nuclear and all. These have brought about revolutionary changes in all the spheres of man's life. The
picture that Radhakrishnan has
terror-striking

man

on

earth

drawn fifty years back is all the more and true to-day on one side and showing that the life of and human civilization have been revolutionized far

his expectation and imagination, Dr. Radhakrishnan is yet a man of strong optimism and unstinted faith in the ultimate goodness and gigantic of powers humanity. He, therefore, naturally states-

beyond

ate

"There is a quickened consciousness, a sense of something inadequand unsatisfactory in the ideas and conceptions we have held and a
after

groping
there

new

values.

Dissolution

is

in

the

air.

The

old

forms

of

faith are tottering.

is

Among the thoughtful men of every creed and country a note of spiritual wistfulness and expectancy," (10.11).

politics, International

When next Radhakrishnan analyses the negative results, he refers to and describes the state of affairs in the realms of Religion, Family life, Relations and through these he gives a most realistic, stunning picture of man and his civilization. Today, after fifty years
man
has

become more

individualistic

and self-centred, more worried

recourse
to
religious

about the ends and not the

means,

taking

fun-

damentalism and labelling it as revolution, looking upon even the United Nations only as a means of guarding and strengthening ones national interests and so on, the dismal picture drawn by Radhakrishnan becomes
all

the

more

horrifying.

The

Berlin

wall breaks and

communism

is

fast

losing ground; the same communist ideology and life-style can ruthlessly crush the democratic voice of a people as in China. The white minority that ruled over the vast black majority in South Africa, crushed the

86

vast majority of the blacks to utter humiliation, torture, exploitation

and

economic degradation is today forced, may be, against its own will, to of release a Nelson Mandela and also to agree to the independence Namibia. The world often seems to be full of contradictions with aparso and mullas the of of the white, the iron rule theid, racial
superiority

on. In the

modern

days

we do have

atheists at

one extreme and blind

followers of religion

at the other. In the

modern world Salman Rushdie-

a citizen of the United Kingdom can be given death penalty by the head of state of Iran and he can make it not only a national but religious issue.

The

truth of the picture of civilization

is

krishnan

all

the

and modern man drawn by Radhamore pronounced to-day than it was fifty years' back.

The progress
become a

that

man
:

could
the

reality of

his

life in

not acquire in the last 500 years has last fifty years. Man has realized all

the more glaringly that

there is increasing faith in the progress of man's command over the resodepending on the continued expansion urces and control of the powers of nature." (p. 8). And what Radha-

"From China

to

Mexico

that "The mind not meant drawn has and spirit. The new nearness into which we are since we are not mentally and friction, diminishing increasing happiness

krishnan stated 50 years back stands

not,

all

the

more true to-day

outer uniformity has

however,

resulted in an inner unity of

and

spiritually

prepared
are
all

for

the

meeting."

(p.
:

8).

And

the

words of

Maxim Gorky

the

more true to-day that

water like

"Yes, we are taught to fly in the air like birds, and to swim in the fishes, but how to live on the earth we do not know." (p. 8).
the more true to-day after half a century that
is
:

It is all

a quickened consciousness, a sense of something inadequate and unsatisfactory in the ideas and conceptions we have held and a is in the air. The old forms of groping after new values. Dissolution

"There

faith are tottering." fp.

10).

Man
seems to

continues to feel the inadequacy of the past

settle in

and no new value

man's

life

for

more than

five

to-day that

we

talk

and talk loudly of one world,

or ten years. It is true xinity of mankind, the

all

developed countries helping the developing, the results of

scientific

and

other inventions being made available to entire mankind, reducing military weaponry and atomic and nuclear weapons and so on. With all this even to-day the dream of Radhakrishnan, expressed in these words is yet only a dream
'

87

has

"Today the circle of those who participate in the cultural synthesis become wider and includes practically the whole world. The faith of
identification, in

the future

is in co-operation and not feellowmen and not imitation of them,

accomodation to

in toleration

and not absolutism."

(p.

ID.

Radhakrishnan
of the
lives

in the
is

second

chapter turns

to the

negative

results

modern
faith,

age. It

true to state that in the sphere of religion,

man

mostly blind faith. Modern science, with all its inventions and achievement has shaken this faith and many have turned to atheism

on

while those amongst the less intelligent and educated do not find in Science something like a god in whom one can have faith to derive strength in

times of
entific

crisis

inventions

and to be happy. However, Radhakrishnan refers to sci"undermining the foundations of orthodox theology
12)

in every historic religion." (p.

He

next adds

varied accounts of religous experience seem to support the fashionable view that God is but a shadow of the human mind, a dream of

"The

the
are

human
fit

heart.

Religious

genuises

who speak

to us of

'the

world'

uments do not carry conviction

refers to the gaining of
is

subjects for investigation in mental hospitals. The traditional arguto the modern mind (p. 12)". He then

to do.

ground by atheists who proclaim that-"Religion a pursuit of infantile minds with which the bold thinkers have nothing There is no God and we are the instruments of a cold, passion-

less fate to

whom

virtue

is

nothing and vice nothing

(p.

and from whose

grasp

we

escape to utter darkness."

13).

He then refers to agnostics who experience that "though there is no positive evidence for the existence of God, we cannot be sure that there is no God." (p. 13). To the agnostic the problem is beyond him.
There are
again

some who

"believe in

the pragmatic value of the

to theistic doctrine" (14) that they intend

make

use of for

improvement

of the world. They proclaim that-

"We

can use

religion

for
(p-

the
14).

latter

purpose as

it

contributes to

social peace

and betterment."

very vast

the past "contains the whole accumulated

faith in religion and in their view majority have blind wisdom of human experience.

Only the dead

really live

and should rule the

living."

(p.

14).

88

la the

modem

context

we can add many

by

things to

this

very short

account and refer to

supremacy and political is talk of "Hindi domination"

is

for social the grave dangers that the use of religion some lias led to- In India there

domination

which

is

a political

doctrme; when there

and upheaval, the minds of the commdanger." in Pakistan. A campaign of on man are drawn to human salaughter etc. results from this. The use of Relikillings, hatred, and surely this is of no direction is all the more pronounced
inner dissatisfaction

and

struggle

"Islam

in

gion in this or Islam. The propagation of the benefit or any good to either Hinduism or of "Jewish cause" etc., have been doctrine of "Islamic brotherhood" are exploited for political and that whatsoever to religions of no

good

whatever form it takes, similar other causes. This religious fundamentalism, for mankind. This too is a challenge to is frought with gravest dangers
humanity and civilization
use of atomic weapons,

both;

it

is

in

no way

less

dangerous than the

we can

say.

Radhakrishnan next turns

finds several

to the state of family-life. In his days he

new trends

in family life that

have today almost broken

to

of family life. pieces the fabric have led to laxity in standards.

He He

begins by referring to the causes that

says-

"A number
last war,

of factors, such as the disorganization brought about the

economic

conditions

favouring

late marriages,

the passion for

weakened parental control, inadequate sex-education, freudian psychology, and the knowledge of the methods of birth-control from fear the of us saves natural which consequences, have brought about
self-expression,

a laxity in standards."

The concept of male

superiority, the ideal

of virginity, sexual

license,

sexual promiscuity, breaking of the ties of marriage, divorces etc. are fast increasing,- the idea of loss of morals has got loosened. He refers to four
different attitudes of social idealists, seep tics,

bolder

spirits etc.,

persons believ-

ing in

rampant individualism
true

etc.

Family

life is

thus

on

fire,

What was
true

of family

life in

the days of Radhakrishnan

is all

we might say. the more

and pronounced today. We see that with the concept of individualism on the ascent, the ideal of a happy, smooth, peaceful, intimate
family-life
is

declining.

in the thoughtless traditional

There are three mental trends-family-life going on way and slowly losing ground; the family

of awakened educated
are

more

conflicts

and

collapsing families

and conscious husband and wife, in which there and families of the extremist
trial

men and women

very often resulting in

marriages and

over on the

89

brink of collapse.

The author here quotes Trotsky who

stated in his

Problems

of

life

that

"Gigantic events have descended on the family in its old shape, the war and the revolution.... we need more scientific economic reforms. Only under such conditions can we free the family from the functions and cares
that

now

oppress
like

and

disintegrate it", (p. 21).

ultra
Still

We

have today
facilities

so

many

facilities

ready-made

clothes etc.

washing machines, catering, on the increase.

modern
old

of sewing,

the ideas of relation between

man and woman,

parents and children, care of the

by their sons and

daughters have changed fundamentally and these ideas are adversely affecting even those men and women who lead a family-life in the traditional way.
Values and concept of family of old are tottering and the prosperity and of modern life have not given peace, smooth life and happiness
to

facilities

men,

women and

children born of

modern

marriages.

Radhakrishnan next turns

to the state of politics in his days.

In

his

rather quick survey he refers to the rise and state of democracy and democratic institutions the world over. He is specific when he states that

"We welcomed democracy as

satisfied
is

a release from autocratic

rule,

but we are not

in

working today. We are coming to realise that government a technical art and only those skilled in it can be the rulers. Democracy to be governed by its ablest its actual working rarely permits a country
with
its

men."
If

(p. 22).

we were

to take a view of the state of affairs in India,

we

find that

this is glaringly true.

Our democracy has brought

to the forefront

the

ill-

and terror-inspiring educated, rich, caste-ridden, religion-based much so that the real ablest in the groups to the forefront, so
feel that
it

men and
country

them to remain away from politics. Rule of The ideal of good and decent means for to us by Mahatma Gandhi and A.Huxley has good and decent ends taught the ballot-box by any means, by hook or by to through failed. Come power To a great extent terrorism, racialism, crook, is accepted as a normal practice. more and more pronounced with every etc. that are becoming
is far

better for

mediocres

is

the order of the day.

goond'aism

ill-conceived election are the off-shoots of our

democracy.
strifes,

Situation

the

world over

is

more

or less the same. Political

murders, revolts have

become common
west
12
is

in countries claiming to uphold

real

democracy.

World

The glaring latest development in the over monarchies have been shattered.
the breaking

down of communism

in countries that

were

commu-

90

nist for fifty

years

and more
economic

Radhakrishnan

is

again right
political

when he

desires

political equality

and adds that "There can be no

inequality."
(p. 24).

equality where
the

there

is

so

much

Economic inequality

world over has proved that there can be no peace and happiness in
the situation
is

political

equality or genuine

could conceive

democracy, in any ism at that. Here also far more glaringly painful and bad than Radhakrishnan
politics,

in

of.

In the study of the negative

humanity and

civilization, the

results that are a veritable challenge to author next takes up the problem of Internatiall

onal Relations.

He

has rightly stressed that almost

interests

more or
lived for
ries

countries are interested

principally in national

some time only

we know,
it

and, as

and even the League of Nations it furthered national interests of some countcrumbled with time. As he states
till

"The nations plead for peace and prepare for war. They are not ready to give up the cast of mind that leads to strife From the nursery we cultivate this conceit of nationalism by the waving of flags and the blowing of bugles, by songs of patriotism and the hymns of hate. Each nation in the last war claimed to be the only one engaged in the defence of civilzation In its name each nation justified
and destruction."
everything, excused everything

massacre,'

(p.

25).

That invited the

it

second

world-war

and a

|T
to

devastating annihilation that

led to.

The

worse
blocks

situation has

the

modern days when the nations of the

good
to
its

gone from bad have the

nounshing and furthering common interests. Nations" with all the work
credit.

world are divided into

We
a

TIn>,

Yet

oml

down
of

Or

mcn by
,l,e

"

"

ing the ased and

ohinns and

"' "* Wi " in8

'

mow

inZ
<ne

Qod and

re

**

*y.

I,

with sadness

,hhe

91

"Internationalism
of

is

only an idea cherished

(p. 28).

by a few

and not a

part

human

psychology."

The third section in this famous scholarly monograph analyses the problem with which humanity and civilization are faced in the state of affairs that we had described and that has become all the more pronounced after fifty
"

years.

The author does not

it

in

any way underestimate the graveness of the

problem and places

of his thesis.
the barbaric

in the right perspective before going to the last part

The

Reconstruction.

He
in

distinguishes, first of

all

between

and the human natures

man.

He

says

in us is ever striving to fulfil itself-when all impulses are we have the full development of the animal being, the of our animal nature. If we identify the self of man with the perfection body and life-purpose with physical development, we are said to be barbarian, worshipping brute strength and power and idealizing the satisfaction

"The animal

perfectly satisfied

of the passions," (p. 30).

deprive

and "Such an exclusive culture of the body, would coarsen the spirit and it of its rights. The supremacy of physical prowess and developis

ment

the

characteristic exploit

mark of barbarism. In

such a society,

belittle

and

women,

for the latter are physically weaker, and

men women

and pander to brute strength and prefer those known for their bravery and deeds of arms." (p. 30-31)
in their turn respect

By

this definition

and these

ideals,

today the world

is

more

in

a bar-

baric state and not

human

or civilized.

He adds

further

:-

individuals

"The universe has spent so much pain and who adore trie good, the lovely, and
(p.

struggle to

the true

produce human and who are not

content with a finished animality."

33).

One famous human existence

"For the
in his

Sanskrit statement says that "there is none superior to the in this world" and another, from Shri Shankara adds

living beings, birth as a

huamn

being

is

rare to

come across,"

Vivekacudamani. Our concept of the three Gunas and the confidence to the that man is essentially good and powerful enough ultimately to rise blessed state of genuine happiness for man and eternal peace on earth show as to on which that Indian culture has taught, inspires the author to
path

man

will ultimately tread.

picture of the realistic

state

of humanity

He, therefore, even inspite of the painful and civilization that he has

drawn, states-

9i

"It

is

the transformation of the individual into the

universal

outlook

the linking

up of our daily life with the eternal purpose that makes us truly human. The procese is costly, but when the redirection of our whole
nature to this universal end takes place,
the yoke
is

easy and the burden

of consciousness would life, a new order begin as from that which now men have, even as human life and consciousness are different from animal life and consciousness." (p. 33).
light.

new kind of

different

ness of

And Radhakrishnan's man depend upon

come

robust optimism and faith in the ultimate goodthe long history of ups and downs and

ups

again that have

in the life

of man. The struggle

all

is

on,

it is

But the author emphasises with

"Civilization
is

force at his

command

that

constant.

and

social outlook.

within ourselves, in our moral conceptions, religious ideas, Though the achievements in exact science and

mechaical

organization of Ancient India or

inferior to ours,
spiritual values
it

cannot be denied that

Greece or Medieval Italy are immensely they had a truer perception of

and

the art of life." (p. 35).

civilization with firm

human

values suffers onslaughts even

of bar-

barism, onslughts that, for the time being seem to uproot the civilization outright. But history has proved that again and again those values prevail and the civilization rises up again. Hindu civilization is a concrete example in the matter. Our philosopher-author firmly believes that this can be true and will be true of entire humanity and world civilization. have been taught that "for personalities with large hearts, the entire world is one family" and a state and time will come when "the entire universe will become just one nest. The ideal of Gandhiji in his mantra "truth is God", his love for

We

entire

the

and

his

humanity his concept of non-violence amounting to dream of Sarvodaya are

pointers
in
this

universal love

direction.

taught us and asked us to

Vedas

have

dream of and work for the ideal-

which mus,, of

mi

e
,y ,

'

come

in

life .

He

.0

the world safe for

humanity."

(p.

40).

Up t0 us to make

93

He
"If

further states

also mentally
I

we go on and
the

progressing,

not only
prospect

physically
for

and mechanically but

is

spiritually, the

humanity
upheaval

great

indeed.

am

optimistic

enough

to

hope

that the present

(p.

will in

the end

promote

good of the world."

41).

That is the Kalki, the bright tomorrow to dawn in the life of man. The Kalki Avatara lies in the divinity that is there in the human consciousness and its dawn is a certainty. With this aim in view, in the last
part of the monograph, Radhakrishnan points out what reconstruction will

be and how.

What one famous mantra

is

of an

the path of liberation

true of the bright future of humanity

to.
It is

Upanisad proclaims about and civilitrue that

zation that

man

has to struggle to attain

"Like the walking on pointed sharp blade of a sword, the path for man is steep, very difficult indeed to tread as our philosophers and sages
have stated in so many words." In
five

his section

on Reconstruction, Radhakrishnan takes

up

the

same
and

spheres in the same order and expounds his theory of reconstruction

in the realms

of Religion, Family-Life, Economic Relations,

It
is

Politics

International Relations.

natural

that

the

longest

is

his

analysis of

of reconstruction

is

the realm of religion.

In the realm of Religon, Dr. Radhakrishnan concedes that world of reconstruction, the vast majority of men and women
climate, society, culture, tradition, concepts and need not have one Religon. He says
:

even in p
in differen

ideas,

cannot

have

ana

richness of the world. If

"A single religion for all mankind will take away from the spiritual we want to prevent the sterelization of the mind and the stagnation of the soul of humanity, we must not repudiate or the historical religions. As many as are refuse, recognition to any one of led by the spirit of God, these are the sons of God." (p. 45).
to experience a It is necessary for the entire world of human beings lead all on transformation so that the religious and spiritnal experience with his unstinted faith in humanity accepts the path. The author,
right
t jj at

Man

he

and what he can be. He is distinguished from a principle of progress," seeking after a rule of life,
is

alone has the unrest consequent on the conflict between what other creatures by
(p.

48).

and

94

to transform 'it is by transforming ourselves that we shall be able the world. The soul of all improvement, it has been rightly said, is the improvement of the soul." (p. 48).
In the realm of religion, as in
all

others,

"There

is

no

resting

on

the

road of life. Every achiement

All this expects of

is

a starting point
belief

for something

new."

(p. 51).

man

full faith in

and practice of moral

evil

values,

humanistic outlook,
at

sympathy even
this the

towards

doers, a constant effort

:

widening our vision. For

"It
is

author adds that

good
it.

to be
It is

devoted to the

moral code but

if

it

is

wicked

to be

fanatic about
it,

our guide and beacon-light, but,

we make a god

of
is

it

will blind
if

our

reason and strand us in immortality.

No

progress

possible

the moral rules are regarded as

sacrosanct." (p, 57).

A
and
of man,

true attitude of adherence to

moral values, to the ethics of religion

life

and
all

This will

vision of the ultimate good beings and our future civilization will be real reconstruction. naturally have a deep impact on man's family life and other

all this

with a universally wide

human

spheres of

life.

The author therefore

states first

of

all that

'The
aesthetic

different aspects of

human

and ethical are sacred

1

physical, vital, mental, emotional, since they are the means for our
life,

growth

towards

diviner being.'

(p. 58).

The author

therefore

gives his ideal of

:

happy and smooth

relation

between husband and wife in these words

its

"True love requires for

maintenance the
ideal to

arching end, the pursuit of a

common

presence of an overthe realization of which

the lovers dedicate themselves.

Husband and wife accept each other and evolve out of the given unlikeness a beautiful whole." (p. 59).

This requires extreme patience, restraint, forebearance, charity and Once this is achieved and husband and wife experience an idenall other problems of family and social life will tend 'to be solved Children and their natural growth under the loving care of parents will be achieved. The author is therefore opposed to trial-marriages, contract marriages etc. Man and woman should therefore take to married life in the seriousness that it expects. This will
v.g.lance.
tity,

mean transformation
that

of

their

ur

'Motion
and

"ith

all

in m

tltf'feconomic
the realm of

IShnan

^V ^ ^^ion
6

t0

reconstruction

relations.

For

servitude of machines; labour

this expects

man

not to cultivate
ight

and

leisure should" be the

of

95

should cultivate an attitude of working for oneself and through oneself for fulfilling social needs. This requires shaking off of distinctions of high and low, rich and poor, the haves and have-nots and so on. All this is

a must and for this

it

is

necessary that
of mutual understanding and

"We
more
individual

must overcome the lack

and all-pervading

achieve a

vital

sense of the

human

and

spiritual life in

the

and the group."

is

(p. 64).

Next what
of

required

is

to consider both the

quantity
his

and

quality
as

human

desirables.

Man

should

know how

to

fulfil

own

desires

also to curb them, to control them.

To-day, after
relations

fifty

years

new problems

have arisen

in the

econmic

between countries and nations and these have again a dangerous and ghastly effect on political and international relations. The unrest brought about by grave inequalities resulting in extreme riches of some individuals in society and of some countries and poverty rampant and extreme of some
individuals

and groups and

countries.

Mad

race for prosperity leads to

mad

of prosperity and poverty has overshadowed power-politics and the politics both our politics and international relations. Things are far worse today in the

realms of politics and international relations than the author could conceive of. Democracy is said to be the best form of government, though this so-called

democracy has countless types and it has not made man happier. Socialism and communism followed and led to diametrically opposed power-blocks.
with Religious fundamentalism
all its

grave dangers has entered the realm,

communism

is

crumbling
things

fast.

struction

So many and

could

have been stated, though, in matters of reconthe author's

is

transformation
is

treatment
of

is

rather

brief

and

incomplete.

What

necessary

an

off-shoot

the

moral, spiritual,

He wants a fostering of ethical and unity of outlook that religion gives. its attitude oneness of thought, and a change in "national psychology in and its slow but sure cultito war." Here only an international outlook
vation and fostering can help. should be known that

But

in

this

cultivation

and

fostering,

it

"Internationalism

is

not a

scientific
all

device

like

the
to.

wireless
It
is

or

the

telephone which the world can,

plant which
it

of a

sudden take

a delicate
that

takes long to rear." (p. 68).

What

is

necessary

is

"The world must be imbued with a love of humanity.

gious heroes

We

want

reli-

who

will not wait for the transformation

of the whole world

96
but assert with their

lives, if

necessary, the truth of

will

the

conviction

"on

earth one family," heroes

Ider
:

who

'i have no need to

hope

in

accept the motto of the great Stadhoorder to undertake, nor succeed in

order to persevere,"

(p. 72),

Conclusion

True

it

is,

beyond any doubt, that the views of Dr. Radhakrishnan on

and humanity in its pursuit after eternal happia total extinction of war are as much, or, shall we say, far more relevant to-day than they were fifty years ago. In these fifty years the world has changed for the worse to-day and yet its dream of the
ness, peace,

the future of civilization

future

is not without basis. It has its foundation in some soothening traits of human temperament, of human consciousness, the vast and deep inner world of human beings. Here the

of the future
slight,

phic vision and so on.

great philospher shows that his picture is quite on right lines. This speaks volumes for the foredepth of understanding, grasp of human nature, his deep philoso-

AN APPRECIATION OF RADHAKRISHNAN'S TRANSLATION OF "THE BHAGVADGITA"

Jag Mohan*
I was not privileged Having been born an Adi Dravida in Madras, the British Raj, t to learn Sanskrit. At school and college, dazzled by

abandoned

my

mother-tongue,

Telugu,

and

opted

for

I had to content myself language of communication. Perforce, books on this Sanskrit classic. It has been lations of the Bhagvadgita and over the last four decades. I must of mine a major literary preoccupation and over half a dozen interpretahave read over a score of translations was in pursuit of my endeavour to get at tions and commentaries. This now on I shall refer as just the from which the rahasya of Bhagavadgita,

English as my with trans-

Gita.

Among
krishnan's

all

the Gita books

have read and re-read, Dr.

with a splendid

S.

Radhaessay,

monumental

translation,

introductory

has had a

like statesman's other books I was led to his The Bhagvadgira, It and An Idealist View of Life that thnce continues to do so even after readmg it cast a spell on me and an been enriching, rewarding experience, has over. And, each reading
:

for me. It was after reading the philosopherspecial fascination The Hindu View of Life, Indian Philosophy

The Song
as
it

Celestial or

The Song of God or the Song

called,

of the Blessed

has

been

variously

through

Radhakrishnan's

translatuA

enthralled
it.

over them. read a few dokas and ponder Every morning, I wouldintent of wnUng research with the aim and This led me to an extensive unrealized an project. is still a script for an art film, which

me

so

much

that for a year or so I

made a

ritual

readmg of

Radhakrishnan's long introductory

essay,

notes and footnotes to the

:~'
prose

party

**
,

"" **>*

tralls i at

Md m of

thel
the

T T"T
h

Oua have

also
-

o allof tbem

*
13'

NAMEDIA, New

Delhi

And now

I shall

share

my

ed Radhakrishnan's translation.
introduction,

appreciative assessment of the one-time knightI may be forgiven for this long personal

to provide a contextual background. Subjectivism cannot be excluded from personal appreciation.

which

is

intended

What
scripture,

explanatory commentary
the

has particularly distinguished Radhakrisbnan's translation and has been his attitude to the celebrated
perspective
in

Hindu

from

which
his

he did the

translation

and the

methodology he adopted
It is

making

achievement memorable.
a century

to be recalled

that

more than

obsession with European scholars. Sir Edwin translated the Gita into English as The Song Celestial pointed out in mid-1 9th century that this Sanskrit classic has been turned into French by Burnouf, into Latin by Lassen, into Italian by Stanislav

Gita became

almost

and a half ago

the

an

Arnold,

who himself

<

and into English by Mr. Thomson and Germany, Richard Garbe, Paul Deussen, Leopold Von Schroder and Helmuth van Glasenapp translated
Gatti^into Mr. Dev,s
In

Greek by Galanos

'

the Gita. According 'to there are said to be I4 transiations

Indian

Philosophy to the

of his preface to the book thus

commentaries indicate to us ,* r-. commentators and their contemporaries E* r v two sides, one temporary and perishaWe hi g1 " t 8 tto ideas the people of the period and t * and the other eternal m P eilstl able, and apphcable to all and
to the

"The

classical

wW

'

countries...."

ages

in

its

power

to

doctrine, as

of individual,

it is repeated in the cou ,, e of the reflections of the age in which

~^xz:z2Z% -~;-:*-:^~:~~ J
1

produce from

*"^ ~"
>

ce centunes
a"d

it

who

aW

* rea < coloured by

imprint

restates it."

bears the

99

Radhakrishnan
ptures to the world

wanted to re-state the philosophy of the. Gita

to his
after the

in his

profound understanding of the Hindu scriSecond World War- He. sought to effect "the reconciliation of mankind" by highlighting "the truths of eternity,"

own words, according

with "the accents of our time."

With

the clarity of
set

mind

for which he

became famous
in

in his life time,

:

Radhakrishnan also
.:

out his credo as a translator

the same preface

"There are many editions of the Bhagavadgita and several good no justification for English translations of it and there would be was a bare translaanother, if all that was needed for English readers
tion.

Those

who

as those

who
....

read

read the Gita in English need notes at least as much their it in Sanskrit, if they are not to miss

way

in

it

purpose must be as clear as without being shallow, modern the Gita can without being unsympathetic. But no translation of the original. Its melody and magic bring out the dignity and grace of

translation to serve
It

its

its

substance

will permit.

must be

readable

of phrase are
lator's anxiety

difficult to
is

recapture in another

medium. The

trans-

thought, but he cannot convey fully in which the the spirit. He cannot evoke in the reader the mood him the ecstacy of the seer and the in induce and thought was born at any rate, it is difficult .vision he beholds. Realizing that, for me the dignity of phrase, to bring out, through the medium of English, in Roman have I of given the text utterance, the and intensity can. rise to a' full also so that those wlio know Sanskrit
to render the
script

comprehension
correct idea

Sanskrit original.
,

rendering by a flavour of

meaning of the Gita by pondering over the: Those who do not know Sanskrit will get a fairly of the spirit of the poem from the beautiful English and has Sir Edwin Arnold. It is so full of ease and grace
of the
.

its

own which makes

it

acceptable to

ail

but those

who

are scrupulous about scholarly accuracy."

Radhakrishnan's
in

Unwin
went

into

book was originally published by George Allen &. of ideas and quality. This London, well-known for their books Then Blackie & Sons, a nine impressions in a second edition.

textbooks in India brought out a cheaper, long-time. publisher of English and this too went into seven reprints by 1982, indicating Indian
reprint

of the book. the ever-widening readership

More, the non- Sanskrit-knowing

India were allowing themselves to have an exposure tp people all over and interpreted by Radhakrishnan, the Gita as translated

100

Between

1948 and

today,

two other translations

of the Gita have

been brought out, which have had world-wide reception-one by Swanai Pradhavananda and Christopher Isherwood and the other by Juan Mascaro;
Christopher Isherwood was an outstanding intellectual, English novelist and filmscript writer of the 'forties. During the Second World War, he migrated from wartime Britain to the United States, where fortuitously

he met

Swami Prabhavananda of
tatter's

the

Ramakrishna Mission and came

under the

benign influence. This led to their collaborative venture,

a fresh translation the

is appended with 'short essays ou "Cosmology of the Gita" and "The Gita and the War." A'ldous the celebrated novelist and protagonist of the "Perennial PhiloHuxley, sophy" has written the introduction. This was published by 1 N- Dent

of

the Gita,

which

in the

Everyman's Library.
next

In 1961, the

out as
Pali at

Penguin

Classic.

major translation by Juan Mascaro was brought A Spaniard, Mascaro had studied Sanskrit and
later taught there.

Cambridge

and

He

has also translated selectalso.

ions from the Upanishads.

is

He

is

a Biblical

scholar

His translation

impeccable prose uncluttered by notes and footnotes. But his own introduction is an eassay in Comparative Religion, in which context he
has placed the Bhagvadgita, emphasising on its universality as well as relevance to the world of today. This book has gone into several reprints, almost once every year during the 'seventies. The Gita's message is obviously rinding favourable response among readers worldwide.
1

in

To understand and
nslation, I

appreciate Radhakrishnan's methodology of trahave selected two Slokas (Adhyaya HI Verses 19 and 20) devoted
into English

Karama Yoga. Their translation are quoted below and contrasted

to

by

five different Jwriters

against Radhakrishnan's rendition. In

.

quoting the texts

incorporated the footnotes in the text; at "the relevant places within brackets, with the words in italics).
Sir Edwin Arnold, C.S.I., an eminent scholar, an able administrator of the Indian Empire and an Indologist, became famous for his translation of Bhagavadgita into English blank verse, The Song CelestrMI. A

have

the English-speaking world for its simplicityand intuitive understanding of Hindoo (it was much later that the spellihK changed into Hindu) philosophy. Here is Sir Edwin's translation :

ago, this

book was

century-

hailed in

"Therefore, thy task prescribed

With

spirit

Since in

unattached gladly perform performance of plain duty man

161

Mounts

to his highest bliss.

By works alone
!

Janak and ancient

saints reached blessedness

Moreover, for the upholding of the kind, Action thoit should'st embrace."

The same two slokas have been translated by R. C. Zaehner, was a Spalding Professor of Eastern Religions arid Ethics at the University of Oxford and had compiled Htudu Scriptures in the following manner
:

who

"And so, detached, perform unceasingly The works that must be done For the man detached who labours on (karma), To the Highest must win through;
."For only by working on (karma)
did Jariaka

And
Or
if

his like attain perfection

thou carest again for the welfare (control) of the world

act)."

Then shouldst thou work (and

During the
forties,

when

the

Second

World War was

on, Christo-

the benign .influence pher Isherwood, a creative English writer came under of Swami Prabhavananda of the Ramakrishna Mission in the United and States. They collaborated on a fresh transalation of Bhagavadgita called it The Song of God. Aldoux Huxley, who was a protagonist of the "Perennial Philosophy" wrote the introduction to this book, publi-

shed in 1947.

The two slokas on the philosophy of Kdrmx Yoga were Isherwood thus by Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher
:

translated

"Do man
results.

reaches

That is how a your duty, always; but without attachment. the ultimate truth; by working without anxiety about
Janaka (a
royal
saint

In fact,

mentioned

in the

Upanishads)
set others,

and many others reached enlightenment,

duty
in this spirit.

siniply because they 'did their

Your motive

in

working should be to

by your example,

'on the path of duty."

the

Juan Mascaro's version from

"19.
In liberty

Penguin Classic

is

as follows

from
;

the work to be clone

bonds of attachment, do thou therefore for the man whose work is pure attains indeed
the

the Supreme.
other warriors reached perfection by the "20. King Janaka and and then; carry on Let thy aim be the good of all, path of action;
,

thy task

in

Life."

102

In this comparative study of the two slokas,

get acquainted
Sastry,

it

may

be worthwhile to

with

the

version

put

out

in

1897 by Alladi

Mahadeva

well-versed in Telugu, Sanskrit and English and one-time Director of the Library of the Theosophical Society at Adyar, Madras, in his The Bhagavad Gita with the Commentary Sri
pandit,

an

Andhra

who was

of

specialise in the

Sankaracharya, This was brought out by Samata works of Sri Sankaracharya. In

Books of Madras, who

Sastry's book, the 'slokas

are reproduced in Devanagari script, followed .by translation tation.

and

interpre-

Alladi

Mahadeva

Sastry's interpretation

is

man

"19. Therefore, without attachment, constantly perform the action which should be done; for, performing action without attachment

reaches the Supreme.

Performing action, without attachment, for the sake of the Isvara man attains moksha, through attaining purity of mind
"20.

(sattva-suddhi)'

By

action only,

indeed,

did

Janaka

and

perfection.

Even with a view

others try to attain

to the protection of the masses thou shouldst

perform faction)".

The

wise Kshatriyas of old,

such as Janaka and

(samsiddhi).

by action alone to attain moksha

possessed of right knowledge, then
they had

Asvapati
that

tried

we should understand

If they were perso

si

they tried to attain

attaining
If

engaged in works, they tried to reach moksha w^th action, i.e. without abandoning action, with a view to set an examni * to the world. If, on the other hand, such men as Janaka were pers who had not attained right knowledge, then, (we should understand)"
;

been

moksha through action purity of mind (sattva-huldhi).

which

is

the

means of

ama (the Karma which has led you to th birth as a Kshatriya), and having regard allo o th purpose of preventmg the masses from resorting to a wrong path Y ought to perform action." (A lone fnntnn ^ * , " knowle dgeable Kshatriyas has been left out.)
a-l<
'

even then, as subject to your

you think that obligatory works were performed by the ancient such as Janaka because they were ignorant, and that it does no follow from that fact alone that action should be performed b another who possesses right knowledge and has done all his dutiV-l

praM

Finally, let us get acquainted

103
invariably appended with notes translation of
is

then the short, pithy translation

is

given,

and footnotes.

It

is

in

this

respect

that Radhakrishnan's

the Bhagavadgita, dedicated to

19.

Mahatma Gandhi,

unique.

tasmad asaktah satatam karyam karma samacara

asakto hy acaran karma

param
'

apnoti purusah

to

be

the work that has Therefore, without attachment, perform always for man attains to the highest by doing work without

done,

attachment.

Here work done without attachment is marked as superior to is itself higher than work work done in a spirit of sacrifice which souls do work as the' done with selfish aims. Even the emancipated
occasion arises.
the Supreme, param, While this verse says that the man reaches without attachment, Samkara holds that karma performing actions, salvation. It takes leads to mind which of helps us to attain purity attainment of purity of mind. us to perfection indirectly through the
20.

Karmanai
asthitti.

'va hi

samsiddhim

janakadayah

lokasamgraham eva 'pi sampatyan kartum arhasi

It

attained was even by works that Janaka and others

to perfection.

Thou

with a view to the maintenance of the world. shouldst do works also

of Janaka was the King of Mithila and father
sense of
Sita, the

wife of

being Rama. Janaka ruled, giving up his personal and others worked lest people Even Samkara says that Janaka
large might
activity,

the worker.
at

go

astray,

convinced

that their senses were engaged in

truth

Even those who have not known the guna gunsesu Varantemight adopt works for self-purification.
'

Lokasamg raha

world-maintenance. Lokasamgraha stands for the

the interconnectedness of society. If the world is unity of the world, moral degradation, not to sink into a condition of physical misery and common life is to be decent and dignified, religious ethics if the is to of aim The spiritualize socisocial action. religion

must control
ety, to

establish a

brotherhood on earth.

We

must be inspired by the

104

hope of embodying world lost its youth,

ideals in
it

earthly institutions.

When

the Indian

tended to become other-wordly. In a tired age, and endurance. In an age of we adopt the. gospel of renunciation active service in the world and the we emphasize and energy, hope to of civilization. Boethius affirms that "he will never go
saving
heaven,

who

is

content to go alone."

"Cp.

Yogavasistfia.

The

knower has nothing to gain

either by

from action. Therefore he performs action performing or by attaining "To me it is just the same whether something is as it arises. Again, should I insist on not performing action ? I or not. Why
done
perform

whatever

comes

to

me." (The

transliterated slokas

from

Yogavasistha

are not included here.)

slokas by K.T. Telang, For reasons of space, translations of the two W. Douglas, P. Hill, B-G. L.D- Barnett, Annie Besant and Bhagawandas, and Mahadev Desai and others Tilak D.S. Sarma, Franklin Edgerton

have been

left

out.

ered that Radhakrishnan's

it can be gath" But from the half a dozen translations quoted here, version stands out as the most impressive,

erudite and truly interpretative-especially

Radhakrishnan's
into consideration

translation

is

model

with the emphasis on lakasamgraha. when we take translation,

two noa4related

languages, like Sanskrit;

and

^English,

of Oriental and Occidental philosophies, had a complete understanding and their ethos, which have sustained besides the psyche of our peopleof all this could be ga.the.red from Evidence centuries. the
us through
his version of the

apart

to the Indo-European even though they belong from being conversant with both languages,

family, Radhakrishnan,

from

a-

professorial level,

four European translators two slokas. In contrast, the

translations

the

had done simplistic, populist according to their lights, Samkara's commentary, shastri had to abide by
Radhakrishnan's

and

book was

of the Second World, during the dark days

published; in 1948. It. was possibly written war or soon after- As such,

when he wrote the

after the

preface, he
their

began

by saying that during the war and

applications

Sciences, in

practical

became promment

in

of citizens in peace." Long before, "tha conductof war and the comfort about the Two Cultures, the CP, Show and otlierJntellectuals spoke and the telescoping of the two. Humanities the of sciences and
'

cultures

Rldhakrishnan

'.

to give of two cultures made a plea for the fusion He pointed out that wisdom to men's outlook on life."

105

the Sciences are the

culture should bring the

gita
is

means to the ends of the Humanities. "A balanced two great halvas into harmony. The Bhagavdalife."

a valuable aid for understanding the Supreme ends of

at a tangent, a
first

Off

When

the

famous atomic bomb was

the

incident deserves to be mentioned

tested at the

here.

Oppenheimer.
struck with

famous
sloka

scientist,

Los Alamos desert, Robert who masterminded the test was so

awe by

the shattering

brightness of the

bomb, he

recited to

himself the famous

from the
12).

Gita (Adhyaya
Sanskrit at
12.

XI Verse

Viswaroopa Darshana chapter in the Oppenheimer, incidentally was a student of

one time.
divi

suryasahasrasya

bhaved yugapad utthita

yadi bhah sadrsi sa syad bhasas tasya mahatmanah
If

in the sky,

the light of a thousand suus were to blaze forth all at once that might resemble the splendour of that exalted Being.

Oppenheiner's reference to ''brighter than a thousand sums" was cover the next week. Subsequently, splashed on the "Time" magazine's when Robert Jungk wrote a well-documented book on the horrendous
over Hiroshima and Nagasaki he tragedy unleashed by the atom bomb entitled it as "Brither than a Thousand Suns." Oppenheimer and Jungk.

must have

also

hoped that the

Sciences should be the

means

for the

ends of Humanities..

Yet another aspect that Radhakrishnan has emphasised is that the Gita has sought to "reconcile varied and apparently antithetical forms of religious consciousness" and highlight "the root conceptions of religion
which are neither ancient nor modern but eternal and belong to the very flesh of humanity, past, present aad future."

Radhakrishnan's 55-page introductory essay is invaluable and indispensable for any student of the Gita. It deals with date and the text used, the various commentators starting with Samkara and ending with Mahatma Gandhi the concept of Reality and Maya, in the Gita, the
role of

of

Yoga and
The
14

Krishna as a teacher, the three paths to knowledge, the cultivation so on. It is written with clarity, in impeccable English and
notes and footnotes scattered throughout the book are in a way or providing historical essay. Clarifying subtle points

in great style.

an extension'of the

106

and linkages. They blend well with the parallels or revealing connection translation of the slokas and explanatory passages, All in all, for a nonSanskrit-knowing reader or a foreigner, Radhakrishnan's book dated commentary with the flavour of contemporaneity.
It is

is

an up-

my

firm belief that but for the translations of the Bhagavadgita

Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, Christopher Isherwood and Juan Masin the musical history of the Western World could caro, a "near miracle" not have happened, Could we in India ever imagine that an American
by

composer would write an opera

in

which the entire

libretto
it

(text

of the

vocal music) would be from the Bhagavadgita ?

Yet

has happened.

The American composer,

"
Satyagralia"
ted
first
,

the

slokas

Philip Glass, has composed the music for an opera in three acts for which Constance Dejong adopfrom the Gita in Sanskrit, from the 23rd sloka in the
fifth

Tolstoy, and they sit as silent figures Tagore, and Martin Luther King atop a the action on the stage. The Sanskrit verses are view and podium sung
in the

in the fourth sloka adhyaya (Later chapters are The opera is based on the life and work of South Africa from 1893 to 1914, during the course for the benefit of mankind of which Gandhiji invented "Satyagraha" as a political strategy. In the opera, Gandhiji's past, present and future are evoked by three "witnesses" in the three acts. They are

adhyaya to the

not omitted by any means).

Mahatma Gandhi

in

Western

style

and

we Indians may have

to

get

used to

it

by

and by.

Rotterdam in Netherlands that 'it was the privilege of the city of commissioned Philip Glass to compose the opera. (Oddly enough Gandhiji the descendants of the very same Dutch Boers, against struggled
people,)

Satyagraha was
several other
in.

first performed in 1980 at Rotterdam and subsequently in American cities, starting with New York in 1981 and also

Europe.
Unfortunately we in India have not been grateful to Philip Glass by him though belatebly we did invite Peter Brooks and his marathon

inviting
film,

"The Mahabharat"
film
film.

recently.

are difficult to get in India.

At

least

Attenborough's

on

Gandhiji

Even Cassette recordings of the opera we were involved with Sir Richard and we have been lucky to see this

award-winning
""

we who used to rave over Indologists and Indophiles in the past have not done a single gesture of recognition to Philip Glass. He had come to our country several times, met Ravi
Sad
is

the state of affairs that

Shankar and

Alia

Rakha,

studied

our

musical

systems,

read

severaf

107

books

cm Gandhiji and the

Glta
-

possibly
-

including

Radhakrishnans'

Bhagavad-gita-

--

.gita's ever,

However, we should be justifiably proud and happy that the Bhagavadexpanding popularity is partly due to the. translators and .partly due to the faith that our leaders like Gandhiji, Aurobindo Ghosh, Bal
tile

Gangadhar Tilak and others had in it. Even as we are heading towards 21st century and the Communications Revolution is trying to sweep
there will be millions
it,

us off our feet,

here
it

and elsewhere

reading' the

Bhagavadgita, reciting

finding solace in
1925.

and endorsing what Gandhiji

wrote in Young India

in

Bhagavadgita that I miss even in the Sermon disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I go back to the Bhagavadgita. I find a verse here and a verse there and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of
"I find a solace in the

on the Mount.

When

see not one ray of light,

overwhelming tragedies and my life has been full of external tragedies and if they have left no visible, no indelible scar on me, I owe it all to
the teachings of the Bhagavadgita."

BEING AND DIFFERANCE RADHAKRISHNAN AND DERRIPA

M.
Sarvapelli

V, Baxi

.,.

Gopal has shown what Radhakrishnan was doing

:

in his

work, Indian Philosophy

the arguments of the ancient texts and assessed them in relation both to the debates which formed their original context and to modern controversies. The text is the point of mediation between two minds and the interpretation must not only satisfy the curiosity but disturb the consciousness of the present day reader". (Emphasis
added)..,

"He reconstructed

Gopal's reference to Radhakrishnan's

philosophical
structuralist

reconstructive

reading of the

texts reminds us immediately of the contemporary postFrench philosopher Derrida's deconstructive readings of the texts of Western This is because of the fact that philosophy.

post-struc-

turalism

and

post-modernism have become

example,

phical discourse. For

Magliola

dominant in current philosoconsiders Derrida very close to

However, compares Derrida and Bhartrhari on the of language, he finds substantial concord between Derrida and Bhartrhan but he also clarifies that Derrida's deconstruct is not compatible wrth Advaita Vedinta or Buddhism.* Further research by Indian and Western scholars is required in this area of comparative philosophy but it follows both from Magliola's and Coward's analyses that if Sankara and Derrida find themselves in opposite camps and if Radhakrishnan is in Sankara a camp, then it follows that Radhakrishnan's philosophy also is incompatible with Derrida's deconstruction.
ongin
'

camps.

Nagarjuna-', while Coward, comparing Sankara and Derrida on the problem of relation of language to reality, finds Derrida and Sankara in the opposite 3

when Coward

RMsh

'

l S

UOtion of B

in

has

been

considered

of Being
(2)

is

different

from Derrida's stategy

Radhakrishnan's notion of Being involves

theology, but as Derrida's difference h?s no not involve any kind of ontotheology

on

oW, o, ^ "^
i
,

"

does

109

(3)

Even
is

mysticism

a trace of mysticism in Derrida's difference, such a different, from the mysticism of Being found in Radhakrishnau.
if

there

is

(4) Reality

of self
subject

is

central

to

Radhakrishnan's

thought

but

for

Derrida,

human

becomes a speaking and

signifying subject only

by

inscribing itself in the system of differences.

(5) According to Derrida, the Western metaphysics has been a metaphysics of presence from Plato to Austin. We find the logocentric metaphysics of presence in Raclhakrishnan also. Derrida deconstructs any such metaphysics of presence with the help of 'differance', 'trace', 'archewriting',

'erasure', etc.

Derrida adopts the practice

the

of writing

'under

erasure*.

It

involves

"writing
its

word,

crossing

it

world and
becaiise

deletion".

particular
it is

word, for

out and then printing both the example, is crossed out

it is

it is

inaccurate but

kept legible since

are

necessary and there

is

no

alternative,

Thus the word

'Being' put under erasure; Derrida puts 'Sign'

also tinder

erasure. Expressions

erased

in this

manner

to

withdraw

the writer's support to their grounding premises.

(6) For Radhakrishnan, Being transcends any definite form of expression, and yet it is at the basis of all expression/'. For Derrida there is nothing outside the "text" which is itself nothing but a play of differance. In

Radhakrishnan, Being has a foundational status", but Derrida's philosophy is antifoundationalist and antiessentialist. For Derridar Being and Void are

both undecidable aporias.

(7)

texts are different

Radhakrishnan's integrativc and convergent readings of philosophical from Darrida's deconstriictive double readings and double

interpretations.

The philosophy of reading and writing shaping

their inter-

pretations are totally different.

Diffferance

Derrida formulates the French neographism "differance". The French word, 'difference' and the English word 'difference' are spelled in the same in the French word "difference" is vocalized as way, but the second

the

'Father'. Thus when a Frenchman vocalizes 'a' in the English word the graphic form 'differance' he hears only the French word "difference". Thus the graphic notation 'a' in the Fench word "differance" can not be

heard;

it

is

lost in vocalization

7
.

110
In English, we have two words, 'to differ' and
'to

defer',;

The French

word

'differed has

both these senses

i.e.

it is

used for 'differing' as well as

'deferring'. Derrida's Differance ('Differanz' in

German) can

refer simultan-

eously to

all

these senses

i.e.

to difFeran.ee as spacing as well as difference

as temporizing.

Derrida refers to

Saussure's

character of sign at the

concept of the arbitrary and differential foundation of general semiology and shows that

the principle of difference as the condition of signification applies to sign as both signifier and signified and hence the signified concept is never

present in and of
a system by

itself.

means of
shows

the systematic play

Every concept refers to the other of differences.

concept

within

Derrida

that the

neographism
his
it,

"difference"
deliniation

is

neither a

word
is

nor a concept.

According

to Derrida,

of difference

"Such a play of difFerance is thus no longer simply a concept but rather the possibility of conceptuality... For the same reason difference is not simply a word, that is, what is generally represented as the calm present and self-referential unity of concept and phonic material" 8
puts

strategy without finality.

As Derrida

these differences play

effects, Differance is thus non-simple, structured and differentiating origin of differences... Thus the name 'origin' no longer suits it." 9

Thus according to Derrida, in language, there and they are themselves

are

only

differences,

"non-full,

Language, according to
differences, but 'production',

Derrida,

is

"constituted"

'constitution', etc,, are

for

their

strategic

convenience,

because

there

is

as a weave of used by Derrida only no subject, substance

difference.

or a being which

is the foundation of the has no ontological weight.

play

of

Differance

Differance, as a structure

play of differences

play of

and movement, has three First the aspects among elements constitutes signification. Second the
'

traces

of

differences

within each

element

also

contributes

to

signification.

Thus the

trace of that

which

is

of a

s,gn. Third, the difference includes the

i.e.

elements relate to each other,

absent determines the structure play of spacing by which the

the

temporal interval divides the spatial

Thus meaning is not a transcendental presence. No element can function as a sign without referring to another element which itself is never present Derrida objects to the repression of differences, privileging of presence and the fusion that the meaning has been mastered and controlled by he l writer

and the reader,

Ill

Derrida raises the question of the presence to itself of the subject in silent intuitive consciousness and shows that privilege granted to consciousness
is a privilege granted, to presence and we should shake the whole of such metaphysics of presence, Consciousness, as presence, therefore is not a central form of Being for Derrida. It is itself a determination and effect of differance. The original process of temporizing and spacing is at the heart of the transcendental subjectivity. Derrida incorporates the structuraJisti notion of difference in his "strategy" of difference and uses it to

go

beyond Heidegger's ontological difference between Being and beings. 12 The notion of simple self-identical presence of an undivided object is thus undermined because protentions and retentions, temporality and otherness
are embedded in every actual experience of unrnediated presence. 13 Derrida replaces the transcendental subject by the subjectless anonymity of archewriting which makes it possible to treat culture as nature, different and

deferred, and concept as different

and deferred
II

intuition.

Negative Theology
is not a word, not a concept; not an entity, nor a truth or It is not an appearance, not and essence, not a self-identical and not an existence. thus It looks like Radhakrishnan's Absolute meaning or Sankara's featureless Brahman. Differance looks like a hidden God

Differance

presence.

because
has no

according

to Derrida, "older than Being

itself,

such a differance

name in our language." Caputo, in his discussion of Derrida with reference to Eckhart's mysticism however shows that even negative theologies are detours to higher affirmations whereas Derrida's differance is neutral
regarding
all

claims of existence and non-existence, theism t'nd atheism. 1

'

Derridr's grammatology leads to the umiameable, but as Caputo has shown, Derrida's differance lacks all ontological profoundity and mystical depth.

theology,

some kind of negative For Radhakrishnan, being is essentially unconcepua15 or abstraction rational We can lizable. It is not reachable by analysis. not be absolutely silent and yet when we speak of God we find that God tension between mystical silence and is too great for words. There is a
Radhakrishnan's discussion of Being involves

na

iti,

na

iti.

unsuccessful attempts at any coherent articulation of Being. Radhakrishnan myths, metaphors and rhetorical devices is keenly aware of the role of

involved in a discourse of Reality. He also finds that given the transcendent nature of reality, both logic and rhetorics are bound to fail. He therefore
appeals to intutive insight of assurance and certainty

which though not

communicable

has the sense

and

is

in a sense

a species of kowledge, 18

112

Radhakrishnan would have accepted Derrida's view that language is relational and differential and it can never lead us to knowledge by
coincidence or identity. Radhakrishnan, however, would have emphasised against Derrida the role of negative theology as a stage in man's encounter with the Absolute Reality. Derrida finds that "only infinite being can reduce the difference in presence. In that sense, the name of God is the name of indifference itself. 17 On the other hand, Derrida himself has claimed that his strategy of differance is not any kind of ontotheology, For
Derrida, "this unnameable
is

not an ineffable Being which no

.

name could

13 approach, God, for example."

If Being

is

without differences

of differences, then language

and if language is nothing but a can not grasp reality as it is in itself.

play

What

Derrida shows

is

that the difference between differential nature of language

and the

differenceless fully present Reality itself is a distinction within language and thus any articulation of the difference between language and Reality is itself the effect of the play of differance within language. In the

context of Heidegger's

ontological

difference,

Derrida raises the following

question
"...

are not the thought of

difference

meaning or truth of Being, the determination

within
the horizon of
1

of difference,
Being,
still

thought

the

question

of

intrametaphysical

effects

of differance 7

For Derrida then

even 'differance' remains with us as a metaphysical name.

Ill

Mysticism

Difference thus

is

not a negative theology. Even negative atheology

theology older than Being.
or

is

an accomplice of negative theology according to Derrida. In fact differance

itself

makes any

positive or negative
is

any speech
of his
his

or writing

possible;

hence differance

Habermas however points out that

remains close to
Jewish
mysticism.
:-

inspite

deinals,

Derrida

He

quotes in

support

Susan

Handelman's similar interpretation

"Derrida's choice of writing to Western logocentrism is a reernergence of Rabbinic hermeneutics in a displaced way. Derrida would undo GraecoChristian theology and

move

us

back

from

ontology to
Scripture".
that
2

Grammatology,

from Being to Text, from Logos to Ecriture

Habermas observes
in Derrida
is

that the motif of

God

works through absence

due to the

Jewish tradition

itself.

according to Habermas, renews the ever delayed event of revelation. 21

mystical

Derrida's grammatology, concept of tradition as an

113

Derrida writes:

"To

write

is

not only to

know

that the

Book

does not

exist and that for ever there are books, against which the meaning of a world not conceived by an absolute subject is shattered, before it has even become a unique meaning... It is not only to have lost the theological certainty of

seeing every page bind itself into the unique text of truth (to write) is also to be incapable of making meaning absolutely precede writing, it is thus to lower meaning while 2 For simultaneously elevating inscription."-

Derrida thus, writing

the absence

is inauguaral and the absence of the Jewish God, and haunting of the Divine Sign regulates all modern criticism

and

aesthetics.

For Derrida, the mysticisms of the Plenum, of

Unity of opposites
centered. a 3

the

are

logocentric

mysticisms

i.

e.

focussed,

Void and of the framed or

Radhakrishnan's mysticism is based on the foundational nature of Being which is felt in the spiritual experience. For Radhakrishnan, the validity of
such

an experience

is

2 *

self-certifying.

Derrida's

differential

mysticism

involves a joyous affirmation without and certain step of the dance. ao

nostalgia,

"with a

certain laughter

IV
LogoCeratrism
If
:

we apply
is

Derrida's criteria, Radhakrishnan's foundational philosophy

of Being

logocentric. Derrida finds that the philosophical discourse

is

from

Plato to Austin

logocentric.

'Logos'

of which

is

is a term for absolute assumed to be given

or foundation, the self-certifying presence

directly'.

Such

foundation constitutes

trancendental signified
represents
it."

which

is

"unaffected by

signifying

system

which

20

ference

Every notion Of an Absolute as origin, Absolute as an i.e. every sense of

as

end,

as centre,

as circum-

all-inclusive

frame accounting
to

for everything derived

from

it

is

logocentric

according

Derrida. 27 All

forms of Vedanta are logocentric in this sense according to Magliola. and mysticism Passages on intuition, Absolute, God, religious experience in Radhakrishnan's texts would also illustrate the kind of logocentrisnl
highlighted by Derrida.

114

V
Phonocentrism
:

Phonocentrism privileges speech over writing. The

opposition
speech/writing
derivative,

binary
external,

hierarchical

implies

that

writing

is

contingent,

secondary,

degrading, deviant
it

and

corrupt,

while

speech

is

primary and valuable because

follows speech.

symbolizes experience, origin, self-presence and self-contained meaning. Thus phonetic writing has value only because
it

Derrida deconstructs such an opposition firstly by reversing the hierarchy and secondly by displacing and dislocating the system that sustains such an opposition. Derrida uses 'writing' in its standard sense and 'writing' in its

archewriting ("Urschrift" in and writing, is subjectless, is anonymous and The archewriting is the "subjectless generator of structures". Whether they are phonemes or graphemes, "all linguistic expressions are to a certain extent set in operation by an archewriting not itself present." 3 "

special sense. In
is

its

special sense writing as

German)

prior to speech

leaves

its

traces.

In a certain sense
illustrate

Radhakrislinan's

intuitionism

and

his

Srutivada

what Derrida has characterized as phonocentrism. For example Radhakrishnan finds the concept of the logos as analogous to the Vedic Vac. Of course, an Indian philosophical history of the of
concept

writing in Derrida's grammatological

tiH then
it
is

sense the

has yet

to

be

written

and

difficult

to

say

whether

fndian

philosophers have sub-

scribed to the
writing,

same implications of the hierarchichal opposition speech/ highlighted by Derrida with reference to the Western thought.

VI

Metaphysics of Presence

Radhakrishnan's intuitionisni, absolutism and mysticism a metaPiiySicS f Presence For Radhakrishnan, the gap between alT* 1 and Beng :s closed m the direct apprehension of Being. Svatahsiddha and Svayam-prakaVa are the terms used by Radhakrishnan Svasamyedya which illustrate the Derridean thematics of presence. According to Radhaknshnan, Buddha, Plato, Christ, Eckhart, Blake, etc. spoke of the real not as scribes but as those who were in
'

We

find in

ttth truth

Supreme Being, Radhakrishnan's theory of religious experience centnc theory of presence.

immediate presence of
is

the

a loso-

115

VII

Texts and Readings

S.

Gopal has shown that in the context of studying the philosophical the notion of an thought of the past, Radhakiishnan treated as senseless 20 Radhakiishnan employed creative logic of interpreuninterpreted text the text. tation by being faithful to the spirit rather than to the letter of
.

Derrida wants to be faithful to the

letter

of the text as well.

PhiloSmet, while preparing to write Indian to the sophy, Radhakiishnan found it difficult to reconcile the faithfulness at them. Thus, in interpreting historical data with the subjectivity required
According to Richard

De

times, he creatively enforces

their relevance for us today.

upon

the text the

illustrates

interpretations
this point

which show

Richard

Radhakrishnan's

interpretation

of the
.

place

of intuition

by referring to in Sahara's

Vedanta

in the context of
finds

rutivsda sn

Radhakrishnan mediating between ancient texts and remember as well contemporary understandings. Radhakrishnan asks us to without as to create anew. He faced the competing paradigms of thought
Dallmayer
to the conflicting demands being a traditionalist or a sceptic. His solution of the past and present was a recourse to interpretative mediation resembling a "creative rethinking of philoGadarner's hermeneutics. His work shows 31 sophical and religious traditions."

Radhakrishnan advocates an
religions

essentialist

version of

the

unity

of

all

and

a found ationalist version of the spiritual Being.

readings of the texts involving Gadamer's kind are guided by synthetic and integrative orientation.

His convergent of "fusion of horizons",

The underlying assumption behind Radhakrishnan's

strategy
is

creative interpretative that

that

there

is

foundational
is

encounter with such a Being

all

of the same

times. Thus there

is

historical diversity of expressions focussing

essential unity of experience.

Such a

an unmediated cultures and on the indeguiding assumption itself is an

Being and
type across
all

pendent ontological and a linguistic reading and interpretation.

thesis. It constitutes

a philosophy of

the qualities

deconstruction has Christopher Norris has rightly shown that Derrida's of logical tautness and dialectical rigour and it does not freedom in the sense that deconstructive imply unlimited hermeneutic and reference in favour reading suspends the issues of truth, meaning or of an infinitized "free play" of language devoid of logical rigour 32 For referential example, in "White Mytholygy" Derricla shows
grasp.

116
written in white ink and not in

that in a philosophical text a

metaphor

is is

black
the

ink and in a

sense

metaphysics

thus a white

mythology but
that there
is

at

same time he

also

shows

that this does

not

mean

noth-

of metaphor itself ing in philosophy except metaphor because the concept is a philosophical product and requires to be analysed with precision.

reading.

shown that Derrida's strategy is of deliberate double we find the passages 'lisible' and understandable. Reading, construes the meaning but Reading,, goes on to disseminate the meanings already construed. Thus, readingj is provisional and strategic.
.

Abrains
83

has

In reading!,

Abrams
this is

inescapable

"determinate reading always leaves an finds that, for Derrida, and ungovernable 'excess' or surplus of signification" and because the writer cannot dominate absolutely the language and
by him with others.

logic shared

Unknown

to the writer, the text ungover-

nably

goes

readings.
city

on to say something which requires deeper deconstructive Such deeper readings, says Abrams, reveal equivocations, rhetorilogic of hiearchichal oppositions at

and the

work

in the

texts

inspite

of the authors. Reading 8 however does not cancel the. earlier readings but reinscribes them as effects of differential play of language. Thus the meaning of the text has first to be construed in order that it can then be

"disseminated into an
Jng 2
itself

undecidability".

The new

'text'

generated by read"
sclf-deconstruction,
i.e.,

becomes a victim

of

dissemination

and

According to Abrams then, construal and deconstruction and double interpretation, is Derrida's strategy without
It

double reading
30

finality.

would be wrong to say that for Derrida, there are neither authors nor texts nor meanings. It would be a mistake to think that all the standard readings and the range of their interpretations are false according to
Derrida. In this

sense

Derrida

is

neither a sceptic,

nor a

nihilist,

nor a

logical positivist. Derrida would agree author of Indian Philosophy and that

that Radhakrishnan

was

the real

we can

in a standard

sense read

the relevant passages

from

his texts

determinate meaning but readings

and arrive at a general consensus of would deconstruct the meaning construed

by reading, and that

is

the point of Derridean readings.

Radhakrishnan
Derrida
the

employed
"construal
is

construal

and reconstruction whereas

Radhakrishnan,
is

employed
times. It
is

and"

deconstruction". In

standard

meaning

construed

and

then

linked to the context of

it
is

modern
readings

not dislocated or reitiscribed as readings"

identifies

done by Derrida.

Radhakrishnan's
because
in the

"double
Derrida

are different

from Derrida's double

paradoxes
explains

major

texts

a common pattern of aporias and of Western philosophy and at a metalevel

logocentrism

how

the

underlying

and phonocentrism shape

the

117

patterns of different texts. Radhakrishnan finds convergence

religious

among various

and

philosophical texts because

he gives

priority to
texts

texts, whereas Derrida finds convergence among the highlight the same underlying reality but because

Being over not because they

they share the

same
finds

The convergence- that Radhakrislman assumptions. is due to what orregarding the notions of truth, value, meaning or reality Derrida treats as 'metaphysics of presence' Certain terms assume dominance
logocentric

due

to logocentric

texts.

approach and such dominance Radhakrislman would say that it is due to the
It
is

is

reflected in various

common

and

shared

experiences that certain terms acquire legitimate sense that Derrida's grammatology is different dominance. from Radhakrishnan's ontology. The ineffable Being of Radhakrishnan is the different from the unnameable differance of Derrida. Derrida reduces
intuitions or mystical

in this

experience of presence to the

ultimately
aboxit us".
linguistic
is

differentiated

about

the

"textually

unmediated

system of signs. The question awareness of the objects

1

Some
beliefs

critics

of Derrida, like

David Novitz"

have argued that

do mediate

does not follow that

objects.

we

perception of objects, but from this it can never observe non-semiotic and nonlinguistic

our

Radhakrishnan would have accepted Novitz's point against Derrida.

Derrida
is

Play for
the

is

the

disruption of presence.

Derrida admits
his

that

name of man

the

name

of that being

who throughout
foundation,
the

history

has dreamed of

full

presence,

the reassuring

origin

and

35 Radhakrishnan would have found nothing wrong with the end of play. such a dream and he has already shown the possibility of such a dream

being realized in certain kinds of experiences. Radhakrishnan would never have agreed to dissolve experience into differentiated expressions. Of course, to convey the meaning of experience without language but it is difficult
for

Radhakrishnan

all

the

features of language can not be transferred to

the nonlinguistic

experience

of the object

and

all

the

objects

of

direct

perception can not be

differences.

treated

as the products

of the system of semiotic

Radhakrishnan would, say that the experiences of beings at an ordinary level and the experiences of Being at a transcendent level have to be them fully due to the fail to verbalize accepted even though we may nature and structure of language. In this context. Radhakrishnan finds no
harmonizing various texts in relation to the experience of unmediated experience at all Being because he allowed for the textually the levels. This does not mean that there are no difficulties in Radhakrishnan's is that he is under no pressure to justify the normal the but point ontology to language, whereas Derrida is required assumption that reality is external
difficulty in

to

show why presence

is

reduced

to

a disruptive

play of differance

and

118
also

why

there

is

nothing

outside

'text'

even

in

the

widest sense of the

the

term. Derrida

is

compelled to make a
in the sense

move by which

word

'text' gets

extended

meaning

that reality itself

becomes "intertextual"

as a system of differences. in Radhakrishmin is different from the play The play of bmological differences express Being according to Radhakrishna.il. For Derrida the play of diiferance is itsef

The Lila of the Absolute

of difference in Derrida.

concealed and repressed in the illusion of control and mastery of meaning within the metaphysics of presence.
Terry Eagleton shows that
shackles of truth,

we

find

in

Derrida a kind of libertarian

existence
free

pessimism; libertarian, because of

the

dream of

from the

meaning and

sociality and pessimistic because the blocks

itself.

of creativity arc inherent in the procss of liberation there is "a cynical erasure of truth, meaning and

In postmodernism,
30
.

subjectivity"

Radha-

krishnan would not have endorsed such a position. reader of the texts of Radhakrishnan and Derrida therefore would experience conflict between
restorative

and disruptive

effects

of such

texts.

Notes and References

1.

S.

Gopal (1989)
61)

Radhakrishnan-A
:

biography.

Delhi, .Oxford,

(p.

2.

Magliola R. (1984)
Press.

Derrida on the mend; Indiana; Purdue Univ.

3.

Coward. H. (1989); "Sankara and Derrida on philosophy of language". Journal of Indian Council of Philosophical Research; vol, 6;

4.

No. 3 May-August 1989 (pp-13-21). Coward H. (1990) "Derrida and Bhartrhari's

:

origin of Jan.
5.

An
(p.

language". Philosophy : East 1990 (pp 3-16). Idealist View of Life : London;

and West

Vakyapadia on the vol. 40 No. 1,

George Allen and Unwin Ltd

343)

6.

Dallamayer F. (1989)

Radhakrishnan
7. 8.
9.

existence-A Western View" In, Centenary Volume Delhi; Oxford Univ. Press.

"On Being and

Derrida on the mend, (pp 22-24.) Derrida J. (1982) Margins of Philosophy

Ibid; p. 11.

Harvester Press, (p. 11).

10.

Anderson J. (1989) "Deconstruction. cism". In Atkins and Morrow (Eds);

Macrnillan.
(p.

critical strategy,

strategic

criti-

Contemporary Literary Theory

140).

11.

Ibid; p.

142.

119
12.

Haberinas

Jurgen
(p.

modernity,
13.
14.

1987) The 180) M.I.T. Press.

(1985;

philosophical

discourse of

Ibid (174, 175).

"Mysticism and Transgression Derrida and Meister Eckharl" In. H. Silverman (ed) Derrida and Deconstruction. New York; Routledge
:

p. 29.
15. 16. 17.

An

Idealist
145.

View of

Life.

Ibid, p.

Leonard

Orr; (1989)

remystincation
:

of language".

"The Post-Turn Turn; Derrida, Gadamer and In, Deconstruction; a Critique;

(p.

the
(ed)

18.
19.

London Macmillan. Rajnath Margins of Philosophy; (p.

Ibid. p. 22.

207)

26)

20. 21. 22.

The philosophical discourse

Ibid, p.
183.

of modernity,

p. 406.

Writing and Difference. (1978), London 23. Derrida on the mend. p. 57.
24.

Rcratledge

p.

10.

Sivraman
lity". In,

in mystical spiritua(1989), "Knowledge and experience Parthasarthy and Chattopadhyaya (Eds) Radhakrishnan
:

25.
26.

Centenary Volume. (192-203). Margins of Philosophy p. 27. Abrams M.H. (1989) "Construing and
strwction

deconstructing", In

Decon-

Critique,

(p. 36).

27.
28. 29.
30. 31. 32.

Derrida on the mend.

p. 90.
p.

The philosophical discourse of modernity,

Radhakrishnan Radhakrishnan
:

180.

biography, p. 61. Centenary Volume,

(pp. 53-70)

Ibid; pp. 217-245.

Christopher Norris (1985) Contest of Faculties : Philosophy theory after deconstruction. London. Metheun. (pp. 226-27).

and

33. 34. 35.

36.

Deconstruction-A Critique,

(pp. 40-49).

The Monist
Eagleton

Vol. 2, 1986.
p.

Writing and Difference,

292.

T (1990) The Blackwell. (373, 387)

Ideology

of the

Aesthetic. Oxford; Basic

Harivallabli Bhayani secured some books [Shri Prashant Dave and Dr. on Derrida and Deconstruction for me. Miss Achinta Yajnik has been kind enough to spare for me the copies of the very important papers by Coward. Dr. Upendra Baxi's personal collection of books on deconstruction and postmodernism at Delhi has also proved to be extremely useful to me. I arn highly thankful to all of them for their kind help to me].

DR.
8

RADHAKRISHNAN ON BUDDHISM A GLANCE

S.

'.

G.

Kantawala
expounding
1

India

is

a land

of

diverse

religious

faiths

and

creeds

is

various paths to reach the Ultimate as per the diversity of tastes. one of the religions that has its origin in India and spread
its

Buddhism from India

in India and spread over the neighbouring and development with its catholic and absorbent character Hinduism has included Buddha in its list of "ten incarnations" has not only left its impact on the vedanta (da&avattiras)- Buddhism

and

slow

disappearance

countries. In

its

growth

philosophy, but
Several
literature
is

it

"has

left

a permanent
written

scholars
is

have
still

thereon

growing.

SarvapaJli

Radhakrishnan

mark on the culture of India" 2 on Buddha and Buddhism and the Amongst the celebrated writers thereon (=SR) (1888 AJD.-1975 A.D.) 3 He was an
, .

illustrious

scholar-statesman,
4

diplomat,

politician,
is

educationist

and

an

"academical philosopher." and as such he

philosopher."

"the

most

widely known

Of
him

all

world owes
"there are

to

the contemporary philosophers of modern India. many standard works on religion and philosophy
scholars
like

The
and
the

very

few

him who

grasped the

spirit

of

Eastern and Western thought alike." 3

As there is a plethora of literature on Buddhist religion and philosophy, we do not repeat the tenets and teachings of Buddhist religion and but it is proposed, here, to evaluate the exposition of the Buddhist religion and philosophy by SR. He has referred to and discussed the Buddhist philosophy and religion in his various works which make an interesting and informative reading; but in this paper references are restriphilosophy,
cted to his

the
his

Indian Philosophy, vol. I, (i) (=IP) London, 1956; (ii) Gautama, Buddha (Proceedings of the British Academy Vol. XXIV), which is "Annual Lecture" on a "Master Mind" delivered on 28 June, 1938.
in his

It is reprinted

edition of the

and

"Dhanmiapada" (=DP)
1950).

(OtTP,' 1950)

(iii)

Dhammapada (^DP) (OUP,

IP, Chapter VII (i) Buddhism, pp. 341 if, and (ii) Chapter Buddhism as a Religion, pp. 581 if. The "Appendix" (pp. 671 if) in the IP discusses also some problems of Buddhism. The

For ready reference it may be noted that he discusses religion and philosophy in two chapters of the viz.
Idealism of

the

Buddhist

Ethical

Early

foot-notes

in

the

respective chapters

and

this

aspect

is

and the Appendix are learned, comparative and enhanced by "References" at the end

critical

chapters.

SR

has "tried to keep in close

of respective

touch with the documents give

121

wherever possible a preliminary survey of the conditions that brought them into being and estimate their indebtedness to the past as well as their contribution to the progress of thought." (IP, Preface, p. 9).

SR is a renowned historian of philosophy and he brings out lucidly the role, function and duty to be played by a historian of philosophy in
the following para
:

"The

historian of philosophy must

philologist or even as a scholar, ship as an instrument to wrest

approach Ms task not as a mere but as a philosopher who uses his scholarthe

from words

them.

mere

lingxust

regards

the views of ancient

thoughts that underlie Indian thinkers as

many

fossils lying scattered

throughout upheaved and faulty strata of the

history of philosophy, and from his point of view any interpretation which makes them alive and significant is dismissed as farfetched and untrue.

philosopher on the other hand realises the value of the ancient Indian theories which attempt to grapple with the perenial problems of life and treats them not as fossils, but as species which are remarkably persistent...
It
is

piece together the scattered and thus free the soul from

the task of creative logic, as distinct from mere linguistic analysis to data, interpret for us the life they harbour
the body.

Collection of facts and the accubut

mulation of evidence
historian
spirit.

are an important,

only a part, of the task of

who

attempts

to record the

manifold adventures of the human

He must pay

great attention to the logic of ideas,

draw

inferences,

which would introduce some suggest explanations and formulate theories facts. If the history of philosoOi-der into the shapeless mass of unrelated of facts about dead authors and phy is to be more than a bare catalogue
their
writings, if
it is

to educate
critic

the

mind and
interpreter

enthral the

imagination,

the historian should be a

and an

and not a mere mecha-

nical "ragpicker" (IP. 6 pp. 71-672)

"Indian Philosophy" (Vol. I and Vol.

II) is his

magnum
laid

he

successfully rises to

fulfil

and abide by the norms

opus wherein down by him

that we must interpret for a historian of philosophy; he is also "convinced i.e. "Indian Philosophy" thinkers at their best and not at their worst." It of systems disand of arguments categories is not "a bare presentation mutatis mutandis to his 7 cussed" and these remarks apply happily to note that he of Buddhism. At this juncture it is significant

treatment

of the system he is presenting "so easily identifies himself with the stand-point 8 connections become natural." that concepts become fluid and their

SR

lays

down

and climes in which he Buddha actually taught

that a writer should be evaluated in the context of times, flourished, when he observes that "to Jbiow what

or what his earliest followers thought he did,

we

122
place
ourselves in

imagination in the India of the sixth ^ century B.C." (DP, Introduction, p. 26) and he makes his statement effective and forceful by a generalised corroborative statement, viz "thinkers like other people are in no small measure rooted in time and place. The form
:

which they cast their

are largely

ideas,

no

less

moulded by
Great

the habits

around them.
value to the
cease to belong

ways in which they behave of thought and action which they find
individual

than the

minds

make

contribution of permanent

thought of their
to their

age in which

they live

They do

age, even

when they

are rising most above

it

not "

(DP, Introduction, p. 26). The latter part of this observation reminds one of what Hillabrandt said in the context of the Rgvedic poets, viz. thev stood above, but not outside the 9 people."

he

above cited para, it fond of using

Apropos of the methodology and approach suggested by SR as in the may be observed from a literary point of view that
the figure of speech
to

? b*T!!l

l?"^

WMch

Arthantaranyasa according
a

^<

to

"atement

is

L.

'

e he

without

The abovegoing prefatory remarks of SR show his sympathetic and at L ThiSiSfmther C0n&med Whe * lie observes that , (i.e. Buddha, bracket suffered as ours) much as any one from critics

7HHrT

-a

sense of history". (DP., Introduction, p. 26).

He
e

speaks also very highly of the

DP

most popular and

by pointing out that

it

"is the

book" book

mp Pr f Preface. (DP

^ *" ^ Tw ^
aS

influential

is

"that

t? human conduct, righteons

p.V)

aPP

book of Buddhist canonical literature" (DP t0 the m dem mind as " the ccntral thesta' of the
'

re

behaviour, reflection and meditation

SPeCUlati nS

ab Ut

**

transcenden

mstincts entn-ely is to generate to end up neuroses 1S

P.V).

How
is

"its teaching-*, repress neuroses" to give them full 'rein supported by modern psychology." (DP, Preface mildy and aptly SR brings out a modern relevant

He, further,

observes

that

TaTo
!

parallel

an Advaitin in his own way, but he possesses a spirit of tolerance and sympathy. And this magnanimity coupled wrth critical accumen for one of the o " founder-phZsopher 6 S eeCt n f " GaUtama the B " his s T on the 'Master Mind" under ddh as them Annual Lecture
catholicity

SR

ofthUng^

'u

the auspices Hennette Hertz Trust. "He pays a rich tribute to Gautama, Buddha " n Gautamai the Buddha

v t0

lie '

of the of theu' human race

^"

thS inflU6nCe

L ^ ^^^
n the tho

the

of

is

concerned

and sacred to

^t

and

all as

the founder of

123

a religious
other.

He

hardly less wide and deep than anybelongs to the history of world's thought, to the general inheritradition,
is

whose hold
men,

tance of

all

cultivated

for judged by

intellectual

integrity,

moral

earnestness

and

spiritual

insight,

he

is

undoubledly

one of

the greatest

figures in history."

of the British

(Gautama the Buddha, reprinted from the Proceedings Academy, Vol. XXIV, London, 1938, p. 3; vide also DP,
3).

Introduction, p.

SR is fair, appreciative and comparative in his exposition and evaluation of Buddhism. He is fair and appreciative, when he remarks that 7
"there
is

original

no question that the system of Buddhism which the history of philosophy presents. In
it

is its

one

of the

most

fundamental ideas

and

essential spirit

approximates remarkably to the

advanced

scientific

thought of the nineteenth century. The modern pessimistic philosophy of Germany, that of Schopenhauer and Hartman is only a revised version of
ancient Buddhism." (IP, p. 342).

One of

the remarkable

lucidity and perspicuity the context of "Buddha

and outstanding features of SR's writing and this may be illustrated by his observation and the Upanisads"
:

is

in

"Buddha himself admits

an

that the

dharma

which he has discovered by

effort of self-culture is the

is

ancient

way, the
is

Aryan

path, the
as

eternal

dharma. Buddha a new norm. It is

not so

much

creating a

new dharma

rediscussing

the venerable tradition that

being adapted to meet the

Elsewhere he remarks, that he has special neds of the age". (IP. p. 360) is "only a "attempted" to make out the account of early Buddhism, and it
restatement of
the

thought

of the

Upanisads

with new

emphasis". (IP;

Note "how cleverly and lucidly he experesses his opinion the Buddha in the matter of contribution and indebtedness of Gautama, to Upanisads. That how he is dispassionate in his exposition and evaluation
Appendix,
p.

676).

may

be illustrated with his following remark". Buddha was struck by the the ebb and flow of belief clashing enthusiasms, the discordant systems, and drew from it all his lesson of the futility of metaphysical thinking......

in morals. Therefore Buddha Anarchy in thought was leading to anarchy metawished to steer clear of profitless metaphysical dimensions. Whatever is not the original Dhamma, but added to physics we have in Buddhism 12 Buddhifm is essentially psychology, logic and ethics, not
it

(abhidamma)
Every

metaphysics"

(IP. p. 353).

writer/crittc

own And

distinct

way.

He can

dealing

he appears with the

to be so,

has his/her own way of criticism and SR has his be charming and sweetly blunt, when necessary. when he refers to Hermann Oldenberg, while
ot

concept

nirvana

He

(i.e.

SR)

observes.

_"Were,

124

Oldenberg correct, then

repudiates." (IP. p. 886).

nirvana
1S

would be

annihilation,

which Buddha

One of
.

the features of

SR's style

is

that

he

states

his

views

and

writers. proceeds to quote, without any prefatonry remarks sometimes, other To illustrate, In the context of "Buddhism and the Upanisads" he writes that "the only metaphysics that justify

Buddha's

ethical

discipline is

the

metaphysics underlying the Upanisads. Buddhism is only a later phase of the general movement of thought of which the Upanisads were the earlier,"
(IP. p. 470) and he proceeds immediately then afer the abovequoted remark, Introduwithout any prefatory remark, to quote MaxMuller, (SBE, Vol. "Many of the doctrines ction, p. xxxvii; vide Ip. p. 470, fn. 1) who observes

XV

of the Upanisads are no doubt pure Buddhism, or rather Buddhism is on many points the Consistent carrying out of the principle laid down in the " Buddha Upanisads" (IP. p. 470) and then he (i.e. SR) comments that
did not look upon himself as an innovator, but only a restorer of the ancient way i.e. the way of the Upanisads" (IP. p. 470). He has leaning towards Upanisads, but "he is quite quick to see the positive elements in
other systems and he gives something refreshingly

new in heterodox

systems."

His criticism in constructive, appreciative and sympathetic also. These features are noticeable, when he states that "Buddhism helped to demorcratise the
select

few...

philosophy of the Upanisads, which was till then confined to a was Buddha's mission to accept the idealism of the It

Upanisads at
Historical

its best and make it available for the daily needs of mankind. Buddhism means the spread of Upanisad-doctrines among the

people". (IP. p. 471).

He

is

equally dispassionate, critical

and magnanimous, unprejudicial and

nnscathing,

to state the defects of Buddhism, viz, "the Buddha's teaching is that in his ethical earnestness he took up and magnified one half of the truth and made it look as if it were the whole. His distate for metaphysics prevented him from that
central defect of

when he proceeds

seeing

the partial truth

which carried
in

had a necessary complement and rested on principles its imposed limits.". (IP. p. 471; for inadequacies Buddha's thought vide DP, Introduction, pp. 56-57).
it

beyond

his remarks/observations are very brief, beautiful and pregrant with meaning, e-g. "Dislike for mere speculation is the distinguishing mark of the Buddha's teaching. (DP, Introduction, p, 23). lacomically and aptly SR brings otit an important feature of Buddha's

Sometimes

How

teaching

Citations of parallels are not restricted only to

the

body of the

text^

but they also occur in footnotes,

from Brahmanical

literature

as well as

125

from Western thought, as and when necessary. This teiids to make the point under consideration clear and also tends to suggest how East and West have some common thoughts; for example, while discussing Buddha's discourse on fire to indcate the ceaseless fluss of becoming called the
world,

SR

ciles

a parallel

from Heraclitus

viz.

"this

world an eternally
the
also

living fire"
fire,

and proceeds

to

comment

"Buddha and Heraclitus both use

represent

most mutable principle of becoming",

the
the following lines :-

of the

elements to
1).

metaphysical

(IP. p. 638, fn.

He

quotes

from

shelley,

"Worlds on worlds are

rolling ever,

From

creation to decay, Like the bubbles on a river,

Spankling, bursting, borne

away"

(IP, p.

15

368).

Elsewhere in the context of the current of otherworldiness in John the Baptist, Jesus and paul SR notes that "the moral teaching of Jesus with
its

ascefic

years by Upanisads and

and otherworldly emphasis has been anticipated several hundred Buddha". [Eastern Religions and Western thought
1939, p.

(=ERWT), Oxford,
Davids. 10

173]

and proceeds

to quote

from T. W. Rhys

Elsewhere

while
:

drawing

a parallel

between

Jesus and

Buddha he

appreciatively writes
tices,

"Just as Buddha condemns the gloomy ascetic pracwhich prevailed in ancient India, Jesus goes beyond John, the on observances Baptist's emphasis and ascetic rites. Even Buddha condemns

ceremonial

religion emphasing Baptism, Jesus insists less 17 and more on the opening of oneself." (ERWT, p.180).

on sacraments

From

the literary point of view

it

may

be observed that

"in

him we
(i.e.

have a combination

of style
is

bracket ours)

literary form. His felicity of expression is amazing. He can be numbered, amongst the greatest stylists in the history of philosophy and can be classed along with Schelling,

writes

and scholarship marked by elegance of

In

all

that

he

SR,

to the level of creative literature'......

Schopenhauer and Bergson-among those who have raised philosophic prose He endows his sentences with vitality

that the frozen fossils of long forgotten ideas burst forth into

new

life."

The use of
to

significant
vitality;

objectives

and proverblike general statements tend

enhance the
gives

Buddha

mark the significant adjective "workable" in" The a workable system for monks and lay people." (DP, Intro:

"it is those duction, p. 22); note proverblike remark the truth that strike in the path of fiction." (IP., p. 353).

who do not

see

Finally,
style

it

may

be

said that his

beautiful, elegant, flowing

and lucid

coupled with

transparent

ideas,

constructive

and

interpretative,

126
19 and loyalty magnanimgus and balanced approach and cricicism sources make his treatment of Buddhism live and enchanting.

to original

Being "a

constructive

philosopher
the

of the

first

rank" 30 he keeps

the reader spell-

bound with
exposition

magic of his
1

forceful

and

lucid

language

and

literary
:

and

justice

to the subject.

In the end one would like to say

!

ta sinai

Buddhaya"

namo namah

Reference Notes

/.

Cf mcinain
asi

vaicitryad rjukut.ilanana pathajusam, nrnam eko

iva./l

gamyah tvam
7.

payasam arnava

Puspadanta, Sivamahhnnastotra.
2.
3.

Radhakrishnan

S, IP,

p.

608.

For a brief lifeskehla and philosophy of S. Radhakrishnan, vide e.g. Raju P.T., Idealistic thought of India, London, 1953, Chapter VII; Mahadevan T.M.P. and Saroja G. V., Contemporary Indian Philosophy,

New

Delhi, 1983, Chapter VIII;

Narawane V.

S.,

Modern Indian Thought:

A
4.
5.

Philosophical Survery,
cit., p.

Bombay

1967, Chapter VIII.

Raju P.T., op.

331.

Raju P.T., op. eh.,

p. 331.

6.

Narawane V. S., op. cit., p. 242; vide also Fragments of a Confession (Tudor, p. 13) as referred to in ibid, p. 242.
Raju P.T., op.
Raju P.T., op.
cit., p. 333.
cit., p.

7.
8.

333.
his

9.

Quoted by M. Winternitz in Vol J, p. 79. (Calcutta, 1927).

"A

History

of

sndian

Literature"

10.

Cf

samanyath vd vHeso tad anyena samarthyate yatra

so'rthantaranyasah
10.23.

sadhannyenetarena vail

Mammata, KavyaprakSsa
11.
It

was read on 29 June, 1938.

in.

12.

The

on

p.

353

of

the

IP

reads

"abbi,

beyond;

dhamma,

physics,
13.

Medhamnas

are analysed in
IP, pp.

Abhidhamma."
ft

SR on nirvana vide
Narawane V.S;

447 f f; DP, pp. 46

14.

op.cit, p. 236.

127

5.

Shelley, Heuas, Lyrical Drama Composed in 1821 A.D. and published in 1822 A.D.), Chorus of Captive Greek Women, Lines 197-200. My thanks are due to Dr. C.K. Seshadd, Professor & Head, Department

of

English, Faculty of
this refer snce.

Arts,

M.S.

University of Baroda, Baroda, for

tracing

16J7.

Rhys

Davids, Journal

of the Pali
fn.
1.

Text

Society,

1923, pp. 43-44 as

quoted, in IP, p-174,

Cf. also "Reverence shown to the righteous is better than sacrifice." (Mark 1.15). One may compre here the DP 108 which says," Homage paid to the righteous is better." (a"bhi vadana ujjugatesu seyyo/). "J am not of the world" says Jesus according to John, (vide John
xvii 141 6) and Buddha says "Monks even as a blue lotus, a waterrose or a white lotus, is born in the water, grous up in the water and stands lifted above it, by the water undented; even so, monks, does

the
xxii

Tathagata, grow in the world by the undefiled" (Sainyulta NikSya 94; vide ERWT, p. 180 fns 3,5 & 6) (for" comparative remarks
pp. 177
ff.)

vide ERWT,
in

It is interesting
:

to compare here the thought

the Bhagavadgita (5.10)

padmapatram ivambhasi.
Reference
vivid
and.

18.

ISTarawane V.S., op.

cit; p, 231.

SR's
1

lucid

and

striking

similes

may also be made here to and colourful pen-pictures

takes the

available in his writings.

CSf. "Unless

lie

begins

to
his

criticise

the

system, the reader

author to be presenting

own

views." (Raju P.T., op.

cit, p.

333)

20.

Narawane

V.S., op. cit., p. 238.

21

Buddha-Gautama Buddha;
wise, learned, enlightened)

paranomistically

it

refers to

SR (buddha,

COMPATIBILITY OF RADHAKRISHNAN'S METAPHYSICS WITH HIS EPISTEMOLOGY AND ETHICS

-Dr. J. A.

This paper humbly

conflicts within the

attempts to

do some
of

excercise

in

creative

and

constructive thinking directed

at resolution

some

basic

philosophical

system of Radhakrishnan. Resolution of philosophical and cultural conflicts has remained a chief concern of Radhakrishnan's voluminous writings. The paper, therefore, can be treated as
philosophical
zeal
in

a small step in the very direction which has been suggested with missionary by Radhakrishnan himself. This being so, the author has gret pleasure

presenting this paper as a tribute to our great philosopher: Radhkrishnan.

Radhakrishnan's Epistemological Realism

Radhakrishnan's epistemology is essentially realistic. It stands for the view that knowledge to be knowledge must be revelatory of reolity. Hadhakrishnan has written in unambiguous terms that "It so far as our minds ate not creative of reality but only receptive of it, we must get .into cotact
with
reality,

outward by perception,

inward by
1

intuition,

and by .means

of intellect interpret and understand it."

This means that Radhakrishnan's epistemology

A.S

is

very clearly realistic.

is

Radhakrishnan has advocated epistemological realism, he

certainly

not idealist in the sense in which Berkeley and Hegel are idealists. In order to properly understand and evaluate Radhakrishnan's philhsophy, this point needs to be specially emphasised, especially in the light of the fact that Radhakrishnaa has been known and recognized as idealist philosopher. He himself has propounded his philosophical position in his Hibbert Lectures as "An Idealist View of Life."
Explaining the peculier nature of Radhakrishnan's idealism D. M. Datta has observed that, "His idealism, moreover, is not idea-ism but ideal-ism. the presentation of an ideal that can harmonize the flesh with the

It is

soul, individuals with individuals, nations with nations. Like Eucken he is a philosopher of life." 2 If Radhakrishnan's philosphy is "not idea-ism," it has to be realism. However, even D. M. Datta has not clarified this point.

129

Hartshorne has also

that

left

the point at the

same

level in his observation

"Our author (Radhakrishnan) seems to leave the meaning of "Idealism" somewhat obscure. He does not altogether approve of whitehead's complete

"prehension," and the

translation of physical concepts into terms of "feeling", "satisfaction," the like. He also seems to reject anything like

Berkeleyan type of subjectivism.

Yet

I,

at least,
I

am
is

not able to

discern

any third possibility for idealism conceiving idealism other than as rather than less." 3
It will

Also

wonder

whether
not more

any

way of

panpsychism

"confusing"

be clear

in

the sequel that Radhakrishnan's

idealism which has

ethics

been rightly described by Hartshorne as 'confusing', is itself and metaphysics. It is one of the chief contentions of

realism
this

in

paper
is

that

on account of

its

strong

realistic
st.

bias,

Radhakrishnan's

more akin
and Hegel.

to that of Aristotle and

Thomas Aquinas than

position that of Plato

all
is

varieties of cognitive experience

Radhakrishnan has recognized three ways of acquring knowledge, "while result in a knowledge of the real, it
discursive reasoning

produced in three ways which are sense-experience, and intuitive apprehension." 4

Explaining the nature and importance of the
first

two sources pf know:

written "Sense ledge in thoroughly realistic terms, Radhakrishnan has the external world. By experience helps us to know the outer characters of

means of

it

we obtain an acquaintance with the

sensible qualities of the

of natural science objects. Its data are the subject-matter

which

builds up

conceptual structure to describe them.

of analysis aad synLogical knowledge is obtained by the processes The data supplied to us by perception are analysed and the a more systematic knowledge of the object result of the
thesis.

analysis

yield

is indirect and symbolic in perceived. This logical or conceptual knowledge the object and its working." 5 its character. It helps us to handle and control

It will

be seen that

Radhakrishnan's

description of

sense-experience

and

logical

knowledge presuppose the

realistic distinction

between

subject

The object is there existing independently of (jnSta) and object (jneya). the subject. It is capable of being known by the subject directly through
sense experience and indirectly through discursive reasoning.

"There
17

Radhakrishnan's description of intuitive apprehension is equally realistic a knowledge by is knowledge which is different from the conceptual,
:

130

which we see things as they class or units in a crowd.

knowledge

is

are, as unique individuals and not as members of It is non-sensuous, immediate knowledge. Sense not the only kind of immediate knowledge. As distinct from

sense knowledge or pratyaksa (literally presented

to a sense),

the

Hindu

thinkers use the term aparoksa for the non-sensuous immediate knowledge.

This intuitive
reality. It is

knowledge arises from an intimate fusion of mind with knowledge by being and not by senses or by symbols.. It is

awareness of the truth of things by identity." 6

Radhakrishnan's reference to identity of subject and object

blur the realistic distinction between the knovver

is

likely to

and the known.

It,

therefore,

"Knowledge 7 is an intense and close communion between the knower and the known." The communion between knower and known is so very intense and close
in intuitive

needs to be

made

clear here that according to Radhakrishnan,

knowledge that

the

the known. Thus "knowledge by identity'

knower' s attention gets fully absorbed in is not to be understood as im-

plying the denial of the ontological identity

object of knowledge.

of either

the subject

or the

Radhakrishnan himself

lias

closed

all

doors for

idealistic interpretation
:

of intuitive knowledge by the following observations

;

(i>

"There

is

the controlling

power of

reality in intuitive apprehension

quite as

much

as in

perceptual acts
8

or reflective thought. The objects of

us.

intuition are recognized

and not created by

They

are not

produced by

the .act of apprehension, itself."

we become

(ii) "The reality of the object is what distinguishes intuitive knowledge from mere imagination. Just as in the common perception of finite things directly and inevitably aware of something which has its. own definite nature which we cannot alter by our desires or imagination, even

so intuitive consciousness apprehends

the senses. Even

simplest perceptions

have

in

real things which are not open to is something which is not imagined by us Jn our. and yet makes our knowledge possible, even so we our intuitions a real which controls our apprehension. It is not
as.

_there

fancy or make-believe, but a boha fide discovery of reality. not only with the eyes of the body but with those of our

We

can

see

souls.

Things
the'

unseen become as evident to the light in the souls as things seen to physical eye. Intuition is the extension of perception to regions
sense." 9

beyond

validity of divine existence is not founded on anything external or accidental but is felt by the spirit in us. The Ontological argument
(iii)

"The

131

We cannot have certain ideas without 'having 'had the experience of the objects of which they are the ideas. In :such <cases it is not illegitimate to pass from the ideas to the objects referred to by them. We should not have had an idea of absolute reality if we
is

a report of experience.

had never

been in

immediate
it.

cognitive

relation
the

with

it,

if
is

been intuitively conscious of

the experience."
1

The proof of

existence

we had not founded on

The
clearly

realistic

colour of

Radhakrishnan's

epistemology
fact

will

be

more
.is

and brightly seen

in the light of the

that

Radhakrisbnan
he

neither a rationalist like either Plato or Hegel nor a transcendentalist

either

.like

Gaudapada
fully

or S'ariikaracarya.

Unlike Plato and Hegel,

regards
Sarh-

sense experience as genuine knowledge.

And

unlike

Gaudapada and

admits the reality of empirical world known through Unlike these philosopheres, Radhakrishnan has not created an unbridgeable gulf either between sense and reason or between
sense

karacarya he

and

reason.

i-eason

and

intuition.

He

has rather advocated the

view that

"there

is

a
*

continuous development from sense perception to the vision of the real." 1

He, therefore, regards

it

as "unfortunate that insistence

on

intuition

is is

often confused with anti-intellectualism. Intuition which ignores intellect useless. The two are not only not incompatible but vitally united." 1 2

Growth

in

knowledge, for Radhakrishnan,

in

always

means

enrichment

knowledge and not the denial of the object genuinely of the three ways of knowing. While explaining the nature of integral insight, Radhakrishnan has indicated this in the following words

and correction

known by any

"The

different energies

of the

human

soul are not cut off; from

one

another by any impassable barriers. They flow into each other, modify, support and control each other. The Sanskrit expression "samyagdarsana" or integral insight, brings out how far away it is from occult visions,
trance and ecstacy." 13

We

thus see

that Radhakrishnan's epistemology

is

neither

mere sensaorganically

tionalism, nor

mere rationalism, nor mere mysticism

all

but

an

conceived federation of

the three. This

Radhakrishnan's epistemology is been brought into fore-front by scholars who have worked krishnan. Hence the justification of our effort in this paper.
lladhakrishnan's Ethical objectivism

happen if, and only if, out and out realistic. Yet this has hardly
on

can

Radha-

Radhakrishnan's realism which remains partly obscure in

his

episte-

.132

mology and metaphysics expresses

as ethical objectivism. In fact,

itself

most

clearly

in his ethical
is

theory

Radhakrishnan's

idealism

nothing

more

and nothing less than his theory concerning objective reality of ethical ideals and spiritual values. According to Radhalcrishnan, because spiritual
values are constitutive of ultimate Reality, they appeal to us

as

ideals to

be realized by our ethical or

spiritual

endeavours.

Unlike Radhakrishnan's epistemological realism, his ethical objectivism

is

not a theory
stated

self has

We

are, therefore,

himleft to be clearly worked out by us. Radhakrishuan and argued for ethical objectivism in absolutely clear terms. not required here to do anything more than to give
constitute

some

citations

from 'Radhakrishnan Which

the

statement

and

argument

for his ethical objectivism.

Many

such citations are spread over

the pages in different books by Radhakrishnan.

The following

are

consi-

dered as sufficient for our purpose

"Any

serious pursuit

of

ideas,

ture after virtue, arises

from
and

resources

any search after conviction, any advenwhose name is religion. The search
is

of the mind for beauty, goodness and truth

the

search

for

God... To
is

do

justly, to love beauty Che highest religion." 14

to walk

humbly with the

spirit

of truth

"Truth, beauty and goodness are not

subjective

fancies but objective

facts. 3%ey are not -only ultimate values included in the purpose of the world t>utr.swpeme realities. Their objectivity and sovereignty are sometimes brought out" by calling them attributes of God." 15

"The

principles

which we have to observe

in

our daily
is

life

and social

relations are constituted

in
life,

by what is called dharma. It and power to refashion our nature."

]

truth's

embodiment

"The

rules of

dharma are the mortal

is

flesh of

immortal ideas." 1

'

Religious consciousness

or aesthetic

activity

not reducible to either intellectual or ethical or a sum of these. If it is an autonomous form

transcends them."
J

of
8

spiritual life which, while including these elements, yet

goodness cease to be the supreme realities and become a part of the being and essence of God. From the eternal values we pass to a supporting mind in which they dwell. They thus acquire an objectivity and are not simply dependent on our individual minds." 10

"Truth, beauty and

"As creator and saviour, God

i

is

transcendent to the true process, -even

internal

realisation is

transcendent to

progress. This

transcendence of

133

God

to the true process

struggle

gives

meaning

to the

distinctions

ol'

value,

and

makes

and

effort real." 20

"Moral enthusiasm
tion

is

of being able to contribute to

possible only if our motive includes the expectathe achievement of moral ideas We

cannot help asking ourselves whether our ideals arc mere private dreams of our own or bonds created by society, or even aspirations characteristic
of the

human

species.

the universal nature of things can give depth

If ethical thought
is

Only a philosophy which affirms that they are rooted in and fervour to moral life....
profound,
it

will

give a cosmic

motive to

morality.
ideals." 21

Moral consciousness must include

a conviction of the reality of

in

"It may be argued that, although the universe may have no purpose, items the universe such as nations and individuals may have their purposes

This

a good which

We cannot be regarded as a satisfactory goal of ethics 22 is never left behind and never superseded."

long

for

is

"Dhantia or virtue is conformity with the truth of things; Moral evil 3 disharmony with the truth which encompasses and controls the world."2"
"There are certain
vital values

of religion which are met by the character

of

God

as wisdom, love
life

and ethical

and goodness. Values acquire a cosmic importance becomes meaningful." 24

.

*'!

"The

highest order of being

called
is

spirit

which

is

mind illumined by
intelligence,

the ideas of truth, goodness

and beauty

rooted in

human

and

grows from it. The universe attempts to realize these ideas and eanrfot be understood except in the light of them. They are not only the goal of the
universe
in the temporal sense

but are the timeless principles

in the light

of which

25 alone the universe becomes intelligible."

Shall conclude our expositon of Radhakrishnan's ethical objectivism

We
with an

observation

made by C.

E-

M.

Joad

"Every word that he

presupposes
indeed, as
this

[Radhakrishnan] writes on ethical questions intimate relation between ethics and religion, presupposes,

the spiritual view of the imiverse, the its basic assumption, and the concept of God as indwelling in man,... If spiritual nature of man this assumption be not granted, the ethical philosophy of [Radhakrishnan]
...is

20 without foundation."

Radhakrishnan's Metaphysical Absolutism

a peculiar variety of a Metaphysical absolutism of Radhakrishnan is his knowledge and under standing of the metaphysical theory partly based on

134

metaphysical

like Sliankaracharya, positions of classical philosophers Ramanujacharya, Plato and Aristotle; as well as contemporary philosophers like Bradley, Alexander, Bergson and Whitehead. In the light of Radha-

krishnan's

own

vision

and convictions, he has received glimpses of truth

from these philosophers and attempted to

physical theory, to use C. A.

accommodate them

in his

meta-

Moore's words,

genius for

27 In synthesis."

this respect

"by virtue of his veritable Radhakrishuan has been rightly

described by C. A.
\Vith

Moore

as "the

Thomas

Aquinas of the
to

modem
in

age
their

his

remarkable

ability

and

determination

see things

comprehensive entirety and thus to eleminate the sharp distinctions

to the

which

contradiction of the several cultures and philosophical

narrow and smaller mind serve as the basis for isolation and even " 2S
traditions.

Metaphysical Absolutism
unconditional ultimate reality
tattvatraya (Jiva, Jagata
totality of the Absolute.

of Radhakrishnan accepts Absolute as

only
the

and conceives
Is'vara)

it

in

such

a way

that

and

This

may

become only contingent items in the seem surprisingly very unfortunate,

and impressive
Yet, this
the

especially in the light

of Radhakrishnan's sincere concern

endeavours to work out a comprehensive

is

philosophical system.

the fact to be

reckoned with,

as

it

will,
:

be evident

from

following

outline of Radhakrishnan's Absolutism

According to Radhakrishnan,
to realise timeless values

"God
its

is

the timeless

spirit

attempting
the cosmic
real in one

on the plane
time
is

of time.

The
The

ideal of
is

process which at the

same

goal and explanation another.

sense though wanting to be realised in

fact in

ideal is the greatest

one way and a remote possibility

is

in another.

The

values

which

attempting to achieve are only a few of the possibilities God is the delinitisation of the Absolute in reference to the values of the world," 29
contained in the Absolute.

cosmic 'process

Explaining further the distinction and relationship between the Absolute

and God, Radhakrishnan has written that "the way in which the relation between the Absolute and God is here indicated is not the same as that
of Samkara or of Bradley, though
doctrines.
divine.
it

has

apparent

similarities

to

their

While the Absolute

is

is

the transcendent divine,

God

is

the cosmic

While the Absolute

the total reality,

God
and

is

the Absolute from the world.

the cosmic end, the consciousness that informs

sustains

God is, so to say, the genius of this world, its ground, which as or a possibility of the Absolute lies beyond the world in the
mind of
of

a thought
universal

consciousness of the Absolute. The possibilities or the ideal forms are the the Absolute or the thoughts of the Absolute, One the

infinite

135

possibilities

is
is

being trans/cited into Ike

world of space and of one

specific
in

time, liven as

the world

definite:

manifestation
the

possibility

of the
is

Absolute,

God

with

whom

worshipper stands
is

personal relation

the very Absolute in the world context and

the Absolute."

not a mere appearance

of

30
views

Radhakrishnan's

concerning

interrelationship

and

destiny
:

of

lattvati'aya will be clear by going through the following passages

"God
is

which, though dependent on God,

can only be a creative personality acting on an environment, is not God. Though the acting of God

not forced on

Him
its

from without,

still

it

is
is

limited by the activities of

human

individuals.

The

personality of

God

possible only with reference

to a world with imperfections and capacity for progress. In other words, the being of a personal God is dependent on the existence of a created

order.

God

depends on creation even as creation

beginning,

depends

on God." 3

'

"At the

God

is

merely

the.

knower with

ideas and plans,

which are realised at the end when the world becomes the express image of God. The difference between the beginnig and the end is analogous to the difference between the "I" and the "me." The "me" becomes an
"!" at the end. All things move towards adequate representation of the God lapses into the creator. When the creator and the created coinside, and eludes our thought the Absolute. Being in a sense which both attracts In attaining this goal, becoming fulfils its is the ideal goal of becoming. 32 ceases to be."
destiny and

"God is the Absolute with reference to this possibility of which He God transcends the cosmic the source and creator. Yet at any moment the whole contents of space and time. He transcends process with its is fully manifested. When that His until being and nature History order of the saved and is the whole world moment arises, the world becomes flesh and
is

Until then, God is partly in potent!*, partly historical process terminates. for the cosmic process is not a complete in act. This view is not pantheistic

manifestation of the

Absolute."

33

So far

we have

and tried to understand the Absolute

is

God
is

from the

If tattvatraya point of view of tattvatraya.

considered fron the point of

the following
arise
:

Radhakrishnan has to say view of the Absolute, then what

other immanence implies the existence ot an reference to the Absolute. For the totality immanent, But the Absolute represents in which the Absolute is

"The question of immanence

and transcendence

does not

with

136

of being and there

in the sense

that

nothing other than it. The Absolute is in this world the world is only an actualisatioa of one possibility of
is

the Absolute and

yet there

is

much

in the

Absolute beyond

this possibility

which

is

in process

of realisation." 34

"So no

far as the
it.

Absolute
It

is

concerned, the creation of the world makes

difference to

cannot add anything to or take

its

away anything from

itself.

the Absolute. All the sources of

being are found within

The world
suns

of change does not disturb the perfection of the Absolute. and universes would cease to be, Every existence would

"Though
exist
in

thee"

cannot say that the world follows from the nature (Emily Bronte). of the Absolute even as the conclusion of the syllogism follows from the
premises, as Spinoza would have us
believe. The Absolute is the ground of the world only in the sense that a possibility of the Absolute is the logical prius of the world. The world would not be but for this possibility in

We

the Absolute.

As
that
it

to
is

why

this possibility

arose and not any other,

we have to answer
It
is

an expression of

the

freedom

of the Absolute.
its

not

even

necessary for the Absolute to express any of

bility
is

possibilities. If this possi-

expressed,

it

is

a frpc
act
is

act of

the

Absolute.

Hindu

writers

are

of creation more as the work of an artist hid or free play. The world is the work of art artist whose works are worlds. His fertility is endless. S'amkara says that the world originates from the supreme without effort ((spray
inclined to look

upon the

than that of an

artisan. It

on the analogy of sport (fifanydyan),

atnenaiva.),

like

human

breath

(puntsamhs'vasavat\"3

little

reflection

on the above outline of Radkakrishnan's metaphysical

it clear that the theory is incompatible with his realistic epistemology and objectivistic ethics. The following are the chief points to this conclusion leading
:

Absolutism makes

(i)

As

thoughts merely knower with: ideas and plans," not logically and metaphysically contain any thing which is genuinely material and capable of being known by senses. This means that the ontological status of the material world and epistemological status of the sense experience of the external world lose

the possibilities of the Absolute are described as "the

of the Absolute" and as

"God

is

the evolution of the world can

their

metaphysical

foundation.
is

This

clearly

means
his

that

Radhakrishnan's
absolutism Idealism

epistemological realism

incompatible

with

metaphysical

which turns out

to

be a form of nothing

other than

Absolute

137

It is

hardly necessary to clarify that here the term 'idealism' clearly

means

'idea-ism.'

(ii)

We

are told that "of

the

infinite

possibilities,"

it

is

only
as

"one
the

specific possibility of the

Absolute"
to

which has

been manifested

world.

How

do

we come

know about

the infinite possibilities or thoughts

of the Absolute, we do not know.

this

No amount
At no

of sddhana can lead us to

is

knowledge because
to lapse "into the

we are part
Absolute."

of the world which

destined with
this
last

God

moment,

including

moment, "the world of change" can "distrub the perfection of the Absolute." Thus the Absolute in its perfection and infinitude remains always unknowable
to us.
itself
is

From

the standpoint of realism,

realistic distinction

even the Absolute does not

because the

between the knower and the

know known
for
is

not admitted in case of the Absolute.

is

knowers

inescapable in

Thus a kind of agnosticism Radhakrishnan's Absolutism. The same

all

the

case with subjectivism because the world evolves from and merges into the as one of its possibilities which are not other than 'ideal Absolute
just

forms' or thoughts. Thus the world of the Absolute.

is

created and dissolved "as a thought"

are theories in episte-

Now, agnosticism and subjectivism

at
all

mology Hence

which are not

the

compatible

with

realism in

epistemology.

incompatibility

of

Radhakrishnan's

metaphysics

with

his

epistemology.
(iii)

God

in

Radhakrishnan's absolutism resembles Whitehead's God.

providing God that is available has been rightly ohserved that "in spite
suffers

Whitehead has

criticised Aristotle for not

for religious purposes.

However,

it

of Whitehead, the

Whiteheadian God

from

the

same
all

defect." 36
is

Radhakrishnan's Absolutism also takes away

cant from the standpoint of
religion.

from God

that

signifi-

No

reality can

be

the

object

of

called by the name, man's moral and religious aspirations simply by being criticism because his God is God Radhakrishnan cannot escape this ultimate the nor metaphysical self-existent neither anadi nor ananta, neither God and His world came into being, thanks ground of all-that-there-is. Absolute. We are clearly told that this Ilia to a contingent Ilia of the Absolute would have gone quite even necessary for the Absolute."
"is

and absorbing game of temporarily creating have and souls aspiring to realize Him. with His world of matter ethical objectivism presented above of seen that Radhakrishnan's exposition "The search of mind for beauty, goodness like
this well without ever playing

not

God

We

and truth

includes the assertions is the search for

(i)

God;"

(ii)

"The

rules of

dharma are

the mortal

138

flesh of

immortal ideas;" (iii) "We long for a good which is never left behind and never superseded;" and values) are not (iv) "They (spiritual

only the goal of the universe in the temporal sense but are timeless principles in the light of which alone the universe becomes intelligible." These
assertions clearly imply that Radhakrishnan's ethical objectivism emphatically ascertains the teleological character of the world and eternality of God.

But Radhakrishnan's absolutism has no logical room for either teleology of the world or eternal character of God because here the world and God
are regarded as nothing more than a temporal the absolute incompatibility of Radhakrishnan's
III a

of the Absolute. Hence

his ethics.

metaphysics with

An Improved Version of
If

Radhakrishnan's Metaphysics

worth maintaining,

Radhakrishnan's epistemological realism and ethical objectivism are Radhakrishnan himself has covetously maintained these
then there
is

doctrines throughout his long academic career but to revise his metaphysical position, This

no

alternative

would

have to be

whole-

heartedly approved by Radhakrishnan himself for he has given us a criterion for acceptability of metaphysical belief by writing that "if the belief works in the realm of mind or it is otherwise knowledge, of life or

conduct,

true;

it

is

spurious."

3 7

The spurious
distinct

belief in

Radhakrishnan's

metaphysical

outlook

is

his

belief concerning the duality of

from God

is

God and the Absolute. The Absolute as a logical construction of Radhakrishnan's mind under
is

the influence of thinkers like Bradley. Jt udice that Radhakrishnan advocates the
Absolute' for the

on account of

this

logical prej-

substitution

of the

phrase

'the

word 'God'

in

the language describing religious intuition

:

written "When the Old Testament says, "Before even the earth and the world were made, Thou art God from everlasting, and world without end," it is referring to the Absolute and not to God who is organic with the world 33

or revelation.

For example,

he has

process."

The needed revision in Radhakrishnan's metaphysics has thus to start with the elimination of the distinction between God and the Absolute. As the two are not distinguished in intuitive and
religious experience
as

Radh-

much argued for the validity of intuitive religious experience, not be without support from Radhakrishnan himself in our task of equating God with the Absolute.
akrishnan has so

we

will

Radhakrishnan has written

or living contact with ultimate

"Religion
It is

is,

reality.

in essence, experience of not a subjective phenomenon,

139

not mere cultivation of the inner

that stands over against the

life

but the apprehension

of something
not
as

individual.

The

real

is

known

the

conclusion of an argument but with the certainty of a thing experienced." Radhakrishnan thus admits that religious experience is a "bonafide discovery

39

of

reality."

As

to the nature

of reality discovered by religious

:

experience,

Radii-

akrishnan has maintained

"There are aspects in religious experience, such which require as sense of rest and fulfilment, of eternity and completeness, nature is not exhausted by the cosmic whose the conception of a being
allfulness of reality process, which possesses an side of religious experience faintly shadows. This

which

our

world

only

of the supreme

as

Self-existence,

infinity,

freedom,

demands the conception absolute light and

absolute beatitude.

On the other hand there are features of our religious us to look upon God as.. .a personal being with experience which require whom we can enter into personal relationship. Practical religion presupposes and helps us in a God who looks into our hearts, knows our tribulations the religious our need. The reality of prayer and sacrifice is affirmed by who influences concrete of a being the assumes reality life of mankind. It
our
life.

To

leave the Absolute in abstract

isolation dwelling in Epicurean

felicity is to

reduce

it

to an ornamental figurehead

who

lends an atmosp-

The permanent here to an essentially agnostic view of the cosmic process. is also here and transient world of struggle and discord reality beyond the The supreme conflict. is no there In experience itself
in everything.
satisfies

religious

4 both sets of needs."

well interpreted The above quoted words of Radhakrishnan can be God. of the notions of the Absolute and of implying complete identity of reality but the ever The Absolute here does not mean the sum-total same The Supreme of all-that-there-is. sustaining metaphysical ground and without a second with respect to metaphysical Reality, which is one of Absolute of some philosophers and God is the sovereignty, spiritual not find should Radhakrishnan in all religious people. The philosopher of in the light of his interpretation this not only difficulty in admitting that "Profebut also in the light of his own admission religious experience nonthe between vacillation about my ssor Brightman's whole criticism theism oPRamaimja is based on dualism of Samkara and the personal must be either the one or the other, which the postulate that the supreme 41 I do not admit."

as

The

identification of

God and

the

Absolute

is

clearly

admitted

by

Radhakrishnan

"All religions in his observation that,

are founded on the

140

personal experience of the seers

Spiritual Presence

who become

directly

aware of an

Infinite

beyond and within the range of the world of change and succession. The personal experience of union with Absolute Reality

or

God

has

been a

common and

continuous

feature of

all

the

faiths

of mankind." 42

Once

the

distinction

between the

Absolute and
turns

God
to

is

eliminated,

Radhakrishnan's

metaphysical

absolutism
to that

out

be

kind

of
Sri

Visistadvaitic theism comparable

of

Raman ujacharya

or of

Svatninsrayana.

krishnan has observed that,

genius. Ideas flowed in on

While appreciating Ramanujschsrya's contribution to philosophy, Radha"RsmSnuja had the greatness of a religious

him from various sources

the
all

Agamas, the puranas and the prabandham with some side of his religious nature. All
was strong
in

the Upanisads and and he responded to them

their different elements are

held together in the indefinable unity of religious experince. The philosophic

spirit

his best to reconcile the

RamSnuja, so, demands of

If

too,

was

his religious

need.

He

tries

the religious feeling

with

the claims

of logical
us.

thinking.

he did

not succeed in the

systematic and self-contained philosophy of religion,

Much more

remarkable

is

the

deep

earnestness

us a attempt it should not surprise and hard logic with

to give

which he conceived the problem and laboured to bridge the yawning gulf between the apparently conflicting claims of religion and philosophy. A thin intellect with no depth of soul may be blind to the wonders of God's ways, and may have offered us a seemingly simple solution. Not so Ramanuja, who gives us the best type of monotheism conceivable inset
with touches of immanentism." 4 3
-

Radhakrishnan
visistsdvaita
is

and others have pointed

moral

out

that,

Ranianujacarya's
(i)

involved in certain difficulties

related to

the teleological

character of the world,

souls and
(iii)

and metaphysical status of individual (ii) transcendental aspect of God. Sri SvaminSray ana's Visistsdre-formulating

vaita eliminates these difficulties by

the

very

concept' of

S'anra-S'arm relation.** In the Visistadvaita of Sri SvaminarSyana, the individual souls and material world are said to be "body of God in the sense that (i) they are pervaded by God; (ii) they depend upon God; and
(iii)

they arc

incapable of

doing anything without the s'akti of God." 45

Sri

Thus the philosophical position of

view of the universe without

damaging

SvSminSrSyana preserves the organic its moral significance and God's

transcendence.

It,

therefore, appears

to

us

that

the Visistadvaiia of

Sri

Svaminarayana

best serves the purposes of Radhakrishnan's philosophizing.

We

conclude this paper with the observation that unless Radhakrishnan's

is
it:

metaphysical position
possible to
reconcile

revised

along the lines suggested above,

it

is

not

with his

epistemology

and

ethics.

Again, unless

Radhakrishnan's metaphysics

ogy and

ethics, his

is brought in logical harmony with his epistemolsystem cannot satisfy the claims of both religion and

philosophy.

And

this is

what Radhakrishnan very much wanted to do.

paper has been written as a tribute to Radhakrishnan, a reference to Radhakrishnan's advice to writers on philosophy will not be considered
this

As

as irrelevant.
art of

which

After praising Plato and SariikarScarya as "masters in the tempering the rigour of their argument with that larger utterance the soul of true literature," 40 Radhakrishnan has written that "writers on philosophy sometimes require to be reminded of Landor's
is

warning

'clear writers like fountains

do not seem as deep as they

is

are,

the

turbid look
that writers

most profound'." 47 As it on philosophy can help

only through

clear presentation
in

real

advancement

philosophical

wisdom, the

students of philosophy should

for clarity in both understanding

always most vigilantly search and presentaion of philosophical ideas.

NOTES
N. B. The following
is

the

list

of abbreviations used in

these notes

CIP

...

Radhakrishnan's statement of his philosophy under the title 'the S. Radhakrishnan and J. H. Muirhead spirit in Man' (Editors)
: :

Contemporary Indian philosophy (George Allen

1952)

&

Unwin, London,

IVL

...

S.

Radhakrishnan

An Idealist

View of Life (George Allen &Umvin,

London, 1951)

PR

...

krishnan (The Library

The philosophy of Sarvepalli RadhaSchilpp Paul Arthur (Editor) of Living philosophers, Tudor Publishing
:

Company, N. Y. 1952)

RS

...

S.

Radhakrishnan

Religion and Society

(George Allen

&

Unwin,

London, 1948)
1.

2.

CIP, p. 485 D. M. Datta

sity

The chief Currents of Contemporary Philosophy (Univer-

of Calcutta, 1961) p. 136

142

3.

PR,
IVL,

p.

316, 317

4.
5.

p.

134
134
138 138

Ibid., p.

6.
7.
8.

Ibid., p. Ibid., p.

C1P,

p. p.

485
143

9.

IVL,
S.

10.
11.

Ibid., p.

220
:

Radhakrishnan

Eastern Religion and Western

p. 51

Th ought (Oxford Uni-

versity Press,
12. 13.

London, 1940)

CIP,

p.

486
487

Ibid., p.

14.
15.

RS,
CIP,

p.

47
494

p.
p.

16.

RS,
IVL,

104
p.

17.

Ibid.,

108

18. 19.

p.

199

Ibid., p.
Ibid., p.

200
345
p.

20. 21.

S.

Radhakrishnan: Eastern Religion and Western Thought,

81 f

22. 23.

Ibid., p. 81
S.

Radhakrishnan
342

The Hindu View of Life (George Allen

&

Unwin,

1949) p. 78
24. 25. 26.

IVL,
CIP,

p. p.

495
in

27.
28.

Quoted by C. A. Moore PR, p. 282

Ibid., p.

PR

p.

310

282

29.
30. 31. 32.

CIP, pp. 496-7 Ibid., p. 498 (Italics ours) Ibid., p. 499

Ibid., p.

500
501 501

(Italics ours)

33.

Ibid., p.

34.
35.

Ibid., p,
Ibid., p.
J.

502
:

36.

A. Yajnik

The

difficulties with

Whileheadian

God., the article

in

Proceedings of The Indian Philosophical Congress, Patna, 1968 37. IVL, p. 221
38.

CIP,

p.

498

39.

Ibid., p,

492

143

40. 41. 42.

Ibid., p.

497

PR, p. 797 S. Radhakrishnun

1961)
p.

Recovery

of

Faith

(George
II

Allen

and Unwin,

110
:

43.

S.

Radhakrishrmn

Indian Philosophy, Vol.

(George Allen and Unwin,

Visistadvaita
J.

London) pp. 720-21

44.

For a detailed discussion of the Difference between the

of S'n Svaminarayana and that of Ramanujacarya See

A. Yajnik,

The philosophy

of S'rl

Svaminarayana (L. D.

Institute of Indology,

Ahmedabad,
45.
Ibid., p.

1972) Chapter 16, Section II

52

46.
47.

CIP, p. 484 Ibid., p. 484

Stf -HI
,

41,

ail

8.
1

<M

*H'?l

**aidl ^ft

cl

dl

ftsAl

ov

rial iVUji

d.

-H^ft ov

lR?ll

^l

&."

f\3i;

854^

^^aii^l

'^^-11 H^l

Hisl^L

ctftl

HH^l <HRrMl dx^l-'l

^ H^Ml
3)4

Hit

Stti

sycli

elll iii wil^Wrll

Hl

HXl^l &.
ifl.

MU
t'J-

<HlHlHf|

^VjJ

Rl^?ll%lrii

vjfel

iQH

&l

^ AWld
MV{J
31

-M,

d.

"

HWRl

9iRcttH

cti^H

clHl

a/

d;
>

M&M1

fo'cM'Vl

aUrl*t.

fe

"Hi

S^icl

cl

'-H

ft.

xfclHlfi-i

ft ^^^
1

HH-il ^ctd,

cl'H'll

5^ g.

(a. d.

[ttt<n

P-l^lR

cl

3} Sldl ^il^ Pl^lHdl

iai

otiailM.

W. IR-iKWi^
Si.

"Ml5i
MISI

=v
filly,

y'^'H^li i

Sj

}lHl^tJl<3

ill
'

ell

cl

d't T/ d &W,

M<it

ffiJ^'l^l

^Pi

^1*1,

ell

cl

clH-ilMl

(i.c{l.

il.

^iHl^iai-X

il.

IM%

&. 31 ^'tH'HHi H

r<U'*ull

^R^d
^K-fl
clfl

s<l 31^

Wl

fold

well SlJf^ci'ci

xigtai'

w^

Slru.^^'

^ri

j^l

^cti

lil

Hi

<lMl

H,
'i

8,

5m

^IM."

Si.

PH-l

Hl-ldlSll

<Hl5i

5l

Miaj

'-HlMlfcHi

aHJf'H

Fellowship of the SpiriUfl

{lt
Mill

"Hliai^ll

a^ SUsu
'tWlov

cl^l^ ^
Ml<ry"ll

^IH^

IM

ell

Mi^ clH'U

.MeU

l^l

^44 ^1^1
S. 13 H>T

ell

RH

&,

4Ki*t I SllSwi

<M>i(rt aHlfl

'i

4<1

u trtl=lc{l '^IH Hi

cl^l

QrC-i^Cl
ial

4^1 V
j^ffi

'I

lilM.
ii<i

HH^^l SWcfl Ml-HdlSll

cli

vl

Mlc{l

<H<{1

l Hi

H^H^

SIM'

^d

aiJl'

^
4^1

'Hl

rt^Pl'cW

RllW'fl

"

d'

Pl^<A -ft^i-m

Pm

-i

H
^I'H

tl..

^iHl^ei'l

SHlS^MlSHl

^idf

'3

cliC-fl

S,

H
',

=Him(cMi
ylMsifts

rt-eWW dl(Vi
ctT<i'iHl

8,

fl

clt^l^l w
r fl

& pM

MR^l

fc

M^Ceti MSJ

'.

cli

(i) mst

8
.

J*^i

(s) MStcftl
l'(clH

5lV

(V)

yPi^'

'^
8

^SR
^U-H^fl

Slcl'Wl

s/S

"MVll

^
<

MI&

^ 8

cl

Mil

"I

^^l
^H.
8.

MM*
au

8,

l^ ni*t 8,

^MI SHR^I wl Mil

MltlSiUil
aHl

^iiii'JJ

<*w
8
S

MWUMl

Ml^-il

SllHMi "{li^Sll
i'
r

8.
vairt

^ 8
S'
f

cl

PtHM^l

<ttl

^8^
Mll'^lfcMfc

3 lcl

8
cl

aHl5l^=H
cl'fl

<Vlcl ^ii
i^i'

MR

Hsfrt

<Xtk

^&

<V

8,

cl

"icll^l

SMI
*

'MWIMI

^i
8.

yclcit^^li =Hl'4R 8.

=HlR^R
mU3[h"l

8.

aw ^PiMi
H'[icl

iiRk
^H'cl

MiMl 8,

^3 aa
8
8.

sifi

nc{l

-Wl

11

SiclHl

^IclMl ailft^R

iWl
r il -(l

^IcttH "i'4-iMi

H^

8.

MW&'H

=Hl

^^"i'H'i'-n

M(l*lUl

ffe'-Sct^Tliaill

HlHl
i

i<l

8..

ati=ll^Sii
1i^'
'

"Ste'^l

tid^
ov
s

"MS"-i1

^dlPli

SIM MKl
cl

8. Si Hi
SicM,

Susf

5 Sis^l

aj^dlH
llcMl

%'
il

msi

o/aid^l

5l=i

aH'rtWlMl

l'lt

T-i^iai

clMov yoj,^, an-^jJi HH-TV

^^*l, Pl^lSR clMV

Si
ii

m^M
cli

Sli sy y<i4'

Pijfei

<m 8

^M i^lKl PRM^^M SH^I ^^ vS^R 8 SIH

Si
u\

^l^
?lg,'

=Q3l 8,
Si <$$ 8.
cl

Mi'ft

5ui
MRHl SuSl
M'i'e

airtJ

<H&Ml.

<$&&

ds*

JflPi&

4^
,

^ir-!

KlCrt^s

QiM

fi^Ki A*MI

m ^

S. ft-s
S}

df=i'

flcl
.

SHI

S;

<

si

'

aw

si

1,

Q,.

&.
oy

>r

U let [.
Fri

H <,^
5}

ril

uj.

aHM^LSl

^(Hl

Intellect

and

tuition

rjt

^'CH

41.

iH^L8i

%l

jlH^l ^QkKl

iR^K^l

'1

IH,

ell

cl

'

i-il

MH

S, cl^ w4l^

S^l

Sll

^IHrtl^

cl

r-

cli

^ll-irtl.

S.

cafict

cti"
-i

y'aicl

ll*i

Rr^la^l,

HiSlK-ti

'I

^^il^L

ll^

Hd

444

d^HHI

(at<nl

SlSM'U

oHIMl'I'Hi

cl>l

all

fedR 4^

ddl

3HlHl^

SM'ktl

(idl,

d"H4l

sHd/timSlKi HlfH'i 224441 at'

(icfl.

41.

ell

cl

Ml S
<vt'c5

(Sell

clfl

*.14-MI

SJ

i^

^
^l
clM-il

SU'j,'.

5)11

^Pi-il

a^d^^
.

M^ (MR)

-H S, ^P clHt M^

Rl^H-il^

cvll'-H

UM

^biioi

^R^'

il

^H-lR
eld'
t6ld')

^CrtS

HPl"

& '<wVt
IRK
.

H^'Hi Sli
cl

<v

HilMl Pl^l^ld'

il[clMlS-l

if/'.

<HKcfl4

Vlcl'lrtl

oy

41.

dHl

o-q^-^U

Hd^l eWl

ay^dl vi^W
l^

d.

ill.

&.
41

^n

diW
cllfi'i

rlfl,

clH

MW

0.

Ml RW1*1 ^4 MiM^
51

%Hl|lld' aHWl
I
Slt5

M^H

^^l
dT=l

a/

^4

fe

'i

s^l'-Ml 'H&dT'WlS
1
1

Ml

Bvkl

d&Void

'

"irtlMl

Si.

Rim^-i^l ^cM

Mdl

5.
Hi

i'cl

Hi

ilH
tf

Hi,

^.iRl-H

^U-HcUa^

^ca^fl

^l41
ill

HI

.^

vi

'^ctOi'^-lH^ =tl'eiHlcM4

dH

cftt

^lil.

Si Hi

Ss^'

yM^'aft^l

^ilUR

^H=llS

=H^l

51 d'

Sw
HIH
ilV^l Sl'd

<HI^

lii

16

StKHl

-HIH ailH

1 iM,

llMlcH&

il'iHai
?

cl^ll

J^^l

*wi t[d*twi feA^

1

fl-S

M
S.

3t'5lRi.Ri Hl*len

S.

^1-cWl

S.

u illHtil-ii

ttlSlHTll

Qi^l-i-il

'^ Hi

iMPlHSl 5V

S.

to

fM^
*li3*i

<

o/

il

5 "<HRefW

6.KI

tan ii

^Hl^d

aicll

^H
MI
cl

U;4
Pl(*l

S-5H<r/^l S, yi
^ict ?H^'yi

^, ^,
l

.^l ^

iy^
<V5W'

RISR
cl

at&l,

y^ei, %U4K

<r/3lrl^

^RRtct

VM ^ 'HM^Rid

t'StHl

51

H
5HH11 aysirtHN'^

Plc^l

M^&lHi

ilCdPicl

&.

M^^
51

Hi
^'t"tl

Ml

43'
8

cti

1ft
I
.

-HI

HlW

oai

fJir

Wl

-nd

tf ft*

1M
d 5
f*
ell

^IclMl WS14WI UHl

HIH S,

H wtlctW

4 VI I'd

S, Hni

(H.

aQcll^l

iwi<ll

lfl S,

3Hl3ltfl

M^ ^ S^rtH ^q ^ n^l S.
5tt'X8l*l

MR

61.

cl.

aftcll^l
cl-il

ll

*Sll4

<Si$3l

4?U

41^

-in.

clHMl
4^1=1

HUt'O

lRn

% S, ^l
^tcl

^'*iPl ^l^l

Wl^

S,

9...5HI
lr<td'

^4
"HW

sRrtlSl aHlM^ft
i

^ 4^'
^i
"mil

41,

^lHl|^

^Wl

^61-cl^"

<WQ fitf-Wl

Hi

cl

cititf

<H^l

li.

dl jSVlfll

iliJ

M6W

il^cd

*IW

13

8.
'

il(d

fwli @M*
8.

?tei

'UM'-ft

Si VJM

8,

-4^

5} aJiPtM
ell

-ilfctrll

ft^l^. ^-t-TH-fh <v

IPlfd ai$ <V 4

clH^L ^Itl'CfHi
il

Sl^H i*tRl

Ui

y'^

(Fellowship
of
faiths)
iH3ilfl3lcl
lfil-clHi

^il ^'-HMQiK^l H^l

SIR &.)

StaHl

^^1^1

S. wj^l

Cltl

Wl.
R'HSfl

^AW^'

^ 3^3' ^Clctt^ ^

W^

H^ el^i

?4pt^

:y

S.

f'

5{ Sl^l Si

aiivtfl

yiR

&,

55^

3i^ HiS

PtSl'lli

wuf 6.

51

si

*ll*t

Sl^l 5|i

{1<M ^HcHl

8.
*ti

"I'^l

Md

^llrtl-il

ill

8, 5l*
d(

^ItH^nrll
flv*ii

MIM

i^ 8;
cl

613ft

ft^rf]

[^*{l

^id JJ|q 21$

il>HL
l^[
i

ytsTftt M^l ev
(Mi
13(1

4^'

^^

4^1

^Idl^'

lfirtT*

4WM

^l^ 8,

51

5H^&li 8.

wt"

cUft

ilM

'<4G*U<A'U
'.S

sfe'fl Ml^
<Hil
ell

ii
ctl

"mai

'"^ '^ I

4i.
.

ci

"

cWt

RlHl^dl y^ei'M^
flSll

HSll

li<Hl

HPlctl

^U.

'^

cltfi'i

@ 51U

Ml^l S.

<l

1 sH-d:

1.

41.

5V

&,
"

^
?

o^
41.

Pi^

<ii5i

oy

41.

Experience S&l s< g Stl&Wrtl

}
'

^
' '

Integral
cli

ffli-^M^HMI^'.^ ^"

5)i'3l r ll
l
,

ft^U^'
5cti

$afe

g.3*

ant

si.

31

ti

'S
5>i'i

QtKcfftl "il

i"4

ra-ct" M^ 5ii

<^

S, <$*u

ciSiiS

-flil 4'H^l

(V
=i'l

cWl

S. n^jll'fl
l

KM

g^^u^il
SHI

Si

^4

5)!;

uHl'ft

i=ll.j'

ll

-3.

ai^UHftaiilrQ

{HKcfll ^IcPli MlGlcft Hell

il.
'

sun X

aw *uU

^IMI?I

MI^I

BH^I'I,

cl

31

4^
Hl

cl

mi

iliS

fiHH 1
ct5i

^d ^^'

ill.

3lH

si%

^i c>^i
Wl

^13' ^1

Sl^t 31

*a 5Hi^i ^i

&.

iWWl

WWl

<

"llftl^l

WMi WWCU

HHl

ctf
-

Mnw

cl,

31

8.

ll.

Rl

S,

=>te

'WRl <HR<fl*

8. to;}'

Bl

i[l "v^i
li.

^^
111 Hi

ttlft'tt

S, =H^

*6lfl

=1.41 i%ll<fl

ilVW Kl^

d[4.

Panegyriot

Thought-Being'
'

<MPws4i

-tan.

B d

-i(&.

C5n

ll.

2PUHl

lift*

J^cHlM

fl.

Si Si*

WMlrHA

iloi/U^

%t Htl

aHlfetf

lift

&,

Ml

iR-i AIH" &.

''ll
ct'll

MV^
^.

Si

6J/IW ^ lilfl

RHWi
Wl'-Wl

X|lRl^

^IM
dfll

5H1MI

iH^^dl

P^HlcMS

>HlHl

cWl
H-tl

M^

*w

1.

2.
3.

4.

grew up in au atmosphere where the uuseea was a Christian teachers,. were not seekers of Truth." "I admire great masters but am follower of none." (My thinking) "is born of spiritual experience
"I

"My

living reality

"

rather

from
5.

than deduced

logically ascertained premises."

"A

liaison officer

between two civilizations."

6.

''There are a few scholars like him,

who have

grasped

th

Eastern and Western thought-alike-"

-Dr.

P. T. Rajti

7.

"a philosophical

biliiiguist."
J.

H. Muirhead

8.

9.

Dr. D.

M. Datta

'Chief Currents of Contemporary Philosophy.'

10.

12. 1314.

SC-5

,>

^
S.

The

reign of religion in

contemporary philosophy
Dr.

p.
S.

20-21

Radhakrishnan
freedom of the

15.

Ail idealist

View of Life.. Dr.

a free act.. It
is

R.

p-

87
of the

16.

Creation

is

an

expression

Absolute.
17.

World's evolution
illusions.

and history are

is

real

and not mere appearances or

pure
non-being.
It
is

The world
I

not unreal

or

both

being and non-being.

18.

have interpreted the doctrine of Maya, so as In my writings, it a real meaning. save the world and give to Dr. S. R.

to

19.

20. 21. 22.

God comes to self-expression through the regenerated Reason and intuition are interdependent.

individuals.

anti-intellectualism.. Intention Intuition should not be confused with are not only incompatible which ignores intellect is useless. The two not against united. .Intuition is beyond reason though

but

vitally

reason. It

is

the response of the whole

man

to reality. It

is

dependent

23.

upon thought. Gautama-The Buddha

See
See
: :

Dr.

S. R. p. 39
I p. I p-

24.
25.
26.

Indian Philosophy Vol. Indian Philosophy Vol.

607 360

See
See

27
28*.

135 Outlines of Indian Philosophy p. 305-8 Indian Philosophy Vol. I p.

Outlines

See

of Indian Philosophy

(Gujarat! Translation-Shukla)

p. 255.

257

29.

30. 31.

Outlines of Indian Philosophy p. 117

'Prabuddha Bharat'
See
:

May, 1946
Extracts from an article

32.

Radhakrishnan Reader, an anthology.

by R. P. Singh, entitled 'Radhakrishnan's substantial reconstruction of the Vedanta of Shankara.' -Philosophy-East and West, Jan.-April,
1966.
33. 34.
35.

See Indian Philosophy Vol.

Prof. Brightmami.

p. 9

See

Indian Philosophy Vol.

II p.

720

36.
37.

An
5H

Idealist

view of Life p. 153

38.

See
p,

The Philosophy
The Philosophy
'Indian

of Dr.

S.

Radhakrislman,

(Tudor

Publi. Co.)

461-476
:

39.

See

of R. Tagore p. 116-117
its

40.

See

Thought and

development' Dr. Switzer and 'Eastern

Religion and Western Thought.' (Dr. S. R.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.

The

&
2.

Works by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan reign of religion in Contemporary Philosophy. London,

I

McMillan

Co. 1920.
(Libra, of Philo).

Indian Philosophy Vol. LondonIndian

George Allen and Unvvin '

3.

Philosophy
Publ.

Vol. II 1923

-Do-

1927

45.

The Hindu view of Life -Do-1927

An

Idealist view of life

-Do-1932
S.

6.

Contemporary Indian Philosophy Ed. Dr.

R Pub -Do

1938

;^
10.

Philosophy

Ed

*-

Fellowship of the

Spirit,

Cambridge, Harward, Uol. Press, 1961.

1.

QUl*U

(1) (*) (3)

SWRflitt

ctflS

iWcf'Hl'l Rl^liSl

=twtm3ui

Pis

(=1)
si.

iH-' M^

Rfin

4^a

itn

(3)

(t)

aHXd <ia QiWdlH

tfft*
R^II

1$ tlMdi (wjiai

cMl

%Wl'U'

True Knowledge

(l)
(R.)

2>U<3Vdl

'cRiti

IWcfcfl

(3)

"VHkll

(M)

yici\i't
i^lcfl
rtUl

H'.Kcll

(3)
:

Hi<vit

cl^mi

<%*i

an'%'
1fl

li

-i(l

&l.

H^

=HI
1

"There
is

is

nothing
1

wrong with

out-

students.

What

is

wrong,

the system."

If you look

at

our country tpday, if you have a fair look and a full look at the critical and political scence, you will discover that there is
a

moral

crisis

through which we are passing."^

u
.

M
'.

-MRl ilM S.

"Classics are contemporaries of all ages. They have something to tell us in every context and in every situation in which we find ourselves. When we are in distress, in troubles,

we

turn to

them and

they

give

us

spiritual

com Tort. They

give us not merely enlightment but they give solace of mind also. The Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Kalidas's works.. all

examples as to how man should behave in of life. The classics all over the world, have the same power to stirmilate our minds, to sooth our to make us a being with hearts, to enrich our whole nature,
these give
difficult

us

situations

new perception

altogether.

They help us
3

to develop an

all-

enibracing

human

personality."

Midi

Hl

W'S^Ml ^iHl^iJ

3l

"<

xl^

S
it

"'-'naua

is

not

mere
it

information, not mere scholarship,

is

is

not mere

criticism,

education in depth."

s^,

ft'HftsUC-M

&^W."

"A

University

is

"^ one which gives a universal outlook.

JISH

S^'9

"Education

is

not

the

acquisition

of information,
skills

important though

it is,

or acquisition of technical

though

they are very essential in

modern

society.

One must have

knowledge,

that

superior outlook, that outlook which goes

beyond information
nor
is

and

technical

skill.

Information

is

not

knowledge wisdom, One must have the capacity to subsist in the battle and to look at things as they happen without any kind of inward disturbance or perturbation of one's being.""'

!;

Our system

of

education

should

aim

at

balanced

growth of the

individual-insisting

on both knowledge and wisdom. >>vs

RiHi^ui'l'U
(l)

Hct

%^t RIS^L
"All education
is

wi

(i) *.&$'

5H-^

a>M

Uni^l

Pliiy.
side,

on the side a search for truth.

On

one the other

it

is

a pursuit of social betterment.''^

HiRl cl^ ^l^ljj,'.

QiRcft*!

MRuimRi <iR

Hi

'HK-tldl

ff/ctt

yiMl/i

^^Ri

H'HrH

ctlcft
=l

o/cfi

(i)

(s)

(V)

(1)

SM'rt

ROHIl

"HIS

(3) (V)

M
lv
lid
5ll^li

ftCteldl

^"il'H.i

"We must

not turn

men

into machines, fragment

their natures

and destroy

their wholeness.

The

best

way

to preserve intellectual integrity is by the study of classics and meditation for a few minutes. These are our defences

communication." against the assaults of mass

61

8H'?U*(l
.l&tiSldl

clHsy
"HI

4<H%

rtlwl aH%*fl
tfWl

"tail

itf-fl RrMMcll

PH S

"Education

is

the

process

by which we conserve
discard the wasteful.
for change". 1 I
It
-

valuable elements in our culture and

is

both
SHI

stabilising

influence

and an agent

%U8l clM'lRi 3* [4^4 Miai

f^Hd

^[
S.RI

<i

C-U^l Ha>U

254^1
^i!J
Mt4l

Vt-sHl^i^

W'^fcUl

Xl
^=115(1 ay

cl;}'

1^H

Hi

cil

w
,

Hl?l

MlMl.

SHI

^^M

SHIM^I

=tl'^Ccld'

<l*t',

Hi

rl

<v\H

aHlM^

-i^ 814 1

313'

-11

QtWl,

=IH\

W'HSW

4^)

MSI ^cU

tUR^l Ml

ii

ttx ^iHi<
'A

^i

i^
=H^H^

ic

8,

MH'fl'll

Wll'aftel

ftil^

Sl^l Hi.

ll

^'

"What we need today

sical, vital,

is

the education of the whole man-phy'

'

1 mental, intellectual and spiritual."'

"Facts and values should go

together.'"

111

Pldl^l

"Social Sciences give

to knowledge of man's behaviour in society-as acts-'"13 "All empirical sciences (statistics, economics,
us

how

he

politics,

psychology
tell

etc.) give

us facts-

They give us

principles.

They

us

how man

will

behave

when confronted with

certaia

circumstances. But

how

he should behave, what attitude should

all

be adopt, what self-control should he exercise over himselfthese things are not given by social sciences. "Thus they do not educate the human mind regarding the norms, tlie
goals, the purposes,

If

we want

to use our knowledge-physicial and social, for

social

the regeneration of humanity, are not enough.

sciences

by

themselves

They

supply us with instruments,

but those

instruments

moral agent, our social sciences need to be supplemented with

11

may be used or abused by man." "Man is a who can determine his behaviour. In this respect,
social philo-

sophy.'

5l

8.

Rsil^SiRi
HjKfl

JWcl'cQ
CHlHi

Ml&
ill

y'MlHL

Rl^Jl
4tll<l

(^41 ov

wiL^ ll^^l
ailll

%N-*tl

CWl

8,

RitlH

u{lsvt

iiS^ n

^I'^R

Jcfl

Wcti

lKl

M
8.

8.
l

A
Mil

ot^L <V
vi*j

wtl^

cic-i^i

'aHMil^ Bl

^'.'Social ethics

CPU

tt

to adjust them,
settlement."'
1

"Democracy and violence do not go together. differences but you will try democract, you may have your mutual will try to overcome them by
you

Of you

are the

"The

real

in the true sense of the term. the practitioners of democracy but practically in our daily life we

problem of our country today

it

is

that

we

are not

We
it

admit

theoretically,

overlook
in

a faith and realize it.. ..we must make democracy works we praworks and try to see that in our actual

ctice that spiritual

democracy.'"

"HI

30

?ll=l
^fl

4^
(a)

Hdi

&

S,

lrfl

Jl(i*llMi

Md^-il

^IciUfl

llill wi'a

cl^ll

wftt JWWll
country
is

^=11

MiSl

<V^1

^iHl^rm
march of mind
for
their
recruit

R
in

"if this

to participate in the
universities

science

and

scholarship,

must

some of

teaching staff

the best. minds of the

31

*5 1&[ ^W
times,

clM Stl^Sl'

^.
to

"Unfortunately,
the

in

recent

though we pay

lip-service

importance

of the

teaching profession, it stops at mere and does not go beyond that.*"^

intellectual

recognition

Sllvn

Mia

^'HyiH'il

JlfclBl

%l

H&ll %-HwiR^^
be demanded.

"V

[y* a=(l

Respect and honour can't

They

are to be

commanded
Mli

instead.

wi'ttrt:

clU

Mlcl

<v

fl

l'3l

Teachers by their achara of conduct should

bean example

to

the best that has been taught the students.. ..placing before the pupil leave it to him to reflect and said on any particular subject and then

and decide.
ti

"

good

student

is

not

merely

one

who has

read

much out one who

has been

510 taught well,"

(V)

^*UM
(1)

SMVfl awi Wfl

(<)

Rl^l
SicKl

cl-l'

Mi?l

^"H M^

tf\3(

%' ^iHl^^'

clRSl (l)

(3)

HlS

^m
SHLSC-H

Rdl

clH'Q SltfPli

M<:
\

True knowledge

Dr. Radhakrishnan.

19

?'
"1.o

>}

^
=13

IV
'

,.

>

n-u "

i^

n
If

Dr.

S.

RadhaferishaanBibliography.

Comp. Saloni JosM

at the libraries In Compiling the bibliography the facilities available have been used. of L. D. Inst. of Indology and Gujarat Vidyapeetha

This bibliography
I
II

is

arranged in four parts

Dr. Radhakrishnan. Books, Editings and Translations by

Books on Dr. Radhakrislman.

Articles

III

on Dr. Radhakrishnan.

IV

of Dr. Radhakrishnan's Works. Gujarat! translation

be exhaustive. This bibliography does not claim to

Bhagavad Gita. London George

:

East and West

Some

reflections.

Allen

and
of

London
Unwin,
Eastern

George

Allen

and

Unwin, 1948.

1955.

Brahma

Sutra

Philosophy
Allen

Religions

and

Western

Spiritual Life.

thought.

London
Unwin,

George

and

Oxford: Oxford Uni. Press, 1939.

Education, Politics and War.

I960.

in Philosophy/ Comparative Studies ed. with others.

Poona

International

Book

Service, 1944.

New York
:

Harper, 1948.

Essential of Psychology.

with P. T. Raju. Concept of Man/ed. and London George Allen

Oxford Oxford Uni.

:

Press, 1912
its

Ethics of the Vedanta

and

meta-

Unwin, 1960.
Phiiosophy/ed. Couteinparary Indian with J. Muirhead. Allen and George

physical Presuppositions.

Madras

Guardian

Press, 1908.

Fellowship of the

Spirit.

London

Cambridge
press 1961.

Harward

Uni.

Unwin, 1938.
(Library of Philosophy). Creative Life.

Freedom and Culture. Madras G. A. Natesan and

:

Delhi

Vision Books, 1975.

Co.,

1936.

Dhamnia Pada.
Oxford
1950.
:

Oxford Uni.

Press,

Gautam : The Buddha. Oxford Uni. London

:

Press,

1938.

East and West in Religion. London George Allen

:

Bombay: Hind Kitabs, 1938

and
Great Indians.

Unwin, 1933,

Bombay

Hind Kitabs, 1949,

[34]

Heart of Hindustan.

My
Natesan and

Search for Truth.

Madras

G. A.

Agra

Shivalal Agarwal, 1956.

Co. 1936.

Hindu View of Life. London George

:

Occational Speeches Writings. Delhi Ministry of Information

:

Allen

and
...,

1963-2
2.,

vols.

V.

1,

1951-

Unwin, 1927.
History of Philosophy-Eastern Western.

1959-V.

1959-1962.

and

Our

Heritage,

London

Allen and George Unwin, 1923-2 Vols. (Muirhead

:

Delhi

Vision Books, 1973.

Idealist

Library of Philosophy). View of Life.

:

Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore. Macmillan and Co. London

:

1918.

London

George Unwin, 1932.

India and China.

Allen

and

President Radhakrishnan's speeches

and
V.

writings.
:

Delhi
1.

],

1965, 1969,

Bombay
London
Unwin,
:

Hind Kitabs, 1944.

George
Allen

1962-64.

V.2. 1964-1967.

Indian Philosophy

Principal Upanisads.

and

London

1923, 1927. 2 Vols.

George Unwin, 1953.

:

Allen

and

(Library of Philosopy).

Indian Religions. New Delhi Vision Books, 1979.

:

Recovery of Faith. London George Alien Unwin, 1956. (World Perspectives).

:

and

Introduction to Mahatrna Gandhi

Essays

and

Reign of Religion in Contemporary

Philosophy.

reflections

on

Gandhi's Life and work.

London
and
1920.

Mac

MilJan and Co.,

London

George

Allen

Urnviii, 1939.

Is this Peace.

Religion and Culture, Delhi [

:

],

1968.

Bombay
London
1929.

Hind Kitabs,

1945.

Religion and Society.

Kalki or future of Civilization.

;

London

Kegan Paul and Co.,

George Umvin, 1948

: :

Allen

and

Living with a Purpose.. Delhi Oriental Paperbacks,

:

Religion and Changing World. London George Allen and

Unwin, 1967.
Religion

We

need.
:

1982.

London
:

Ernest Benn, 1928.

Mahatma Gandhi

100 years.

New

Delhi

Gandhi

Peace

(Affirmation Series). Report of the University Education

Foundation, 1968.

Meine Suche Nache Wahrheit

Gutersloh
:

Commission/with and others.

Sir

James Duff
of IndiB,
-1-

New

Delhi

Govt.
I.

[,

J961,

Source

Book

in Indian Philosophy/

Studies in

Hindu thought
:

ed. with C. A.

Moore.

Calcutta

New
Spirit

Jercy

Princeton, 1957.
:

Theism of the Bhagavad Gita.

[

in

Man

Principal
:

Miller
],

Lectures.

Madras

1931.

Vedanta According to Safikara and

Rainsmija.

Spirit

of Religion.
:

London
Unwin,

George

Allen

and

Delhi

Pankaj Pub, 1980.

1928.

II
Basic Writing of

Radhakrishnan/ ed. by Robert A. Me Dermott. Jaico Pub. House, Bombay

S.
:

Die Mystike bei Radhakrislman und

die offenbarungs theologic /Christ

Kumar Paul

1970.

Chief Currents

of

Contemporary

Singh. Ph.D. thesis, Kirchliche Hochschyie (Berlin), 1966.

Philosophy/ed. by D. M. Datta. Calcutta Uui, 1952. Calcutta

:

Philosophy of S. Radhakrislman/ed. by Paul Arther Schillp.

Concept of man in Rabindranath Tagore and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan / V. Narayanakaran

New York
Co., 1952.

Tudor Publishing

Reddy. 1973. ], [ Banglore Contemporary Indian thought/ed. by V. S. Naravane.

:

Radhakrishnan/O, Wolff. 1962. [ Gottingen ], An Anthology/ed. Radhakrishnan A.N. Marlowe. by

:
:

London
ies

[
:

j,

1952.

Bombay

Asia Pub., 1964.,

:

Radhakrishnan

a comparative stud-

Counter attack from the East Philosophy of Radhakrishnan/ed. by

in Philosophy/ed. by

W. R.

Inge and others.

C.E.M. Joad. London George

:

Allen

and

Unwin,

1933.

Facts of Radhakrishnan/ed. by B.K.

George Alien and Unwin, 1951. [Presented, in honour of his 60th Birthday]. Dr. Radhakrislman and Jfiana/Jnana

London

Ahluwalia.

Prakasarn.
:

New

Delhi

Newman Group
1978.

Tiruchira pali

[,

1959.

of Public Caton,

Introduction to Radhakrishnan/S.J.

Radhakrishnan and Integral ExperiJ. G. Arapura and ence/by

others.

Samarth.

New
1964.
:

York/Association

Press,

Bombay

Asia Pub., 1964.

for an Msya Interpretive Principle understanding of the religious

Radhakrishnanr Centenary Volume/ ed. by G. P. Parthsarthi, G. P.

Chattopadhyay. Delhi Oxford Uni. Press, 1989
:

Samkar and RadhaTuck krishnan/Donald Richard

thoughts of
Ph. D. Thesis,
1970.

Uai.

of Iowa,

A Biography/by Radhakrishnan Gopal. Delhi Oxford Uni. Press, 1989,

:

[36]

Radhakrishnan Reader
logy/ed. others.

An

Antho-

Die Universale Religion des Geistes.

Religion and Religion bei Sarvepalli
thesis,

by
:

P.

N. Rao and
Vidya

Bombay

Bhartiya

Bhavan, 1969.

Ph.D. Radhakrishnan. Uni. of Munich, 1966.

Radhakrishnan Souvenir Volume/ed. by B. I. Atrcy.

Moradabad
tinal.

Darslian Interna-

Radhafcrislman's
Social

Contribution
Political

to

and

Thought-

Radhakrishnan's Comparative PhiloMe. A. Robert sophy/by Dermoth Ph. D. thesis, Boston

Uni., 1969.

critical

Evaluation/Clarissa.

Rodrigues.
Ph. D. Thesis,

Bombay

Uni.

Ill

This list is based on Indian H. Potter. 2nd rev. ed -1983

Philosophy Vol.

1/ed.

by

Karl

An Appreciation of Radhakrishnan's
Translation of "The Bhagarad

Hindu View of
Pandya
P.23-35.
Idealism

Life.

Resume/ J.J.
Pradipa. 1975-76,

Sardapitha

Gita"

Jagmohan Sambodhi 16, 1989

/

Vol.XV-XVI No 2-1
P.

97-107.

of

Prof.

Sir S.

RadhaCalcutta

Being and Difference Radhakrishnan

krislmon/P. T.

Raju.

and Derrida/M.V. Bati Sambodhi 16, 1989 p. 108-119. Bhagavad Gita and Dr. Radhakrishnan/G.K. Bhat.

Sambodhi- 16, 1989,

p.

1-9

Bhartiya Darsan na marmajna Dr. Radhakrishnan/C.V. Raval.

Review. 76, 1950-i3. 511. Modern thought and S. Radhakrishnan/A.V. Vasavda. Bhartiya Vidya, 4, 1942-43 p. 41-51. Nature of God in the Philoso-

phy
Vol.
P.

of

Radhakrishnan/M.M.
1975-76,
P,
2.1

Sambodh
Compatibility
logy and

16,

1989, p. 1-20

Joshi Sarda-pitha Pradipa.

of

Radhakrishnan's
his

XV-I,

12.27.

Metaphysics with
Ethics/ J.

Epistemo

A. Yajnik.
p. 128-143.

Sambodhi-16, 1989,
Doctrine of

Philosophy of Sarvepalli RadhaH. Bishop. krishnan/Donald Brahmavadin, 10, 1975,

p. 82-106.

Maya

Radhakrishnan/
16.4,

Donald Richard Tuck Darsnau

International,
p. 51-62.
1976.

Philosophy of Radhakrishnan/N.B. Chakraborty. Journal of the Indian Academy of Philosophy,

14.1,

Faith

Philosophy and Religion of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan/ P. Nagaraja Rao. Triveui, 44.3, 1975 p. 9-13.

1975, P. 52-58.

Philosophy of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan/ p. Nagaraj Rao.

Indo-Asian Culture,
p.

11.3, 1963,

255-259.

[37]

Pravartman Sikshanajii Samasyaonfi Sandarbha man Radhakrishnan

nti

Radhakrishnan on mind, mailer and

cintan ni Prastutata/Bhavana

Trivedi

God/Charles Hartshorne. Studies in Philosophy and Religion/by S.K. Maitra-2nd ed.Calcutta p. 313-322.
:
|

Sambodhi.16,. 1989, p. 21-32 Professor Krishnachandra Bhatta-

|,

1956.

and his Colleague Radhakdshnan/Rameschandra

chary a
Srivastava.

S.

Radhakrishnan

on
16,'

the

philosophy
p.

of the Upanisads/R.S. Betai

Indian

Philosophy
Christianity/

Sambodhi

1989,

41-57

and Culture, 17.1, Radhakrishnan and

Bharti Savan.

1972,p.46-55.

Radhakrishnan the great reconciler/ A.U. Vasavada Proceedings of

the All India Oriental Conference. V. 1-1927.

Sambodhi
Dr.
S.

16,

1989, p, 58-83.
his

Radhakrishnan and
to
Triveni,

Con1964,

Radhakrishnan's and

Burner's un-

tribution
raja Rao 50-55.

Philosophy/Naga33.3,

thropologies/K. C. Mathew.

Indian Journal of Theology,

1957, p. 29, 67.

6.

p.

Radhakrishnan
J.S.R.L.

and. his Philosophy/

Dr.

S.

Radhakrishnan's Conception

Narayan Moorty.
1966, p. 50-58.

Triveni, 35.1,

Dr. Radhakrishnan and Idealism/P. Nagaraja Rao. Journal of the Ganganth Jha Research Institute,
16,

of and destiny of nature man/Nilirna Sharma. Bharati Bulletin of the College

:

of Indology,
'

BHU.

9.1, 1965-66,

p.

63-70.

1959. p.

Dr. Radhakrishna's
pitha Pradipa.

Dr.

Sarvapalli

Radhakrishnan aur

Conception of Religion/Ramesh Betai Sarada

Vol.

Adluinik Sikshs Pranali/Abhedan and n Bhattacharya. Darshanik

XV XVI,

No.

2.1,

1975-76
of

Nibandhavali
Bhattacharya.
:

Abhedananda
1989,

P. 36-63.

Radhakrishnan's

Interpretation

Delhi Durga Publication,

p.

219-223.
religion of

Radhakrishnan and the

history and of Iranian destiny/ R: C. Sinha. 43-50. PrajfiH, 17.2; 1972. p.

man/R. Rap had.

Indo-Asian
Culture,
24.2-3,

Radhakrishnan's
the nature

interpretation

of

and

states in

1978, p. 41-49.

Phenomenal world

of the Shankaru

Dr. Radhakrishnan on
a glance/S.G.

Buddhism

Vedanta/C.V. Rgval, -Sardapisha

Pradipa. Vol. PV-XV1, No. 2-1 1975-76 P'. 64-86.

Kantawala
1989, p. 120-127
or future

Sambodhi

,16,

Radhakrishnan on Kalki

of Civilization/R.S. Betai Sambodhi 16, 1989, p. 84-96 Dr. Radhakrishna on Idealist View study/M.G. Machhar. of Life-

Reason

and Intuition

in

Dr.

S.

Radhakrishnan's C.V. Raval.

Philosophy/

Sambodhi

16,

1989, p. 30-40

Sardapitha Pradipa.
'

Radhakrishnan's
76.

Philosophy

and

Vol XV-XVI.No.2-1 1973

P. 118-138.

-the spirit/ K-Seshadri. religion- of Brahm'avadin, 8, 1973, p. 20-33.

38]

Dr. Radhakrishnan's Philosophy of

Values/P. S. Sastri. Calcutta Review, 148. p. 7-16.

Schweitzer and

Radhakrishnan
Cell.
51,

Comparison/C. W.M.
1958

Hibbert
Sir

Journal,

1.952-3.

Dr.

S.

Radhakrislman's Solution of

p. 234-241, 355-365. Herbert Samuel and SirS. Radlia-

the

problem of Religions conG. Tiwari,

International, 24

.kn'slman/B. 1C. Mallik.

flict/B.

Darshan
p.

Aryan Path
190 6,

4, 1.933, P.

505-517.

101-106.

Social

Philosophy

of

Dr. RadhaBulletin

Suvvapalli Radhakrish turn's view of the nature of Religion/S. M. Tiwari.

krishnan/S. Gopalan.

of the Institute of
Cultures, 1.967.
Social
p.

Traditional

230-235.

Darshan International.
p.

23, 1966,

76-99.

Philosophy of Dr. krishnau/H.M. Joshi

Radha-

Radhakrishnan's views regarding Jainism and Buddhism/

H,M. Joshi. Sardapitha Pradipa Vol. XV. XVI, No. 2-1,1975-76

P.

16, 19, p. 11, 29 Structure of Radhakrislman's idealism.

Sambo dhi

Davshan International,
p. 41-52.

30, 1968,

108-117.

Religious Idealism of Berkely

and
1954

What

is

Radhakrishnan.
Darshan. Internationa] p. 96-102.
13

Intution according to Tagorc.

Radhakrislman, Aurobindo/ K. C. Varadachari.

Aryan Path,
[IV]

6, 1935. p.

476.

Hi.

3H8WI

Ml. s

XL
-

^"rr<

ill.

lit.

tVa'^
.

Ml.

51,4 i'Mdl,

^Va'i-<

iti

in.

l,

(3) a'Hlfed

S^

?l'

S$l 3l%4\ iHHHl^Rl

5?

y4KM PlW*

Hlfcrd

SH^H

<V& d [

SKI

t.

S5RKT

1922.
.

-^nte

^^

fffi>

^^^^

1949<

3).
[
]

3.

JpTCTcrat

lt.

1966

1915.
[

1945

1950-58^

1933,
,

[
ftst,

].

1971.
1976.
,

ftR

nN

*>r.-?. au.-ft^fiw

alfei

aror anw,

].

197i,

sifcw SFWW

47).

w
19 57
-

1959

PWM;

-UW

$I*W f cT

1953.

(f8it

.an.-$ta3*
;

ww

nr^

^sr^r,

1963.

2).

1920.
14 )-

1932.

I3>ITWIW.-^.3Tr.-^!
3PWI8TJ 42).

*n^t

ftgl*PR, 1956.

^^
T;

^ra^R

ai^

nfinsr^,

1968.

40).

,-^?
;

'IT^

faatfflSR,

1959.

44).

^^3 J*t s^wK^j-^it w^frni^

:

1958,

43).

1926.

(I'l

Hrfeq

^ff

^SWIST

).

^Rfci ravws;
-

Ibr

1926.

1952.

Jpmpr;

1)-

41

?tf*-?.3?T.-5*lf.

Wdfa fMnWT,

1944.

(fM
II.
iv.

|?[

afajqissj;

19).
:

star ffcnH/-n8RiH:
tnfa qrsf^ra.-

Ip anwpfewr,
:

1918. (^jft ftsra fcr

^ren^i;

5).

awo^

3T3
;

s*rera

nf^,

1922.

?)

1943.

'qqisr; 18).
I?!

9^3,

1935.

,
'

1933.

rc

1940.

(flsfi

^ n'^rsr; i).

IR, 1940.

Y?.

RliicT

qJTHf.-?.3TT.-3T> Wra^

'

1922<

351^3

s*ra^f^

?i'irael).
I'

1962 '

).
:

gwra

fiwfte,

1930.

VV.

nr^

T.

1917,

1921.

'<

*lF*r.

T-q
;

uf^sw,

1968.

i).

i
fiwr,
3:

i3i^; 0,

1945

1980.

(fS4l

vv *
HIUTW;

"'

^*i

IMiPm

1980.

1928

42

i.

!%(% fa^ifM.

3rr.-Tir^n?

Ifl

37i?tu%

e^r, 1916.

1960.
:

(ffrft

H'THTSI; 51).

K2.

frfa uiir qir

wi

gr^flci

Bwrartr.-^

^
?
;

if^tr

jg^fsr

t^?^, 1941.

44).
:

?.*rr-g^
;

ur^q
:

^RW,

1961.

53).

t.3Tr.-qi5sqiTH
r;

M^
q^q

srr^qls,

1934.

? .0).

^rfr.

^-^3?;
i'mqrsi;
89).

q3*q R

^83^

1964.

-rsir.-ui?RiK
l?r if^iWRisr;
3).
?r.

^
:

STRRT^WT,
vj r

1917.

3*3*

(Tm

fq^w^, 1945
1968

sft

%'*mm;

22),

'

'^Rjr; 65).
,

58,,
:

^
sr

.^

^"

gf
194?
-

qr _

Catalogue of Sanskrit and Prakrit

Manuscripts/ed.

Muni

1920

1939

S ft.-i948.

43

3.
<;.

3qitra;

s
ifi;

ltaV-1937.

iRsq

if%

WT.

gi^

gf?r.-1949.

i;

gqr.
;

i^isrs
gqr. sir.

9-

5TO--1945.

qti^si

?Pf

i;

S^-

OT5/OTF.

PsR^W

gf:t.-1943.

sia e.

J13

H. iftqiait.-1949.

^^.-1

vm; m-

TOR

-1961.

44

33,.

Literary circle of
tion to
(Sri

Mahamatya vastupal and

J.

its

contribu-

Sanskrit literature. / by B. Bahadur Singh Singhi Memoirs;

Sandesara.-]953.
3).
3,

1960.

3^. Studies in India Literary history/by P. 1954.-2. Vols,

-

K. Gode.-1953,
5).'

(Bahadur Singh Singhi memoirs; V. 4, V.

^. e).
.

er.

-A.

A A.

V.
;

g qr

^;

OT.

^^^.-1968. ^ricwM
511^-1953.
g?.vr5

fa

v,

qmtfi 5fRft/Q^t^;

mi-

m^m

Uir,

vs.

,.

?t^

rns/3?'4 11;

^qr.
;

r^s

Sri^t-1956. f swift

fa

<rfff.fi

mw

OTI. gft

flw^..

1962.

siis.-i953.

1953.

1953.

46

sr.

?-1957.

-mi

',-1988.
OCT.

>ft

tftsRw;

ntarwrcm

Tg;cr.-i957.

gre^Ttr fir

saiij.-l
r

959

isi

f^fe

3T5.

siS^ ^.-1963.
/

'ftTa;

g'qr-

^fftfRjd

=^1^-1 958.

?r'qr.

gFR.-i968.

q^r.-i959,
^

5*?ctf?>%ci

?i"lr

qf^r.

gf?[.-1959.

VY. UWJIT^ iRrf&feKf

3i?q

qflr.

qra.

?/g'qr.

HR?qer.-1960.
ar ?T'?.-1959.

g'qj.

47

sft

fff

K^.

KVS. ^RtffiRr/^oftcTHsft; s'qr.

*fl3F*TJT

ersff.-'m.

?.

1960, qri

?..

1961.

1963.

1981.
rr%

gg?^/^!}?;

e'qi, 5.

51

1962.

g=a.-i962.
3Tg. sarl^sis

^.-1963,

ITT

S^T^/sft

fGur

^;

g'qj.

Catalogue of Sanskrit and Prakrit Manuscripts in Rajasthan oriental Research Institute (Jodhpur Collection). Ed. by Jinvijay Muni. Part I 1963.
Part
II-

1964.

II-B 1965.

II-C 1966.

III-A 1967.
III-B 1968.

fa
ITO

f^l

48

.-i 967.
;

rr.

',

ff'qr.

gfr

f
;

SKcFHRT

^Irf|a.-i968.

-qm
1972, 1979.

v. 1968

3.

1968, 1969,1974.

1968, 1969.
fisft
Jl

?o\s.
r.

IT.

e'qr.

firafa

1970,
ftsi;

g'qr.

.-! 972.

^.-1974
.

1975

[49]

OTHER
ARTICLES

JAYANTA' ON THE BUDDHIST DEFINITION OF PERCEPTION

NAGIN
Jayanta
first

J.

SHAH

presents the Buddhist's case on the question of perception

then refutes it. On the Buddhist's showing perception is that type ol' cognition which is devoid of all thought and is non-illusory; Jayanta finds fault with both these elements of the definition but his discussion is largely

and

concerned with the

thought

first.

and Jayanta

asks

Kalpana (=vikalpa) is the Buddhist's word for him 'Granted that kalpana is that type of
:

apprehension of an object, which word,, why should it be denied the

3

is

status

capable of being associated with a of a pramana (=valid cogni-

tion}?'

'A true cognition is that which does not deal with things unreal but what a word stands for is not something' real. For a word stands for a definite class of objects, but a unique particular
replies'
:

The Buddhist

which alone
its

is

real is different from everything else

1

whether belonging to

own class or belonging to an alien class.' This reply is most crucial for an understanding of the strong as well as weak points of the Buddhist's position. Thus even while granting that there are classes to which a unique
particular belongs
is

and

classes to

which

it

does

not, he speaks as if there

about granting that there are classes and that a unique particular belongs to them. Now to identify a unique particular as

something

fictitious

belonging' to a class is to observe in .this unique' particular certain sensory features that are characteristic of this class. Naturally therefore ,a living

organism, in order to identify a unique particular

as

belonging to a

class,

in this unique particular certain sensory features and recall the past understanding that these sensory features are the characteristic

must observe

features of this

class.

In

human

beings

this,

recollection

is

facilitated

words a thing can through the employment of words, for with the help of be defined in terms of certain sensory features even in case there takes
these sensory features; thus a human place no simultaneous observation of as belonging to a being is in a position to identify a unique particular the word concerned) even in case he had not earlier class denoted
(as

by

he was observed a unique particular belonging to this class but in case are the characteristic earlier informed that such and. such sensory, features of the is identifying process features of this class. The Buddhist's kalpana
to a class, and since all class ,can be particular as belonging word even if there are classes which are not assigned a corresponding be to assigned a. corresponding word he assigned or are not known

a unique

defines kalpana as that type of apprehension of an object, ble of being associated with a word (the emphasis being

which

is

capa-

on

'capable').

And his pratyaksa is the process of bare sensory experience through whose observed in a unique particular. Thus instrumentality sensory features are
it

should be a very correct proposition that pratyaksa followed by kalpana the sole instrument of cognising objects. For all practical piirposes the Buddhist even says just that, but he has involved himself in a highly misconceived theory according to which pratyaksa is the type of cognition that cognises unique particulars which are the only type of real things there are, while kalpana is the type of cognition that cognises classis

characters which are something

unreal and are

somehow

falsely

superim-

posed on unique particulars. And all sorts of misleading arguments have been concocted with a view to buttressing this misconceived theory. Of all that we have a foretaste in the two-sentence reply given by the Buddhist to Jayanta's simple query as to why kalpana (^thought) should be denied
the status of a
that kalpana
is

pramana (valid cognition). Thus we are here being told no case of valid cognition because it has to do with words
stands for something

while a word
stands for a

unreal,
is

the point

being that a

word

class-character

which
is

something unreal

a unique
class.

particular

which

alone real
its

everything else whether belonging to

superimposed on something different from own class or belonging to an alien

and

is

Then conies the following piece 'A cognition of the form of kalpana does not invariably follow in the wake of sense-object contact. For it might possibly arise even in the absence of sense-object contact, and even in case it arises in the wake of sense-object contact it invari:

ably requires the

memory

of an

earlier learnt

word; certainly,

if it

were

a product of sense-object contact it would have arisen as soon as this contact took place. The conclusion is that the cognition in question is not
at
all

a product of sense-object contact. 5 Certainly, if even after encounter-

ing the object concerned a sensory cognition

the

memory

must require the services of of an earlier learnt word, there will arise a gap between this
1 '-

Nor can it be said that the memory of an earlier cognition and this object. learnt word-meaning conies to the assistance of a sense-organ in cognising its object; for apart from, the consideration that the concept of an assistant cause
is

untenable, the fact remains that this

is

memory,

its

application

to the present case and all that

a time-consuming process while a sense-

organ cognises
sense-organ
strange

its

object through a nirvikalpaka

this
it
6

cognition as soon as this

encounters

object.'
is

The whole
is

argumentation

makes

reading.

For what

able to prove

and thought
together a

are two distinct

types of process,

that sensory experience each produced by its own

distinct type of causal aggregate, so that

even when the two are produced

experience,
a

sensory

experience

is

sensory

thought

is

thought.

Not

that to prove this was a

mean performance,

lor thus

10 dis-

in a way the high tinguish between sensory experience and thought was water-mark of the Buddhist's speculation on logical problems; certainly,

the distinction

is

The

difficulty

rather

not only very important but is also drawn very correctly. is with the insinuation nay, open declaration that

sensory

to do experience has to do with something that is real, thought with something that is unreal. So, using the standard terminology of Indian

logic

prarnana

elaborating
that
is

pratyaksa (=bare sensory experience) is kalpana (^thought) is no pramana. His old is no pramana Jayanta repeats, this time question as to why kalpana thus he says it 'May be kalpana is of two sorts one
it

was

proclaimed

that

(=valid

cognition),

abit;

of the

form of building

castle in the air, the other

that grasps a
is
it

like a blue patch. Nobody cares if the former present object when no pramSna, but why should the latter be no pramana

said to be

does not

concerned ?' The query is very not only because a thought might possibly be true of its object, pertinent or otherwise arises only in the case but because the question of being true of a bare sensory experience. On the other of a thought, not in the case a bare sensory experience is all is that hand, the Buddhist's position let us see how he a thought is no pramana even when true. So, pram'ana, he argues thus 'Really no thought answers Jayanta's present question; real which are cognised in all with do to things has anything whatsoever The point is that a thing lias but one fullness by nirvikalpaka cognition. nature has been grasped by perception there remains nature and when this
of the object arise except in the presence
:

that in another pramana. As for the circumstance nothing to be done by to be grasping things real and to be lucid certain cases a thought appears in the wake of a mrvikalarises this thought because character that is

in

t>aka

not because this so gets coloured by this cognition, cognition and a nnvifoilpaka real which in fact are grasped by thought really grasps things

of the Buddhist, 7 This again is a crucial pronouncement cognition alone.' For to cognise a thing md again a highly misconceived -pronouncement. features and in observed sensory its of basis means to identify it on the at all a case of cognisuig a experience is not this sense a bare sensory for cograsmg a an indispensable starting-point thing (though certainly a thing (though on the alone is a case of cognising hng) w ile a thought of the preceding sensory expenobserved in the course basis of features something just the opposne Thus here the Buddhist is saying

p^^ v^t ^^WcSfyii

the obj^ect concerned he

would not

admit that
according

ih e
to

auer

case

O f lni j y

cogn

sjng

this

object,

it

being

him a

case of something

mistakenly appearing to be a true

its

cognition of this object on account of

proximity to the

preceding senobject.

sory

experience

which
Buddhist

is

really a true
lias

cognition of this
fivefold

In this

connection ihc
kalpanii

also
is

worked out a
each type
arc in
fact

classification

of

and

his

contention
things

that

of kalpana
identical or
his

cither

mis-

takenly
identities

differentiates

which

mistakenly

things which arc in fact different.

is

Thus on
identical

class-character, a quality or an action

attributed to a thing

showing when a it is a case

of differentiating things qualiiy or an action

and,

which are in fact

nothing
possession

being

different

when
it

a a

name

or the

of another

a from the thing concerned) thing is attributed to a

(a class-character,

'lung

is

or a thing
This too
is

possessed

case of identifying things which are in fact different (a being in fact different from the thing

name
*

a considerably confused thesis.

concerned)
identifies

thing as belonging to a class thing features

that are

and

this

it

Really, all thought does through

class,

observing
features

in
'

this

characteristic

of

this

these

called a quality if they stand for

being
of this

some

static

aspects of the nature

it;

thing, aii action if they stand for some dynamic aspect of to attribute a qualiiy or a ,i action to a thing is to identify to a relairvcly simple class, but there is some in

in fact,

even

it

as belonging

ween an

point

individual

quality

or action

and a

ensemble of certain qualities and actions. And all names attributed to a thing are attributed to it either because of its po class-character or because of its possessing a quality or an action; even a proper name uunbuted to a thing becomes a reminder of the mtal Ls and actions characteristic of this thing. Lastly, the case of one thing Possessing another is a case of these two

essentially an

distinguishing betclass-character which is

slga

K1S

I?,

^ "^

things entering into a

relaT

diStinCtiVC TOle;

and a

'touted

to

pariso. between b . poim ,

what

, he

c ,s .

migh,

t :,:/
T

,..

J
;

"us y

'

<lttM ' ed c
<> is

'=.

conceived as a case of

s :;:

rtrih,,ti

,,

kalpans

to be

name

to

rea!

latter's
is

own understanding

that a

class-character, a quality or

an action

imposition on the thing to which it allegedly belongs is a remedy worse than the disease. In any case, Jayanta lastly puts another pertinent question to the Buddhist as follows 'If the attribution of a
a false
:

class-character etc. to a thing

this cognition

is

a case

of

false cognition,

then

why does

not get

cancelled as does the

is

mistaken

cognition of nacre

as silver ceived.

?'

The

Buddhist's reply
is

again revealing even if again miscon:

For the following

what he says

'The

mistaken cognition of x

as not-x

gets cancelled in case not-x is something apart from \, but a class-character etc. are nothing apart from the unique particular to which

they allegedly character etc.

belong.
is

That

is

why

the

mistaken

cognition of a class-

of true

cognition

not cancelled, and that is why a thought is neither a case (=pramana) nor a case of false cognition but a third
is

sort of something.' 10 Really, this argument

neither here nor there.

The

Buddhist

realises

that a correct

identification of a thing

on the part of

thought cannot be dismissed as a case of false cognition, but he has also persuaded himself that bare sensory experience is alone pramana. He
therefore says that a thought
false cognition but a third
senseless. It
is
is

neither a case of

pramana nor a case of

it

something,

a statement which, as

stands,

is

correct to argue

that a thought

as such

is

neither a case

of true cognition nor a case of false cognition because a thought might be either of the form of true cognition or of the form of false cognition; bitt what is thus argued is very different from what the Buddhist actually
says.

After thus presenting the Buddhist case as defended by the Buddhist case. He first enumerates himself Jayanta begins his own criticism of this the Buddhist has declared the several grounds on the basis of which

then considers them one by one. He begins kalpana to be no pramana and that kalpana is no praniana because by assailing the Buddhist's argument stands for, that is, something unreal; on word a it has for its object what

what a word stands for, viz. a 'universal', is cognised Jayanta's showing Really, as much as by savikalpaka perception.' by nirvikalpaka perception both the to what is cognised by nirvikalpaka perception as on the question
'

Buddhist and Jayanta are wrong;

for nirvikalpaka perception being, in fact, and not cognition proper, the physiological process of sensory experience what is cognised, by nirvikalpaka perception. there arises no question as to the form of an that 'universal' exists in Moreover, Jayanta's position things is of doubtful validity. of

But

the side independent real by his liberally understood

particular

present
is

contention
the

is

that

whatever object

produces nirvikalpaka perception

perception,

object

cognised

and

that

is

for there are substantially sound;

by savrkalpaka not two sorts of

and the other cognised by objects, one producing nirvikalpaka perception reminds the Buddhist savikalpaka perception. In. this connection Jayanta not a case of false cognition that on the latter's own showing kalpana is
in the

manner the mistaken cognition of nacre

perception

"

as

silver

is.

Then

it

is

submitted that savikalpalca

does not

cease

to be a cognition

born of sense-object contact simply because it, requires the services of a word learnt in past, Jayanta's point being that the concerned sense-object
contact persists even while the services of a

word
calls

are

being availed

of. 13

This submission too perceptual cognstion

is
it

substantially
is

sound,

for if anything

can be called

what the Naiyayika

savikalpaka perception,

precisely because it consists in the a sense-organ is in contact; by the identification of an object with which same token, essentially mistaken is the Buddhist's counter-submission that

and

it

is

called perceptual cognition

it

is

not this cognition (which he calls

as

no pramana) but the preceding sensory experience that

'post-perceptual thought' and treats is to be called

Buddhist has elaborately argued that a word can perceptual cognition. The render no services to a sense-organ in the production of perceptual cognition,

but this argument is valid only because he has arbitrarily chosen to bare sensory experience; certainly, in the equate perceptual cognition with a sense-organ does not need the production of bare sensory experience of the argument in. question is refutation, word. a of services Jayanta's
equally elaborate basic fallacy vitiating this
its

there

be much note-worthy once the argument is kept in mind. Thus he contends that about the causal aggregate of savikalpaka a word recalled, that the memory of a word creates perception including no gap between a sensory cognition and its object, that savikalpaka perof being a time-consuming process is of the form of
but
details cease to
is

nothing incongruous

ception inspite

'

perceptual cognition. takes exception to the Buddhist's

All

this is plainly

understandable.

Then Jayanta
its

argument that a thing

in all

fulness

new remains to be having been cognised by nirvikalpaka cognition nothing the former's point being that the cognised by post-nirvikalpaka thought,
same thing can well be cognised by two cognitions. Buddhist and already noted, on this question both the
simply because nirvikalpaka perception of cognition. Lastly, Jayanta refutes the
is

13

But

as

has been

not at

Jayanta are wrong a process of the form Buddhist thesis on a fivefold

all

that a class-character, a quality and an kalpana. In a nutshell his point is action are each an independent real located in the thing to which they a name with the thing to which this identifies ever while nobody belong 10 name is attributed or a thing with another thing which possesses this thing.

The point

is

substantially sound but for the fact that a quality,

an

action

or a class-character

even

if really

ent real existing besides this

belonging to a thing are not an independthing. In this connection Jayanta Welcomes

the Buddhist's declaration that a

thought but he disputes the latter's declaration that

is

not a case of false cognition

also not a case of pramana.
1

it is

Jayanta concedes that a thought might often be false but adds that a nirvikalpaka perception might often be false; e.g. the nirvikalpaka perception of one moon as two moons is false. 13 Correct is his implication that all thought cannot be dismissed as no pramana simply on the ground that a thought is often false, but the fact remains that there is no question of a nirvikalpaka perception being true or false, it being not at all a case of
cognition; thus the mistaken cognition of one

moon

as

two moons

is

not

a case of false nirvikalpaka perception but a case of false thought. Here Jayanta again distinguishes between a thought arising in a baseless fashion

and one

arising in the

wake of a nirvikalpaka perception,

the
latter

his point being

that the former is not but

certainly

is

case

of pramana. 1
its

"

Really, Jayanta should say that the latter,

if it is

true of

object,

is -a

case of pramana; but he

that such a thought
is

is

right in rejecting as invalid the Buddhist's plea

so because

it

follows in the

not actually a case of pramana but appears to be wake of a nirvikalpaka cognition which is
that this consideration
is

actually a case of
is

pramana, the former's point being

irrelevant so far as parrnanaship of the thought in question

concerned. 510

Jayanta cannot say that but the real point is that the question of being or not being pramanna arises only in the case of a thought, not in the case

much

of a nirvikalpaka cognition; even so, his point is substantially valid in as as a thought even when following in the wake of a nirvikalpaka
is

cognition

true not for that reason but for the

reason that

it

correctly

identifies the object

of the point raised by

case.

concerned. Here actually closes Jayanta's consideration the Buddhist in the cause of the defence of his
its
'

What

follows
let it

manner. So,

is a rambling sort of discussion interesting in be examined separately.

own

Jayanta begins by referring to the

in all
its

Buddhist's contention that a thing

having been cognised by a nirvikalpaka cognition there remains nothing to be cognised by a post-nirvikalpaka cognition. Here is cognised by first repeated the old point that the same thing can well be
fullness
31 Thus Jayanta laments two cognitions but then a new point is raised. 'It is difficult to say as to what is cognised by a nirvikalpaka perception.
:

You
say

say

it is

a unique particular that

it

is

thus cognised,

some say

it

is

the

grand universal, some say

it

is

is

a thing in the form of a

class-character etc. Certainly,

is

Being-as-such, some say it is speech, some commingled mass of qualities, actions, on questions related to. knowledge, perception

the last court of appeal, but

itself

when there is a dispute about perception 23 However, from all this oath seems to be the only court of appeal.'

10

Jayanta does not draw the correct conclusion that nirvikalpaka perception is not at all a case of cognition but a misleading conclusion that whatever
is

cognised by
3

perception.-'

And

savikalpaka perception is also cognised by nirvikalpaka then he in essence argues that since a savikalpaka peruniversal,

ception does not cognise a unique particular, the grand

as-such, speech or the
2
1

Beingetc.

commingled
is

mass

of

qualities,

actions

the

hypothesis that any of these things

is

false.

--

cognised by nirvikalpaka perception Of the several hypotheses in question, the last alone receives a
at the

somewhat sympathetic consideration

are simply so

hands of Jayanta,

for the rest

many

illusionist hypotheses current in his times

all

while he

was
of

an uncompromising opponent of

illusionism.

Thus

the advocates

these hypotheses appealed to the authority of nirvikalpaka perception dismissed as a vikalpa-born illusion the world of our

and

comrades-in-arms). As directed against these hypotheses Jayanta's present argument has the important meaning that what is revealed in savikalpaka perception is not an we have already noted he was prevented from further arguing that nirvikalpaka all a case of perception is not at cognition. As for the last hypothesis it was a Kuinsralite position as much opposed to illusionism as Jayanta's own position. So, against it Jayanta raised a relatively secondary objection. Thus the Kuniarilite maintained
illusion but a verity; but for reasons

(we have already some idea of how that was done the procedure was essentially similar with his

day-to-day experience; by the Buddhist and

that qualities, actions, class-characters etc. exhibited how identical with this thing also

though

somehow

the other hand, Jayanta maintained that these qualities etc. are absolutely different from this thing, so that if the Kumarjlite agrees with him on this point the two will have nothing to differ on the question of

by a thing are some different from it; on

savikalpaka.*'

It is in this

enquiry by emphasising that whatever

is

also cognised

nirvikalpakabackground that Jayanta concludes his present is cognised by savikalpaka perception

that all sorts of independent

etc. are cognised by savikalpaka perception he contends that the same are cognised by nirvikaldaka perception as well But tins tune Jayanta clarifies his position by further noting that even if the same set of entities are cognised by nirvikalpaka perception and savikalpaka perception, the latter does and the former does not involve an employment of words However, on the question as to how an employ" ment of words is evolved in

actions

by nirvikalpaka perception; and since it is his understanding reals in the form of substances qualities

class-character

savikalpaka

BS confusion in the Nyaya camp.

perception,

there

was a

lot

of

As was noted
ed two

in the beginning, the Buddhist definition of perception elements in the form of saying that perception L

dev^

of

il
all

thought and

is

non-illusory. Uptil

now Jayanta was preoccupied

with

the first element of this definition, now briefly criticises its second element. Thus he submits that on the logic adopted by the Buddhist there can be no perception that is illusory. 2 " The plea that a case like cognition of two moons is a case of illusory perception is rejected on the ground that in

such a case too there

is nothing illusory about the concerned nirvikalpaka cougnition which alone is what the Buddhist calls perception; thus on the Buddhist's logic a nirvikalpaka cognition cognizes but one moon which the

concerned post-nirvikalpaka thought misinterprets as two moons just as a nirvikalpaka cognition cognises but mirage-sands which the concerned postnirvikalpaka thought misinterprets as water. 30 The Buddhist pleads that in the former case the eye has been rendered so defective that it cannot see

defective that

Jayanta retorts that on this logic it the eye has been rendered so 3 1 The mirage-sands but must see water. Buddhist agrees to Jayanta's point, but then he is told that in that case he has no right to say that a valid post-perceptual thought rightly intersee

one moon but must

two moons;

too might be said that in the it cannot see

latter case

prets

what the preceding nirvikalpaka cognition has cognised, an

it

invalid

post-perceptual thought interprets is important because it throws

wrongly.

32

This exchange of arguments

enough

light

on how our

philosophers

grappled

with

the

rather

ticklish

distinction.

Thus

the Buddhist

came nearest to

problem of nirvikalpaka-savikalpaka maintaining that what he

is

called perception and denned as a sense-born nirvikalpaka cognition

in

fact the physiological process of bare sensory experience; hence it was that so many lines of argumentation adopted by him led to the conclusion that

there can be no illusory perception. For certainly, there is nothing illusory or non-illusory about bare sensory experience which just takes place when

the appropriate causal aggregate is duly operative; thus, for examples the causal aggregate which includes a normal eye as a member produce, the
sensory experience which the post-experiential thought interprets as the perception of one moon, while the causal aggregate which includes a defective eye as a member produces the sensory experience which the postof two moons. So, when experiential thought interprets as the perception

Jayanta suggests that in both these cases the concerned nirvikalpaka cognition cognises one moon, he is as much wrong as the Buddhist when he one moon while in the latter suggests that in the former case it cognises case two moons. Jayanta pertinently points out that the Buddhist himself
line of argumentation while explaining the case of a mistaken on the latter 's showing the concognition of mirage-sands as water; thus cerned nirvikalpaka cognition here cognises mirage-sands which the post-

'

adopts another

nirvikalpaka

thought misinterprets as water, essentially the same sort of for the case of a mistaken cognition of two explanation Jayanta suggests

12

of the mistaken cognition of x as uot-x .moons. Really, in his explanation whether he maintains that here the is bound to have difficulty
the Buddhist

concerned nirvikalpaka cognition and the post-nirvikalpaka thought both the latter not-*; actually, he cognise not-x or that the former cognises x,
.adopts 'the

former alternative

in certain cases

and

calls

them the

.cases of

the mistaken cognition of two moons), adopts the illusory perception (e.g. cases and calls them the cases of illusory latter alternative in certain other

thought

(e.g.

the mistaken cognition

asks the Buddhist to be consistent but

to the latter -in as

of mirage-sands as water). Jayanta mere consistency will be of no help

alternatives in

much

as both the

question are fraught

with
the'

difficulty; 'the real

solution of the

problem

lies

in confessing that what

Buddhist calls perception is not at all a process of cognition, so that there arises no question of its being illusory or otherwise. The real -merit
the Buddhist case lies in his realization, that
.what

,of

what he
the

calls perception
tilings;

and

he calls thought are two

to sec as to

distinct

ways of
is

dealing with

he

also virtually realised that the latter alone

process of cognising

what the former could be if not a things, but his failure process of cognising things misled him in so many ways. Thus even while his own description of it clearly implied that what he calls perception is
the physiological

process of

undergoing

sensory

experience,

.he

went on
that,

speaking as
trating and
.is

if it is

a process of cognising things in this

way
is

or

As

for Jayanta, his criticism

yet his

of the

Buddhist on this score

certainly pene-

inferior (because

perception is almost as useless, as that of any other Naiyfiyiku, an understanding much much less provocative of thought.) to that evinced by even

own understanding of what nirvikaipaka

an average Buddhist.

Notes and References

Jayanta Bhaita, Naiyuyika, famous for his Nyayamafjjan, mature Sanskrit work on Indian logic, flourished in the second half of ninth century A.D. His three works have so far been recovered and published. They are Nyiiyakalika, Agamadambara and Nyayamafljan. Though Nyaytimaajan is known as a commentary on
a voluminous
:

a well

known

the
.

Nyayasutras,

it

is

really

an

independent
the
triangular

work,

on

the Nyaya

philosophy.

Therein

one

finds

contest:

among

the

Naiyayikas, the Mimarhsakas and the

clear idea .of the problems of offered

paper

is

by these, based on the discussion of the problem, fount!

study gives us a philosophy and their solution three main branches of Indian philosophy. The present

Buddhists. Its

Indian

in Nyuyumafijan.

is

2.

q
5

sin }

ftgScR
sit.

sn?,

For the comprehensive presentation of ihe Buddhist conception of perception one may refer to a chapter on Sense-perception, in Buddhist
Logic,

Volume I, as also a chapter on Perception in Buddhist Logic. Volume II, by Th. Stcherbatsky, Mouton & Co.,' S-Gravenhage, 1958.

3.

awira
4.

%=r

^i

uraM

t,

1.

5.

s.

6.
.

r,
'

s.

V.

s4

*qt

sst urn:,

^r^

i: imfi:

qft^

II

?fii

3
Jf
,

^ra;

JPWS^,

?.

^<i

8.

qg

%ai:

ft

14

<?cjqi

gnaiat:

II

f|
:'

IT

JWTT

if?r

r,

g.

f^

9.

33

qW\ ^,

=?T^JRf^qqf?q:
?

E^r: Jl^,

^rq^ gRfif RSRiadtq^

10.

^rqnifl', 3.
ci^
sjfqfit
T?fer,

q^ qfj

Wf'ct^R^rs^qre^

cwmsr

ftqfonnnt
3*3

fe^r.

k^
%$

%$

mwfawmitmn^

It will

be interesting to compare this

Buddhist kalpana with Yogasu-

trakara Pataoj all's vikalpa, one of the five cittavrttis, the other four being pramaua, viparyaya, nidra and smrti. Buddhist influence is evident here.

q
I

f%
g.

ftfif^q^
?

*rainft'CTcwra&

Cr,

12

'

13.
:
i

?qiqtia(t,

g.

vs

15

U,

(a)

JT:

gmsflft
cl!

5:

gtl

s.

?'gtsfl sraftat

(b)

q^sssrt
H
f?

m^

iRf,

a?T

^R:

stair

.'

$fo

?.

^^

(c)

qq;

^
15.

'*

ft-

ftftfwreo

^^
I

?f

5raiw

m vmw
l

awwi'

?iFPHrtt, i

16.
?fa,

^S^^ ^a^n^nlt *wwni?reRowt,

aq;

fws

ft

16

* f?

<p3\fa

CIST

cif-T

^trfer,

17.

18.

go
19.

vs.\

20.

21.
'

.,

22,

f$

17

23.

24.

erst

25.

26.

27.

I"
28.
'

?o
q^^ifq

29.
30.

3,

31.

R3
^n^'ftftfif

32.

DOCTRINE OF MAYA-A CRITICAL STUDY

Dr. Yajneshwar S.
Shastri

Adi Sankaracarya

is

one

of

the

most outstanding

philosophical

There is no second opinion personalities in the history of world-thought. among the scholars that in metaphysical profoundly, logical acumen and thinkers. His Advaita Indian spiritual insight, he is unparalleled among chief exponent is a rare contribution to mankind. Sarikara-the

philosophy of Advaita, adopting absolutist^ approach to 1 real is Existence, Consciousness and Bliss. It
It is attributeless,

Reality maintains that the

is

2 one without a second.

real

being, beyond space and time, indeterminate, 3 the highest It is be non-being to dull-minded people. it appears to clear terms universal in which all the particulars merge/ He declares in

but

that,

else 'is just

Brahman is the only ontolpgical Reality and name and form. 5 For Sankara, Brahman is
outstanding feature of Sankara
the individual
self (Jlva)
6
is

except

it

everything

The most
identity of

all-pervading energy. that he proclaims the ultimate

or

consciousness with the universal

the non-difference

He also advocates Principle of consciousness-tfra/zmfln. Absolute existence," but by that the entire world with the Brahmanof

the not mean the same kind of identity as that of non-difference he does to Misra rightly points out that, non-difference self with it. Vacaspati and difference or independent reality, Sankara is merely a denial of to it is according And sense. strict the in not an affirmation of identity

him

only

when
that
8

Tah^:

his own a person has directly realized of can have a fully convincing experience

identity

with

the

umvcn.1

non-difference.

to know the Aeain it is most essential understand his philosophy. oy Sankara to tl' (anrta) an a given by unreal have no ,ce to h, faot cnto giving the thS 1
,

definition of 'real'

^^ ^ ^.^
is

essence

thing

cannot

be

to o

Lply

because

it

perceived,

for,

n somein

something nev^r non-existent, is nev whisht which

time

.e. O.e.

m
in

unalterable

past,
,

present a

^ ^

^ ^.^ ^ ^
^^^
change' or

uncontradicted in triplejg

essen-anatur. Th

remajns essentiall essentially

as 'that

o?Sdoes

fl ot

undergo any

19

about which

Brahman is real which is 'that whose nature

and form world
Tor all practical
is,

our understanding does not vary '. I0 In is unchangeable, immutable and

varies,

this

sense only the

infinite.

The unreal

changes and

is

subject to destruction.'
destruction.

Name
is

subject of change
it

and

Though
and

it

real

purposes,
thus,

is

'Mithya, apparent existence

anrta.

The

mundane world,
word.
It
is

cannot

be called
is

real in the ultimate sense

real in true sense.

of the

the only

Brahman which
Brahman,
is

Now,
changing

if

reality or

non-dual, uncaused, uncreated,

is

un-

mere appearance (mithya), then non-dual pure consciousness, i.e. Brahman appears as unreal manifold world of phenomena? How from the pure Brahman, the impure world of men and things came into existence ?
and the phenomenal
naturally arises

world

the question

how

this

is

Advaitin has to explain how the one became many ? How this absolute related to phenomenal world? If Brahman be the cause of the world,

will

not the blemishes of the

to be

latter pertain to

the former also? will not

Will not
the

Brahman cease
difference
illusorily

truth, intelligence

and bliss?

non-

destroyed By merely stating that Brahman appears as the world will not satisfy the curiosity of inquirer into truth. Advaitins have to answer how the real appears as the
?

of Brahman

be

trsnsitory

in an absolutely real sense to transcendental Absolute will be logically absured. Sankara-the Advaita stalwart, thought that without the assumption

world.

To

attribute

any kind of causality

the immutable,

uncreated and

of an extraneous
the Upanisach) 12 ,

principle, (which
it

is

already

found

in

seedling form

in

is

not possible

There must be admitted some

manifold of sense on

account for the world-appearaiice. principle or power which superimposes the

to

the supersensuous

supreme Brahman. This extran-

eous principle is called Maya by Sankara. This doctrine is specially introduced by Sankara as an explanatory factor and to satisfy the natural
curiosity to

know
all

the

why and how

Absolutists

of appearances. This doctrine

explain

is

a logical

necessity for

the

to

the

otherwise

inexplicable

relation between the universe and the Absolute.

Brahman though
diverse, discrete

Owing

to this

Maya, the
holding

itself

absolutely
finite

non-dual,
as

appears

to

be

up
and

and

appearnaces

innumerable,

animate

inanimate objects of the universe.

It is Maya which gives rise to all kinds of phenomenal appearances recognised as various empirical entities (Vyavah&rika) and also to further some times known as illusory objects (Pratibhaaika). So besides one, non-dual Absolute Reality-Brahman, there has to be

appearances

a un.versal
is

assumed

diversifying
Jt

factor

or

effectuating

principle.
illusory

This
in
its

called

principle

Maya.

must

be

accepted,

however

ultimate

20

nature, as

explanatory factor

of

all

world. An assumption of it is the only solution to toe question which unavoidably arises as to how this non-dual Reality is to be related to the complications of diverse becomings, pseudo realities in the form of innumerable appearances as multiple empirical or illusory entities. In other

the appearauces

of the

phenomenal

words, to
Reality,
is

solve the vexed problem of relation between appearance and One and many, Noumena and phenomena, this doctrine of Maya introduced by Sankara.

critics think.

The concept of Maya is not a The word My ail is of

in

fabrication of Sankara's

mind

as

some
in

very great antiquity

and had been

considerable use
It It
is
is

orthodox literature much before the times of Sankara. Rgveda and

13 it occurs mumber of times in Rgveda. many forms through mysterious powers. 14 overcoming the Maya of the demons Indra won
,
"

at least

as old as

said that 'Indra assumes

It is

also said that 'by

the

Soma.' 15
1

It

is

also

found in Atharvaveda, 16
10 In
all

earlier Upanisads

1
,

Bhaga-

vadgita
in the

and

Yogavasiflha.

these texts, this

word

is

used primarily

sense of mystical power, or cover, veil or ignorance. An indepth study of these scriptures reveals that Sankara's interpretation of this word
is

more faithful to the intended purpose of these scriptures than the views of anti-Sankaraites.

As

in

Rgveda and other ancient

scriptures, so in Sankara's

works too,

'Maya' has been used in varied senses. At places, it is used in the sense of illusory appearances, it is also used to connote the mysterious power of
the almighty creator and Lord of the world. 20 It is through and by dint of this his indescribable power that the supreme Lord of all, assumes,
unaffectedly,

the creatorship of the entire universe. This power, says without it the highest Lord could Sankara, has got to be posited, or not be conceived as creator, as he could not become active, if he were
'

distitute

This Maya or causal potentiality of the potentiality of action'. its substratum or support the highest Lord and it is denoted by term avyakta. 22 It is this very 'Maya' of the supreme Lord which in the scriptures has some times been designated as 'akaSa' and some times

21

has for
the

as 'aksara' (indescribable).

23

What has been

Lord

called

'Prakri'

in the Sruti

and Smrti

is

this

'Mays'

itself,

to the self of

the omniscient

and the names and forms which belong as it were and which constitute the

'avyakta',

seed of the entire phenomenal world and cannot be defined as either real Prakrti, according to Sankara, or unreal are also the same as this Maya. is the causal potentiality of is nothing but this 'Maya' of the Lord which 25 It is called effects and has the three gunas as its constituents. all the 26 This as real or as unreal. either for it cannot be discribsJ

Maya, of Saiikara

should not, however,

be mistaken for the 'Prakrti' or

it is

'Pradhiwtf of Saiikhya, No doubt, like Prakrti of Sankhya, material and unconscious. But like Prakrti of Sankhya, it

something

is

neither real

nor independent

reality,

Maya

is

entirely

dependent

on and inseparable
of
its

from the supreme Lord, and

as such,

has no being

its

owa.
27

It is

power of Lord.

So, all power is non-different Maya, being power of supreme Lord is not

from

possesor, so also

different

from

it.

Jfvara

creates the world out of his this Mdyasakti and forms- 28 It's activity and inactivity is
in his

which is the matrix of names on accout of Maya.M He is

in relation
2*

essential nature,
It
is

inactive.

But

becomes active
is

to his

May. 3
May a
is

called

Mahamaya and
like

JSvara

called
is

is existent

but not real

Brahman. Brahman
So,
there
is

Mahamayin. Maya both sat and positive

positive but

not

sat.

no two ultimate categories hi

philosophy. According to Saiikara the world is Maya means that it is an appearance of Reality in a form which is not its essential and ultimate nature and has no being after the dawn of the
ledge.

Saiikara's

Maya is a power of God, burnmg power of fire is from fire

it

right

know-

indistinguishable
itself.
'

It

is

from him, just as the neither real like

ea
'

the he d L dawn of knowledge,

v--c
it

is

not unreal, for

it

is

bankara beautifully states real nor unreal, nor is it

is
it

true as long as
'this

lasts

in his

Vivekacudamani that
it

essentially both,
it

is

is neithei neither differentiated nor

Maya

un-defferentiated, noris

essentially both,

it is

ofthe most wonderful

2:

i!.=i^a2-a*s
*
The main functions of Maya is two the real nature of the objecfand
o
old
-

Cw

powersof

l "* ^***
t

^'

22

It
it

conceals Brahman from our knowledge point of view and shows up in

place the universe and world of souls.
It

not only makes not apprehend

consi-

Brahman, but creates some other thing

it

in its place. It is its speciality that

projects something in the place

it

conceals. In this sense

Maya

is

dered as

positive.

Everything
appears

is

Brahmm.

How

Brahman

is

play of Maya, just appearance of very difficult to exppin, but ws can

the

only say that .Brahman appears as the world, even as

as the snake.

rope

appears

Maya.

It is very difficult to give logically satisfactory account of doctrine of Suresvara, a direct disciple of Sarikara, admits that there is a core of unintelligibility associated with the doctrine of Mdya, 3s But on this basis it cannot be denied. It is a felt fact, It is basis of our intellectual,

religious,

moral and

social activities. In fact every

one of our

activity

is

the

work of Maya. 39
what
is

It is a

around

us.

'It
it.

is

simple statement of facts, it is what we are and co-eval with our life. We do not know how or
into an illusion consciously.
it is

when we
only

got into

Nobody walks
it.

We

can

know how

to get out of

Really
It
is

the result of a false indeutifi-

catiou of the real and the unreal-

a nature of man's experience. 40

real.
it

For

common man
it

the world of

Maya

is

The

learned,

man

thinks that

is

unreal and for the metaphysician,

is

neither real

nor unreal. 41

This causal

potentiality

or

the cause

of the

world

appearance be

understood from the two stand paths. For Isvara, or God, Maya is only the will to crate the appearance. It does not affect God, does not deceive

Him. For ordinary ignorant people like us, who are deceived by it and see maniness here instead of one Brahman, Maya is an illusion producing
ignorance. In this aspect Maya is also called, therefore, Ajnana, or Avfdya and is conceived as having the double function of concealing the real

nature of Brahman,

the

something

else, viz.,

the world.

ground of the world and making him appear as But for those wise few who are not

deceived by the world show, but who perceive in it nothing but Brahman, there is no illusion, nor therefore, illusion producing Maya. Brahman for

them

is

not therefore, the wielder of

Maya.w

MAYA AND AVIDIA

It

seems that

Saiikara does not

uses

and AviJya.

He

them

as

synonymous terms.

make, any difference between Maya Even Ramanuja took

t

Maya

in

the sense

of Avidyfi
It is
is

using the

word Avidya.

clearly states that

MSya

and criticises it in his Snbhusya mostly of the nature of AvidyS. 43 Saiikara, quite Avidyd.^ The world has also some times been

spoken

a!'

by Sariknrn as being constituted of Avidya, imagined by Avidya,

5

presented by Avidyii* arc interehangable in regard to these

like,

and so on.

We

feel that

the terms

Maya and Avidya

Sarikara's philosophy. But opinion Is divided with two terms among Sankara's followers. In Advaitic works
Siddhfintainuktavali
a ncl

Saiiksepnwriraka,

Vivaranaprameyasangraha*

no

distinction is drawn between Maya and Avidya. In Prakrtarthavivarana Miiya has been described as the beginningless and indescribable, origin of
all

objects

which
is

is

associated

with (the infinite) cosmic

while Avidya
in

viweed
is

as a finite unit

of

this

consciousness, cosmic Maya.*"1 So, also

PaimidaHi,
is

Muyii

Avidya
only.
48

maintained

Vacaspati

held to be the adjunct (Upadhi) of Kvara, while to be adjunct of the finite individual souls (Jlvas) Misra recognises original nescience (Mfilavidya) and
(tulavidyii)
It is
<9

fragmentary nescience
is
is

Beginningless positive

root nescience

the cause of the world.

the adjunct of the Jiva.

the adjunct of livara. Individual nescience

the object of nescience subsisting in the Jiva, is perverted in to the world with the aid of materiality of Maya subsisting in Brahman. Vidyaranya regards Maya as made up of

The Brahman,

pure

sattva,

and

Avidya
in

reflection of

Brahman

as made up of impure sat tva. livara Maya. The Jiva is reflection of Brahman in

is

the

Avidya

Maya

is

adjunct of ISvara. While,

MahSdevSnandasarasvaHW states composed of Sattva, rajas and tamos,

able and capable
of being annulled
Avidya. Like

Avidya is the adjunct of the Jim si that one A/fl&w-which is positive nescience
neither real nor unreal,

but indefindivided into

by right

two

knowledge,

is

loled

Maya and

nu.de up of pure Sattva while Avidya is made up of impure Sattva, Maya adjunct otifvara while Avidya is the adjunct of the Jiva. He further states that uay s has predominance of the power of projecting plurality of appearance while Avidya has predominance of the power of veiling p ,ng the nature o *,,/ ln this way on]y OQe js
is
,

VidySranya he

says that

Maya

is

AYfya
^

accord.ng to the pridominance of the

power of

int

with pure sattva predominates

,

24

LOCUS OF MAYS

are

some who hold

that

the same

,ocu S of
the

Av^
or

or

M^;
has

whereas
not pure

th

AJMna

Avj*

or supp or individual soul, for Us locus

and
sort
is

e,

while

is

by
as

of antinomy

stwee,.

^ ^ ^ .^^ ~,rr^^
a
c

u .ousn

of o

fli

but Jlva

t.

T he,c

mei

beyond

ou,

"*

'

togrtlier. If
>

H*

A*K

For
necessity of

the

lh ough locus of
like

PW er,

d mirage water

magician
the san y

cannot make

^ as as well the view that locus Milra- and his follower,

the
/e-v
is

is

v.caspati

^^
.^ see(] exactly

the

locus of

objections raised aga a seed ApparenUy

mst

it

as

a seed cannot be All the same the seeds

there
<

both ther
its

said, the

indmdual soul and

far as

Of
.

beginnings finite mind. As

to

banKa
is

c.
t

^
a at
tar

b j flg a

tree to pl,duce
it

it.

simi i ar i y

has been

have bee n
d

there from

both by thc

certain places he see.s

( Pammetvaratraya)

Lord say that, supreme

at certain places,
in
it
,a

locus ana

otmy a

and
is

/.

A
we
talce first

^^
view
,

nothing wrong

acceptmg

locus of then the Tivara-the

not affected by his own magical^power. " Sankara is very clear.

J ^

isconcerned

Sankara
II

"It says that

is

25

"Aiv'iA
sees
it,

''

belongs
it"

to that very person in

01
^C-^F).

whom

it

appears";
is

lie

who

has

(<j^ ?^TO

He

also states, that, Avidya

self

something

which can be experienced by one's

which has one's

own

(;ngwW[) and something

1

own

self for

its

support of locus (^f^q ). 62

Maya

and The World

(Sattatraya)-Pratibhtelka VyHvah&rlka and Paramarthika, is a point that needs to be borne in mind in this connects. The world is ryavahSrlka but it becomes sublated reality, when nght knowledge dawns." So, long as we are in this world, we cannot take it to be unreal. This phenomenal world and worldly objects exist because we all experience them. 04
la

practical pursposes, but not real like a Braliman, in the ultimate sense. Sarikara never denies the pragmatic or relative reality of the empiric il objects of the world. When he calls them 'Unreal it is always from the ultimate point of view that he does so. Whenever, Sarikara says that world is Uaya or Mithya it means, he wants to emphaisze the ultimate unreality of the world His recognition of the three fold existence

just

Maya is the nature of the world. Maya is the causal potentiality of the world. World is creation of Maya name and form. It is real for the all

Closely allied with the doctrine of

,!rr

"
'I

'

J;'

:"

* tora

"

"<*-

-rid

is ra erc

ance

-stakes
world
is

it.

Simply,
real
r

'a

quite

us

f
S *ai

."

the world becomes sublated.

^
a e

frighten

e "8 ros

^
kn

""

P?t "

n Wh
the
that
real
f
it

in

ignorance,

when Brahman
waking
state

Th is world K
Tto

is

realized
re duc

cannot be

ia,? 1 * 16 /1 levej f of

^^^ ^
Wledge

'"''

daWQS

""*

nto]

^^y

*" W

rld

dr eam

objects

though

26

resembles dreams in certain respects. "An object will not lose its real nature and acquire that of another, merely because it resembles that other in certain
respects."
tial unity

06 This manifold world

is

taken to be real as long as the essenis

of the Jjva with Brahman

supporting
difference

not realized. As
all

long as this unity

is

with Brahman, the

the world with

ground of
is

phenomena
It is

not

realized,

all its

perfectly real.
is

only from the absolute

stand point

when

right

knowledge

attained that the

Adraila

Vedaiini

declares the world to be unreal.

Criticism of

Mayavada
doctrine of

Sarikara's

Maya,

is

unfortunately,

misunderstood

and

misrepresented by many thinkers. For certain thinkers the word Maya connotes nothing but the utter illusoriness of the world. This doctrine has

all

been the target of much adverse criticism, even by the eminent philosophers, down the ages, from Bhaskara to Sri Aurobindo. Even great Jain thinkers,
Vidysnandi and others
criticise

like
first

the

Msyavsda. Bhaskarscarya,

is

the

thinker to criticise May&vada, 'who was either contemporary of Sarikara or flourished just after his death. Bhaskara thinks that Mayav&da is due to the influence of Mali&yana Buddhism" and it is an unwarranted hypothesis.

Quoting a verse from Pudmapurana, he states that, with its is asat 'Sastra' and it is hidden Buddhism

Sarikara's

Mnyavada
8

roots cut assunder."

While criticising the doctrine of Maya Bhaskara argues, that so called or Avidya, which projects the sensible world of plurality and practical

Maya

life,

cannot be said to

be

indescribable. It

is

self-contradictory to hold
it

that
tion,

Maya
it

or Avidyd

is

both existent and non

It

existent. If

is

mere negait

cannot cause bondage.

it
it

must he

positive entity,
is

since

causes
it

bondage. So,
beginningless,

must

exist

along with

Brahman. This

dualism. If

is

must be

endless. Then, there can be no liberation, because

If the knowledge of duality or

no liberation is possible. Advaitins claim that without destruction of Avidyd of unity difference is false, the knowledge or identity, also must be
false,

world cannot be
:

false, like the

of the because it is knowledge, knowledge dreams are not knowledge of dreams, since
So,

absolutely

false like

hare's horns.

doctrine

of

Maya

is

.rrational

concept.

69

in 9th thinker of Jainism who flourished Vidyanandi a first rank and on acconut if Brahman is the only Reality Century A. D, argues, that, world exist, then it is impossible to of Maya or Avidya, this apparent nature) of the world of May* or MlthyWa (illusory prova either existed

27
70 The by any means of valid knowledge.

fundamental

objection raised

by

Jain

thinkers

against

Advaitinis,

whether the

doctrine of

Maya (Cosmic

illusion)

adopted

to explain this
it

real or unreal. If

is

real,

and leads to an inevitable

is

phenomenal world is then it destroyes the non-dual nature of Brahman this world which then duslism. If it is unreal,
multiplicity of the

caused by
it

Maya
is

will

not be possible.
is

To

say that Mfiya

is

unreal
is

and

still

creates this

world

as absurd as to say that

woman

barren

and that she

a mother. 71

And

the advaitins themselves accept the theory

that the real thing

statement that

Maya

cannot be produced from unreal thing. Again, the very is indescribable, i.e. neither existent nor non-existent on

account of being existent in the state of

state of realization, indicates, that
it is

mundane

life

and no more at the

describable in terms of either existent

on the phenomenal
that

level

or non-existent in the state of liberation.

is

To say
silent

Maya

is

indescribable
life

self-contradictory
father
is

like saying that I

am

throughout the
argues that,
if

and

my

bachelor. 72

Vidyanandi
it

further,

we grant

that

Maya

exists,
It

then where does

exist.

Neither

Brahman nor Jim can be locus of Maya.

which
is

cannot exist

in

supreme Brahman

pure consciousness by nature. If it exists in Brahman, then cannot be called pure consciousness on account of being associated with Maya.
self is

Even individual

pure consciousness
this free

by nature and

in

essence,
If

it

is

not different from

is

Brahman and
reality like
it

from

all

taint of
it

Maya.
it

Mays.

an independent

Brahman and co-eval with

from the begiby any means of Mays is an

(bhdvai'upa)
entity.

nningless time, then

will

be an impossible task to annihilate

of this indestructibility

of liberation and the

eternal

consequence
soul. It
like
is

bondage of the
cannot be eternal
it

argued

that
it

Maya
be

exists

but

it

Brahman nor

an independent
still

Though
its

not capable of being determined by logic, existence would be contradiction of a felt fact and
is

the denial

of

without

adopting,

this

Mays, it is not possible to solve the problem of relation between the Absulute and the phenomena, Individual self and the Brahman, the real and the unreal. Here, again, one may argue why should such
kind of illogical and irrational

doctrine of

concept

postulating this kind of unreal principle it is better to accept the view that the
as non-different

be accepted at all 7 Instead of (Mays) as the cause of the world,

world is both different as well from the Brahman. The relation between the Absolute and

the world

is

to be identity-cum-difference.
is

An

view

is

that there
its

no necessity of denying any one of

advantage of accepting this the felt facts, the

world and

cause-the Absolute. 73

Ramanujacsrya's seven important objections (anupapaltis) against May&vida

28

of Sankara

are well-known. In his criticism of

Maya

or Avidyii,

lie

seenws

to be influenced by Jain philosopher-Vidyanandi of 9th century A.D. Some of his arguments are very similar to that of Vidyanandi.
what
is

RSmSnuja's
Avidya.
It

first

objection

is,

is

the locus

or seal

of
It

M&yu
cannot

or

connot be Brahman, who

full

of

perfections.

be

the for

product of Avidyii. It cannot exist in Brahman. then the unqualified monsim of Brahman would be break down. Avidyfi
individual,
is

who

the

means
Jiva,
it

ignorance,

it

cannot reside

in

pure, self-luminous or consciousness

either in

i.e.

Brahman. Hence Maya

is

or Avidyii cannot exist

Brahman
74

or

in

illusory concept, a figment of Advaitins

to Advaitins,

imagination.

(Ai"-

yeinupapatti). Secondly according

Avidyri conceals

nature ot
the nature

Brahman. But

it

is

not at

all

possible, because,

Brahman

is

of

of

self-luminosity, self proved

veil

and

pure

knowledge.

Avidya,
of

ignorance

cannot

or conceal

its

essence.

Veiling the selfluminosity

Brahman

of Brahman consists in either obstruction of the production of manifestation of or the destruction of its existing manifestation. The mainfestation So concealment is not possible. It is it is not

Brahman

is

eternal,

produced.

absured to say veil on day. If

would mean

can acts as a that darkness can hide light or that night of existing manifestation, that veiling means destruction But it is not the detraction of very nature of Brahman.
is

So Avidya acceptable to any cie.

Brahman"

(Tirodliananupapatti). Thirdly, ? If it real or unreal, positive or negative

the nature ol incapable of concealing what is the nature of Avidya' Is

it

is

real,

there would be

duabe
it

real, positive Brahman. If it lity the other reality being and it is absence of knowledge, Avidya ? Avidya means ignorance world-illusion on this it
is

how can H
If

is

unreal, negative, then,

how can

project

To

and negative is to embrace is both positive say ih^i Avidya cannot be proved- (Svan tradiction. So reality of Avidya unreal but mdescnbable * is neither real nor Fourthly to say that Maya ? thmg must be neither real nor unreal mcSca How can a thing be either entitite, or nonto relate ealTunreal. All our cognition e * To maintain a third alterna ,ve e ititTes The e is no third alternative. Law of contra ,cUon w 1 established canons of togic-the

^
f

law

of excluded

Middle- (Anirvacaniy^apatn).
o

Fifthly

no

'knowledge
It

be perceived Avidya cannot

or

non-entity.

cannot be

^^J^^^SSi ca^
PcepU
ted,

29

1 s (PramCmanupapatti). Sixthly nothing to do with an eternal unreal Avidya' there is no remover of Avidya. Advaitins believe that Maya or Avidya is

removed by

right

knowledge of the unqualified,

knowledge
essential
is

attributless

Brahman.

But

Ramanuja

says that such

impossible.

Discrimination

and
is

determination are absolutely

to

knowledge.

Pure

identity

mere abstraction. Hence, there can be no knowledge of undiffere'ntiated attributeless Brahman. And in the absence of such knowledge, there can be
no remover of Avidya." " (Nivartakiinupapatti). Advaitins maintain that realization of identity between individual self and Brahman removes Avidya.
1

Really,

by Advaitins.

removal of Avidya is not possible. Avidya is said to be positive A thing which positively exists cannot be removed from

existence by knowledge.

The bondage of

the soul

is

due

to

karma which

is a concrete reality, not apparent, as it is actually experienced, and so cannot be destroyed by the integral knowledge of the identity of Brahman and the self. Cessation of bondage can be acquired by devotional medi-

on God through his grace. The duality of Brahman and Jivas and is real and known by valid knowledge. So, the knowledge of In identity contradicts the real nature of duality, and is therefore false.
tation

the world

is

other words, the knowledge of identity, which seeks to terminate Avidya, itself false 80 (Nivrtlyamipapatti). By all these arguments, Ramanuja concludes that the doctrine of Maya creates more problems then solutions.
So,
it

is

not at

all

helpful in solving philosophical problems.

Parthassrathi Misra, a follower of Rumania Mimdmsu, thinks that the concept of May a or Avidya, is irrational. His main question against the 'Is concept of Avidya is Avidya false knowledge ? or is its cause different from it ? If Avidya is false knowledge, it either belongs to Brahman or 'Jivas. It cannot to Braliamn because Brahman is of the nature of belong
:

eternal knowledge. Jivas are

essential nature,
false

also

non-different

from

Brahman

in

their

So, they cannot have false

exist.

knowledge does not

knowledge. Thus, Avidya, a Therefore, its cause, which is different from

it, cannot exist. If Avidya, a false knowledge or its cause be said to exist, separate from Brahman, then Advaita is undermined. If Avidya exists iii Brahman, what is its cause ? It cannot be

nor can

it

be

Brahman
its

anything different from Brahman,

It

cannot contradict

Sitokhyapravacanabhasya like Bhaskara, quotes a verse from Padmapur a n a and says Uaydv&da is hidden Buddhism. Criticism of Mdy&vada is found in the works of Madhva 83 ValJabha* and in other Vaisnava There arguments philosophers.
,

Even Vrjnanabhiksu,

since it is of the nature of right knowledge nature. So, existence of Avidya cannot be proved in his introduction of

against

30

Maydvuda
Rstrnanuja.

are

more or

less

similar to those

ol'

Bhaskani. Vidyfuianda ami

In defence of Mayiivatla

Bliaskaracarya quoting a verse from Patlmaimfami vi:, ihe first philosopher to apply the term Mdyfivada to Safikura's philosophy. Bhaskanicarya's terming Sahara's philosophy as Muytl\sda is unjustifiable, because, it is not Maya but Jiralnnan with which Saftkara is concerned. M<7j<7,
the

mysterious power of the supreme

is

Lord

is

not
It is

the

last

word

with

Safikara. It

not the goal of

human

aspiration.

something that dese1

rves to be discarded and got rid of. Throughout Sarikara's writings, it is realization of the Brahman, and not of the 'Maya that is really aimed.

And whenever
reader realize

'My'
its

is

brought

in,

it

is

not with a

view to

make

his

importance or value, but in order to direct his mind towards the realization of his all important Brahman. "Brahman, with Saukara, is
the only true Reality,

Brahman

with Sankara

is

the whole and sole ultimate

ground and support of all, and Brahman with Sankara is the only worthy end of human life." 85 Again, Saftkara's Mayavatla is not hidden Buddhism as Bhaskara thinks. We have already pointed out that, the word Muyfi
is

of very great antiquity and

fact,
it

this concept

has

its

roots

in

Rg\cda and

in

major Upanisads. In
this

is

MiiliHyana

Buddhism

which has developed

ainly

80 No doubt, in concept takikg idea from Upanisadic philosophy. certrespect of his method of discussing philosophical problems, Sankara, influenced by Buddhist writers. But influence does not mean acceptance

not pf their principles. Really speaking, he was a formidable opponent Buddhism, but of all Buddhists alike, only of Viinanavada and S'Tntyaviida 87 One more important and he left no stone unturned in criticizing them., Bubdhist thinker, while criticizing Advaita thing to remember is that no for his doctrine of of Sankara has mentioned, that he owes to Buddhism 88 a Even Santaraksita, great Maliayiina thinker and critic or Advaita. Maya to Buddhism. indebtedness of Advaita Vedanta does not mention Sankara's
_

It

is,

his philosophy

as cripto-Buddhist or to regard therefore, very unfair to call Sankara Other objections raised against the doctrine of as

Mayayadu.

Uayuby
In 'reply

others are more or less similar. Bhasker, Vidyanandi, Ramanujaand can be clearly said that, all of to all those objections, one thing

of the them are based on misunderstanding it seems, took Maya in the philosophers,

doctrine of Maya.
sense of
is

All
1

these

demand

a seat and PramSna for

it.

However, there

something 'real and no difficulty in accc-

ptincr either

If we accept Brahman or individual self as locus of Avldya. Brahman as the seat of Maya, AvMyil being not real, fiTSt*alteniative, i.e.

the Adavita. of
it.

Brahman is not destroyed, Brahman is not really affected by a snake. The Shell The rope is not really affected if it is mistaken as as lhat. Mirage water cannot is mistaken it does not become silver if
make
in the

the

sandy

sense of the

.it

does not affect the

desert muddy. Milytl in Brahman is ignorance only in individuals; power of producing ignorance and illusion Brahman any more than the magician's power of

his creating an illusion affects

own knowledge.
that

We
the

may

also

agree
self

with

Madnana"" Misra and"Vacaspati" Misra

individual

and

each other in a beginningless cycle. Avidya Avidya go on determining comes from the Jiva and the Jivas from Avidyii,. It does not involve the
logical flaw
is

of Interdependence or

Pititio-Principle because,

this

process

beeiinningless, as in the case

of the seed and the sprout.

So,

no
if

fault

should be found with this explanation.

The

difficulty

arises

only

we

to other. But if we regard the one as preceding

dividuality as but the
circle

regard ignorance and in-

and

its

two interdependent aspects of the same fact as a circumference or a triangle and its side, the difficulty does

not arise. Ramtinuja himself,

when he

fails

to explain the

cause
the

of

bon-

the nation that dage of the pure soul, falls back upon Karma and ignorance with the soul is beginningless. Again,
does not really conceal the real nature of
destruction of essential nature, as

relation

of

Maya

or Avidya

Brahman. Concealment does not

mean
from

Ramtinuja and others think. The

patch af cloud
conceals the

ignorance conceals

Brahman

in the sense preventing the ignorant individual

realizing his reai nature, just as a

sun

by preventing a person from perceiving a sun. So, ignorance does not do any harm to the nature of Brahman just as cloud does not destroy the self-manifesting nature of the sun. The Sun does not cease to be selfrevealing because the blind cannot see
it,'

11

It

is

also said that, nature

of

Avidya canot be proved. It is neither positive, nor negative. If it is posiother reality tive, it cannot be destroyed and there would be Advaita, the
being Brahman. If
It
is
it is

merely negative
the Nirgnna

it

cannot

produce world
to

illusion.

also said that,

if

Brahman has

restore to

Maya

or

Avidya

to account for something,

a second. But,
-very
is

Mayo
it.

is

germinal power

Brahman would cease to be one without of Erahman which is neither the form
it.

nature of Brahman nor something different

Nature of Brahman

not affected by
is

Brahman

is

untouched by
in
il

blemishes of

My<7.

Just

as the face

not affected by any blemishes associated

which

it

is

reflected,
is

Brahman does
felt,

umstance. Avidyd

fact
it

thus,
is

with the mirror in no way lose its nature in any circcannot be denied. It is destroyed

after right knowledge, so,

not real. This self

it

realized only

when one

rises

above

contradictory nature is and not before, Again, May a is said

32

to be indescribable owing to a genuine

to be something,
like

92
difficulty.

In so far as

it

appears

an

illusion or illusory object

cannot be said to be unreal

a square circle or the son of

a barren
it

woman,

which

never

even

appears to exist. Again, in wards by some experience,

so far as
it

is

sublated or contradicted aftersaid to be

cannot be

absolutely

real like illusory

Brahman whose

reality

is

never

contradicted.

My

and

every
as

object have this nature and compel us to

recognise this nature

reality
fact,
it

some-

thing unique and indescribable

in

terms of ordinary
is

or unreality.

To

say that

Maya

is
it

anirvacaniya

only to describe a
categary, and

namely our

inability to bring

under any ordinary

does not

mean

any violation of the law of contradiction. Real means, 'absolutely real' and unreal means 'absolutely' non-existant, and Maya or A vidya is neither. These two terms are not contradictories and hence the Law of contradiction and
excluded Middle
are
all

not overthrown.

The Law

of contradiction
is

is

fully

maintained since

that which can

is

be contradicted

said to be false.

The
and

Law

of excluded Middle

not overthrown,

since

'absolutely

real'

'absolutely unreal' are not exhaustive.

Mandana
It
is

Misra, a contemporary of

Saiikara rightly pointed out while

defending anirvacamyattva of
neither
existent

Maya

or

Avidys, that
existent. If
it

"Maya
were

is

false appearance.

nor

non-

the

characteristic
it,
it

nature

of anything,
a real

then whether

one with

it,

or different from
it

would be

thing and could not

it

then be called Avidyd. If

were

utterly

non -

existent,

would be
experience

like

the sky - flower and would have

no bearing on

practical

as

be recognised as indescribable. This is an Avidya has. Thus, Avidya has to adherents of all the different explanation which should be accepted by 3 Really, the word Maya signifies what is inconsistent schools of thought.

and

inexplicable,

had

it

been concistent and explicable

It
is

it

would not be Maya

but would be

real.

" 4

also unwise to say that, existence of

My

or

accredited means of knowledge. Avidyd Avidya cannot be proved by any of "I am ignorant', I do not know myself or any is perceived in the forms

body

else'.

Here negation of knowledge

is

not

perceived, since

negation

this perception apprehends 'I do not know', .implies the object negated. nescience. If does not apprehend negation of a particular object.

general from perception of negation of a partiPerception of nescience is different apprehension. In dreamless sleep cular object. It can be known by non It leaves an impression behind. On waking general nescience is perceived. recollection' 'I do not know it is revived, and brings about the

from

sleep

Even we perceive nescience is perceived. anything during deep sleep.' 'Thus, snake on a rope. Maya is also inferred through its effects, (karyanumeya). of Maya, which can It is already pointed out that even scriptures speak

95

33

be act rid

of.

PrakaiSnanda, an

Advaitic thinker

gives

different

picture.

He

States that Afiiana

lor
for
5

or Avidyii cannot

be established

by
light.

any

of

the

Prumnas
vouched
proved.'"

the

two are as opposed

so,
it
is

as darkness
to

and
ask
is

by the witness
is

superfluous
that,

how

Ajngna is it can be

It

argued

by

the

Ramanuja

there

no .remover of

of attributeless and undifferentiated Erahntan Avidya, because, knowledge Nirgiina But Sruti speaks of NirgUna Brahman." is not at all
~*

possible.

Bralwmn
is,

is

often spoken of as pure bliss.

it,

We

cannot describe what Anamla

It
is
is

but we can directly experience

like

sweetness of sugar.

not a

but matter subject of logical demonstration

of experience.

It

expressed

Upanisads. Experience of this Nirgima by the words like 'real' but only a Brahman is a remover of Avidya. Again, Avidya is not
in

98 'Neti-Neti.'

superiomposition,

it

vanishes

when

the

ground
It
is is

relity

is

known. The ropedirect knowledge,

snake vanishes when the rope is known. or intuitive knowledge of Reality which
hence, cause of liberation.
It
is

only the
the

remover
the

of

also argued

by

critics

Avidya and of Maya or

means want of knowledge, and thus cannot Avidyd that ignorance (Avidya) it be destroyed by the knowledge to be positive. If it is positive, how can
of 'Brahman ? Avidya
is
is

called positive

only to emphasize the fact that

it

is not merely an not merely negative. The illusion producing ignorance of illusion, but positively makes absence of the knowledge of the ground

this

in this sense. In

It is properly described as positive ground appear as some other object. our daily experience of illusory objects, like the serpent

ina

rope,

we

find that the object positively

si

vanishes

when we have
9

clear

viz., the rope."

When

identity of

appears to be there and yet it knowledge of the ground of the illusion, limhman and At man (self) is realized,

Iherc

is

no

Maya

or Av/V/y,

no bondage.

Avidya

is

removed

by right

knowledge.

Some modern

crtics

have condemned, Safikara's

is

M&yavada
and
false

as illusionism,

This misunderstanding
rendering of the word
false

on account

unwarranted
1

incorrect

English

Maya

as 'illusion.

Maya
the
in

is

appearance.

The

can never be equated with illusory or

is

non-existent.

Something
itself

which

false

must

exist, its falsity consists

its

appropriating to
is

properties which

do not
is

really

belong to

it.

What

called 'illusory', in the

English language

called Pratibhasika in Advita

is

Vedanta.

kara says that the world

entirely baseless
illusory

Maya

or

Mithya,
Sankara,

he

does

Whenever Sannot mean it as

between
objective world

'appearance.

never

confused
the

subjective

and

objective existence.

He

did not regard

as unreal for practical

and moral purposes, and

illusory appearances.

carefully

distinguished

it

from dreams and other

The world has a Vyavaharika

34

reality.

existence,
.is

Brahman is absolute existence, whereas and the silver seen in a shell has
Maya, because
it

the

world

has a relative

illusory existence.

The world

called unreal or

does not conform to the criterion of

contradiction, ipso-facto, The unreal for Sankara, therefore is not only that which is absolutely non-existent, or illusory, like a sky-flower, but also that which is ordinarily believed to be real. Though not absolutely non-existent or
unreal.
illusory, the objects of

upheld by him. Real according to Sankara, is that which is selfexistent, cahngless or imcontradicted. Anything that has a dependent existence, or is subject to change or must be
reality

our

common

existent or

immutable. They are

its

all effects

experience are certainly neither selfof some cause or the other, and

have

as such a beginning,

as well as an end.
it

An

effect

or changing thing
part
with.

has no nature of

own which

can be said

never to

100 and

Sankara, therefore, maintained that no effect is a real thing. its objects are dependent on cause, hencec canging. What is
101

World
finite

cannot

unreal.

be self-existent. It must be an effect of something and hence, In this sense, world is called Maya or Unreal. Thus Maydvada should be understood as asserting that the external world of our waking experience has its limited and conditioned reality in the sphere of the Vyavaharika experience and cannot 'usurp' the reality of the Paramarthika
experience. Thus, Maydvada is not illusionism, we may call it certain kind of relativism. Sankara, upholding Mayavada, maintained the nonduality

of Brahman.

diversity.

There

is

He points out the truth that there is unity behind unity between Brahman-world and man. Prof. Hiriyanna
'the

rightly

pointed out that

unity of

the

Absolute Brahman

may be

compared to the unity of

landscape,
it

painting,

say of a landscape. Looked at as a

is

a plurality, hill, valley, lake

it
is

and streams, but it's groundviz-,

the Substance of which

constituted

is

one,

the canvas.

NOTES
1.

(a)

^
slfj

%
with

SSnkarabhasya
(a)

Taittirlyopanisadbhasya, II-l, Ten Principle Upanisads (S. B.), Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1978,

tff^'R^aj'nn

-AparoksSnubhuti, 24.
Vanivilas Press, Srirangam.

Works of SankarScarya,
2.
(a)
i?$iteTfg[cfaH.

-Chandogyopanisad-Vl-II, 1-2
Tait, *H3&'

(b)

ipSfo ff
i

wnhfcT' WQ. SB.

<

Up. II-6

3.

ft%jggwl% fi555i[^

ft

"HWwj.

wu f^

-SB. ChSndogyopani?ad-VIII-I-I, Introduction.

.15

4.

'3ft% ft

-SB. Br. Up. II-IV-9.

5.

sezf,

dr ^faR
-BrhmajnSnavalimala-20
p.

-SB. Mand, Up. II-1I-11.

6.

(a)

sfteti

siftf

3VW.

Works of Sankaracarya,
(b)
.IT-?

224, Vol. 16,

Vanivilas

Press,

Srirangam.

irq-

ff

BrahniasutraSarikarabhasya(BSB).-I-Iir-!9, with Ratnaprabha,

Bhamatiand Anandagiri Vyakhya, Ed. Mahadevaslnistri, Bakre, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay, 1909. BSB, I-II-20. ..'..{Qj.-.^^-g-^sJi^R: gqif^f^i:
'. i

(d)
7.
-..

BSB, -H-III.

(a)

%%< ft^-Hff^^'
IM.
14;

51*19

-SB. Muncl- Ip.-II-H-ll.

-

(b)- fc*rHF?T 5Pl^t --sl^T^c^g,

3^?^
M.
S.

BSB. II-I-20.

8.

Bliaraati.

Siddhantalesasarigraha. (SLSj-I-24,

Ed.
.

translation by Karyalaya, Kaslii, V. S. 1993.

with

Hindi

Vyasa,

Acyutagrauthmala

9.

?f

^l^a^Rn?^^

ecq-?4

^I-fg'

W'cf
1,

af?f' I?"ct:

- SB. Svetasvataropauiaad
fO: (a)
^fzrfirfg

Introduction.

q^i
\

^ffft^

--- m: ^Hff^--.
.

SB.

Tail,.

Up. ILL

(b)

Tf^q5l=[f|q^. q>p?: BSB-II-I-11.

jffjjqqT

% qww:

(c)

ifeq 3?if^^^ ^ega - Sankara's Gitabhasya (SBG) -11-16,

i

SnmadbhagavadgltH

with

Sankarabliasya, (Hindi
.

tr.)

Gita Press, Gorakhpur, V.S. 1995.

U.

q^lor

qfffj^' gfq
11-1.'

B^TRJJ ^^fftc^g,

- SB-Tat 'U;
12.

Kathopamsad-I-II-5; Isa'va;syopaiiisad-l>; Prasnopanisad-f-16; Cb.aadogyopanisad-VIlI-ni. 1-2; Brhad3ranyakopamsad-n~V~19; SvetaSvataropanisad-lV-9, 10,11,14-17; V-6,

13,

14.

13.

Rgveda-VI-47-18; VII-XCVIII-5; VII-CIV-14;

I-XXX1X-2;

V. JI-9;

14. 15.

VI-LX1-3; LXXXII-4; VlrXClX-4. Ibid. VI-47. $f$ m?lfr: p^q jjqH

i

18,

Ibid-VII-XCVHI-5,

36

16.
17. 18.

Atharvaveda-XH-II, 11; V1I-XXXI-1; VIIMX-5; IV-XXXVIII-3See footrnote no. 12.

Bhagavadgita -IV-6; V-15; VIMS, 14,25.
Srimaclbhagavadgltri with

19.

SSCflkarabhasya (SBG) Gita Press, Gorakiipur-V.S. 1995. YogavHsisflia-IV-21,36-3". V-I.3.87-90; VI-2-86, 14: VI-2. 67-2; VI-1-125-I; V-49-40.

84, o:

III-

20.

i^TOST

JTP-JMf^i: Rfrft:

BSB-II-I-14.

21.

Bhagavadgltabhasya

- Introduction -

SBS

1-4-3

22. 23.
24.
25. 26. 27.

SBG-XII-3-BSB-I-4-3.
BSB-I-2-22; 1-4-3.

BSB

II-I-14.

BSG-VII-4; XIIM9-29. BSB-I-IV-3.

"?tl

safe

175

SBG-XIV-27.
28.

q f|

^
3W W^m^:BSB-I-IV-3.

^if^lfl^IH
29. 30.

|^^T- J?fRI^?^ra

mtW^w^w-w'
1-4.
fit

BSB-H-II-4.

q^fcw:

(i*5r^i)

sihi^i',

Tmiswy

31. 32.
33.

BSB. II-II-7. e^f' ^sa'^fdiflm' ^ 31

Tait.
(a)

^.

B.S.B. 11-1737.

Up.

I.

VOL

HrJlM^i aqqifc^l
HWMflSr Sfllt^T^l

fit

(b)

- Vivekacudamani-Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay ^t^" ^"fa JTRI g^^ic^R'

qm

TKWiwm

SB. Prasnopanisad-I-16.
34.

^RTg^l gfwi
itmsqi
*r

11^1-

VivekacudSmani-110.
i

35.

^11 flw l^m^R^i

SuryapurS 9 a

36.

(a)

WT &*
sfa
>

BSB.

M-9.

pif

SBG. XIH-2.
37.

37

a:

SI

SSfWr

Wll^

-Drkdrsyaviveka, 13/15, Quoted

in

Sri

Sankaracarya,
p. 294.

Baldeva

UpadhySya,

Hindustani

Academy,

Alhabad, 1963,
38.

m
3&
if

ffatt'

Naiskarmyasiddhi
1925.
sffaFT

11-26.

Tutorial

Press,

Girgaon Back

Road,

39.

Bombay, 3?ft?lHc^

- BSB. I-1V-3.
40.
(a)

BSB/Intro. (Adhyasabhasya).
(b)

^Sg^^ftsHf^rT
Agashe.,

-Sambandhavartika-177. ed. Kashinathshastri

Press, Puue,

Anandasrama

1982.

41.

(a)

- Paiicadasl- VI-130. Pub.

Kashi, 1942.
(b)

Bhargava

Pustakalaya,

Gaya

Ghat,

SLS. P. 178.

42.

An

Introduction to Indian Philosophy, S. C. Chatterji Datta, 6th edition, Uni. of Calcutta, 1960, P. 371.
tifflfift:,

and

D. M.

43. 44.

aCetsiTfcW ft SI
(a)
CKR

BSB.

I.

-IV-3.

^...^2^^

firniigis:

aiR^T Tl^l...
-BSB.

-I-IIM9.

(b)

^giWT ^1^

TTifl-

MandukyakarikS-IV-36.
II-I-14.

45.
46.

31^1?^, sjHigi^^, ^feT^q^lfe...

(a)

Sanksepasarirakam-I-20-Cliowkhamba
1924.

Sanskrit

Series,

Benaras

(b)

Siddhantamuktavali-pp 38-39, with English Translation by C. A. Venis, E. J. Lazarus and Co., Benaras, 2nd edition, 1922.
Vivaranaprameyasangraha-I-I, P. 133-134, with

(c)

Hindi translation-

by Lalitaprasad-Dabral,
V.S. 1996.
47.

Achyutagranthamala Karyalaya

Kashi

SLS,

I.

29.

48. 49. 50. 51. 52.

53.

PaiicadaSi

(PD)

-I.

15-17.

BhSmatH.
SLS.
P. 96-97.
I.

PD.

14-15.

Advaitacintakaustubha, P. 27-34, 38.

VedHntasSra. Ed. G. A. Jacob. 4th edition, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay,
4 y^itj*

38
54.
sffa

Pancapadikavivarana-P.

32.

55.
56.

g^iTT^RR^^lHifi(a)

SLS-I-7.-P. 126.
sfft, *n^=M^fra, ^Rl^IfT *for sft
-i

in%jT

srgn^i

ftg

fo

BhSmatH-I-4 and
bindu.
(b)
57. 58.
HTITT^'

^1^!

SiddhSntn

a^Finaq'
3.

P.^29-P.C. Diwanji, G.O.S., Barodn. SLS. P. 128. fig sftqwq-

^Iff^sftlf^flcj.

BhSmati.

I.

1.

1.

59. 60.

BSB. BSB.
5F*q

I.

IV.
I.

II.

9.

g^wt
IV. 1-3.

BSB.
61.
*

SBG.
Mandukyakarika

62. 63.

Sveta.
(a)

UP. Sambandhabhasya
SB,
1-17.
^czr'

Rq^Rsji' Jnqifli^-

(b)

^1^

'Sin^lf^ lf^^T^?i'

^l
||

?IT^I llqcl sfp SRffqESlWg;^

64.

Atmabodha.

7.

RT$

^rc^^Rf
II.
I.

BSB
65.

14

BSB-IM-14.
66.
ff

3fT

q?q

^a>

iqt

ff

SR3P3

3?|Jij^OTi:

a^i^inqt^giWa
Sanskrit

^
=51
I

giSFJfeq grafqfa
flfq^qf^
I

-B~SB. II-II-29.

67.

T^l^R^}^li%cf* JW=ri5J-

BliSskara's Bfahmasiitrabhasya-I-IV-251903.

Chowkhamba
68.

Book Depot, Benaras,

T

JTl^RT^^Slsi' S*S5i'

^1^

*pN

^f^a'

[fi[

^1" qrs^wRlT
S.

-PadmapurSna, quoted

in

Saukara's
P.

Brahmavada, R.
69.

Naulakha, Kitab Ghar, Kanpur, 1964,

V,

12.

Philosophy of Bhedabheda, Ch.

Vol.
Ill,

History of Indian

Philosophy,

S.

N. Dasgupta, Cambridge University

Press, P. 4-5.

70.

(a)

Asfasahasri (A.S.) Ed. by Vansidhar, Bombay, 1915 P. 161-163.

;

Pub, Nirnayasagar Press,

(b)

SatyaSasanapariksa

(SSP)

ed.

by

Gokulcandra

Jain,

Bharatiya

Jnanapith, Kashi, 1964, P. 3-4.

71.

ed. A.B. Dhruva, Pub. Syadvadamafijan. Commentary. Series, 1933, Verse 13,
(n)

Bombay

Sanskrit and Prakrit

72.

Verse Manelukyakarika with Satikarabliasya-Advaita prakarana,

P.

28,

164-165.

(b)

NySyakuraudacaudra, Manikachandra Jain Grantliamala, Bombay,

SSP. P.
Ibid.
8.
.

Part

1,

Ed. Mahcndrakutnar

Shasln, Pub,

1938, P. 63.

(c)

(d)
73.
(a )

P.
9.

AS. P.

163.

(b)
74.

SSP. P. 8-9.

gi f|

fWlfa^

SIR

^-ffa ?ft

TO^I

Sribhasya of RamSnuja, Part

I,

Citussutri

I.

I.-l,

Para

59,
75.

ed..R.D. Karmarkar, Uni of Poona, 1959.

aiffcPn

JRI^tW'

fa^fa

ffd

Ibid.

1.

I.-l.

76.

...
'l

lbid

L L Para
I

77.

3if?t*M^

f^frrnRfm
I

n
1.

fgt
78. 79.

Ibid

1. 1.

Para 60.

Ibid. I.I.
1

1.

Para 62-71-

Jfl^I

^Rtt^H?!^l
1. 1. I.

Ibid
so.

Para 72-78.

zr^ficopa'

qRftlfe^
81.

KI^S^mRrar
P.P. 313-314,

Ibid.

I. I. 1.

Para 79.

SSstradlpika

Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay. Sec also History of Philosophy Vol-II, Jadunath Sinha, Central Book Agency,
Calcutta, 1952.

82.

Sankhyapravacanabhasya-Inti-oductioii, ed/ by amba Sanskrit Series, Benaras,

R.G.

Bhatta, Chovvkh-

83.

Anaudatirtha (Madhva)

M5ySv3dakhandanam.

T. K,
1929, P.P. 1-15.

Venkatacharya, Srividya Printing Press,

Kumbhakonara,

40

84.

Suddhadvaitamartanda-P. 22-24 Sec also History of Indian Philosophy.

Vol-II, J.N. Sinha, P. 713.

85. 86.

Saiikara's

Brahmavada-R.S. Naulakha,

P.

15.

Mahayanasutralankara-a study
Indian Books Centre, New

in Vijflanavada

Buddhism. Y.
122-137.

S.

Shastri,

Delhi.

1989. P.P.

87. 88.

BSB IHH8-31.
Tattvasahgraha-P. 328-331 Vol.
I.

ed. pt. k.-

Krishnamacharya, G.O.S.
89.
90.

1926.

Brahmasiddhi
(a)

P.. 10.

sftsil^^t^nf^'a.aramf^Pft'ja'

Bhamati-H-1.

(b)

l^fr^
P. 29.

Siddhantabiudu
91.

sjirs^Pfc:-

sR^a
ed-

92.

SambandhavSrtika. 175-181

by Kashinath Shastri Agashe, Anandas-

hrama
93.

Press, Pune, 1982, P. 55-57.

si^srel

mfi[n MOT:

5T

-Brahmasiddhi
94.

P- 9.

ibid. P.

10.

95.

(a)

Vivaranaprameyasangraka.
PancapSdikSvivarana,

P.

16-17.

(b) 96.

P. 12-13.

II

-Siddli'Satamnktavali. P. 125.
97.
(a)

Slife

aHtT

^s^il^-

By.

Up.

Ill-

II-6.

fb)
(c)

-Tait. 98.
Jtfcfjtfcl

Up- JV-

1.

?IWT aWT:...
22; IV. V. 15.

-Br,

Up. IV- IV.

41

99.

(a)

qwmi
BSB.

ft

033 ^w^rs^m^i^Fnsm'rafiiif
I.

*&t] fsf

?rqffc*rm

II.

9.

SB.

Mund. U.P.

II.

II.

II.

S.B. Kath.
!00. (a)
(b)
(c)

Up.
II.
I.

II.

II.

Tail.

Up.
II.
II.
I.

BSB.

11,

SBG
fl

16.

(d)
fe)

gjts^^
f|

3^^.prsfiT^
I.

SB. Chand. Up. VII.

fiW ?E^5Ef^g
also =qat
I

II.

2.

^g^t
II.

BSB
101.

14.

and

f^-^s?^.

SB. Tait.
II.

Up.

J[.

I.

1$ f^KT: ^wszr^oiigqgs^; ^^r-

SBG.

16.

v.

afa
3

wmk

sft

aI,

if.

%.

STR.

^' (8.1.1)
|

sqi^ioi

faqq
,

fetta
'

r^

q.'

(8.1.2)
ir

(8.1.3)

s.4,287 ft

(ff% 8.4,287)

rrwr

for
q^f
flr^r
i

q?:?g

39 *wrr
(303-324)

feu;

16

t-p

(8.4.287-302)

22

ftsar

*ft

4 *$ (325-328)

33%
118

feq;

*ft

27

q&

(260-286)

me
fr

SIR

^Cf

|3?r ir

BTWIT^

arfiN

1.

s.

35, fi^qoi 4. 4,

fgtffa

anfS%,
ft53^

f.

e. 1963,

2,

| prat ffe

&

at

SKI alar

ft

sit

OTIH

%
it

fen Hi

en; ift !

3fc

fs
ll

3555^

R %I
sir

Ufa
'^13

Qfl

jfa

3).3?sft

W IT*
3T

rf
^

US

ft

wfer
;

star

I ft

n
30
til

f**rr
Bt
.

^r

ftzn ^pflft

aif|pr

in^

%<3

ft

8
i

ft

ifei)
'

wi
Star

5*1*1

g^
*it

5t

star

t %

s;

ft^r
sir

rr

sfl

%R

^
sfi\

ff%
5j

if

31

1963
,

?.

35.

2,

fq5T3,

18-17.

-^T.srr., 17.47.

i
u.
cr.

g.

fee;

a;
.

ftuft

*ift

j.
*T

3 I

93%

3?fc

3^3

T3 OTT s^sg

3?ftf cR

sg^-qR^OT %

1,

5[f5^

mfam
si:

^51

(8.1.245

IT

si )

.R'a

sn?

cilqTsfq

| fi\<v&,
dt
I

3.

274)

irf

^q

8.3.137

%f I siRf ^i^o; ^%o; The Prakrit Grammarians,

I

p. 180, f,n. 1(1972)

2
2
*i:

^T

^fe^

2
5

siiifT$

31^

54^

ff^^^ ^^E^ ^.^

qR'filf H^cl

2
1

4
7

^SH
sqs^^

q^qgf egsa

23

31

I.

3, 26, 46, 57,

79, 118, 119, 151, 177, 181, 206, 228, 245, 254 (14)

II.

17,

21,

86, 98, 101, 104, 113, 120,

283, 287

138, 143,

146,

174, (12)

III- 162,

IV. 238,

(3)

8.1.119
sft

3 far

*RT

*
I

"R

R
f|?si

SK$ q

ii

fts *?r
<?tq

grsf ft 35is??n

F^qfa&r
I
l

afo
3fa
fl

^^R %
srafa
ffosifcs

Ssftq

jf
I

q*

*&

* ^T

%r
1

n ftssT

lq
if

I
V>f
,

arch*
^r 'afi'

i4f jfar

fsresi&sri *r

His % 3*3
ftrBil^

*ft

(2J) -ftaaT

^R^ %

^r^

tor
3. |9

% W4
,

Sfq

^.

8.1.177

if

qszj^

3T5qq[ni sqstff

Bir'T:

f% ^ ^1

?i f?r

I
n^
1
I

Stt

wr$

aiHw ^

fl^fea |t

15 "ira i^ ^

3T f f

% it
!

it

^
afft

fftpsl!

<s.

271)

tr

4,

4.

8.2.138
II

^ gqq gs^
||

fao;

if% ^ fit

wI

^|

gq

^
*r

Ji^f

art^ sqqffis

spifa;

furpror

^t f

qfe
it

5,
8.1.228 sjj

% sjgen qR^f

*fi

"f

itm I

q*'g

ft)?:

6.

fjpi

^.
I

8.1.254
3T r ft

^ S^R ^ qft^
I 3T$ imasf

3T&

mm
I

25 g^r^nr |f%

>ft

t
^?:

f|i nqr
(s;is[5f)

icqrafq

snata

%
<$

i^rag

% 3 H

^^
^

5rs?

ft^ t

sir?

^ 3 afa a $K
ft

%
I
l

jnf% n?Ri3l qr sfkfrfl STSJT

?t|f

7,

8.1.27

ffg ^ jrotfasr (w.ftRjr)

Historical

Grammar of

Inscriptional Prakrits,

1948, p. 271

% fl% *OI % %&

siicft

331}

133;

H}
i

(rroffcrsr

H"ff%?3r)
S3

8,

^
Jt
=55;

^. 8.2.17

if

<sg

eriufqr
I

Jiqr

*sfti;,

arfifgftfliraft

t$

ine

^JT
^'.

^
57

s^
I
i^i q

aro^ 3
l

w
H
?.

$t mfxt

STO

|^|

ftaar I
i

^i^

sr

?r

13;?

^iq ft^r |

(Hs^,
3^f^'
=
u;

217)

9,
cr

^
qjpr

8.1

E^f

'^
1

qpr
t

3^?|CT
<5,4f

%r wi
Wei
tr.

q?

3\ I

$
cj;.

3?5
sr.

ST:

qif%
RJf

^
q.

% f5IST%^l ^ HW ^f 37$ RRI %

^
10,
ftwet
(^fWcr:)

%
^

3T3RI
fqarf

W&

qgtjl
T^:

% s^^fe
ft?^r

5jra[

37?ci

sriar

g?f

-a;
i

vft

nqti
o;,

ftscir

(3?^^ 22 3^?

31)
qj|

3?5pi?pg g.

Kf.

g.

-13;

^rrRfi

(^

8.4.287

if%

11.

srra

^T

ff%
,

if

8.3.162

ff%
it

^|,

(8.4.238)

% 35

%1 ifxi

RTF

mi I
*f

I
flTfct

4?
fiCf

Rr^tea*?

nifa arfl^r

i)

HH: fts^ I

oi^Pt 5

^^
if

;Jt ft? (^feo; ftos 3^?; JTF?UT)

12. ^f
it

R*.

8.1.206
ft *it^

(%
^T

-^.

fff^ q?^q)
Ct

-cf,

?r

f.t

gm
$t 3

^T

IT?I

I
ft

sa

simi I,

i?w,
fa

^g qffg

aq^ft^i afi[^H

feT^^"!

i?

feat I

13.

ijfcre

laf^'fi

% a?i5w

It

TOT

SIT

g^gr TF

srafoi

SR

sifal T^

^^

ft?ttRnD.

j|

errant ^41 I

(a?)

3tfo8ift
(1) (2)

^ ^F
JTSff

fan;

g^:
?q
feo;

8.4.270

||

^
'

$
||

^w
tf.
13,

8.4.271

fi.

fa)

wit %
(1)

si:

8.4.294

(2) (3)

RW

ftre:

8.4.298

n fa*3i?

3?? sRjfc |*t 8.4.301

fr

%ft star

8.4.310

(?)

mt;^
(1)

fen.
=g:

feKf
?if<5&

8.1.183 n
ap:

r^sr^r

(2)
(3)

i:

8.1.189 n
n
|

siiy s:

8.1.191

(4)
(5)

^
isfft

W%

s: 8.1.197

?:
T

8.1.225
^r

||

(6)
(7)

81.244
||

q^qf SI 8.1.247

f&q;

fen

^q
m

(8.4 293) f^rr

ii
D <n

jjf^j q|f^
I

% 3??^
srrgfzr
sfl

3^ret

w
f$ I
J(

Jjfct
ti

'tni

^i5[

%
sift

fis ?1 Jiff%'|

fsfPq^ ?Jjgl q* (=^g^ ^szril

%
BT

5TS?

qitfl qi^vr

^ ^ fR 8
J|

ftacir

I 3w\$.

JIR:

?r

JH^T $R q
irq;

%lf

Stf f?) ^r zj^

8:1

r ^;

IW5R ^-SUT

^
T}

^-W %

arg^raf

wq^ %

s^Sflt

ft

all?

^:

8.1.30

^r

aqi^W

ff

*$$

if

rr

Ct

ft

fl

1:^3; %

a)

(1) (2)

(3)
(4)

(3.

(5)

f.

f.

sw

(8.2.15

[ ii ] [ iii

f Pa %

TT^
.

ci

[ iv ]

q.

si.

[vi]
[vii]
[viii]

fI
51

5-

^
r

^f'

^
%

i|

%
3J

iritu

if

qifs

nr^t^ grfeq
"flfe

W
^
1

flf^r

&$&

t
f,i

-fa

.%

it

fta ??r 1

>j?

gif|q

Tf el

?t

foft

?R?

it g^r^r

m:

&

sn*r aTt

WIR

J|

ft

T-WFr

snpr
qr

Fm *rm

^
ft

irnql

TR

*t

^
%

*IM %
I^r

^qpret
ft 5?aqaf, ^for
3rrf^
it

*nft?q,

3?rnq

sq?.5w

aiwri^
sir

% RT^H

ctfgf

sfdt f

ai^qri^

9if|?q

w*

arsqg

rift

(f^siRi g;ro

sfi

?g ST^R ^rfar ^ r

ft

IH ^

^^

I(

7R^ %

fe
tft

|
IQ;
flt

vfl

T3 IF^^S ^^r
raal 03;

^rflo; s^?

gg%

f?.^ si?q

^
ql

srfer'it

% TO

qfg;

qfe fr ^is

fcf!

^fg

m^
q|

afe It qi

qi

qr
'

EBrtf

qi"

qr

t^ 3$

^]
Tft

qt

qr stf^iT

aflqfe

Ji

% nf

qra qis

srfa^3

strcr

qt

at siiHr ^ifla:,

^rl q'i %1
it
I

IR % ^ffq

qrs ^r

3^g^
qjij

^ ^|

f^r

SfcT

qi
jff

g
ft

q[ ^c

g
uql |
ara:

srr^

rrif cr

wn^ m*

2,

(W !^H
ftst

015 itq

|^ %

qs^o,

tfq^f
i)

5^5,^

^ ^ ^^
qf
ft

I is a*^

?t qff r*r ^Ci ^r gfai

3,

nrf
l

ngBrm iq^Y %

Jj

urq: g

^'an^qr

^TRI ^rfgn

s|f|
4,

Rsq^f f

qr

5, RWiqgf 6. qiHRat

cT

^t
3}fr

g?h 3
T

a%

JTRf

sc

OTW &T s$
fo
*ft

faff 5|Rf

ft

?T

5JW: ?ft ? a?k 3

at

3H

7,

$*ft

*4
r.

qfife
sft

^t

ct^g

fq^

at 3^-

ar

if

5^
^'.

f,r
if

%fT^g;

g-RT

fan nqr
ift

(304,379) g;Kr

awn,

8.1.7$ s |%

8, qRfaf ^^1?
grfitj;

qfiftiJcrr

(1^1

^51

gfair Tit^r
^t 3*i$

^f?i

I)

9,
10,

Heqcfflf

R ft^
Bzjgjqt

eg^

^ gql^q %

11,
,

3?|

s?g).^r?

5
ar

3%?

qg;

q? ^r? ftf

qr

12, a'g^a sq ft!

13,

g'

14,

15, 16,

s^Rt

greu qrqr Q;W^T

-^

f^Hffet

^ f^
^

at

17,
t

sijwfM
siRt
c;.
!J

sr 5

^
|

R HTOI

o;4

fecftqr

%
q?w
q

sp^
ft!
at

qf^ -Pi

fT%'3;

18, 5.
T,

g.

fiqf^ci

^^
ftls
^.

~?rr

qsrar)

19, 3.
fvi,

si.

g.
t

*
it

fimrt^i-^i

^-H
fccr

^1
^f^g;
ft

q^fa)

20, 3?^>RF3 51^

=33$

Q;.

5TgffJ3Hcr

21.
it

?r

21, adt ens

3rft<2;

fcrr5i
l

s;?

3*R ^

ftwftffaor

fetr g^rar

^
I

f^

fit

(qfctf)

23, 'fofl us SRR

24, jilTg^
^?:
I

^
ft

ftofa -**r

fo?s at

Risft

^r?fr

^if|u;

geftir

& e r-a^^" o$

^^

^t f^wfruirf

-^

rr^r

-31T

tft)

25,

^i5l trf

q^
ql
q.

^1 f^r^fiT Q;f&gr%
JH?TRT

Mfaq?
i?

z?^ ft^ at 3f|

*&a
Ji

^jrfto;

(s

%
|

-fta,

-ftsar,

-f^-R, -i*i

-qr

fl

arrqal

^n^
at

^r^i

*cWflf

^Cf qtg ftnsi&sft

:

^^

ft ftsdi I)

26, g.
.

3.

q;.

SIR^^

urn -I

(-u;)

PfJ

-ft,

qj

-?

-eft,.

-|

,,,,27.

,w

28, gictR
29, g^ 3^

^^?ci

fi

qm-ifl^ ft&
*it

at

?^

StRipftrf

^ ^

SIT^R

^r^q
it

s?r4 ^iqr
?it)

(^w
5J}

f 4 ? 4 ^ft-qRg^
it qr f^ci ft gs|

nqr it

(OIA) %
r

^fnf

^
J}

fawtft

lir^^cir

nmrPRi

anrit

% wr

in the first issue

about ownership and other particulars about Sambodhi, the Quarterly Journal of L. D. Institute of Indology Ahmedabatl, to be published every year after the last day of March.

Statement

From IV
(See Rule 8)
1.

Place of publication
Periodicity of
Printer's
its

Ahmedabad.
Yearly
Harjibhai N. Pate!
jndian

2.

publication

3.

Name

Nationality

Address

Krishna Printery
966,

Naranpura Old Village

Ahmedabad-380013
4.

Publisher's

Name

Ramesh
Indian

S.

Betai

Nationality

Address

Director in-charge

L.D. Institute of Indology,

Ahmedabad
5.

9,

Editors'

Names

(1)

Ramesh

S. Betai
S.

(2)

Yajneshwar

Shastri

Nationality

Indian

Address

L.D. Institute of Indology,

Ahmedabad
6.

9.

Names and
Individuals

addresses of

L.D.

Institute of Indology
9.

who own

the

Ahmedabad

newspaper and partners or

shareholders holding

more

than one-percent of the

total capital.

I,

Ramesh

S.

Betai hereby declare that the

particulars given

above

are true to the best of

my

knowledge

arid

belief.

Ramesli S. Betai
Director in-charge
Signature of Publisher

Request to Contributors

Our learned contributors are requested when they send Papers for our Journal
:

to

note the following requirements

in double space. Papers should be preferrably typed marks should be diacritical

Internationally

accepted

used

where

necessary.

Words
As
in

to

be

italicised

should be underlined.
quotations should be written

fin as possible

Sanskrit or Prakrit

the original language only.

Footnotes should be
Paper.

serially

numbered

and given at the end of the

to, the

Footnotes should clearly give reference number from the work referred name of the author, as also name of the publisher and date of

publication wherever necessary.

brief

list

to

works consulted should be given

at the end.

<HRctlM
e

<M<H-fcl

cTHl

J-L&Ml|i' Sli

'll-fl

Stl.

7..

'

MSlfild
il.

S^
Sl^Ml 3l&
i

^
13"

Mlcll^ ^3l

iR'fl

^M^dl

'Hl'Mdl

^
'Hl'Mdl

"il.

felCHl^'^^tl

9. ^l^l ^Hl^dl

Sli Mil

iRm

H3li Si

i!^

fcwi

6 S.

s>U<HR

<.

The

OEFering

of

Distics

notes by Dr. Colette Caillat,

(DohSpahuda) Translation with Sambodhi Vol. 5, No. 2

Critical

July-Octo, 1976

3?

I T
ii

W
OR

ft fact?

^q|^

||

vj

ft

?j

ft

II

TT

TO

ft

33

II

IR

IK

IK ^
fa
ft
or or

ft

ft

of

ft
or

3
U[

n[

ft

ft Of ft

of

ft

ffij

ft

DT

ft
ft
^f

or ft

^5
snfnr
DT

01

g
or

ur

ft

mg
^r%

53

ft

3\$

uns
ft

ft

"I

ft

f%If

g|
^[3

^fr

ft SOOT

IK 'A

^13
i%3
ft
"I

II

f%

II

5lTfa3

qVR*J

II

or j^

^t f%

II

'

II

22

te

fif%3

ii

m^
fg

ff^i

^R

nv?<:

f%

"I

aftftra flf'5

"f

3T^Rf ftre

3^13 f|

qi3

3f<Jf

"g f^ wflfl

fgf

||vao

fir

qff

or

^ Tg

II

IT

fofa cjf

jf

f(|g 5^

n^g
fli

fif*iwwr

fof^^ ^

sfr

DT^I

TR

or

r^g 3 Rl

SIT

i's^t

ffiipl

33

3?

fbit?R?

^i f

33
qflit

flt

TO

ii

f|g

TR1I

13
y

fa^f 35 53
II

qrrt

or

IK

||

flpjigorsrflsfi

II

JT

snuff!

f% fawlf ^|
II

II

f^

IK

gorfl

DT

fa

IK
I

IK
aifi:

flw

f^H^; ^'3 3crf| fsra^HTi

^ft
f|

ii

^tf

^i

f^g

mm ^^3
^

fa

ra^3

IK ^ ^
I

3jtg Epf^3(^ EBIf

^1

^"-^f ^ 5^S ^^
f

IK ^

^,

i% 3

ll

ft

5lff *I|

^3
II

t?

<

3TT

^fcf epft

if

^IT

^I^W

It

?ifi

^^ri

Rug

q^

jffos^r

or

^tfcf

11

tffcfr

fire

^it% q^re
SI

it

JTfsrar

f^JT

"I

fir

?ourr)
:

5^01 ^fir
if%fa

fgsflfi

^m
3

sftfr

gfEs^
q?sr

wri

53
fit

*r

3715?

ftq

fPl

||

D|

51

f^ffS

Of

5(^3

^|

EpTI

DF3

cf

311

II

eft

3T1

II?

ft
f^f^

SXH
?r

3T

g
sit

wii IK

II

ST^^f ft

f?R

ftfs

qT
nf sfTflft

TlrfT

W ^T f

ft

3T

^B
or

ft
(?)

IK

"f

gfijg

IK

TTT

II

uf

Of

fljjg

DJ

5535

||

*|

jffnr aif?ar

^ fat fare
airarat ft

tfrft

11

tej

*Rf|

fci%

ftj fq

II

\tt

IK
"I

<!

or

fsig

ftf

II

fS

f^f

f%fcf

IRoo
3T ctrft

fa\f

or

TITO;
-lawra

ESTI

"f

flpr

Of

=3

wra

II

ft

1?

nfl

&.

-^ &

3*

ft

* a*

ift,
*ff Tg*?i

at

m^

I.

TOW

i STsr. n at

ing

I
TT.

*TCg ^TRit
Et^-qR^i^

^foi^)

I
a?rer%

aw

st^t f?ife Rfsiq^i

^.

it

^^
STI2

I,

^?i

^d

SIR

SfR I.

%r

at
r

it

<?,

g[RT

at

%u

155

left

3TFT

3
qq

q T q,

^To5
!

3
^.

TOST

13**

cfaT

i.

sjpjft

is

TTST

^ ST^

fta

5RT,

fat

5(9

V o

5T| !

mm

3Kr

faRfltf

5ff T^fT

iMt

:,

(IS) f if

it

sftor

.rat

5Fral

sisft,

it

f TWT,

?isft

5TT

ct

it

vft

^TRRToS Sttt.

g
^ta

I.

q^t ^m ^WR
!

^H
51

(fR-^or
arnr

I %ft

<T!^T^

^T^

q^sr

(IT) it

i.

?rt

i(t

"tor

I'.

(fife)

i.

5T13 3355 d.

tfff

5RT(

it

SPEW
i

"fa

far

3ft

f^^^Tf

^
%
'

^^
TRT
ITRT

itg

JR

qi%

13

35^

( 3fei )

ftPCft

at

TT*J

1333

qor

fcra

ijjgsr

ToiT^t

ft^r ggt

-^

qfapft ^T^f

%)

5lf

^f

^t3

5?

'

q?r

Self

I'ft,

f
,

qT

(?)

352

>?TOft,

gUT

qi^^t

ate

ITT,

^s^

f rr

3inrat.
)

^3

qaft

fit

ct*T

ftW
ftcf

IS

rar

*I?R

( at

qj^r

at

f?r?rr

% WT

farmf ^f
'^ft.

f^

q T ufaf

ffci

^ vmm
(

at

(?)

faforoi

^551

qor

stf

intf

(%

|TI

JTRT

<R

*rii&'

si

fcft )

( a

^)

qg^t

Hfit

wf i

Tv(t

nq

qrg

SIR

fe.

^
qrq

?fir

stzsftsft

sfijfr

fwwrarat stefr 3
g*

fawg
vz.

nq ?R.

HT
?

sf^rn^
I

qifhf.

^y )

?trat

Ri^Tos

I.

ir?r
,

"

a*

i.

fI i %
qi

TT'

5pf.

&.

rt

JTt^g'

5PRDT

( ? )

fR

RT'^'Tt

?fTW

ffi

R
'3751

for
;? IT

SIR? ft
JT

Fspt

3,

?,

'',

KTFT

3t

3|plf|

ftrf T

RS

UK

3Tr.cn

511

3\3

IV 3

ctTf

R
"^"^

IT

? ?
>J

<i

V ^

cf=T

cTO^ RT

-._,,,

nvj

^^

cng sr?]^- ft^

ft

?r

faw
1

PI

gfe 93 f%
*F5rf

rf

Si TMsfr^;
IT

^f

.mwraBRrai

?-

^ =*

^ffrrf ft

03
l?J|

V*
3V
3

IT

Of

??

SlflfR-

f%

Y?

mm

fg

or

gir

o o

or

v?.,

(0

3T

?
,

3,

^jF^JGrT

o*

gar+q^

(?)

^^

(?)

m|

(STJT+I-)

Yo

3TT3T

".?

1IT

S^

(cpir)

'<

CUT,

"flirr

(0

(sram)

^
tn 0,.. (ftssgw)

Oft)
<

(qr)

-.,

^
?

qyoft

toy?
r

raft

f.

(fqs)

RC

(r>-7icHfr)

gs

(fg.

VV
51

m
(0

JIT

flrg:

(ftfofaO
r^,

(i|.

[Continued from
Sr.

Title

4J<

No.

100.

101.

Padmasundarasuri's PSrsvanStlia carita MahSkavya pp 12+103+136 (1986) Ed. by Dr. K. Sharma Munshi Sri SantinStha caritra Citrapatfika (Gujarat!) pp 30+82 + Plates 25 + 8 Colour (1986) by Muni 'shri Shilachandra vij ayaj

2 4/-

BW
i

on/

102.

52 + plates

Sri SSntinatha Carita CitrapattikS (English) pp. 4 + 8 + + 8 Colour (1987) by Muni Shri

25BW

Shilachandravijayaji
103.

JSnnapramodagani's JnSnapramodika A commentary on Vagbhatalafilcara pp. 8 + 20 144 (1987) Ed. by Dr. R.

-i-

357-

S.

Betai

104.

VardhamSnasuri's Jugijimmda cariya pp. 8 + 30 + 280 (1987) Ed. by Pt. Rupendra Kumar Pagariya

gQ/+
/_

105.

Padmasundara Gani's Yadusundar MahakSvya pp 184 Ed. by D. P. Raval

106.

Muni Suvrtasami

Caritra

Critically

Edited by Pt.

70/_

Rupendrakumar Pagariya
107.

PraSamaratiprakarana of UmBsvati Critically edited with English Trans, by Dr. Y. S- Shastri

go/-

108.

NySyamafijan (Shnika 4-5)

with Trans, by Dr. N.

J.

Shah

120/~

IN THE PRESS - Kavyakalpalata Makaranda Tika-Dr. R. S. Edited by N. M. Eansara Tilakamafijarl

Dravyalankara
Jaina Biology

Beta!

Muniraj Jambuvijayaji
Dr.
J.

C. Sikdar

Nyayabindu
1

with Guj. Trans, by Nitinbhai R. Desai

14.

Siddlmntalesasangraha

95 /
Journal of the L. D. Institute of

SAMBODHHThe
Indology). Back

Vols.

113

507-

(Per volume) 40/-Current Vol. 15

(1984-1985)

Prajnacaksu Pt. Srs Sukhalaljl BhSratlyavidyS GranthamlS

1

Vidusaka (Gujarati) by G- E. Bhat (1981)

Essence of .Tainism
Tr.

30yu

Dr. R.

S.

Betai

55^

Sole Distributorsi:

Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture

Editors Dr. U. P.

1JO/-

Shah and Prof. M. A. Dhaky (1976) MahSvira and his Teachings Ed. Dr. A. N. Upadhye

50/-

OUR LATEST PUBLICATIONS

Name
of Publication
Price

Rs.
Ed.

81.

Padmasundara's JnHnacandrodayanataka

Nagin

J.

Shah.

8/-

82.
83*

pp. 4+58 (1981). R. Vijailakshmi pp. 8+234(1981) 54/study of Civakacintamani by 24/ with KSlidSsa by Prof. G. K. Bhat. pp. IOH40

Appointment

(1981)
84.

X5.

Studies in Indian Philosophy (Pt. Sukhlalji Memorial Volume) M)/ Pt. D. D. Malvania & Dr. N. J. Shah pp. 22+323 (19811 Ed. by 18/Facets of Jaina Religiousness in Comparative Light by

Dr. L. M.
8'\

Study of

Joshi pp. 4+78 (1981) TattvSrthasiitra with Bhasya by

Suzuko Ohira

48/

(1982) pp. 1+182

87.

Chaudhari Hindi-Gujaraii Dhatukosi by Raghuveer

(1982)
p.

45/-

12+230
I-

88.

89.

Secondary Tales of the Two Great Epics by Rajendra Nanavati (1982) p. 12+795 Laksmana's Suktiratn ikos:i EJ. by Mrs. Nilanjana S Shah
(1982)
p.

S'J/-

9/~

16+71
Ed. by Pt. Amrutlal

90.

&
91. 92.

Suracaiya's Danadiprakarana Nagin J. Shah (1983) p. 12+64

M. Bhojak
Shri

9/-

RamacandiM's
:

Mallikarnakarundanarska, Ed.

Muni

30/-

6+35+166 Punyavijayji, Eng. Intro by V. M. Kulkarni (1933) pp. A study by Dr. K. K. Dixit (1983; pp. 8+120 SlokavHrtika

27/~

93.

VardhamSnasuri's Manoramakaha

(Prakrit)

Ed. by

Pt.

66/-

94.

95.

Pagariya pp. 16+339+32 (1983) Haribhadra's Yoga Works and Psychosynthesis by Shantilal K. Desai pp. 94 (1983) N.-trasiriiha Mehatana Aprakasita Pada (Gujarati) Ed. by

Rupendrakumar

16/10/-

Ratilal V. Dave 16+102 (1983)

96.

Jiuiratna's LiUivati-SSra (A Sanskrit Abridgement of

8I/-

Jines ara Suri's Prakrit Lilavai-Katha) Ed. by H. C.

Bhayani 8+8+443 (1984)

97.

98.

Jayanta Bhatta's Nyayamaftjari (Trtiya Anhika) With Gujarati 21 /Translation. Ed- & Translated by Nagin J. Shah (1984) pp. 9+180. 53-50 Bliartrhari's Vakyapadlya (with Gujarati translation and
notes) Ed. by Dr. 3. M. Shukla 46+720 (1914) Dliarmasenagant Mahattara's Vasudevahiriidi-Madhyama
120/-

99.

Khanda

pt.

Ed. by Dr. H. C. Bhayani

&

Dr.

R. M. Shah.
[Continued on
Title

3]