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Juster, GLY5932

Reduced pressure: If density is constant the Navier-Stokes


euations can !e si"#$ified so"e%hat& 'e can rearran(e the
euation of hydrostatics as
s
P k g

)
%here the su!scri#t s on P "eans that the #ressure is hydrostatic&
'e then su!tract this euation fro" the fu$$ Navier-Stokes euation:
v P P
Dt
v D
P k g
v P k g
Dt
v D
S
s

2
2
* +
)
+

+


If %e define P
,
- P P
S
the Navier-Stokes euations can then !e %ritten as:
v P
Dt
v D

2
,
+
P
,
is various$y ca$$ed the .dyna"ic #ressure/ or .reduced #ressure/, !ut is a very co""on conce#t in f$uid
"echanics& It o!vious$y si"#$ifies the Navier-Stokes euations and "akes their so$utions easier to
understand& P
,
can !e understood as the #ressure in e0cess of hydrostatic that is res#onsi!$e for creatin( the
#ressure (radient forces that actua$$y cause the f$uid to "ove& +1eca$$ that the hydrostatic #ressure (radient
2ust kee#s the f$uid steady !y !a$ancin( its %ei(ht&*
3he hydrostatic #ressure can !e %ritten as:


z
S
z d g P
)
,

3his e0#ression is for (a(e #ressure4 i&e&, P+z-)* - )& Since it is a definite inte(ra$ eva$uated !et%een t%o
$i"its %e need to !e carefu$ a!out the sy"!o$s5z re#resents the u$ti"ate e$evation at %hich the #ressure is
to !e eva$uated so I6ve used z, to re#resent the .du""y varia!$e of inte(ration/& 3he .du""y varia!$e/
re#resents the (enera$ variation in #ressure %hi$e the varia!$e z in this case "eans the s#ecific e$evation at
%hich the inte(ra$ is to !e eva$uated& 7or e0a"#$e, %hen is constant %e inte(rate this e0#ression to:
z
z z
S
z g z d g z d g P
)
) )
, , ,

3he $ast #art "eans that the e0#ression -g z, is to !e eva$uated !et%een z +a s#ecific e$evation* and )
+another s#ecific e$evation*& 3his eva$uates as - g +z 8 )* - - gz, %hich %e kno%s is correct& 3herefore, if
density is constant the hydrostatic (a(e #ressure at any e$evation z is (iven !y:
gz P
S

and the reduced #ressure, P
,
- P P
S
, as
gz P P +
,
Steady flow in a crack: 9onsider the (enera$ case of a crack of %idth W %ith a (enera$ orientation in a
vertica$ #$ane, and assu"e the crack is infinite into the #a(e in the hori:onta$ direction& 'e then choose a
coordinate syste" %ith x #ara$$e$ to the crack and z #er#endicu$ar to the crack& If the crack is not hori:onta$
then neither the x nor z a0es %i$$ !e vertica$, !ut this doesn6t "atter5%e 2ust have to !e carefu$ ho% %e
;a(e < of =
Juster, GLY5932
hand$e the !ody force due to (ravity& >s it turns out, !y usin( the reduced #ressure %e don6t have to do
anythin( at a$$&
3he f$o% in the crack is steady, so the acce$eration ter" vanishes re(ard$ess or %hether or not %e can i(nore
the inertia$ ter", so the Navier-Stokes euations in the x- and z- directions are:

,
_

,
_


2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
,
)
,
)
z
v
x
v
z
P
z
v
x
v
x
P
z z
x x

'e have used the reduced #ressure P


,
so there is no (ravity ter" in either euation& ?ecause f$o% is
entire$y in the x-direction %e can conc$ude:
) )
4 )
,
2
2
2
2

z
v
x
v
v
z
P
z z
z
and !ecause the f$o% is steady
x
v
x

- ) as %e$$& 3hus the Navier-Stokes euations reduce to:


2
2
,
)
dz
v d
dx
P d
x
+
3here is on$y one euation to so$ve !ecause the euation for the z-direction co"#$ete$y vanishes@ Notice I
have re#$aced the #artia$ derivatives %ith nor"a$ derivatives, !ecause * +
,
x P on$y and v
x
+z* on$y& 3he f$uid
is driven throu(h the crack !y the reduced #ressure (radient in x, %hich "ust !e constant if the f$o% is
steady, and the f$o% is o##osed !y viscous forces that e0act$y !a$ance the #ressure-(radient drive& In other
%ords,

dx
P d
,
constant
3he Navier-Stokes euation is a second-order +2
nd
-derivative* differentia$ euation in z& 3o so$ve %e
rearran(e and inte(rate t%ice, #roducin( a constant of inte(ration each ti"e:
2 <
2
<
2
2
,
2
<
,
<
,
<
C z C z
dx
P d
v
C z
dx
P d
dz
dv
dx
P d
dz
v d
x
x
x
+ +

,
_

,
_

,
_

3his is a (enera$ so$ution to the differentia$ euation& 3o (et a s#ecific so$ution this needs to !e eva$uated at
t%o !oundary conditions +since %e have t%o constants*, and these are the no-s$i# conditions for a viscous
f$uid at a hard !oundary:
W x at v
x at v
x
x


)
4 ) )
;a(e 2 of =
Juster, GLY5932
3he first !oundary condition yie$ds C
2
- )& ;$u((in( in for the second !oundary condition %e (et
W
dx
P d
C
W C W
dx
P d

,
_

,
_

,
2
<
,
2
<
)
<
<
2

Insertin( this in the (enera$ so$ution and reducin( usin( a$(e!ra the fina$
e0#ression for the steady f$o% of f$uid in a crack is o!tained:
[ ] Wz z
dx
P d
v
x

,
_

2
,
2
<

3he ve$ocity distri!ution is in the for" of a #ara!o$a, %ith the fastest ve$ocity in
the center of the crack and friction causin( the ve$ocity to decrease out%ards&
7or co"#arison %ith Aarcy6s La% it is usefu$ to convert this euation into an
e0#ression for the dischar(e, Q - dVBdt, and the s#ecific dischar(e q - QBA& S#ecific dischar(e has the
di"ensions of a ve$ocity, is so"eti"es ca$$ed the .Aarcy ve$ocity/, and indeed can !e considered an
.avera(e/ ve$ocity that f$uid has to #roduce the reuired dischar(e Q& 3he (enera$ re$ationshi# !et%een Q
and ve$ocity is one that %as derived ear$ier:
Av
dt
dx
A
dt
Ax d
dt
dV
Q
* +
%here A is the cross-sectiona$ area throu(h %hich a$$ the f$o% #asses& ?ecause the ve$ocity varies across the
crack, %e "ust inte(rate the ve$ocity over the area4 i&e&, %e need to co"#ute

vdA Q
3he e0#ression for the f$o% in a crack derived a!ove is for an infinite crack, so %e "ust define a dischar(e
#er unit $en(th +other%ise the dischar(e %ou$d !e infinite@*& 3his is euiva$ent to assu"in( the crack has a
$en(th L - < so that area is defined as A - L C W - < C W - W, and dA - dw. 3he dischar(e Q is then found
fro"
dw v dA v Q
W
x x


)
Su!stitutin( in the e0#ression for ve$ocity and inte(ratin(:
[ ]
[ ]
W
W
W
W
W W
dx
P d
Wz z
dx
P d
dw Wz z
dx
P d
dw Wz z
dx
P d
Q
)
3 3
)
2 3
)
2
)
2
2 3
,
2
<
2 3
,
2
<
,
2
<
,
2
<

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

>fter a $itt$e re-arran(in(, this yie$ds the fina$ e0#ression for the dischar(e #er unit-$en(th of a crack of %idth
W:
;a(e 3 of =
Juster, GLY5932

,
_


dx
P d W
Q
,
<2
3

3he s#ecific dischar(e q - QBA is found si"#$y !y dividin( !y the cross-sectiona$ area of the crack A - W:

,
_


dx
P d W
q
,
<2
2

Steady flow in an inclined tube: 3he ne0t si"#$e (eo"etry %e %i$$ so$ve is for
the steady f$o% of f$uid in an inc$ined tu!e& ?ecause the tu!e is circu$ar in cross-
section %e %i$$ use a cy$indrica$ coordinate syste", %ith the x-direction #ara$$e$
to the f$o%, the r-direction #er#endicu$ar to f$o% %ith radia$ sy""etry, and z
directed u#%ards, as usua$& 3he cy$indrica$ coordinate syste" necessitates a
chan(e in the Navier-Stokes euation in the x-direction +%hich can !e easi$y
derived and is inc$uded in any #hysics or f$uids !ook*:

,
_

1
]
1

+ +


r
v
r
r r
g
x
P
x
x

)
%here g
x
is the co"#onent of the (ravitationa$ force in the x-direction&
Notice that !ecause the tu!e can !e inc$ined the %ei(ht of the f$uid "ay
au("ent or o##ose the #ressure (radient in x that is drivin( the f$o%&
7ro" (eo"etry, %e can see that g
x
- gsinD, %here D is the an($e !et%een x
and the hori:onta$&
3he first t%o ter"s inc$ude the #ressure-(radient force and the
(ravitationa$ +!ody* force, and can !e co"!ined as fo$$o%s:
( ) sin gx P
x
g
x
P
x
+

?ut
sin x
- :, the e$evation, so %e can %rite:
( )
dx
P d
gz P
x
g
x
P
x
,
+


%here P
,
is the reduced #ressure if density E is constant& Just as in the case %ith the f$o% in the crack, %e
can e$i"inate the !ody force fro" the Navier-Stokes e0#ression !y usin( the reduced #ressure5that6s %hy it
%as invented@ >$so notice that I have re#$aced the #artia$ derivative %ith a re(u$ar derivative !ecause the
reduced #ressure on$y varies in the x-direction&
3he tu!e f$o% is then reduced to a sin($e 2
nd
-order differentia$ euation in r:

,
_

1
]
1

+
dr
dv
r
dr
d
r dx
P d
x

,
)
>$thou(h the derivative ter"s see" "essy, they are rea$$y nothin( "ore difficu$t than %hat %e6ve seen
!efore& 3o so$ve %e se#arate and inte(rate once:
;a(e F of =
Juster, GLY5932
C
r
dx
P d
dr
dv
r
rdr
dx
P d
dr
dv
r d
r
dx
P d
dr
dv
r
dr
d
x
x
x
+

,
_

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

1
]
1

2
,
<
,
<
,
<
2

Gven !efore %e inte(rate a(ain, %e can so$ve for the first constant !y usin( the fact that the derivative of the
ve$ocity at r - ) "ust vanish4 i&e&,
)
)

r
x
dr
dv
;$u((in( this in i""ediate$y sho%s that 9 - )& 'e then se#arate and inte(rate once "ore:
C r
dx
P d
C
r
dx
P d
v
rdr
dx
P d
dv
x
x
+

,
_

,
_

,
_

2
2
,
F
<
2
,
2
<
,
2
<

3o eva$uate this constant %e use the no-s$i# !oundary at the ed(e, %here v
x
- ) at r - :
2
2
,
F
<
,
F
<
)

dx
P d
C
C
dx
P d

,
_

,
_

7ina$$y, #$u((in( this e0#ression for C into the (enera$ so$ution yie$ds the fina$ ans%er, the e0#ression for the
ve$ocity of steady f$o% in an inc$ined tu!e:
[ ]
2 2
,
F
<
r
dx
P d
v
x

,
_

3his is ca$$ed the ;oiseui$$e6s euation, after the 7rench #hysicist J&L&H& ;oiseui$$e
%ho first so$ved it& Like the so$ution for a crack, it descri!es a #ara!o$ic ve$ocity
distri!ution %ith the fastest ve$ocity do%n the center and :ero ve$ocity +no-s$i#
condition* at the outside ed(e of the tu!e&
Ince a(ain %e can deter"ine the dischar(e Q !y inte(ratin( the ve$ocity over the area& 7or the circu$ar tu!e,

dr r A 2
and the dischar(e Q is found fro"
[ ]
1
]
1

,
_

,
_



dr r dr r
dx
P d
dr r r
dx
P d
dr r v Q

x
)
2
)
3
)
2 2
)
,
2
2
,
F
<
2

>fter eva$uatin( at the $i"its of inte(ration and a $itt$e re-arran(in(, %e (et the fina$ e0#ression:

,
_

dx
P d
Q
,
J
F

3he (et the s#ecific dischar(e, q, %e divide A !y the cross-sectiona$ area - !


2
:
;a(e 5 of =
Juster, GLY5932

,
_


dx
P d

Q
q
,
J
2
2

A quick introduction to Darcys Law: In <J5= Kenry
Aarcy e0#eri"enta$$y deter"ined the re$ationshi# !et%een
dischar(e Q and head, ", for f$o% throu(h an inc$ined tu!e:
ds
d"
#A Q
%here # is the hydrau$ic conductivity, A is the cross-
sectiona$ area of the tu!e, and s is the direction #ara$$e$ to
the tu!e& Kead is the hei(ht that %ater rises to in a
"ano"eter, "easured re$ative to an ar!itrary datu"& 'e
%i$$ discuss the "eanin( of head $ater, !ut for no% %hat is
i"#ortant is the for" of Aarcy6s La%& 3he s#ecific
dischar(e q can uick$y !e seen as:
ds
d"
#
A
Q
q
S#ecific dischar(e is so"eti"es ca$$ed the .Aarcy ve$ocity/
!ecause it has the di"ensions of ve$ocity +LB3* and !ecause
it re#resents the avera(e ve$ocity at %ater f$o%s throu(h the #orous "ediu" in order to #roduce the o!served
dischar(e Q&
3he hydrau$ic conductivity # is a #ro#erty of !oth the f$uid and the "ediu"& Since the t%o #ertinent f$uid
#ro#erties are its density and viscosity $, %e can say that
* , , + #
, %here L is a varia!$e that de#ends
on$y on the #orous "ediu" and inc$udes "easures of the a!undance, distri!ution, (eo"etry, and si:e of
channe$s throu(h %hich the %ater f$o%s& Just to !e c$ear, then:
ds
d"
# q * , , +
+5*
Darcys Law from first-principles: ?ecause the (eo"etry of the #ore net%ork is rando" and ho#e$ess$y
co"#$icated it6s i"#ossi!$e to derive Aarcy6s La% fro" first-#rinci#$es usin( the Navier-Stokes euations&
'e can, ho%ever, (et a sense of %here Aarcy6s La% co"es fro" !y co"#arin( it to the so$utions for !oth
the infinite crack and the tu!e& 3hey are re#roduced here 2ust for convenience in co"#arin(:
Darcys Law Crack flow Tube flow
ds
d"
# q * , , +

,
_


dx
P d W
q
,
<2
2

,
_

dx
P d
q
,
J
2

3he si"i$arity of these euations is instructive: a$$ de"onstrate the f$o% is #ro#ortiona$ to the (radient of a
function, P
,
in the case of the crack and tu!e f$o%, and " in the case of Aarcy6s La%& +'e %i$$ sho% ho%
these are re$ated soon&* ?y co"#arin( $ike ter"s it is a##arent that the hydrau$ic conductivity
;a(e = of =
Aarcy6s e0#eri"ent& 7i(ure fro" Hidd$eton M 'i$cock
+<99F*&

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