AC vs.

DC Distribution: A Loss Comparison

1 1,2

Michael Starke , Student Member, IEEE 2 , Leon M. Tolbert , Senior Member, IEEE, Burak Ozpineci , Senior Member, IEEE, 1 University of Tennessee, 2 Oak Ridge National aboratory

Abstract--Environmentally friendly technologies such as photovoltaics and fuel cells are DC sources. In the current power infrastructure, this necessitates converting the power supplied by these devices into AC for transmission and distribution which adds losses and complexity. he amount of DC loads in our buildings is ever-increasing with computers, monitors, and other electronics entering our wor!places and homes. his forces another conversion of the AC power to DC, adding further losses and complexity. his paper proposes the use of a DC distribution system. In this study, an e"uivalent AC and DC distribution system are compared in terms of efficiency. Index Terms-DC power systems, power system modeling, power distribution, losses . !T"OD#CT O! ncreasin$ %eman% an% environmental concerns have &orce% en$ineers to &ocus on %esi$nin$ po'er s(stems 'ith both hi$h e&&icienc( an% $reen technolo$ies. )reen technolo$ies are those that conserve natural resources such as &ossil &uels 'hile re%ucin$ the

human impact on the environment throu$h a re%uction in pollution *+,. The most 'ell-kno'n $reen technolo$ies inclu%e photovoltaics an% 'in% turbines. Althou$h &uel cells are not consi%ere% a $reen technolo$(, &uel cells have lo' emissions compare% to other &orms o& ener$( an% are %eeme% more environmentall( &rien%l(. #n&ortunatel(, the prevailin$ po'er s(stem in&rastructures are base% on alternatin$ current .AC/ 'hile t'o o& the lea%in$ environmentall( &rien%l( ener$ies, &uel cells an% photovoltaics, pro%uce %irect current .DC/. Currentl(, po'er s(stem in&rastructures that 'ish to incorporate &uel cells an% photovoltaics must &irst convert the DC po'er pro%uce% b( these ener$( sources to AC. This a%%s comple0it( an% re%uces e&&icienc( o& the po'er s(stem %ue to the nee% o& a po'er converter. 1urthermore, an ever increasin$ number o& DC consumin$ %evices such as computers, televisions, an% monitors are bein$ incorporate% into our buil%in$s. The po'er supplie% to these %evices must be converte% a$ain &rom AC back to DC a%%in$ &urther losses an% comple0it( to the po'er s(stem. nstea% o& usin$ multiple converters to convert DC to AC an% then AC to DC, the po'er s(stem coul% solel( be base% on DC. This 'oul% eliminate the nee% &or t'o sets o& converters &or

each DC loa%, re%ucin$ the cost, comple0it(, an% possibl( increasin$ the e&&icienc(. 2o'ever, a %e&initive anal(sis on a DC %istribution s(stem is nee%e% to %etermine

the net bene&its o& eliminatin$ the converters. n this paper, a lar$e stea%( state anal(sis o& an e0istin$ AC $ri% is constructe% alon$ 'ith a DC counterpart. These mo%els are compare% in terms o& e&&icienc(. . BAC3)"O# !D Since the %evelopment o& electricit(, AC has been %epicte% as the better choice &or po'er transmission an% %istribution. 2o'ever, Thomas 4%ison one o& the &oun%ers o& electricit( supporte% the use o& DC. !o metho% at that time e0iste% &or boostin$ an% controllin$ DC volta$e at the loa%, so that transmission o& DC po'er &rom $eneration to loa% resulte% in a lar$e amount o& losses an% volta$e variations at the %i&&erent loa% locations. To resolve this issue, 5estin$house propose% AC %istribution. !ikola Tesla ha% onl( recentl( at that time %evelope% the trans&ormer 'hich ha% the capabilit( o& boostin$ volta$e in AC. This allo'e% &or e&&icient transmission o& po'er &rom one location to another resultin$ in a complete trans&ormation o& the po'er s(stems to AC *6,. Althou$h man( thin$s have chan$e% since the invention o& electricit(, AC is still the &un%amental po'er t(pe o& our po'er in&rastructure. 2o'ever, %ue to the %evelopment o& po'er converters an% DC ener$( sources, interest in DC has returne%. Several stu%ies have investi$ate% the use o& a DC %istribution s(stem. n *7,, a smalllocalize% DC %istribution s(stem &or buil%in$ loa%s is investi$ate%. This po'er s(stem is supplie% b( a DC %istribute% ener$( source &or the DC loa%s an% has a separate AC $ri% connection &or the AC loa%s. The author relates that this metho%olo$( lea%s to a hi$her e&&icienc( compare% to a s(stem solel( base% on AC throu$h avoi%in$ the use o& the recti&ier. The author notes that po'er recti&iers have a relativel( lo' e&&icienc( compare% to inverters an% DC-DC converters. n *8,, a DC zonal %istribution s(stem &or a !av( ship is investi$ate% to provi%e electrical isolation, re%uce cost, an% increase stabilit(. 4ssentiall( each zone has a separate %istribution s(stem provi%in$ protection to the overall ship po'er s(stems 'hen an attack has occurre%. Due to the nee% o& multiple levels o& DC volta$e, a DC s(stem 'as %eeme% superior to a AC s(stem in terms o& e&&icienc( an%

cost. The AC s(stem 'oul% nee% an inverter an% then DC-DC converter &or each DC bus volta$e level, 9:;-+-8688-+9<8-7=<;=>6?.<< @6<<; 444

'hile a DC s(stem 'oul% onl( implement DC-DC converters.

!evertheless, several investi$ations in DC have su$$este% that DC %istribution is not as e&&icient. n *?,, the authors investi$ate DC %istribution &or a small-scale resi%ential s(stem. The authors note that althou$h con%uction losses in a DC s(stem appear to be lo'er, the e&&icienc( o& po'er converters %urin$ partial loa%in$ is a concern an% can ultimatel( lea% to hi$her losses in DC. n *A,, the author compares several AC an% DC s(stems &or %ata centers. Base% on the results, the author conclu%es that a hi$h volta$e .2B/ DC %istribution s(stem is more e&&icient than AC, but no components nee% this hi$h volta$e. The author constructe% another DC s(stem, coine% a h(bri% DC s(stem, 'hich containe% multiple DC volta$es. 2o'ever, the author observe% that the converter losses re%uce% the e&&icienc( to that belo' 'hat is &oun% in an eCuivalent AC s(stem. n all o& these cases, a DC %istribution s(stem 'as emplo(e% at s(stems belo' 'hat is %eeme% the po'er %istribution level o& the utilit(. 1urthermore, the loa%s 'ere either assume% to be &ull( AC or DC. n this stu%(, the utilit( level %istribution is consi%ere%, an% e&&iciencies o& the AC an% DC po'er s(stems are compare%. The po'er s(stem is also a%Duste% &or partial loa%in$ o& AC an% DC components. The $oal is to relate an AC po'er s(stem to DC in terms o& e&&icienc(. . MOD4L

implemente% in the DC mo%el. AC components that are %eeme% applicable in DC po'er s(stems 'ere implemente% in the DC mo%el an% inclu%e the %istribution lines an% some &ault interruptin$ %evices. Both o& these mo%els 'ere inserte% into the S3M po'er s(stem anal(sis so&t'are packa$e &or anal(sis. This pro$ram is a use% e0tensivel( b( the Oak "i%$e !ational Laborator( .O"!L/ &or AC po'er s(stem po'er &lo' veri&ication. This so&t'are packa$e accepts the input %ata &rom the user an% implements several numerical anal(sis techniCues to %etermine the volta$e, current, an% po'er levels at %i&&erent locations in the po'er s(stem. The &ollo'in$ subsections %escribe the mo%el in more %etail. !" !# Model The components in the AC portion o& the mo%el that are implemente% in the loa% &lo' anal(sis are the %istribution line, trans&ormer, AC loa%, an% capacitor &or Bar compensation as seen in 1i$. +. These components account &or more than 9<< components in the mo%el. Buses are also necessar( &or anal(sis o& the %ata an% are place% in bet'een each loa% &lo' component. The total number o& buses in the mo%el 'ere %etermine% to be :+8. The &ault interruption %evices in the mo%el 'ere i$nore% %ue to the ne$li$ible resistance these %evices a%% to the overall po'er s(stem. The characteristic %ata use% to %etermine the loa% &lo' an% To best represent the %i&&erences in AC an% DC po'er in&rastructures, t'o mo%els 'ere create%, one implementin$ the actual AC %evices an% components o& the $ri% an% a
Bus

secon% mo%el implementin$ DC %evices. The DC mo%el

Loa 9 % 7 6 + 8 + 8 : S 4 C 8+S8 : 8+18 : 8+8:

<;<< A"4 A

LOAD-8+-8: a%opts some o& the AC D F components alon$ 'ith 9 necessar( DC 7 components to represent a %irect 6 conversion &rom an AC ? 1 T E L ! 8 + 8 ; s(stem to a DC s(stem. The AC mo%el is a representation o& a lar$e e0istin$ po'er %istribution s(stem 'ith thousan%s o& loa%s in a variet( o& 88

<;<< A"4A

con%itioners, an% other %evices. Due to the sheer number, the loa%s are not measure% &or each %evice 'ithin the buil%in$, but instea% are measure% at the buil%in$

8+-S?+ 8+-1?+ 8+-?+ Distrib ution Line

LO AD8+?+

L O A D 8 + 8 ; 978+8+-?+S4C <; ?? A " 4 A com pute rs, air

sizes. The loa%s ran$e in size &rom several 'atts to several hun%re% k5 an% come

&rom in%ustrial motors, li$htin$,

level. This results in a po'er s(stem consistin$ o& 67? loa%s or buil%in$s. The loa%s emplo(e% have t'o sets o& recor%e% %ata, a ma0imum an% an avera$e. Durin$ a one (ear span, %ail( ma0imum an% avera$e buil%in$ loa%s o& the po'er s(stem in Cuestion 'ere measure%. At the en% o& the (ear, the %ail( avera$es 'ere avera$e% an% the ma0imum 'as &oun% &or the 'hole (ear. The avera$e an% ma0imum instantaneous po'er usa$e &or the entire %istribution s(stem &or the (ear are 7+.9MBA=6:.+M5 an% 86.AMBA=7A.6M5, respectivel(. The AC %istribution po'er s(stem un%er investi$ation is %ivi%e% into three volta$e %ivisions, t'o me%ium volta$es.MB/ an% a lo' volta$e.LB/. 1or the AC po'er s(stem the 2B

1i$. +. Fortio n o& AC %istrib ution s(ste m. an% MB are +7.;kB an% 6.8kB. The LB ma$nitu%e is %epen%ent on the buil%in$ loa%s. The DC mo%el 'as constructe% 'ith the AC mo%el in min%. An( location 'here volta$e 'as increase% or %ecrease% 'ith a trans&ormer in AC, a DC=DC converter 'as

losses &or the %i&&erent components is %escribe% in Table . This %ata comes primaril( &rom manu&acturer-supplie% %ata 'ith missin$ in&ormation supplie% b( test %ata. T A B L 4

Distribution Line L oa % Trans&ormer

G Fositive seCuence

Capacitor Bank

G impe%ance SeCuence Fo'er nput=Output Bolta$e G Fositive seCuence

AC D ST" B#T O! SHST4M C2A"ACT4" S TC COMFO!4!T DATA

$" !# Model E%uations

Manipulation o& these eCuations into matri0 &orm results in the &ormation o& the a%mittance matri0 as sho'n belo' *:-;,. s' a The basic ? J J . / & I + & metho%olo$( behin% I + ( the S3M pro$ram is &6 the use
o& OhmKs la'. n matri0 &orm this is:

)
6

& s' I b & I+ &

7

M ( 6

*I , L *& , *( ,

'here I represents the currents, ( the volta$es, an% & the a%mittance matri0. The a%mittance matri0 represents the %i&&erent a%mittance values that interconnect the buses in the po'er s(stem. These a%mittance values can come &rom a number o& sources, line impe%ance, impe%ance 'ithin a trans&ormer, or even shunt a%mittance &rom a capacitive source. Consi%er the three bus e0ample provi%e% in 1i$. 6.

J &s'* ( I 7 &6 I &7 Since the volta$es an% current values are the unkno'n values in the s(stem, another eCuation must be a%opte% to resolve the eCuations. The &ollo'in$ eCuation relates the real an% reactive po'er to current an% volta$e:

. + L I

i i

( i

BUS 1

C o m bi ni n$ eC ua ti on s + an % A re su lts in a no nl in ea r eC ua ti on as sh o ' n:
.

LINE 3
. : /

L I

*& , *( , ( M
L

BUS 2

B U S 3

associate% 'ith these lines. 1i$. 7 sho's the a%mittance mo%el.

J

1 i $ . 6 . S c h e m a t i c o & 7 b u s e 0 a m p l e . The three bus e0ample is compose% o& 7 lines that coul% be consi%ere% as either a %istribution line or a trans&ormer. n either case, a characteristic series impe%ance is

This eCuatio n contains the variable s o& real an% reactive po'er, volta$e .inclu%i n$ ma$nitu %e an% phasor an$le/, an% the a%mitta nce. Depen% in$ on the unkno' n an% kno'n variable s in this eCuatioJ BU SJ
Y
2

n, the names s'in$ bus, loa% bus, an% volta$e control bus are provi%e % as %escript ions o& the bus t(pe as sho'n in Table . TABL4
S'in$ Bus Speci&ie% Fl, Nl BL+ F$,pu L N$ L< F$, Fl, N$, Fl, B

ume N a i ep % l L re ct v 1i$. 7. mpe%ance schematic o& 7 bus e0ample #sin$ 1i$. 7, eCuations &or the inDecte% current at each bus can be constructe% in terms o& the volta$e an% series an% shunt a%mittance values. The &ollo'in$ eCuations represent the inDecte% current &or the three %i&&erent buses.
. ) I) L .& 6 / I+7 & I &+6 / R ( s'a I .J&+ / R 6 ( I .J & / + R( + 6 6

O L volta$e an$le

Loa% Bus Bolta$e Control B

AC B#S THF4S B V

. ) 6+ I ) 67 L .J&+ / R(+ I .&s'b I &+ I &7 7 / R(6 I .J&7 / R (7 ) 7+ I ) 76 L .J&6 / R(+ I .J&7 / R(6 I .&s'* I &7 I &6 / R (7 /

V
1

Y 2 3 B 3 U 1 S
J J

. F$ L real po'e r $ener ate% N$ L reacti ve po'e r $ener ate% Fl L real po'e r cons 8 /

Since the base eCuation is nonlinear, an iterative numerical techniCue must be implemente% to solve &or the solution. The numerical anal(sis metho% implemente% b( S3M has been coine% the P%ouble current inDectionQ metho%. n this metho%, the losses are ori$inall( assume% to be zero, an% the current is %etermine% throu$h calculation &rom the loa% an% nominal volta$e values. The losses are then inclu%e% an% the volta$e %rop at each loa% an% bus is %etermine%. The ne' volta$es lea% to a recalculation o& the current an% another iteration is be$un. This process is repeate% to a minimum error has been reache%.

3 3V 23

#" ,# Model The components o& the DC loa% mo%el implemente% in loa% &lo' inclu%e the %istribution line, DC=DC converter, an% DC loa% as seen in 1i$. 8.
DC/DC Converter

8/

Since DC is onl( compose% o& t'o cables instea% o& the three use% in AC, an e0tra cable e0ists &or DC. This e0tra cable is to be applie% as a DC ne$ative. This provi%es DC 'ith a positive, neutral, an% ne$ative thereb( %oublin$ the apparent volta$e *+<,. ?/ Since no reactive po'er is pro%uce% or consume% in DC Load a DC po'er s(stem, the loa%s %cB#S-8+-mo%ele% in DC <+9 'ere o& the same real po'er ma$nitu%e. This <;<< po'er value 'as A"4A %etermine% b( multipl(in$ the apparent po'er o& the AC loa% b( the po'er &actor. FOL 4 8+A The characteristic %cB % < %c ; %ata &or the DC c % #SC< mo%el involves B c 8+L < purel( resistive # C <6< Delements. S3M uses S B 8+ A the eCuations in 8 L - " + Table to 8 << 4 + 8 ; S - A + 8 < ; 6 < + + 1 7 - %cC 8 !B +- <<< <9 < 9 convert the %ata %cB#Ssupplie% to a DC 8+-<67 resistance. Since the DC- DC converter <;?? mo%el resistance is A"4A base% on the rate% po'er, 8 % %cCLD-8+-<<9 +c D S C ? + 18 +< + <
8+S8: 18+<<; % c C ! B % c C L D

the simula tion results must be veri&ie % to ensure that the actual e&&icie nc( input 'as actuall ( imple mente %.

1 i $ . 8 . F o r t i o n o & D C % i s t r i b u t i o n s ( s t e m . 1or this mo%el several assumptions ha% to be ma%e: +/ As 'ith AC, the &ault 6/ interruption %evices 'ere %eeme% ne$li$ible in terms o& losses an% 'ere

T A B L 4

DC COMFO!4!T C2A"ACT4" ST C 4N#AT O!S

i$n ore % in the mo %el. One curr ent pro ble m

' i t h D C D C c

onverters is that the e&&icienc( ten%s to &all 'hen operate% belo' the ratin$. n the mo%el implemente%, the DC-DC converter e&&icienc( 'as assume% &i0e% &or all operatin$ con%itions. A parallelin$ topolo$( %iscusse% in *9, %escribes a %esi$n that allo's DC- DC converters to operate close to the ma0imum
operatin$ e&&icienc( until as lo' as +<S o& operation

D i s t r i b u t i o n L i n e L o a % D C D C C o n v e r t e r l T l e n $ t h o & c

ab le in &t B T r at e % v o lt a $ e F T r at e % p o ' e r U rat e% e&& ici en c(

*able

Rl

+ as seen in 1i$. ?. 100 90

( .+ J U /+

The DC loa% &lo' calculations are similar to those o& the AC po'er s(stem 'ith a &e' %i&&erences. The DC po'er s(stem uses a con%uctance matri0 instea% o& an a%mittance matri0 since no reactance e0ists in DC: .

80

*I , L *& , *( , 70 Sin ge Co nv ert er & 1i$. ?. 4&&ic ienc ( curv es &or DCDC conv erter.

E!!i"ien"# $%& '0

( Converter)

*0 (0 30 20

," ,# Model E%uatio ns

10
0

0 20 (0 '0 80 100

10 30 *0 70 90 C o n v er te r + at in g$ %

This embo%ies the DC s(stem 'ith a much simpler overall eCuation an% characterization o& the buses. Table B sho's the %istinct bus t(pes o& a DC t(pe. #nlike the AC s(stem, the DC s(stem onl( has 6 bus t(pes 'ith 6 unkno'n variables. S3M implements !e'ton "aphson to solve &or these variables.
S'in$ Bus Loa% Bus Speci&ie% F l B L+ F$, Fl

T A B L 4 B D C B # S T H F 4 S

i n t h e D C m o % e l a r e t h e s a m e a s t h e A C m o % e l . 2 e n c e ,

7/ T h e % i s t r i b u t i o n l i n e s u s e %

t h e r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e s e m p l o ( e % c o m e & r o m t h e m a n u & a c

t u r e r s p e c i & i c a t i o n s o & t h e A C % i s t r i b u t i o n l i n e s . T h

e v a l u e s u s e % r e p r e s e n t t h e D C r e s i s t a n c e o & t h e c o n %

u c t o r a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o & 6 ?
o

C .

E" ,ifferen*e in !# and ,# n terms o& the basic po'er s(stem eCuations, AC an% DC po'er s(stems have Cuite a contrast. n an AC s(stem, po'er &lo' is o&ten %etermine% b( the eCuation:

percenta$e o& the s(stem losses. The po'er conversion %evices have a more si$ni&icant impact. n AC, the po'er conversion %evices emplo(e% are trans&ormers. The e&&icienc( o& the trans&ormer over the (ears has improve% %ramaticall(, particularl( in upper level po'er
+no' have e&&icienc( up'ar%s o& 9;S. s(stems. These %evices
7

L
V

7 R (
R M

#n&ortunatel( to convert back to DC, AC po'er s(stems use recti&iers that are much lo'er in e&&icienc(. n this stu%( the

R
S

R M

R
S

c o s .

W
/ 'here B , , an% W are the respective "MS "MS volta$e in "MS,

current in "MS, an% po'er &actor an$le. n DC, the po'er &lo' is calculate% b(:

+
,#

L(RI

#pon e0amination, these eCuations can have a substantial

recti&iers are assume% to be 9<S e&&icient *7,. DC on the other han% emplo(s DC-DC converters 'ith overall e&&iciencies that ten% to be belo' 9?S an% as mentione%, su&&er &rom %ecrease% e&&icienc( 'hen operate% belo' ratin$ unless special implementation o& the converter is per&orme%. To convert back to AC, inverters are necessar(. n %i&&erence in po'er &lo'. Depen%in$ on the po'er &actor, AC

can have three times more po'er &lo' 'hen the same "MS volta$e an% current are implemente% in an AC an% DC s(stem as sho'n:

+7V L + 7cos.W /
,#

The volta$e an% currents in the DC s(stem must be

this stu%(, the inverters are assume% to have e&&iciencies o& 9:S. Base% on the var(in$ e&&iciencies o& the po'er convertin$ technolo$ies, an% the use o& multiple converters in each s(stem, it is %i&&icult to %istin$uish one t(pe o& po'er over the other base% on a simple calculation. nstea% a po'er s(stem must be anal(ze% to %etermine the s(stem that has the better results. The &ollo'in$ section relates the outcome o& the comparison o& the po'er s(stems. B . " 4 S # L T S
1or the comparative stu%(, the e&&icienc( ratin$ o& the DC-

v a r i e % t o r e p r e s e

n t t h e provi%e% in k5. The %ata &or a po'er s(stem supplie% b( a DC source, 'ith DC components, an% DC loa%s base% on ma0imum operation is sho'n in 1i$. A. 3*00,00 3000,00

I
!# RMS

,#

6 7

current an% the s(stem 'ill have the same con%uction & a DC neutral is implemente% as 2*00,00 an% the eCuations .9/,.+</, an% .+8/ are

a%Duste% to overcome this %i&&erence. & 'e no' consi%er the %i&&erence in losses &or AC an% DC:

Losses (kW) 'here the AC an% DC resistance values are assume% to be the same, a noticeable $ain in DC can be seen. This result sho's that the DC current can be +.66 times lar$er than the AC

(!# RMS .;6 6(

,#

1000,00

R + R V
L R

! # R M S
+ 6R
,#

DC converters 'ere assi$ne% to three %i&&erent e&&iciencies, 9?S, 9:S, an% 99.?S. The volta$es o& the DC s(stem 'ere

c o

an% i& 'e convert the volta$es &rom "MS to peak:

(
!#

*00,00 0,00
. +

6"

loss es an% the tota l loss es are

X +.+?

an% i& 'e 'ish

the s(stems to have the same losses:

12 1' 20

6(
,#

1( 18 22 cos.W /

2 Voltage
1i$ A. DC po'er s(stem e&&icienc( operation. &or ma0imum

This illustrates that i& the same peak volta$es in both the AC an% DC s(stems are implemente%, DC shoul% have a small a%vanta$e over AC in terms o& transmission losses 'hen implementin$ AC cables. !evertheless, the transmission losses ten% to onl( account &or a small

The eCuivalent AC s(stem 'ith an AC source, AC components, an% AC loa%s resulte% in ;<< k5 o& losses. Table B sho's the results. Base% on a strai$ht comparison o&

a +<<S AC s(stem an% a +<<S DC s(stem, AC 'oul% have &e'er losses. 5hen a%Duste% to the avera$e po'er, the AC po'er s(stem a$ain ha% &e'er losses than the DC po'er s(stem. 1i$. : sho's the losses o& a +<<S DC s(stem. The eCuivalent AC s(stem avera$e s(stem losses 'ere %etermine% to be 8+6 k5 as sho'n in Table B . TABL4 B
S(stem T(pe AC
+

Table : illustrates that 'hen ?<S o& the loa%s are AC an% ?<S o& the loa%s are DC, the %i&&erence in losses becomes relativel( close 'ith a 9?S DC-DC converter. A better representation is sho'n in 1i$. ;. DC %istribution actuall( has lo'er losses 'hen more than ?<S o& the loa%s are DC an% DC- DC converters 'ith e&&iciencies o& 9?S or hi$her are use%. TABL4 B
Loa%s ACS=DC 6 S +<<=< 6 ?<=?< 6 <=+<< AC.k5 / 8+ 6 +A: 9 6;: 6 DC.k5 / 9?+ 67+ S : +9; 6 +A? 7 DC.k5 / 9:+ +;+ S + +7+ 7 +<< ; DC.k 5/ 99.? + S +++ 9? ; 7 6

9?S +DC 9:S DC 99.?S+ DC

S(stem Bolta$e +7.;k +;k B ;< -B < 777 6:9 6 9 66< +:+ 8 AA? ++6 + +

68k B 68 9A +8 6: 7 ;

7<k B 67 ?8 +6 9A 6 A

LOSS4S BAS4D O! MAE LOAD !) O1 F#"4 AC A!D DC FO54" SHST4MS

LOSS4S BAS4D O! FA"T AL AC A!D DC LOAD !) O1 FO54" SHST4MS

repre sents DCDC conve rter e&&ici enc(

represents DC-DC converter e&&icienc( 6

repres ents ratio o& AC=D C loa%s

2*00,00 2 3000

3*00

L 1 * 0

2*00

Losses (kW) 1000,00 * 0, 12 00 1' 20 2( 28 1( 18 22 2' 30 S y s t e m V o l t a g e ( k V ) 9 9 , * 0 % 9 7 % 9 * % 1i$ :. DC po'er s(stem e&&icienc( &or avera$e operation. 1000

2000 0 % 1*00 1 0 % 2 0 %

*00 0

30% (0% *0% '0% 70% 80% 90% 100% % D C

$9*%& DC Lo))e) $97%& DC Lo))e) $99,*% & 1i$ ; Fartial AC an% DC loa%in$ o& po'er s(stems.

S(stem T(pe AC
+

9?S +DC 9:S DC 99.?S+ DC

S(stem Bolta$e +7.;k +;k B 8+ -B 6 6+; +;9 + 6 +?< +66 <A7 77: < <

68k B +: +6 +< ?7 + 9

7<k B +A +8 9 : + 7

B. CO!CL#S O ! #n%er the current po'er s(stem in&rastructure, DC sources that suppl( DC loa%s must implement t'o converters, one that &irst converts the DC to AC an% then another to return the AC back to DC. This t(pe o& po'er s(stem can result in si$ni&icant losses. As this stu%( sho's, AC an% DC %istribution s(stems can have the same merit 'hen the loa%s are eCual in ratio, ?<S AC loa%s an% ?<S DC loa%s. !evertheless, this stu%( assume% that AC po'er s(stem 'as supplie% b( a AC source an% DC throu$h a DC source. & the AC po'er s(stem is supplie% b( a DC source, &urther losses can be e0pecte% resultin$ in &urther bene&its o& a DC %istribution s(stem. One other possibilit( in increasin$ the s(stem bene&its is o&&erin$ t'o t(pes o& po'er &or ever( loa%, AC an% DC. As sho'n each has a substantial bene&it in suppl(in$ their o'n loa%s an% this can result in a si$ni&icant re%uction in po'er s(stem losses.

LOSS4S BAS4D O! AB) LOAD !) O1 F#"4 AC A!D DC FO54" SHST4MS

represents DC-DC converter e&&icienc(

Althou$h this 'oul% seem %etrimental to the application o& a DC %istribution s(stem, another comparison is nee%e%. To &orm a realistic stu%(, the mo%el o& the po'er s(stem shoul% be compose% o& partial loa%s o& both AC an% DC components. There&ore, a partial loa%in$ o& the %i&&erent loa% t(pes 'as e0amine% base% on the avera$e mo%el %ata, 'here the AC s(stem is base% on +7.; kB an% the DC s(stem 'ith 7< kB. This met 'ith much better results in terms o& the application o& DC %istribution as sho'n in Table B .

#ltimatel(, the %e&inin$ %evice in the possible application o& a DC %istribution s(stem is the DC-DC converter. Althou$h the %ata anal(ze% consi%ere% DC-DC converters 'ith e&&iciencies 'ith 9?S or hi$her, actual DC-DC converters rarel( meet 9?S e&&icienc(. To substantiate a DC %istribution s(stem, a%vancements in DC-DC converter technolo$( are si$ni&icantl( nee%e%. B. "414"4!C4 S *+, http:==en.'ikipe%ia.or$='iki=4nvironmentalYtechnol o$(, 5ikipe%ia, 6<<:. *6, http:==en.'ikipe%ia.or$='iki=ThomasY4%ison, 5ikipe%ia, 6<<:. *7, 2. Fan$, 4. Lo, B. Fon$, PDc 4lectrical Distribution S(stems in Buil%in$s,Q International #onferen*e on +o-er Ele*troni*s Systems, !ov. 6<<A, pa$e.s/: ++?++9. *8, Z. Ciezki, ". Ashton, PSelection an% Stabilit( ssues Associate% 'ith a !av( Shipboar% DC Gonal 4lectric Distribution S(stem,Q IEEE Transa*tions on +o-er ,elivery, vol. +?, no. 6, Apr 6<<<, pa$e.s/: AA?AA9. *?, 3. 4n$elen, 4. Shun, F. Berme(en, . Far%on, ". DKhulst, Z Driesen, ". Belmans, PThe 1easibilit( o& Small-Scale "esi%ential DC Distribution S(stems,Q IEEE Industrial Ele*troni*s #onferen*e, !ov 6<<A, pa$e.s/: 6A+;-6A76. *A, !. "asmuseen, PAC an% DC Fo'er Distribution &or Data Centers,Q AFC 5hite Faper [A7. *:, Z. )rain$er, 5. Stevenson, +o-er Systems !nalysis, Mc)ra'-2ill, +998. *;, M. Cro', #om.utational Met'ods for Ele*tri* +o-er Systems, C"C Fress, 6<<7 *9, )eneral Motors Corporation, P2i$h e&&icienc( po'er s(stem 'ith plural parallel DC=DC converters,Q #S Fatent A +AA 978, Zun. 7<, +999. *+<, D. !ilsson, PDC Distribution S(stems,Q Fh.D. Dissertation, Department o& 4ner$( an% 4nvironment, Chalmers #niversit( o& Technolo$(, )otebor$, S'e%en, 6<<?.

B O)"AF 2 4S

#ichael $. %tar!e .S 6<<8 T M 6<<A/ receive% the B.4. an% M.S., in electrical en$ineerin$ &rom the #niversit( o& Tennessee, 3no0ville, Tennessee. 2e presentl( is a Fh.D. stu%ent in electrical en$ineerin$ at The #niversit( o& Tennessee. 2is research interests inclu%e alternative ener$ies, po'er s(stems, an% po'er electronics inter&ace 'ith utilities.

&eon #. olbert .S +9;9 T M +99+ T SM +99;/ receive% the B.4.4., M.S., an% Fh.D. in 4lectrical 4n$ineerin$ &rom the )eor$ia nstitute o& Technolo$(, Atlanta, )eor$ia. Since +99+, he 'orke% on several electrical %istribution proDects at the three #.S. Department o& 4ner$( plants in Oak "i%$e, Tennessee. n +999, he Doine% the Department o& 4lectrical an% Computer 4n$ineerin$ at the #niversit( o& Tennessee, 3no0ville, 'here he is presentl( an associate pro&essor. 2e is an a%Dunct participant at the Oak "i%$e !ational Laborator(. 2e %oes research in the areas o& electric po'er conversion &or %istribute% ener$( sources, reactive po'er compensation, multilevel converters, h(bri% electric vehicles, an% application o& SiC po'er electronics.

Dr. Tolbert is a re$istere% Fro&essional 4n$ineer in the state o& Tennessee. 2e is the recipient o& a !ational Science 1oun%ation CA"44" A'ar% an% the 6<<+ 444 n%ustr( Applications Societ( Outstan%in$ Houn$ Member A'ar%.

'ura! ()pineci .SK96TMK<6T SMK<?/ receive% the B.S. %e$ree in electrical en$ineerin$ &rom the Mi%%le 4ast Technical #niversit(, Ankara, Turke(, in +998, an% the M.S. an% Fh.D. %e$rees in electrical en$ineerin$ &rom the #niversit( o& Tennessee, 3no0ville, in +99; an% 6<<6, respectivel(.

2e Doine% the Fost-Masters Fro$ram 'ith the Fo'er 4lectronics an% 4lectric Machiner( "esearch Center, Oak "i%$e !ational Laborator( .O"!L/, 3no0ville, T!, in 6<<+ an% became a 1ull-Time "esearch an% Development Sta&& Member in 6<<6. 2e is also an A%Dunct 1acult( Member o& the #niversit( o& Arkansas, 1a(etteville. 2e is currentl( %oin$ research on the s(stem-level impact o& SiC po'er %evices, multilevel inverters, po'er converters &or %istribute% ener$( resources, an% intelli$ent control applications to po'er converters. Dr. Ozpineci 'as the Chair o& the 444 F4LS "ecti&iers an% nverters Technical Committee an% Transactions "evie' Chairman o& the 444 n%ustr( Applications Societ( n%ustrial Fo'er Converter Committee. 2e 'as the recipient o& the 6<<A 444 n%ustr( Applications Societ( Outstan%in$ Houn$ Member A'ar%, 6<<+ 444 nternational Con&erence on S(stems, Man, an% C(bernetics Best Stu%ent Faper A'ar%, an% 6<<? #T-Battelle .O"!L/ 4arl( Career A'ar% &or 4n$ineerin$ Accomplishment.