engicaña

Sugarcane
Crop in
Guatemala
EDITORS 
Mario Melgar 
Adlai Meneses 
Héctor Orozco 
Ovidio Pérez 
Rodolfo Espinosa 

Artemis Edinter
The Guatemalan Sugarcane Research and Training Center
CENGICANA, was created by the Guatemalan Sugar Association,
ASAZGUA in 1992, to support the technological advance of the sugar
agroindustry, with the aim of improving the production and productivity
of sugarcane crop and its derivatives. It is funded by the sugar mills of
the Guatemalan Sugarcane Agro-industry, who make their contributions
to the budget of the Center, in proportion to the sugar production
obtained.

According to the Strategic Plan (2005-2015), our Vision is "To be leaders

in creating technology to increase the competitiveness of the Sugarcane
Agro-industry in the region"; and our Mission is: "We are the
organization of the Sugar Agroindustry responsible for generating,
adapting, and transferring quality technology for profitable and
sustainable development".

The Board of Directors of the Center is constituted by representatives of

the sugar mills and canegrowers. The Strategic and Operational Plans are
made with the input from the Board of Directors, the Technical Advisory
Committee, and the Technical Industrial Committee. The research areas
are determined with the participation of managers and technical
personnel of the sugar mills, who develop applied and specific research.
The coordination of activities is the responsibility of the General
Director. The Quality Management System of CENGICANA is certified
according to ISO 9001:2008 standards.

Research activities are carried out through the following research

programs: Varieties Program, Integrated Pest Management Program,
Agronomic Program and Industrial Research Program, and also the
Technology Transfer and Training Program, the Analytical Services
Laboratory and the Administration Unit.
 Sugarcane Crop in Guatemala

EDITORS
Mario Melgar
Adlai Meneses
Héctor Orozco
Ovidio Pérez
Rodolfo Espinosa

CENGICANA
Guatemalan Sugarcane Research and Training Center

i
 Sugarcane Crop
in Guatemala
EDITORS
Mario Melgar
Adlai Meneses
Héctor Orozco
Ovidio Pérez
Rodolfo Espinosa

Cover design and layout: Priscila López de Alvarado

(Cover photo courtesy of Dr. Mario Melgar)

© Librerías Artemis Edinter, S.A.

ISBN: 978-9929-40-376-5

Printed in Guatemala by:

Litografías Modernas S.A.
5ta. Calle 18-27, zona 8 de Mixco, San Cristóbal II
Tel. (502) 2478-2770

CENGICANA (Guatemalan Sugarcane Research and Training Center). 2012. Sugarcane Crop in
Guatemala. Melgar, M.; Meneses, A.; Orozco, H.; Pérez, O.; and Espinosa, R.
(eds.). Guatemala. 495 p.

2012

Librerías Artemis Edinter, S.A.

12 calle 10-55, zona 1. PBX: (502) 2419 9191 Fax: (502) 2238 0866
www.artemisedinter.com
Guatemala, C.A.

ii
CENGICANA
Guatemalan Sugarcane Research and Training Center
Km. 92.5 Carretera a Santa Lucía Cotzumalguapa, Escuintla, Guatemala
Phone: (502) 7828 1000
Fax: (502) 7828 1000
Email: direccion@cengican.org
Email: centro@cengicana.org
Web: www.cengicana.org

iii
 Content
Page
Acronyms and Abreviations vi

Preface viii

I. Technological Development of the Sucarcane Agro- 1

Industry and Perspectives
Mario Melgar

II. Characterization of Sugarcane Growing Areas 33

Braulio Villatoro, Ovidio Pérez

III. Sugarcane Breeding and Selection 45

Héctor Orozco, José Luis Quemé, Werner Ovalle and
Fredy Rosales Longo

IV. Biotechnology Applied to Sugarcane Crop 77

Luis Molina and Mario Melgar

V. Crop Establishment Work 103

Soil Preparation for Sugarcane Planting 104
Joel García, Braulio Villatoro, Fernando Díaz and Gil
Sandoval

Nurseries and Commercial Planting 115

Werner Ovalle, José Luis Quemé, Héctor Orozco and
Ovidio Pérez

VI. Weed Control and Management 125

Gerardo Espinoza

VII. Crop Nutrition And Fertilization 141

Ovidio Pérez

VIII. Irrigation of Sugarcane Crop 171

Otto Castro

iv
 Page
IX. Integrated Pest Management 195
José Manuel Márquez
X. Diseases in Sugarcane Crop 225
Werner Ovalle
XI. Sugarcane Ripening and Sugarcane Flowering and their 251
Management

Sugarcane Ripening 252

Gerardo Espinoza

Sugarcane Flowering and its Managment 274

Gerardo Espinoza and José Luis Quemé

XII. Sugarcane Harvesting 289

Adlai Meneses

XIII. The Sugar Production Process 301

José Luis Alfaro, Enrique Velásquez, Luis Monterroso
and Rodolfo Espinosa

XIV. Sugar Agroindustry Diversification 351

Co-Generation in the Sugar Industry 352

Mario Muñoz

Production of Ethanol 371

Rodolfo Espinosa and Claudia Ovando

Coproducer Perspectives on Sugarcane 407

Mario Muñoz
XV. Meteorology in Sugarcane 433
Otto Castro and Alfredo Suárez

XVI. Climate Change and the Sugarcane Crop 463

Alex Guerra and Alejandra Hernández

v
 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Institutions
AGG Guatemalan Managers Association
ASAZGUA Guatemalan Sugar Association
ATAGUA Guatemalan Society of Sugarcane Technologists
CAÑAMIP Integrated Pests Management Committee
CENGICANA Guatemalan Sugarcane Research and Training Center
CIASA Sugar Mills Consultants
CIRAD Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche
Agronomique pour le Développement
CENICAÑA Centro de Investigación de la Caña de Azúcar de Colombia
COPERSUCAR Cooperative of Sugarcane, Sugar and Ethanol Producers of
the State of Sao Paulo
CONCYT National Council for Science and Technology
EEGSA Electric Company of Guatemala
ENCA National Central School of Agriculture
ICC Private Institute for Climate Change Research
ICSB International Consortium of Sugarcane Biotechnology
ICTA Institute of Science and Agricultural Technology
ICUMSA International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar
Analysis
INDE National Institute of Electrification
INSIVUMEH National Institute of Seismology, Volcanology, Meteorology
and Hydrology
INTECAP Technical Institute for Training and Productivity
IPNI International Plant Nutrition Institute
ISSCT International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists
MAGA Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food
TECNICAÑA Colombia Association of Sugarcane Technologists
URL Rafael Landivar University
USAC San Carlos University
USDA United States Departament of Agriculture
UVG Del Valle University

vi
 Technical expressions and units
Atm atmosphere
dap days after planting
ha hectare
km kilometer
Mz 0.7 hectare
min minute
qq 46 kilogrames
TSH tonnes of sugar per hectare
TCH tonnes of cane per hectare
Tchd tonnes of cane/man/day
t metric tonnes
t cane/ha tonnes of cane per hectare
t sugar/ha tonnes of sugar per hectare

Sugarcane varieties
B Barbados
C Cuba
CC CENICAÑA Colombia
CG CENGICANA Guatemala
Co Coimbatore
CP Canal Point
CTC Centro de Tecnología Canavieira
ECU Ecuador
Ja Jaronu
L Louisiana
M Mauritius
MEX Mexico
MPT MitrPhol, Thailand
My Mayari
NA North of Argentina
PGM Pantaleon Guatemala Mexico
PPQK Cuba
PR Puerto Rico
Q Queensland
RB Republic of Brazil
SP São Paulo

vii
 PREFACE
Without books, history is silent, literature dumb, science crippled, thought and speculation at
a standstill.
BARBARA W. TUCHMAN

Sugarcane began to be cultivated in Guatemala in 1536, the first Guatemalan

trapiches were founded in the central valley of Guatemala and in the Salama
Valley, during the 16th century.

In the 17th century the number of trapiches increased, the most important were
in hands of religious orders. It was until the middle of the 19th century that
Guatemala began to export sugar in small amounts.

In 1957 the Guatemalan Sugar Association, ASAZGUA was founded and

in1960, when the total production of sugar was 68,000 metric tones, the country
received its first quota from the United States. The year 1960, is taken as a
starting point for the modern history of sugarcane; in the world, the industrial
era was highly developed and changes in the world dynamics were foreseen, it
was then that sugar mills defined their modernization and growth strategy.
Sugar factories evolved from local to exporting industries, becoming one of the
most important agro-industrial activities of the country.

When Guatemalan sugar exports expanded, the ASAZGUA started to develop a

series of projects and strategies that were the driving force of the national Sugar
Agro-industry. In order to increase sugarcane production, the sugar mills
introduced improvements in the crop, harvest, factory, distribution and product
commercialization, as well as better life conditions for the workers of the
sugarcane agro-industry.

In 1971, the Guatemalan Society of Sugarcane Technologists, ATAGUA was

founded with the purpose of promoting the exchange of experiences and
technology; as well as the spreading of technical knowledge to promote the
development of the Sugarcane Agro-industry. This favored the transference of
technology in congresses and symposiums with other sugarcane technical
associations of Central and Latin America.

In the decade of 1970 various sugar mills began to hire Guatemalan

professionals and sugarcane technicians and foreign consultants, in order to
improve the efficiency in the industrial operation and to design expansion and
modernization projects for some sugar mills.

viii
The ASAZGUA created the Department of Agricultural Experimentation in
1974; and in 1978 Pantaleon Sugar Mill began to develop research projects.
Afterwards, Santa Ana, Concepcion and La Union Sugar Mills, did it as well.

The ASAZGUA created FUNDAZUCAR in 1990, the Guatemalan Sugarcane

Research and Training Center CENGICANA in 1992, EXPOGRANEL in 1994;
and the Department of Environmental Management.

Since 1990 the Sugarcane Agro-industry started to gain a worldwide position,

being among the tenth most important countries in export volume, according to
the International Sugar Organization (ISO); and the third place worldwide in
productivity, according to International LMC.

In 2001 in Brisbane, Australia, Guatemala was designated venue for the most
important sugarcane technological event worldwide. The XXV Congress of the
International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists (ISSCT), which took place
successfully in January 2005 in Guatemala.

The Guatemalan Sugarcane Agro-industry has been permanently growing since

1960 to place Guatemala in the fifth position as sugarcane exporter in the world,
the second position in Latin America and the third place in productivity
worldwide (metric tons of sugar/ha). Sugar is the second agricultural product in
Guatemala that creates foreign income, becoming a very important contribution
to the national economy.

The increase in productivity has been more remarkable in the last 20 years. In
the decade of 1980-1990 an average of 6.77 tons of sugar were produced per
hectare (TSH), while in the decade 2000-2010 the average was 10.11 TSH.

The main factors that have had relevance in the development of the Guatemalan
Sugarcane Agro-industry are: ECOLOGIC: the agro-ecologic conditions have
been favorable. ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT: private industry,
trade organization, export terminal, diversification (cogeneration and ethanol).
TECHNOLOGIC: field operations, factory operations, research, training,
technology transfer, benchmarking. SOCIAL: corporate social responsibility.
The technological component has had an important part in the development of
this Agro-industry.

CENGICANA has formed a research and technological development system for

sugarcane. Thus, it has established policies, regulatory framework, plans,
organization, quality management, and a technology management system.

ix
It has been also developed applied research for the cultivation of sugarcane in
diverse areas of the agronomic system to increase the productivity. The
research areas are: Plant Breeding, Plant Pathology, Biotechnology, Integrated
Pest Management, Fertilization and Vegetal Nutrition, Irrigation,
Agrometeorology, Geographic Information System and Sucrose Recovery. The
research has been done jointly with the associated sugar mills.

The results of all research have been presented in more than 900 publications;
most of them are available at CENGICANA website www.cengicana.org.
Methodologies and technologies have been generated or adapted in all areas.

In this book we present in 13 chapters, the experience in research and

technology transfer, in the sugarcane crop areas, where CENGICANA has
worked with the sugar mills.

In Chapter XIII we present: The Process of Sugar Fabrication, in Chapter XIV

Sugarcane Agro-industry Diversification; and in Chapter XVI presents Climate
Change and the Cultivation of Sugarcane, written by professionals of the
Private Research Institute of Climate Change ICC, which is the newest
organization created by the ASAZGUA in 2010.

We are gratefull with the associated sugar mills, editors, authors, coauthors,
translators especially to Wendy Cano, Erika Monterroso and contributors of this
publication. Our desire is that this book will be useful for professionals,
technicians, sugarcane growers, students and personnel of the Sugarcane Agro-
industry.

Board of Directors CENGICANA 2011-2012

President: Ing. Mauricio Cabarrus Pantaleon-Concepcion Sugar Mills

Vicepresident: Ing. Max Zepeda Madre Tierra Sugar Mill
Secretary: Ing. Jorge Leal Magdalena Sugar Mill
Treasurer: Ing. Herman Jensen Santa Ana Sugar Mill
First vocal member: Ing. Jaime Botran Tulula Sugar Mill
Second vocal member: Dr. Freddie Perez San Diego-Trinidad Sugar Mills
Third vocal member: Ing. Jorge Sandoval La Union Sugar Mill
Fourth vocal member: Ing. Arturo Gandara Sugarcane Growers
Joint vocal member: Ing. Hector Ranero ASAZGUA
Financial Advisor: Lic. William Calvillo ASAZGUA
General Director: Dr. Mario Melgar CENGICANA

x
 I. TECHNOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF THE
SUGARCANE AGRO-INDUSTRY
AND PERSPECTIVES

1
 TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE
SUGARCANE AGRO-INDUSTRY AND
PERSPECTIVES

Mario Melgar

INTRODUCTION
Technological development is the process of systematic organization of
scientific and technological knowledge for the production of goods and
services.

Technology is essential knowledge, but it is a knowledge specifically organized

for production. Technological development causes transformations in
productive processes.

According to Enriquez, 2001 “”. The success of a country, sector, organization,

business or an individual, depends upon their ability to understand and apply
technological changes.

Alvin Tofler in his book The Third Wave, 1982 summarizes the technological
history of humanity through, the impact of three waves that have triggered three
revolutions. The first: the agricultural revolution; the second: the industrial
revolution; and the third: the information technology revolution. Each of those
waves creating a new civilization with their own jobs, lifestyles, economic
structures and political thinking.

Richard Oliver, in The Coming Biotech Age, 1999 suggests that the world is
entering a new era or wave, “The Bionanotechnology Revolution”, which will
guide the global economy in the first decades of the 21th century. In Figure 1
we can observe the evolution of these eras through time and their impact in
globalization and added value terms (gross national product (GNP) per capita
and life expectancy). The duration of each wave has been shorter, due to the
previous accumulation of knowledge.


Ph. D. General Director of CENGICANA. www.cengicana.org
 
2
 Bionanotechnology

Informatics

Globalization
added value Industry

Agriculture

6000 BC 1760 1950 2000

Time and technology

Figure 1. Technology creates economic waves

Source: Melgar, M. 2003. No debemos perder la siguiente ola: La revolución biotecnológica
ATAGUA (Gua) 3(4): 14:18.

TECHNOLOGICAL HISTORY OF SUGARCANE

IN GUATEMALA

Informatics
Export
(Global Top Ten)
Globalization

Institutional development
added value

Diversification

Agroindusty
Export
Agriculture
Trapiches
First sugar mills

1536 1960 1990 2010

Figure 2. Waves in the Guatemalan Sugarcane Agroindustry

3
In a similar way as the technological waves of Tofler, we can propose that the
technological development of the Guatemalan Sugarcane Agro-Industry has
occurred in three waves that are concisely described as follows.

Wagner, 2007 in his book History of Sugarcane in Guatemala, mentions that

sugarcane began to be cultivated in Guatemala in 1536, in Amatitlan.

The first trapiches in Guatemala were founded in the central valley of the
country and in the Salama Valley during the 16th century.

In the 17th century the number of trapiches grew, the most important ones were
in charge of religious orders.

Wagner mentions that at that time “the consumption and production of brown
sugar and cane rum became so popular among the population that sugar mills
were found in all the warm climate regions of the country.”

It was until the middle of the 19th century that Guatemala began to export sugar
in small quantities.

The Guatemalan Sugar Association, ASAZGUA was founded in 1957 with the
purpose of solving problems in sugarcane production and to develop programs
to promote, improve and introduce the use of modern technology in the
sugarcane industry of the country.

According to McSweeney, in 1990 Guatemala received its first quota from the
United States, at that time the total production of sugar in Guatemala was
68,000 metric tons.

In the prologue of the book History of Sugarcane in Guatemala 2007, Fraterno

Vila, mentions that, for the modern history of sugarcane, the year 1960 is taken
as a starting point. In the world, the industrial era was highly developed and
changes in the world dynamics were foreseen, it was then that sugar mills
defined their modernization and grow strategy. The industry transformed from
a local to an exportating industry, becoming one of the most important agro-
industrial activities of the country.

As Guatemalan sugar exports expanded, the ASAZGUA began to develop a

series of projects and strategies that were the driving force of the national Sugar
Agro-industry. To increase production, the sugar mills introduced
improvements in the crop, harvest, factory, distribution and product
commercialization, as well as life conditions for the workers of the sugarcane
industry, was improved.

4
In 1971, the Guatemalan Society of Sugarcane Technologists, ATAGUA
was founded with the purpose of promoting the exchange of experiences and
technology and to spread technical knowledge to promote the development
of the Sugarcane Agro-industry. This favored technology transfer with other
sugarcane technical associations of Central and Latin America, through
congresses and symposiums.

In the decade of 1970, various sugar mills began to hire Guatemalan

professionals and sugarcane technicians and foreign consultants mainly from
Cuba to improve the efficiency in the industrial operation and to design
expansion and modernization projects for some sugar mills.

The education of sugarcane technicians in universities began in 1975,

making it possible for new professionals to take important positions in the
sugar mills. That is how the transformation of the Guatemalan Sugarcane
Agro-industry began, which kept progressively evolving in the crop, the
harvest and the transportation.

ASAZGUA created the Department of Agricultural Experimentation in

1974; and in 1978 Pantaleon Sugar Mill began to develop research projects.
Afterwards, Santa Ana, Concepcion and La Union Sugar Mills, did it as
well.

The ASAZGUA created: The Sugar Foundation, FUNDAZUCAR 1990,

whose mission is “To become the model for promoting social development,
replicable for other sectors of the country”; The Guatemalan Sugarcane
Research and Training Center, CENGICANA in 1992, whose mission is:
"We are the organization of the Sugar Industry responsible for generating,
adapting and transferring quality technology for profitable and sustainable
development"; EXPOGRANEL in 1994, whose mission is “To be the
shipment terminal that facilitates the competitiveness of The Guatemalan
sugarcane industry worldwide through the effective and reliable
management of exportating sugar”; and in 1994, it created the
Environmental Management Department.

Since 1990 the Sugarcane Agro-industry reached a position worldwide, and

Guatemala is situated among the tenth most important countries in export
volume, according to the International Sugar Organization (ISO); and it is

5
also well positioned in productivity, according to International LMC, as
shown in Figure 3, where Guatemala occupies the third place worldwide.

As a result it was elected venue for the XXV International Society of Sugar
Cane Technologists, ISSCT which was successfully held in 2005, in
Guatemala.

The Private Research Institute of Climate Change (ICC) was founded by

ASAZGUA in 2010, whose mission is: “To create and promote actions that
facilitate climate change mitigation and adaptation in the region based on
technical and scientific guidelines, as well as economic feasibility”.

Competitiveness Indicators

36

Colombia
31
Prod. Sucrose per ton of milling capacity 

26
Swaziland
South Africa Brazil (C.S)

21

Brazil (N.E.) Al 02/05/2010
Australia
16 Sudan Guatemala
Mexico
China
India
11 USA

Thailand

6
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Sugar Yield (TSH)

Figure 3. Competitiveness indicators

Source: LMC Sugar Technical Performance - Executive Summary. September 2008.

In this chapter the following topics are briefly presented emphasizing the period
1990-2010:

1. Development factors of the Guatemalan Sugarcane Agro-Industry.

2. Sugarcane innovation system.
3. Research and development strategies at sectorial level.
4. Changes in the factors of production within the agronomic system.
5. Perspectives

6
DEVELOPMENT FACTORS
The Guatemalan Sugarcane Agro-industry has been growing permanently since
1960, as far as to position Guatemala as follows:

 Fifth place as sugarcane export country worldwide, second in Latin America

and third in productivity (sugar metric tons/ha) worldwide (Figure 3).

 Sugar is the second agricultural product in Guatemala, generating foreign

currency incomes, becoming a very important contribution to the national
economy (Chart 4).

In Figure 4 we observe that the increase in production is due to the increase in

the cultivated area, and in productivity.

The increase in productivity has been more noticeable in the last 20 years as
shown in Figure 5.

2,500,000 350,000

300,000
2,000,000

250,000

1,500,000
Tonnes of Sugar

200,000

Area (ha)
150,000
1,000,000

100,000

500,000
50,000

0 0
1959‐60
1961‐62
1963‐64
1965‐66
1967‐68
1969‐70
1971‐72
1973‐74
1975‐76
1977‐78
1979‐80
1981‐82
1983‐84
1985‐86
1987‐88
1989‐90
1991‐92
1993‐94
1995‐96
1997‐98
1999‐00
2001‐02
2003‐04
2005‐06
2007‐08
2009‐10

Toneladas de Azúcar
Tonnes of Sugar Área (ha)
Area (ha)

Figure 4. Trends in area, production and yield of sugar in Guatemala,

1960-2010
Source: Melgar, M. 2010. “Estrategias de la investigación tecnológica en la
agroindustria azucarera de Guatemala”. Presentación en Power Point en el
simposio “Modelos de investigación y desarrollo tecnológico agrícola”
Experiencias del sector privado. USAID-AGEXPORT. 15 de julio 2010.

7
 11 %
Years TCH TSH
10 Suc
9 1959/60* 53 9.70 5.20
8 1960/65 57 9.34 5.34
7 1965/70 62 9.24 5.76
6 1970/75 74 8.83 6.58
TSH 5 1975/80 77 8.49 6.54
4 1980/85 76 9.10 6.58
3 1985/90 71 9.66 6.90
2 1990/95 82 10.10 8.32
1 1995/00 85 10.42 8.87
0 2000/05 90 11.33 10.17
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 05 10 2005/10 94 10.75 10.05
Year
* Just  1959/60 

Figure 5. Sugar yield/TSH 1960-2010

Source: CENGICAÑA. 2007. Eventos históricos y logros 1992-2007 y actualización 2010
(See Annex 1). Guatemala.

In the decade of 1980-1990 an average of 6.77 sugar tons were produced per
hectare (TSH), while in the decade of 2000-2010 the average was 10.11 TSH.

Diverse authors describe the main factors that have influenced the development
of the Guatemalan Sugarcane Agro-industry. These factors are:

Chart 1. Main factors of development of the Sugar Agro-industry in Guatemala

FACTOR DESCRIPTION AUTOR(S)

Favorable agro-ecological International Sugar Journal
Ecological
conditions 1998
Private industry International Sugar Journal,
Trade organization 1998
Organizational
Export method Hasrajani, 2004
Management
Export terminal McSweeney, 2005
Diversification
Field operations Int. Sugar Jul 1998
Factory operations Herrera et al., 2001
Research Meneses et al., 2003
Technological Training Hasrajani, 2004
Technology transfer McSweeney, 2005
Benchmarking Menéndez y Estévez, 2005
Tay y Huete, 2006
Working conditions Herrera et al., 2001
Social
Social Responsibility McSweeney, 2005
Source: CENGICAÑA. 2007. Eventos históricos y logros 1992-2007. Guatemala.

8
The mentioned authors agree that the technological component has played a
very important role in the development of the Guatemalan Sugarcane Agro-
industry.

SUGARCANE INNOVATION SYSTEM IN

GUATEMALA
According to Tosi, 2010, the innovative achievement of a country, region or
sector cannot be evaluated focusing only on the individual success of the
organizations. On the contrary, innovation is a process that results from the
interaction of diverse organizations.

In Figure 6 we present the main enterprises or organizations that participate

in the innovation system of sugarcane in Guatemala.

Market: Sugar, cogeneration, ethanol.

SYSTEMATIC
LEVEL

SUGARMILLS
INNOVATION Canegrowers, Research departments

RESEARCH
DEVELOPMENT CENGICANA Sugarcane Research Centers ATAGUA
AND consultants, and
form other countries Suppliers
TECHNOLOGY sugarcane
TRANSFER
(Mainly United States, technologists
Colombia and Brazil) association from other

EDUCATIONAL INTECAP
SYSTEM Universities: USAC, URL, UVG, UG, ZAMORANO, EARTH
ENCA, Technological centers

Flow of knowledge
Flow of production

Figure 6. Innovation system of sugarcane in Guatemala

Other activities that have been developed by the innovation system, are:
trainings, publications and congresses, as shown in Figures 7, 8 and 9.

9
 PEOPLE TRAINED BY RANK PEOPLE TRAINED  BY AREA

15%
Field
25% Operating 42% Workshops
40% Middle 28%
Management
All
15%
35% Factory

Figure 7. Training events coordinated by CENGICANA

Source: Melgar, M. 2011. "Desarrollo Tecnológico de la Agroindustria Azucarera y su Impacto
en la Costa Sur de Guatemala". Presentación en Power Point en el foro "La Ciencia y
Tecnología para el Desarrollo Rural Integral” XI Congreso de Ingenieros Agrónomos,
Forestales y Ambientales de Guatemala. 15 de junio 2011.

CENGICANA publications

100 95
92
90
81 81
80
71 69
70
Number of publications

62
60
49 49
50 45 46 44
41 39 41
40
30 25 23
20 16

10
0

Years

Figure 8. Publications by CENGICAÑA, most are available in

www.cengicana.org

10
 World

Latin America

Central 
America

National

1973 1975 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1995 1997 1998 2000 2001 2002 2005 2008 2011

Figure 9. Sugarcane congresses organized in Guatemala by ATAGUA, supported

by ASAZGUA and CENGICAÑA

Figure 10 summarizes the technology network actors of the technology

management system that make possible the formation of “the Technology
Stock” of the Guatemalan Sugarcane Agroindustry.

TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

NETWORK TECHNOLOGY
S
Pantaleón‐Concepción 
U
Palo Gordo
G
La Unión
A
Madre Tierra
R Tululá
San Diego‐Trinidad
M Santa Teresa
CENGICANA
I La Sonrisa
L Santa Ana
Projects:
L Guadalupe
Research
S Magdalena
Training
Technology transfer
AGREEMENTS Committees
NATIONAL INTERNATIONAL Technical events
Benchmarking
INTECAP Argentina, Australia
Congresses
Barbados, Brazil, 
Universities: Central America, Publications
USAC, URL, UVG,  Colombia, Cuba,  Library
GALILEO Ecuador, España,  United
States, France, 
Government: Mauritius, 
CONCYT, ENCA, ICTA Mexico, Thailand, 
MAGA Venezuela

Associations: Asociaciones:
Chambers, AGG,  ISSCT, ICSB,
ATAGUA STAB, ASSCT
CIAG TECNICAÑA

Figure 10. Technology management system actors

Source: Melgar, M. 2011. “Estrategias de la investigación tecnológica en la agroindustria azucarera
de Guatemala”. Presentación en Power Point en el seminario-taller "Situación actual y perspectivas
de la investigación agropecuaria, forestal e hidrobiológica en Guatemala”. 02 de junio 2011.

11
 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT POLICIES AT
SECTORIAL LEVEL
As it can be observed in Figure 6, the innovation sources are diverse and each
one has its policies. In Chart 2, we present the research and development
policies at sectorial level that have directed the work of CENGICANA, and
which have been documented in publications or presentations.

Chart 2. Research and development policies

POLICY DESCRIPTION STRATEGY

Activities for the scientific and

technological development will be Creation of Centro
1. SECTORIAL
held with the participation of the Guatemalteco de Investigacion
COORDINATION
enterprises that are part of the y Capacitacion de la Caña de
POLICY
sugarcane sector,in a coordinated Azucar (CENGICANA)
form.

2. PRIORIZATION
Development of strategic and
OF THE Scientific and technological
operative plans with the
RESEARCH research will be oriented to solve
participation of management
PROGRAMS AND priority problems of the
and technical levels from sugar
PROJECTS cultivation of sugarcane.
mills.
POLICY

The training, updating and

3. HUMAN Links with national and
education of professionals and
RESOURCES international institutions for
technicians, will be a priority
TRAINING the training of human
activity for the technological
POLICY resources.
development of the sector.

 Creation of specific
committees
Diffusion of research results will  Organization of technical
be promoted through joint events and congresses
4. TECHNOLOGICAL
activities with sugar mills. A  Elaboration of publications
MANAGEMENT
system of technology management  Coordinated research
POLICY
and an innovation system will be  Benchmarking events
developed.  Establishment of a
specialized library
 Creation of website

CENGICANA´s links to other Establish agreements and other

5. NATIONAL AND
sugarcane international research mechanisms that allow the
INTERNATIONAL
centers and national organizations, development of joint programs
COOPERATION
will be established and or projects that promote
POLICY
strenghtened. technological exchange

12
 POLICY DESCRIPTION STRATEGY

6. INVESTMENT IN Mechanisms that stimulate Presentations or elaboration of

SCIENCE AND investment in science and research publications that show
TECHNOLOGY by the enterpreneurs of the sector, profitability of investment in
POLICY will be identified. research

Certification by CENGICANA
7. QUALITY Quality management system
CENGICANA will implement a
MANAGEMENT according to ISO 9001:2000 in
quality management system
POLICY 2006 and recertification ISO
9001:2008 in 2009.

Source: CENGICANA, 2007. Historic events and successes 1992-2007. Guatemala.

PRIORIZATION STRATEGIES IN RESEARCH

PROGRAMS AND PROYECTS
CENGICANA was created by ASAZGUA in 1992 to support technological
advance of the sugarcane agro-industry with the objective to improve
production and productivity of the sugarcane crop and its derivatives. It is
financed by the sugar mills that form the Guatemalan sugarcane agro-industry
and who make contributions to the budget of the Center in proportion to their
sugar production.

According to the Strategic Plans 2005-2015, the vision of CENGICANA is “To

be leaders in technology generation to increase the competitiveness of the
sugarcane agro-industry in the region; and the mission is “"We are the
organization of the Sugar Industry responsible for generating, adapting and
transferring quality technology for profitable and sustainable development".

The strategic objectives of the Center are:

1. To increase the profitability and sustainability of the sugarcane agro-industry

through the continuous improvement of the processes of Varieties,
Integrated Pests Management, Biotecnology, Fertilization, Irrigation,
Agrometeorology, Agroecologic Zonification and Weeds, and Chemical
Ripening.
2. To evaluate and implement new research programs in factory, cogeneration
and coproduction.
3. To improve technology transfer to the associated sugar mills, through
training, publish and promotion of the benchmarking processes in field,
factory and transportation.

13
4. To ensure the satisfaction of the associates with technologies to improve the
profitability and sustainability and to maintain the Quality Management
System certified according to ISO 9001:2008.
5. To develop a continuous program of education, training and updating of the
technical personnel of CENGICANA and the Sugarcane Agro-industry.

The programs and projects that CENGICANA develops based in the

prioritization defined jointly with the Board of directors, Agricultural Managers,
and Industrial Managers are listed in the following Chart:

Chart 3. Research Programs and projects of CENGICAÑA

PROGRAMS AREAS PROJECTS

1. Germplasm source. 2. Cross-breeding program. 3.

1. Plant Breeding Selection scheme. 4. Genetic seed. 5. Promotion of
new varieties
 Development of 1. Molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS),
2. Biotecnology
Varieties 2. Molecular diagnosis of diseases. 3. Tissue culture

3. Plant Pathology 1. Pathogen detection in nurseries

 Integrated Pests 1. Bioecology of pests and natural enemies.

Managements 1. Entomology 2. Bioeconomic research.
Program IPM 3. Development of control strategies
1. Nutrient requeriments studies. 2. Fertilization
1. Fertilization and
management. 3. Use and management of byproducts.
Vegetal Nutrition
4. Green manures
1. Technical and economic efficiency of irrigation.
2.Irrigation 2. Technical and economic efficiency of irrigation
methods. 3. Studies of groundwater levels
 Agronomy 1. Analysis of meteorological information for
3. Agrometeorology
Program sugarcane
4. Information System
1. Agronomic Information System.
for Precision
2. Agroecological zoning. 3. Thematic maps
Agriculture
1. Flowering inhibitors. 2. Ripeners.
5. Weeds and ripeners
3. Weed management
 Industrial
1. Sucrose recovery. 2. Standardization and
Research
normalization 3. Energy efficiency
Program
Source: Melgar, M. 2011. “Estrategias de la investigación tecnológica en la Agroindustria Azucarera de
Guatemala”. Presentación en Power Point en el seminario-taller “Situación actual y perspectivas de la
investigación agropecuaria, forestal e hidrobiológica en Guatemala”. 02 de junio 2011.

14
CHANGES IN THE TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS
Figure 11 presents the agronomic system of commercial production. The main
changes in technological factors are described with emphasis in the period
1990-2010.

TOPOGRAPHY CLIMATE SOIL WATER LATITUDE HUMAN FACTOR

LAND IMPROVEMENT
AREA IRRIGATION DRAINAGE SEED ROADS
-CUT BACK -CAUDAL -QUANTITY -VARIETY -TYPE
-CLEANING -SYSTEM -TYPE -REPRODUCTION -SIZE
-TRACE -MANAGEMENT -TOPOGRAPHY -SELECTION -INTERNAL NETWORK
-ROADS -MANAGEMENT - EXTERNAL NETWORK
-PLOT

CANE RENEWAL
SUBSOILING POLISH
SOWING
PLOW PLOW
RATOON

HILLING RIPENERS WEEDS RATS

-MECHANIC -TYPE -HERBICIDES -TYPES

-MANAGEMENT -MANUAL -TRAPS
- MECHANICAL - POPULATION

DRAINAGE PRODUCTION PESTS

- SUPERFICIAL - FROGHOPPER
- FLOOD - BORER
- SOIL PESTS

SEED
FERTILIZER RONDEO AND
IRRIGATION ROADS DISEASES
-NITRGEN - RENEW
- PHOSPHORUS - ENLARGE - MANUAL
- EFICIENCY - FORMULATES - MECHANIC -RATOON STUNTING
- MINOR ELEMENTS -LEAF SCALD
- EQUIPMENT -RUST
-SOURCE BURNING (HARVEST) PREVIOUS SAMPLING - SMUT
-CALENDAR
-NORMAL -WEIGHING
-COLD -BRIX
-RONDEO -MILLING TIME
SUGAR MILL
QUALITY CONTROL STORAGE

-CLEANING -PACKING
-PURITY MARKET - BULK
-COLOR - SUGAR
MANAGEMENT LOCAL - ETHANOL EXPORT BUDGET
OF WORKERS - COGENERATION PROGRAM
SYSTEMS - MOLASSES
-LEGAL
-SOCIAL MANAGEMENT CONSUMER RESEARCH
-HUMAN -FINANCIAL - EXPERIMENTS
-ECONOMIC ENGINEERING
-ACCOUNTING -SHIPPING ENVIRONMENT -MATERIALS - DESIGNS
-LOGISTICS
-WORKSHOPS -PARTS - ANALYSIS
-LOGÍSTICS - APPLICATIONS

Figure 11. Agronomic sistem of comercial production of sugarcane

Source: Melgar, M. 2011. "Desarrollo Tecnológico de la Agroindustria Azucarera y su
Impacto en la Costa Sur de Guatemala". Presentación en Power Point en foro "La
Ciencia y Tecnología para el Desarrollo Rural Integral“ XI Congreso de Ingenieros
Agrónomos, Forestales y Ambientales de Guatemala. 15 de junio 2011. Adaptado de
Gundersen, 2006.
 Factors that research has been conducted in coordination with CENGICANA.

Varieties

During the period of 1990/2010 (Figure 12) a predominance of CP varieties

coming from the Canal Point Experimental Station, Florida was observed. The
variety CP72-2086 stands out, which during the harvest 2002/2003 occupied
the 75 percent of the cultivated area.

15
The variety CP72-2086 has been denominated a “super-variety”, because it
has occupied more than 40 percent of the cultivated area for more than ten
years and with more than 8 tons of sugar per hectare. Similar cases were
registered in Brazil in the decade of 1980 with the variety NA5679; in
Louisiana in the decade of 1990, with the variety LCP85-845; in Australia in
the decade of 1990, with Q124, and currently, in Colombia with the variety
CC85-92.

From the detection of Orange Rust in Guatemala in 2007, the area of variety
CP72-2086 has diminished, and the area of variety CP88-1165, has increased.

Other varieties cultivated starting 2007 are: CP, Mex, PGM, BR, SP, NA and
CG.

In the period 1990/2010 the hybridization process began for the development of
Guatemalan varieties CG, which for the harvest 2010/2011, occupied 9,000
hectares.

Seventeen hundred varieties have been introduced, which mainly come from:
Canal Point United States of America, Mexico, Brazil, Barbados, Australia,
Mauricio, Cuba, Thailand, and Colombia. An importing quarantine was
established in 1993, and two new diseases have been reported, the Leaf Scald
Disease and the Orange Rust Disease.

For the improvement of the nurseries, the hydrothermic treatment for Ratoon
Stunting Disease is a usual technology. An analysis service by serologic
methods was established in 1999; a molecular detection of diseases for
imported varieties was implemented in 2010. While the seed multiplication,
through micro-propagation, is made by two sugar mills.

Agreements have been established for the exchange of varieties with BSES of
Australia, Barbados, Canal Point Florida and ARS-USDA-HOUMA-
LOUSIANA United States of America, CENICANA from Colombia, CINCAE
from Ecuador, CIDCA from Mexico, Mitr Phol from Thailand, DIECA from
Costa Rica, MSIRI from Mauritius, and CTC from Brazil.

16
100% Mex69-290 SP 79-2233 PR 61-632 CG 96-135 NA56-42
CG 97-97 CG 98-10
90% Others
Other
CP 88-1508
PR 87-2080
PGM 89-968
80% Mex68-P23 PR 75-2002

CP 72-1312 PGM 89-121 Mex79-431

70% B 4362 CP 72-1210
60% B 49119 CP 73-1547 SP 70-1284
CP 88-1165

50% Q 96
B 37172
L 6840
40% BT 65-152
C 8751 CP 72-2086
30%
PPQK
20%
10%
CP 57-603
0%
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Figura 12. Percentage of commercial cultivated area by variety of sugarcane in

Guatemala, from 1980 to 2011
Source: CENGICAÑA. 2010. Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2009-
2010.

Integrated Pest Management

In figure 13, infestation levels of the main pests with economic impact, are
observed.

Except for some high percentages of rodent infestation and a year of

Froghopper, the presence of plagues has been maintained under economic
damage level, which shows sustainable management of the crop.

The work performed by technicians responsible for pest management in each

sugar mill, is supported by the Integrated Pest Management Program of
CENGICANA, that jointly with the Integrated Pest Management Committee
(CANAMIP), has developed integrated management plans for the Sugarcane
Borer, Froghopper and rodents.

The sugar mills have also received the support of some advisors from
Guatemala, Colombia, Costa Rica and Mexico. At the same time, biological
studies have been developed for soil plagues, termites and homopters.

17
 %  Infestation Borer % Infestation Froghopper
2.5 5.00
4.50
2 4.00
3.50
1.5 3.00

% of i.i
% of i.i
2.50
1 2.00
1.50
0.5 1.00
0.50

0 0.00
00‐01 ´01‐02 `02‐03 '03‐04 ´04‐05 ´05‐06 ´06‐07 ´07‐08 08‐09 ´09‐10 00‐01 01‐02 02‐03 03‐04 04‐05 05‐06 06‐07 07‐08 08‐09 09‐10

% Infestation Field Rats

6.65
8 6.41

5.09 6.1
6 5.02
4.07
3.66
4 2.59 2.63 2.68 3.04
3.26
3.46
2.15
2.14 2.4
2 1.93 1.72
0.71 1.03 1.5
0.85 1.14 1.6
1 1.82
1.21
0 1.1 0.92
00‐01 01‐02 0.66
02‐03 03‐04
04‐05 05‐06 06‐07 07‐08 08‐09 09‐10
High Medio
Alto Medium
Bajo Low

Figura 13. Evolution of different sugarcane pests 2000-2010

Source: CENGICAÑA 2011. Situación actual y proyección de la producción de azúcar
Zafra 2010/2011. Presentación en Power Point a Junta Directiva de ASAZGUA. 22 de
marzo 2011.

Fertilization

Since 1993 the studies “Semi-detailed Study of Soils of the Guatemalan

Sugarcane Zone” and “Soil Management Groups” have been made- A
systematic scientific-technologic research job was also developed, which made
possible to determine strategies for the optimization of nitrogen fertilizer and
economic recommendations for the use and management of phosphorus
fertilizer.

The fertilizers are applied, by soil management groups, according to the

requirements, soil analysis, and potential performance. Recommendations for
nitrogen and phosphorus have been specified, as observed in Figure 14.

During this period techniques were developed for the efficient utilization of
filter mud and vinasse, management of green fertilizers and differential
response for promissory varieties.

18
 Recommendation of nitrogen doses (kg N / ha) for sugarcane cultivation in soils
derived from volcanic ash in Guatemala
Category of Ratoon
Plant cane
Organic Minimum dose Maximum dose
(kg N/ha) 1/
Rel N:TC
matter (%) Kg N/ha
Low
80 1.14 100 150
(< 3.0)
Medium
70 1.0 90 130
(3.0 – 5.0)
High
60 0.9 80 120
(> 5.0)
1/
Rel N:TC= Relationship kg of N per ton of cane expected

Phosphorus recommendations bases on P soil, cultivation season and soil type

Plant cane Ratoon
Category of P
Andisols Other soils Andisols Other soils
Low
80 60 40 25
(< 10 ppm)
Medium
60 40 0 0
(10-30 ppm)
High
0 0 0 0
(>30 ppm)

Figura 14. Nitrogen and Phosphorus recommendations.

Source: Adapted from Pérez, O.; Ufer, C.; Azañón, V. and Solares, E. 2010. Strategies for
the optimal use of nitrogen fertilizers in the sugarcane crops in Guatemala. In: Proc. Int. Soc.
Sugar Cane Technol. Veracruz, Mexico.
Source: Adapted from Pérez, O.; Hernández, F. 2002. Comportamiento y manejo del fósforo
en la fertilización de caña de azúcar en suelos de origen volcánico. En: Memoria de XIV
Congreso de Técnicos Azucareros de Centro América ATACA. Guatemala. pp. 161-168.

Irrigation

The area under irrigation in the Guatemalan sugarcane zone has increased,
as observed in Figure 15, otherwise, the compliance with the technical and
economic recommendations for the application of irrigation has increased
the efficiency in water utilization, as observed in Figure 16. Progress has
been made also with the application of other technologies that increase
production, such as: use of hydric balance, precut irrigation programming,
water quality and capillary water contribution analysis, and management of
sandy veins.

The broadening of the areas with mechanized irrigation systems has been
reported, such as fixed swivel and mobile swivel and frontal displacement, and
a greater number of aspersion systems.

19
 Irrigated areas (ha)
146347.00
160000 128709 132497
119170
140000 95754
86571
73112 111360.56
120000 95598.60 98707.00

Area (ha)
100000 62558.75 65549.00 72534.00
47014
80000
60000
19938 39239.00
19217.73 24342.00
40000
23727.30 28514.00 ‐TOTAL
20000 6160 28979.08
4794.52 ‐
5863.00
0 7397.00 LOW
9383.10 ‐
2001/2002 5276.00 MEDIUM
2004/2005 6007.36 ‐
2005/2006
2006/2007 HIGH
2007/2008
2008/2009
2009/2010

HIGH          MEDIUM         LOW           TOTAL    
ALTO MEDIO BAJO TOTAL Harvest season

Figure 15. Growth in irrigated area 2001-2010, low altitude stratum (1-100 masl),
medium (100-300 masl) and high (over 300 masl)
Source: CENGICAÑA 2011. Situación actual y proyección de la producción de azúcar Zafra
2010/2011. Presentación en Power Point a Junta Directiva de ASAZGUA. 22 de marzo 2011.

Irrigated hectares/megaliter of water

1.80

1.60

1.40

1.20
Has/ML

1.00

0.80

0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00

Harvest season

Has/ML

Figure 16. Evolution of irrigation efficiency

Source: CENGICAÑA 2011. “Situación actual y proyección de la producción de azúcar”
Zafra 2010/2011. Presentación en Power Point a Junta Directiva de ASAZGUA. 22 de marzo
2011.

20
Ripeners

The application of technology for the utilization of chemical ripening products

to increase yields has been extended from 2,900 hectares in harvest season
1989/1990, to more than 140,000 in harvest season 2009/2010 as observed in
Figure 17.

Over time, factors affecting the response to ripeners such as: water quality, soil
moisture, and potential yield varieties have been evaluated.

Area (ha) applied ripeners harvest season 1986-2009*

150075 141,160
Area (ha) applied ripeners

127,740
125075 113,778 118,799
98,944 108,757
97,806 100,081
100075 92,963
88,121
73,861
75075
59,600

50075 39,705
22,500
12,500 20,000 24,033
25075 11,281
18,500
14,000
100 300 700 2,904
75
86- 87- 88- 89- 90- 91- 92- 93- 94- 95- 96- 97- 98- 99- 00- 01- 02- 03- 04- 05- 06- 07- 08- 09-
87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
Harvest season

Figure 17. Area applied with ripeners

Source: CENGICAÑA 2011. Situación actual y proyección de la producción de azúcar Zafra
2010/2011. Presentación en Power Point a Junta Directiva de ASAZGUA. 22 de marzo 2011.

Weeds

The Manual for the Identification and Management of Main Sugarcane Weeds
and the Herbicide Technical Catalogue used in the Guatemalan Sugarcane
Agro-industry, were made, in order to generate information about weed control.

Agrometereology

The automatic meteorological network in the Guatemalan sugarcane zone, has

been established, in order to obtain basic data available, with 16 stations that
provide information about the main meteorological variables, which can be
accessed through CENGICANA webpage www.cengicana.org.

21
Through agro-meteorological studies. The relation of diverse climatic variables
with sugarcane production has been found. As an example, the case of August
solar radiation that is highly related with the production of sugarcane, as
observed in Figure 18.

% Sunshine
80 110
N= NEUTRAL YEAR 
Ño
Ño= NIÑO YEAR 105
70
Ña= NIÑA YEAR N Ño 103
N Ño Ño Ño 100

60 Ño N 98 Ña Ña ?
N
N N N N
Ño Ño 96
Ño Ña 95
Ño
50
92 92 91
91
N 89 Ña 89
90
88 88
87 87 Ña
Ña

TCH
86
40 85 85
Ña 83 83
80 80 80
30 79
78 78
75

20 73 73
70 70

10
65

0 60
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Figure 18. Relationship ENSO, August sunshine and tons of sugarcane of the
Guatemalan Sugarcane Agroindustry
Source: CENGICAÑA 2011. Situación actual y proyección de la producción de azúcar Zafra
2010/2011. Presentación en Power Point a Junta Directiva de ASAZGUA. 22 de marzo 2011.

In 2009, Villatoro et al., published the study First Approach to the Agro-
ecologic Zonification for the Sugarcane Cultivation in the Sugarcane Zone of
the Guatemalan Southern Coast.

The GPS technology and the Geographic information system have been mainly
used for the application of agrochemicals in the cultivation of sugarcane,
topographic applications, irrigations and transportation.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACT

According to www.azucar.com.gt the biggest impacts are:

 Generation of 65,000 direct jobs and 350,000 indirect and direct jobs in
230,000 hectares that are equal to 2.1 percent of the national territory.

22
 For the 2009/2010 harvest season, sugar represented 10.25% of the GNP of
the country total exports; 20.80% of the agricultural exports; and it generated
US$493 million in foreign currency, which is the basis for the national
economical exchange that includes food, contributing to food safety. Foreign
currency earnings from sugar and molasses export ranked second, after
coffee, and even in some years have achieved the first place (Chart 4).

 The activities that promote human development area carried out through
educative programs.

 The social impact of the Sugarcane Agro-industry is shown by the regional

development level, mainly in the department of Escuintla, which is the third
department with better levels of development in Guatemala (better life
conditions, lower levels of poverty and malnutrition indexes).

 Eight sugar mills develop cogeneration for the production of the 23 percent
of electrical energy in harvest season in the Interconnected National System,
that represent 310 MW of power.

 During harvest season 2009/2010, five enterprises associated to sugar mills

produced 265 million liters of ethanol, which was exported to Europe and
the United States.

Chart 4. Foreing currency earnings for exports during 2003 to 2010, 000 in
thousands ofUS$

Año 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Total export
2,284,338 3,074,419 3,644,832 3,813,657 4,219,396 5,034,553 4,795,305 5,490,744
earnings
Main products 944,528 1,244,861 1,456,635 1,449,539 1,560,044 1,540,893 1,855,565 2,087,566

Sugar and Molasses 316;429 457,024 497,499 550,608 546,509 406,708 492,987 763,831

Bananas 228,051 277,481 289,119 266,020 302,383 322,919 494,291 351,565

Coffee 328,122 424,740 575,322 529,553 587,987 660,130 589,245 705,477

Cardamom 67,548 98,473 108,152 122,851 143,890 180,435 300,212 307,500

Central America 312,833 382,765 371,876 590,535 692,547 1,147,115 1,212,780 1,991,856

Other Products 1,036,975 1446,793 1,816,320 1,773,583 1,966,805 2,346,544 1,726,960 1,411,321

Source: Banco de Guatemala

http://www.banguat.gob.gt/inc/ver.asp?id=/estaeco/comercio/por_producto/prod0207DB001.htm&e=92002

23
PERSPECTIVES
Sugarcane is currently cultivated in more than 100 countries covering more than
20 million hectares in the world, where 1,300 million tons of sugarcane are
produced. (D´Hont et al., 2008).

In the past, it has been mainly used to produce sugar, providing almost two
thirds of the world production.

Even though the world economy will depend in the next decades on fossil
energy, the biomass will partially substitute fossil energy for being a source of
renewable energy. Due to its exceptional capacity to produce biomass,
sugarcane will be an important source of it (Botha, 2009).

Sugarcane will be the favorite raw material for the production of ethanol or the
generation of electric energy and co-products, such as: bioplastics and
sucrochemistry derivatives. (ISO, 2009).

PRODUCTION LEVELS
Moore 2005, describes the different levels of production associated to
constraints factors and agronomic practices or technologies to protect or
increase the yield of crops.

In Figure 19, levels of production adapted to sugarcane in Guatemala, are

shown. The present day yield is defined as the one reached under conditions
with constraint factors such as: weeds, pests, diseases or nutrient deficit.

With the appropriate fertilization and weed, pests and disease control
sustainable yield can be reached. The obtainable yield is determined by
environmental constraints, associated to factors such as water, radiation,
temperature, or soil salinity.

The potential yield is reached when the crop is in optimal conditions to provide
inputs, such as: water and nutrients in absence of pests, and with the appropriate
variables. The potential yield in a region can be estimated by the record yield
reached.

The theoretical yield is calculated through simulation models based on

phenology and physiology of sugarcane and, it is possible to be reachred with
the support of biotechnology and precision agriculture.

24
The record yields of sugarcane, approximately reach a 65 percent of the
theoretical yield (Moore, 1997) so there is a high potential to increase them.

Weed control, Varieties, 
Pests and Irrigation Planting season Biotechnology, 
Diseases, Soils Management Density Precision
Fertilization Agriculture
PHYSIOLOGICAL 
CONSTRAINTS
200
ENVIRONMENTAL  Phenology
CONSTRAINTS Physiology
Architecture
Water Cytology
Radiation
Temperature
160 Soil:
AGRONOMIC  Salinity, 
CONSTRAINTS Sodicity
TCH

Weeds
Pests
Diseases
110 Nutrients N, P

90

Present Obtainable Potential Theorist

Figure 19. Production levels, constraints production factors and agronomic

practices or technologies with the potential to protect or increase the
tonnage (Adapted from Moore, P. 2005).
Source: Melgar, M. 2010. Tendencias de la Investigación en Caña de Azúcar a Nivel Mundial.
Sugar Journal (USA). November 2010. pp. 6-18

RESEARCH TRENDS
Melgar, 2010, presents a revision of some sugarcane research trends, in Chart 5
the technologies that will be used in the future of sugarcane, are listed.

Charto 5. Technological trends in sugarcane

Currently in
Area Medium term
development
Genetic Breeding Conventional breeding Biotecnology:
Insterespecífics and Molecular marker-assisted
intergeneric crosses selection (MAS), Transgenic
Energy cane sugarcane
Management of Integrated Pests Biocontrol
limiting biotic (pests, Management Molecular biology
diseases and weeds) Molecular diagnosis of Transgenic sugarcane
diseases Silencing genes

25
 Currently in
Area Medium term
development

Management of weeds, Molecular diagnosis of diseases

Natural resources
management (Eco-
efficiency)
Source: Melgar, M. 2010. Tendencias de la investigación en caña de azúcar a nivel mundial. Sugar Journal
(USA). November 2010. pp. 6-18.
Strategies for changes
in the evolution of
pests, diseases and
weeds
Soil management New fertilizers
Integrated water Water harvesting
management Precision Agriculture (GPS,
Agrometeorological GIS, remote sensing)
information system Information and
Cropping System communication technologies
Mechanization (Internet, cellular phones)
(planting, harvesting)

Based on Melgar´s revision (2010), some trends for sugarcane and its
derivatives that indicate research trends, are presented as follows:

1. As the energetic demand grows worldwide, sugarcane will play an important

role as bio-fuel and as a source of energy. The leadership in research
development for the optimization of production processes of ethanol and
energy is being taken by Brazil, through universities and institutions
localized mainly in the state of Sao Paulo and the Centro de Tecnologia
Canaviera (CTC) (Center of Sugarcane technology). The use of all biomass
produced by sugarcane is presented as one of the main research and
development challenges, for which diverse countries are developing
sugarcane energetic clones, derived from intraspecific and inter-generic
cross-breedings.

2. Most of the research centers in the reviewed countries are making great
investments in sugarcane biotechnology, so that in the midterm, sugarcane
transgenic varieties will be used at a commercial level, especially, in those
countries that already have transgenic varieties at experimental level (Brazil,
Colombia, United States, South Africa, China, India and Australia). The
main characters that have been transformed in sugarcane are: herbicide, pests
and disease resistance, greater sucrose accumulation and production of
polymers and pharmaceutical products.

26
3. Derivative technologies from molecular biology and genetics engineering,
will be used not only for the development of sugarcane varieties, but also as
tools for integrated pests management, disease diagnosis, weed control and
for methods associated to fertilization, such as: biologic fixation of nitrogen
and soil microbiology.

4. The occurrence of droughts is a restriction factor mentioned by various

countries, hence, the research in irrigation systems with efficient use of
water will be indispensable, such as irrigation by dripping, technologies for
the optimization of water utilization, water harvest and conservation, and
management of water sources.

5. Precision agriculture for the optimal use of supplies in the search of eco-
efficiency will require research in more precise diagnosis techniques, use of
tools as: geographic information systems (GPS), remote sensors and the
application of information technologies: cellular telephones and internet.
Cenicana, Colombia has developed the model of specific agricultural model
for sites. India, has promoted the use of information technologies for the
transfer of technology due to this country has a large number of a small
sugar growers..

6. Competition for the use of land for other crops, forestry and urban
development, make economic research necessary.

7. Due to climate change and environmental concern there will be a more

focused legislation on the protection of the environment (water, soil,
protected areas, biodiversity, agrochemical use, industrial security, traffic
and burnings) so that, the focus of development must be based on
sustainability.

APPRECIATION/ACKNOLEGMENT
To Licda. Priscila Lopez de Alvarado for her valuable contribution to the
integration of this chapter and the diagramming of this book.

27
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5. D’Hont, A., et al (2008). Sugarcane: A Major Source of Sweetness,

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10. ISO. International Sugar Organization. 2009. Sugar Year Book 2009.
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%20sample.pdf

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13. Melgar, M. 2003. No debemos perder la siguiente ola: La revolución
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su Impacto en la Costa Sur de Guatemala. Presentación en Power Point en
foro "La ciencia y tecnología para el Desarrollo Rural Integral” XI
Congreso de Ingenieros Agrónomos, Forestales y Ambientales de
Guatemala. 15 de junio 2011.

18. Menéndez, M.; Estévez, M.; 2005 Reporte de inteligencia competitiva,

DCE, Ministerio de Economía de El Salvador. Artículo electrónico.
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20Inteligencia%20Competitiva%20_azucar.pdf

19. Meneses, A.; Melgar, M.; Cano, W. 2003. Desarrollo de la agroindustria

azucarera en Guatemala. SJ October Vol.62, No5. pp.18-19

20. Moore, P. 2005. Integration of sucrose accumulation processes across

hierarchical scales: towards developing an understanding of the gene-to-
crop-continuum. Field Crops Research 92 119:135.

21. Moore, P.H.; Botha, F.C.; Furbank, R.T.; Grof, C.R.L. 1997 Potential for
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B.A, Wilson J.R.(CAB International, Wallingford, UK), pp. 141﹣156.

22. Oliver, Richard W. 1999. The Coming Biotech Age. McGraw Hill. USA.

23. OROZCO, H.; Buc, R. 2010. Censo de Variedades de Caña de Azúcar en

Guatemala a la Zafra 2010-2011. In: Memoria. Presentación de resultados
de investigación. Zafra 2009-2010. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 21-30

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24. Pérez, O.; Hernández, F. 2002. Comportamiento y manejo del fósforo en la
fertilización de caña de azúcar en suelos de origen volcánico. In: Memoria
de XIV Congreso de Técnicos Azucareros de Centro América ATACA.
Guatemala. pp. 161-168

25. Pérez, O.; Ufer, C.; Azañón, V. and Solares, E. 2010. Strategies for the optimal
use of nitrogen fertilizers in the sugarcane crops in Guatemala. In: Proc. Int. Soc.
Sugar Cane Technol. Veracruz, Mexico.

26. TAY, K.; Huete, S. 2006. Guatemala sugar Annual 2006. Gain Report
USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. Global Agriculture Information
Network. USA. Documento en línea
http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200604/146187439.doc

27. Toffler, Alvin. 1982. La tercera ola. Plaza & Janés, S.A. Barcelona,
España.

28. Tosi, F.; Andreé; Gaya, S. Mirna; Barbosa, C. Luis. 2010. The Brazilian
sugarcane innovation system. Energy Policy. Vol. 39. pp. 156-166.

29. Villatoro, B.; Pérez, O.; Suárez, A.; Castro, O.; Rodríguez, M.; Ufer, C.
2009. Zonificación agroecológica para el cultivo de caña de azúcar en la
zona cañera de la Costa Sur de Guatemala – Primera Aproximación -. In:
Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2008-2009.
Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 226-239.

30. Wagner, Regina. 2007. Historia de la caña de azúcar en Guatemala. Galería

Guatemala.

30
 Annex 1

Sugar production in Guatemala, 1959/60 - 2009/10

MILLED YIELD
HARVEST AREA SUGAR (MT) **
CANE SUGAR CANE SUGAR SUGAR
SEASON (ha)
(MT) ** WHITE RAW AMA* TOTAL (%) (MT/ha) (MT/ha) MT/ha/month
1959-60 12,534 670,130 65,163 9.70 54.00 5.24 0.46
1960-61 15,315 878,735 73,337 701 74,038 9.16 57.38 5.25 0.46
1961-62 21,859 1,217,472 106,240 7,539 113,779 9.35 55.70 5.21 0.45
1962-63 22,829 1,373,991 81,306 48,399 129,706 9.44 60.19 5.68 0.49
1963-64 24,576 1,461,832 80,364 55,775 136,138 9.31 59.48 5.54 0.48
1964-65 25,109 1,427,067 99,891 33,707 133,598 9.36 56.83 5.32 0.46
1965-66 29,715 1,844,223 112,118 48,822 160,940 8.73 62.06 5.42 0.47
1966-67 31,502 2,005,247 109,842 73,493 183,334 9.14 63.65 5.82 0.51
1967-68 25,306 1,605,109 102,915 51,588 154,503 9.63 63.43 6.11 0.53
1968-69 28,699 1,852,901 108,250 67,255 175,505 9.47 64.56 6.12 0.53
1969-70 31,446 1,946,474 115,252 64,660 179,911 9.24 61.90 5.72 0.50
1970-71 30,633 2,075,293 139,435 58,281 197,717 9.53 67.75 6.45 0.56
1971-72 35,780 2,543,070 114,887 116,246 231,133 9.09 71.08 6.46 0.56
1972-73 43,878 3,166,241 144,112 116,300 260,412 8.23 72.16 5.94 0.52
1973-74 45,384 3,584,436 171,391 142,854 314,244 8.77 78.98 6.92 0.60
1974-75 52,517 4,258,341 163,180 210,013 373,193 8.76 81.09 7.11 0.62
1975-76 75,594 6,220,755 193,071 343,811 536,882 8.63 82.29 7.10 0.62
1976-77 76,643 6,049,351 224,907 283,143 508,051 8.40 78.93 6.63 0.58
1977-78 60,629 4,785,963 236,869 159,362 396,231 8.28 78.94 6.54 0.57
1978-79 53,706 4,242,057 201,415 161,367 362,782 8.55 78.99 6.76 0.59
1979-80 66,000 4,624,547 184,866 212,183 397,049 8.59 70.07 6.02 0.52
1980-81 78,000 5,485,805 247,456 200,439 447,896 8.17 70.33 5.74 0.50
1981-82 76,964 6,410,563 294,027 244,728 538,756 8.40 83.29 7.00 0.61
1982-83 73,446 5,527,187 360,014 171,004 528,837 9.61 75.26 7.23 0.63
1983-84 76,146 5,536,266 290,281 225,236 515,517 9.31 72.71 6.77 0.59
1984-85 84,000 5,569,528 270,528 279,280 549,809 9.87 66.30 6.55 0.57
1985-86 81,000 5,696,386 382,403 207,089 589,492 10.35 70.33 7.28 0.63
1986-87 88,000 6,413,251 388,551 236,497 625,048 9.75 72.88 7.11 0.62
1987-88 97,000 7,113,195 385,107 268,767 653,874 9.20 73.33 6.75 0.59
1988-89 100,000 7,006,059 485,315 187,476 672,791 9.60 70.06 6.73 0.59
1989-90 110,000 8,834,892 559,232 279,595 838,827 9.50 80.32 7.63 0.66
1990-91 120,000 9,934,918 557,853 416,944 974,798 9.81 82.79 8.12 0.71
1991-92 130,000 10,402,975 548,843 526,093 1,074,936 10.33 80.02 8.27 0.72
1992-93 135,000 10,519,424 523,290 538,410 1,061,699 10.09 77.92 7.86 0.68
1993-94 140,000 10,847,973 622,816 489,693 1,112,508 10.26 77.49 7.95 0.69
1994-95 150,000 12,916,574 651,231 641,976 1,293,207 10.01 86.11 8.62 0.75
1995-96 165,000 13,033,507 615,096 680,021 1,295,117 9.94 78.99 7.85 0.68
1996-97 167,702 14,792,739 701,854 815,175 1,517,029 10.25 88.21 9.04 0.79
1997-98 181,218 17,666,169 630,452 1,161,233 1,791,686 10.15 97.49 9.89 0.86
1998-99 180,000 15,644,721 664,020 919,032 1,583,053 10.10 87.40 8.83 0.77
1999-00 180,000 14,338,961 642,060 1,013,108 1,655,168 11.55 82.80 9.56 0.83
2000-01 179,471 15,174,029 548,724 1,163,108 1,711,832 11.30 84.64 9.56 0.83
2001-02 185,000 16,900,237 718,007 1,193,410 1,911,418 11.30 92.00 10.40 0.90
2002-03 187,000 16,623,874 674,761 1,172,302 35,053 1,882,115 11.30 88.32 9.98 0.87
2003-04 194,000 17,780,557 908,481 1,052,834 44,424 2,005,740 11.30 91.89 10.38 0.90
2004-05 200,000 17,819,763 820,447 1,165,937 50,734 2,037,118 11.45 91.30 10.45 0.91
2005-06 197,000 16,883,877 719,196 1,066,348 61,247 1,910,683 11.25 89.30 10.04 0.87
2006-07 210,000 19,813,455 1,024,846 1,020,039 125,005 2,169,890 10.95 96.31 10.54 0.92
2007-08 230,000 19,697,218 1,158,401 815,590 115,405 2,089,396 10.60 87.26 9.25 0.80
2008-09 230,000 20,156,217 1,206,521 886,661 124,150 2,217,332 11.00 91.12 10.02 0.87
2009-10 230,000 22,033,540 1,371,868 880,291 43,547 2,329,795 10.04 102.40 10.28 0.89
Source: Data from milled cane, sugar and yield: ASAZGUA, CENGICANA
For data on harvested area: from 1959-60 to 1972-73 (ASAZGUA 1974), from 1973-74 to 1978-79 (Bank of Guatemala), from 1979-80 to
1980-81 and from 1984 to 1986-87 (Sugar and Sweetener, 1996), from 1981-82 to 1983-84 (ASAZGUA, 1984), from 1987-88 to 1998-99
(LMC International, 1998) and CENGICAÑA, from 1999 to 2010 CENGICAÑA and ASAZGUA
MT** = metric tons
AMA*= Metric tons of sweetened material production

31
32
 II. CHARACTERIZATION OF
SUGARCANE GROWING AREAS

33
 CHARACTERIZATION OF SUGARCANE
GROWING AREAS
Braulio Villatoro and Ovidio Pérez

INTRODUCTION

Sugar industry of Guatemala is composed of 13 sugar mills which are

distributed geographically as follows:

 Ten of the sugar mills are located on the Pacific coastal plain, Southern
Coast of Guatemala, occupying almost the totality of sugarcane growing area
(99 %). These sugar mills are: Tululá, Palo Gordo, Madre Tierra, La
Unión, Pantaleon, Concepcion, Magdalena, Santa Ana, Trinidad, and
El Pilar. The other sugar mills are located in relatively small areas, at
different parts of the country. At the Villa Canales Municipality,
Guatemala District, is located Santa Teresa Mill, and in the Santa
Rosa District is La Sonrisa. The Chabil Utzaj Mill is being
established at the Northern of the country, in Alta Verapaz District.

GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION OF SUGARCANE GROWING

AREAS

The sugarcane growing areas in the Southern Coast of Guatemala, are located
between 91°50’00” - 90°10’00” West Longitude and 14°33’00” - 13°50’00”
North Latitude. Geopolitically, these areas are located in the Retalhuleu,
Suchitepéquez, Escuintla and Santa Rosa Districts. At the moment, the
sugarcane growing areas are expanding towards the Jutiapa District. A general
geographical distribution is presented in Figure 1.


Braulio Villatoro is Agr. Eng., Specialist in Information Systems for Precision Agriculture; Ovidio Pérez
is Agr. Eng., M.Sc. Agronomy Program Leader, CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org

34
Figure 1. Geographical distribution of sugarcane growing areas in the Southern
Coast of Guatemala

The sugarcane growing areas are located in the river basin of the following
rivers: Ocosito, Samalá, Sis-Icán, Nahualate, Madre Vieja, Coyolate, Acomé,
Achiguate, María Linda, Paso Hondo, Los Esclavos, and La Paz; which have
their origin in the highlands and flow into the Pacific Ocean.

WEATHER CONDITION
The sugarcane growing areas of Guatemala are divided in four strata, based on
altitudinal position and expressed as meters above sea level (MASL).
Altitudinal position of these areas are associated to climatic and soil conditions,
due to physiographic characteristics corresponding to a natural landscape from
the base of the mountains to the coastal plain, with slopes of 7 to 25 percent.
The areas are undulated hills that easily descend to the plain level of the Pacific
Coast (CENGICAÑA, 1996).

The high stratum is located above 300 MASL; Medium stratum is from 100 to
300 MASL; Low stratum, from 40 to 100 MASL, and Littoral stratum
corresponding from 0 to 40 MASL.
Localization of these strata is presented in Figure 2. Climatic conditions are
summarized in Table 1.

35
Figure 2. Altitudinal Strata of sugarcane growing areas

Table 1. Climatic characteristics of sugarcane growing areas

Avg.
Temp. (°C) Solar
Altitude Rainfall Wind
Strata Radiation
(masl) (mm/year) Speed
Min. Average Max. (MJ/m2/day)
(Km/h)
High > 300 4100 20.2 26.2 32.2 17.7 5.2
100 -
Medium 3700 20.5 26.7 32.2 17.3 6.8
300
Low 40 – 100 1900 21.2 27.3 33.8 18.4 6.2

Littoral < 40 1500 21.0 27.5 33.4 18.0 8.7

Solar radiation and temperature are more varied getting close to the coast, but
these conditions become more stable as ascending near to the mountains. On the
other hand, rainfall diminishes as descending from the base of mountains to the
coast.

Rainfall is distributed in two seasons: rainy season (known locally as winter)

that occurs between May and October with major rainfalls during June and
September. Between July and August occurs a dry period of 15 days (canicula).
The non rainy season (locally named summer) occurs between October and
May, corresponding to the harvesting period.

36
SOILS

Parent material

Parent material on which soils of sugarcane growing areas are developed are
mainly formed by volcanic ash, lapilli, pumice and pyroclastics, which exist due
to high volcanic activity occurred in different geological time, mainly the
Quaternary Period (CENGICAÑA, 1996).

Soil mineralogy and granulometrical characteristics vary from one place to the
other, depending on geographical position, especially in relation to the distance
from the volcanic crater. Allophane is the predominant material in soils at high
and medium strata, meanwhile, in low stratum Haloisite and 2:1 clay are
predominant, probably Esmectite in the lowlands along the Western and Eastern
parts of the region.

Soil classification at the sugarcane region

In 1993 and 1994, a semi detailed soil survey was carried out (1:50,000) in the
sugarcane growing zone. For this, the Soil taxonomy System was used,
considering Family level (Soil survey Staff, 1992).

At the region, the following were identified: 6 soil Orders, 9 Suborders, 13

Great Groups, 25 Subgroups and 37 Families. By its extension: Mollisols,
Andisols, Entisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols, in order of importance,
respectively.

Order localization in the region is observed in Figure 3. The position of each

Order is corresponding to the natural landscape, depending on slope and
topography characteristics due to fluvio-volcanic material deposition and its
distribution downward leaching from the mountains. Thus, it is observed that
Andisols (recent formed soils) are located at high and medium strata in the
region with greater rainfall than in the lowlands and littoral areas where
Mollisols are predominant.

37
Figure 3. Map showing Soil classification at sugarcane growing areas at Southern
Guatemala. Source: SIAP-CENGICAÑA

The main characteristics of six Orders of soil are described in the following
paragraphs.

Mollisols are presented in 40 percent of total area. They are located

mainly in littoral zone, close to the coast, in flat and slightly flat
topography. These soils present medium development, showing ABC y
AC horizons. The superficial horizon has a variable depth, dark color and
medium organic matter content. Base saturation is more than 50 percent
through soil profile. Soil particles aggregation varies from moderate to
strong structure. Mostly, we come across soil that is loamy and sandy-
loamy with predominant sandy subsoil.

Andisols are predominant in high and medium strata, occupying 26 percent

of total area. They present little development, derived from volcanic ash,
dark in color, high organic matter content and low bulk density.
Consistency ranges from friable to loose. These soils have excellent
physical properties with loamy and sandy loamy textures, but present some
chemical limitations, such as high retention of phosphate and sulfur.

38
Entisols are the less evolved soils in the region, with just AC horizons. They
constitute 16 percent of the total area. They are found in valleys and alluvial
fans in narrow strips, located in medium and lowlands that extend to the coast
plains. They have little or no development and little or no evidence of genetic
horizons development. Mostly, these soils present a good permeability due to
gross sandy texture. Subsoil tends to be sandy so, during the summer, water
deficit is frequently a limiting factor.

Inceptisols are located on medium and lower strata, composing 11 percent of

the total area. They are mainly developed on clay material mixed with
volcanic ash and rock fragments. These soils have a medium development
presenting saturation of exchange capacity (< 50 %). They have well
developed structure and medium or fine texture on clay subsoil.

Alfisols are suited on medium and low strata of the antique fans, presenting
undulated and slightly undulated topography. An important characteristic is an
argillic B horizon due to clay leaching down to the subsoil. Usually these soils
present clay texture with massive and compact structure.

Vertisols occupy a minimum extension of total area (0.5 %). Soils are well
developed with ABC horizons. They present high clay content, such as
Montmorillonite, and therefore tend to crack during dry season, and swell in
rainy season.

Soil Management Groups

The grouping of soil management was based on information from Semi-

detailed Study of Soils of the Sugarcane Growing Zone of Guatemala
(CENGICAÑA, 1996), adapted from the original grouping. The soils were
classified in accordance to the Manual de Conservación del Suelo y del Agua
del Colegio de Post-graduados, de la Secretaría de Agricultura y Recursos
Hídricos de México (Adapted for the sugarcane crop in Guatemala) and the
corresponding taxonomic family (CENGICAÑA, 2002).

39
Factors employed to define Soil Classes were divided into two groups:
limiting factors and auxiliary factors. Limiting factors – by range of
variation and importance- define specific classes, whereas auxiliary factors
do not necessarily define a class, but describe special handling conditions.
The most important limiting factors found were: climatic conditions,
susceptibility to erosion, topography and soil; auxiliary factors were soil
texture, permeability and soil reaction (pH), (CENGICAÑA, 2002).

The analysis of both limiting and auxiliary factors results on 13 soil

groups, corresponding to 4 soil classes (agrological classes). Each class
was identified with its corresponding limiting factor(s) using conventional
nomenclature, while auxiliary factor(s) are described in parentheses.

The main characteristics of each of the Soil Management Groups are

presented in Table 2, and their geographical localization is shown in
Figure 4.

Table 2. Main characteristics of the soil management groups of the sugarcane

area of Guatemala (CENGICAÑA, 2002)

Soil Soil Class /limiting

Characteristics
Group factors

S01 I Deep Mollisols with high fertility.

S02 II/E Deep and well drained Andisols, showing slight erosion

Gross texture, moderately deep and permeable

S03 II/S1 (PR)
(Dry Mollisols).
Moderately deep Inceptisols, with clay texture and
S04 II/S1 (PL)
low permeability
Clay Inceptisols, slightly slanted
S05 II/T1 E (PL) Susceptible to erosion, low permeability

Moderately deep Andisols, slightly slanted to

S06 II/T1 S1 E
Undulated, susceptible to erosion.
Clay soils that crack in the dry season, slightly slanted
S07 II/T1 S1 E (TF) (PL) susceptible to erosion and very slowly permeable
(Vertic integrated soils).

40
 Soil Soil Class /limiting
Characteristics
Group factors
Superficial, limited by presence of hardpan (talpetate)
S08 III/S1
(Superficial Andisols).
Mollisols affected by moderate presence of salts,
S09 III/S4 (PR)
Gross texture, highly permeable.
Entisols with low water holding capacity, limited by layers
S10 III/S1 (TQ) (PR)
of sand along profile
Slightly slanted to undulated soils, susceptible to erosion,
S11 III/T2 E S5 (TF) (PL) heavy texture with slow permeability and sodium presence
(vertic Alfisols).
Inceptisols and Entisols forming part of hills with high
S12 IV/T2
slope, undulated to hilly topography, low fertility.
Low fertility soils, heavy texture, low permeability, very
S13 IV/T2 (RI) (PL) dry during the summer, flat to undulated topography
(Southern Coastal Plains).

Predominant soils in the sugarcane growing zone are dry Mollisols (S03 Group)
that cover 37.1 percent of total area, followed by Entisols (19.9 percent),
characterized by low water holding capacity due to layers of sandy soil along
profile (S10 Group). Other important soils are deep and well drained Andisols (S02
Group), deep and highly fertile Mollisols (S01) and superficial Andisols (S08),
occupying 13.4, 8.4 y 7.6 percent of the total area, respectively (Villatoro et al.,
2010).

AGROECOLOGICAL ZONIFICATION (AEZ)

Agroecological zonification was obtained by interaction of two geographic
layers corresponding to the Soil Management Group map and Iso-balance
Group map, obtained through hydrologic balance from May to October by
CENGICAÑA.

Each zone was identified with an alphanumeric code consisting of five

characters; the first three characters indicate soil group (For example: S01 = soil
group 1) and the last two characters indicate the iso-balance group (For
example: H2= Iso-balance Group 2). Also, zones were identified with a
correlative number starting from 1. In this first approximation, 44 agro
ecological zones were obtained. The base map used for the first approximation
of agro-ecological zonification for sugarcane growing areas of South Coast of

41
Guatemala was that of Soil Management Groups. The Agro ecological
Zonification is shown in Figure 5 (Villatoro et al., 2010).

Figure 4. Soil Management Groups Map in sugarcane growing areas at Southern

Coast of Guatemala

Figure 5. Agro ecological zonification of sugarcane growing areas in Southern

Coast of Guatemala

42
Agro-ecological zonification is currently used to analyze data from yields at
each cropping area. It is useful to compare productivity among different areas,
select areas to establish field experiments, evaluate varieties at a regional and
semi commercial scale, and relate other management variables.

REFERENCES
1. CENGICAÑA. 1996. Estudio semidetallado de suelos de la zona cañera del
sur de Guatemala. Ingeniería del Campo Ltda. Compañía Consultora.
Guatemala. 216 p.

2. CENGICAÑA. 1996b. Anexo I del libro: Estudio semidetallado de suelos

de la zona cañera del sur de Guatemala. Ingeniería del Campo Ltda.
Compañía Consultora. Guatemala. 137 p.

3. CENGICAÑA. 2002. Grupos de Manejo de Suelos de la Zona Cañera de

Guatemala. In: Informe Anual 2001-2002. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp.
37-39.

4. CENGICAÑA. 2009. Estratificación de la zona cañera de Guatemala. En:

Informe Anual 2007-2008. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 71-73.

5. Holdridge, L. R. 1967. Life Zone Ecology. Tropical Science Center. San

José, Costa Rica. (Traducción del inglés por Humberto Jiménez Saa:
Ecología Basada en Zonas de Vida, 1a. ed. San José, Costa Rica: IICA,
1982).

6. MAGA (Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganadería y Alimentación). 2006. Mapa

de Cobertura de Uso del Suelo y Uso de la Tierra, escala 1:50,000. UPGGR
(Unidad de Planificación Geográfica y Gestión de Riesgo). Guatemala.

7. Meneses, A.; Melgar, M.; Posadas, W. 2011. Boletín Estadístico año 12-2
del área de Campo. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. 48 p. En prensa.

8. Orozco, H.; Soto, G. J.; Pérez, O.; Ventura, R.; Recinos, M. 1995.
Estratificación preliminar de la zona de producción de caña de azúcar
(Saccharum spp) en Guatemala con fines de investigación en variedades.
Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. Documento Técnico No. 6. 24 p.

43
9. Soil Survey Staff. 1992. Keys to soil taxonomy 5th Ed. Virginia. United
States. Pocahontas Press.

10. Villatoro, B.; Pérez, O.; Suárez, A.; Castro, O.; Rodríguez, M.; Ufer, C.
2010. Zonificación Agroecológica para el Cultivo de Caña de Azúcar en la
Zona Cañera de la Costa Sur de Guatemala –Primera Aproximación–. In:
Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2009-2010.
Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 325-331.

44
III. SUGARCANE BREEDING
AND SELECTION

45
 SUGARCANE BREEDING AND SELECTION
Héctor Orozco, José Luis Quemé,
Werner Ovalle and Fredy Rosales Longo

INTRODUCTION
The objectives of breeding and selection in plants are the modification of traits
and at the same time, to take advantage of the natural genetic variation. The
final aim is to obtain new varieties that suit human needs in specific
circumstances. The focus of CENGICAÑA's sugarcane breeding and selection
program is to obtain new high yielding varieties through breeding and selection
in order to progressively, increase sugar yield in the sugarcane growing areas of
Guatemala. The new varieties besides high sugar yield, must adapt to the
different environments and soil conditions in the production area, with genetic
resistance to the main diseases, as well as adequate agronomic characteristics
for their proper management.

The sugarcane breeding and selection program of CENGICAÑA was

established with a general strategy that includes three main components: a)
genetic variability, generation through germplasm acquisition and management,
and by crossing selected parents, b) assessment and selection from crosses
progenies and introduced varieties from abroad, and c) releasing of new
varieties (Orozco, 2005). This chapter describes the above components. The
general strategy involves four main breeding objectives: a) sugar yield increase
per unit/area b) disease resistance, c) adaptability, and d) ratooning ability.
These breeding objectives are lined up with the varietal prototype that growers
are requiring for the Guatemalan sugarcane industry.

At CENGICAÑA, genetic variability is generated through conventional

breeding, establishing, mostly, bi-parental crosses using selected parents. New
parents are incorporated each subsequent crossing campaign. The new parents
are selected from elite varieties introduced from other sugarcane breeding
programs in the world. The introduced varieties are obtained through specific
agreements based on exchanging CG elite varieties and foreign varieties. The
selection program is based on an outline that guides the development of specific
varieties for specific altitudinal zones or varieties with specific early or late
maturity pattern. The selection program is based on five stages of selection,


Héctor Orozco is Agr. Eng., M.Sc., Leader of CENGICAÑA’s Sugarcane Breeding and Selection Program;
José Luis Quemé is Agr. Eng., Ph.D., Plant breeder; Werner Ovalle is Agr. Eng., M.Sc., Plant pathology and
Fredy Rosales Longo is Agr. Eng, M.Sc., Plant breeder, CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org  

46
which begin with an original population of near 180,000 stools in the stage I,
and finishes up with three to five promising varieties in stage V. The stage V
or semi-commercial field trial of CENGICAÑA´s program is the validation
stage, and based on the evaluation results in this stage, varieties for commercial
use are released.

The variety releasing procedure consists in a Technical Report about the

performance of the variety in the stage V in terms of sugar yield, disease
resistance, agronomic characteristics and adaptability after three crops:
plantcane, first and second ratoon. Due to the CENGICAÑA’s varieties
program has released several varieties and because some of them are
in commercial scale, a new activity, which is called New Varieties
Development, has been initiated. In this project breeders and growers
from the mills, design the mill variety composition, based mainly on the
concept of specific adaptability of commercial varieties and the
availability of the new ones. A second part of the project involves the
discussion of information about the varieties performance in accordance
to the planned variety composition. The information is shared and
discussed for each mill; additionally this information is also shared
among all mills in a Variety Forum every two years.

GERMPLASM
In sugarcane breeding, the germplasm collection constitutes the biological basis
for the creation of new cultivars. The collections serve as sources of genetic
variability, which exploitation and utilization allow obtaining new and more
productive cultivars, with high sugar content, suitable agronomic characteristics,
and resistance to main pests and diseases. Typically, collections include basic
germplasm (Saccharum's species and related genera) and Saccharum spp.
hybrids. The basic germplasm collection is in the sugarcane world collection,
which is replicated in two locations of the world: one is in India and the other one
is in the United States of America. The world collection is formed mostly of basic
germplasm, such is the case of the world collection in Miami, Florida, with 1,394
accessions coming from the following species of sugarcane and related grasses:
Saccharum officinarum (397), S. barberi (58), S. sinense (42), S. robustum (85),
S. spontaneum (348), Saccharum spp. (229), commercial hybrids (193), Erianthus
(23), Narenga (1) and Miscanthus (18) (Ming et al., 2006).

47
Sugarcane breeding programs throughout the world have their own collections
that have been used for the development of these cultivars. In general, the use of
basic germplasm in these collections has been low. The total number of
accessions or cultivars is reported as follows: Australia (4,220), Brazil (3,736);
The United States of America (5,020); Barbados (2,567); Cuba (3,386); India
(3,979); and Fiji (6,000) accessions (INICA, 2003). In addition to genetic
material, the conformation of a germplasm collection involves quarantine
measures on the introduced plants control, in order to avoid the introduction or
dissemination of quarantine interest plagues.

General concepts of sugarcane cytogenetics

Sugarcane belongs to the Saccharum genus, which at the same time is member
of the Andropogonae tribe, and this one is part of the Poaceae family. In this
genus there are six species: S. spontaneum, S. robustum, S. officinarum, S.
barbieri, S. sinense y S. edule. It is believed, though, that the last three species
have an interspecific or intergeneric background (D’Hont et al., 1998). On the
other hand, the molecular evidence is not enough to maintain the “species”
status for S. barberi y S. sinense (Ming et al., 2006).

The modern sugarcane (Saccharum spp. Hybrids) is a genetically complex crop.

That is the reason why, its breeding in the traditional way (inbreeding and
hybridization) is problematic. Modern sugarcane cultivars (Saccharum spp.
Hybrids) have taken the place of traditional cultivars of S. officinarum and some
clones of S. spontaneum (Grivet et al., 2004).

Molecular Cytogenetics

The sugarcane species are characterized by their small and numerous

chromosomes (35 to more than 200) (Ming et al., 2006). Several studies about
molecular cytogenetics (D’Hont et al., 1998; Grivet et al., 2004; Edmé et al.,
2005; Babu, 2006; Piperidis et al., 2010) and about gene mapping (Da Silva et
al., 1993; al Janabi et al., 1993; Grivet et al., 1994) have established the
approximate size of the genome of S. spontaneum, which is between 3.05 and
5.31 pg (picograms, 1pg=987 Mbp). The genome size of S. officinarum is
between 6.32 and 6.66 pg. Some commercial sugarcane cultivars (Saccharum
spp hybrids) from Canal Point show genomes sizes which oscillate between
6.30 and 7.5 pg (Edmé et al., 2005). Modern sugarcane cultivars show from
70% to 80% of chromosomes derived from S. officinarum, whereas 10% to 20%
comes from S. spontaneum; and a very few chromosomes are product of the
specific genetic recombination of those two species (Ming et al, 2006; Le Cunff
et al., 2008).

48
What is the basic chromosomes number in Sugarcane?

In plants, there are species that have more than one set of chromosomes on its
haploid form (n). In polyploids “X” is used for designating the number of
monoploid set of chromosomes. “X” is used to indicate the monoploid set of the
haploid or gametic chromosome number (n). Therefore, the haploid number (n)
and the chromosome monoploid (x) number of one basic diploid species are the
same (Allard, 1980).

For sugarcane, Sreenivasan et al., (1987) have revised the different proposals
for the basic chromosome number for a set of them (1x), these proposals are
summarized as follows: X=5, 6, 8, 10, 12. In S. officinarum, it has been
determined that the total of chromosomes is 2n = 10x = 80. Clones with a
greater number of chromosomes, are regarded atypical or hybrids (Sreenivasan
et al., 1987). For S. officinarum with the main cytotypes 2n = 60-80, the most
likely basic chromosomes number is x = 10 (D’Hont et al., 1998; Butterfield et
al., 2001; Ming et al., 2006).

S. spontaneum shows a wide range on its chromosomes number, 2n = 36 to 2n =

128, with five main cytotypes: 2n = 64, 80, 96, 112 and 128. Through the use of
immunofluorescence, D’Hont et al., (1998), in 18s-25s rDNA and 5S rDNA
genes, have determined their physical location in the chromosomes of the
different cytotypes of S. spontaneum. With this information it was found that
the total number of chromosomes is proportional to the number of sites of the
rDNA physically mapped. From this study, consequently, it was derived that the
basic number for a set of chromosomes for S. spontaneum is x = 8.

The S. officinarum x S. spontaneum hybrids

Modern sugarcane cultivars (Saccharum spp. hybrids) are derived from

interspecific crossings between S. officinarum (2n=8x=80) a domesticated high
sugar producing species, which is also called “noble cane” with S. spontaneum a
wild relative (2n=5x=40 to n=16x=128) (Sreenivasan et al., 1987; Butterfield et
al., 2001; Ming et al., 2006; Le Cunff et al., 2008).

The interspecific hybrids, especially those that involve S. officinarum as female

parent and S. spontaneum as the male parent, have a triploid (AAB) number of
chromosomes, which are related to their parents, for example, a cross between S.
officinarum (2n=10x=80) and S. spontaneum (2n=8x=112), results in hybrids
containing 2n=136 chromosomes (40+40 from S. officinarum plus 56 from S.
spontaneum; that is 2n+n) (Sreenivasan et al., 1987). These hybrids are
characterized by its low sugar content, slim stalks, high fiber content, high

49
ratooning ability and by their high resistance levels against biotic and abiotic
stresses.

To minimize the negative effects coming from S. spontaneum and to maximize

the ability to retain the sucrose from S. officinarum, a series of backcrosses were
made between the interspecific hybrids and the female parent, S. officinarum
(Fig. 1). This process drives to the “nobilisation” of the original Saccharum spp.
hybrids (Sreenivasan et al., 1987). This was a turning point in the sugarcane
breeding. The result of the backcrosses was an offspring provided with 2n+2
gametes.

The next generations coming from subsequent backcrosses only showed

gametes reduction. The continuous backcrosses drove to the chromosome losses
in the resultant offspring, in other words, the aneuploidy (Sreenivasan et al.,
1987; Butterfield et al., 2001; D’Hont et al., 1998). That’s why, modern
sugarcane cultivars are highly polyploids (~12x) and aneuploids with ~120
chromosomes (Le Cunff et al., 2008; Grivet et al., 2004).

S. officinarum  Loethers 
Bandjarmasim  natural  S. officinarum  S. spontanem 
X        
Hitarm  hybrid  Black Cheribon  first  Glagah 
2n=10x=80 X 2n=99 2n=10x=80 nobilisation 2n=8x=112

x           
POJ 100  second  Kassoer 
2n=89 nobilisation 2n=136
POJ 
100 X EK2

POJ 2364  S. officinarum 
2n=148 EK 28 2n=119
X                     
third nobilisation

POJ 2725 y POJ 2878 
2n=119

Figure 1. Pedigree of POJ 2878 and POJ 2725 (Purseglove 1972; Sreenivasan et
al., 1987)

The interspecific hybridization in the Saccharum genus was initiated

by Dutch plant breeders in the Java Island, around 1885. As an
outcome of this job, there was obtained the POJ-2725 and POJ-2878
cultivars. These two cultivars have significantly contributed as parents
for many modern cultivars throughout the world in the latest 100
years, especially POJ-2878 cultivar. Similarly, the cultivar Co205 was
obtained in the Coimbatore breeding program in India (Sreenivasan et
al., 1987; Purseglove, 1972).

50
Variety Introductions and quarantine

CENGICAÑA's sugarcane breeding and selection program, as well as other

sugarcane breeding programs throughout the world (MSIRI 2006 and BSES
2007) is emphasizing in the introduction of new varieties from breeding
programs from other countries. These varieties are elite and they are
obtained through special variety exchange agreements. The elite
varieties in this context are those that performs better than the Standard
varieties in each program

The objectives of these introductions in CENGICAÑA´s sugarcane breeding

and selection program were established since the beginning of the program
(Orozco et al., 2004 y 2008) as follows: a) widening the genetic base by
using the foreign varieties as parents in the crossing scheme and b) testing
the introduced varieties in the selection program for potential commercial
use. Since 1992 CENGICAÑA has introduced 1300 elite varieties from 12
breeding programs. The contribution of these introductions is significant, if
it is considered that in the future, there will be more restrictions for
germplasm exchange among the different sugarcane breeding programs.

The introduced varieties are treated in a local quarantine system. The aim of
CENGICAÑA´s quarantine is to reduce the risk of introducing sugarcane
crop pathogens, which are not found in the country or new strains of
pathogens already present in the country. The quarantine system consists of
two stages: closed quarantine and open quarantine.

The closed quarantine is located in Guatemala City, in a greenhouse made

of aluminium and glass, which has anti-aphid-mesh-protected windows and
internal split rooms for the isolation of the introduced plants according to
their origin. The introduced seed stalks are cut in one eye setts and four of
these are planted in 25Lt pots, containing a substrate composed of soil, sand
and, organic matter. Irrigation and fertilization are applied to obtain normal
plant development. The plants are evaluated every two months in order to
detect infections for smut (Ustilago scitaminea H Syd & P. Syd), Leaf scald
(Xanthomonas albilineans), Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV), Sugarcane
yellow leaf virus (SCYLV), and others (Ovalle, 1997). When symptoms of
any disease are found in a pot, the pot is isolated and the plants are dried and

51
burned. After a period of about eight to twelve months, the disease-free
varieties are cut and moved into the open quarantine.

The objective of the open quarantine is to allow the disease-free introduced

varieties grow in field conditions in an area located 300 Km away from the
commercial sugarcane fields. The field planting gives the chance to observe
infections that were not detected in the closed quarantine. The open
quarantine takes 12 months, with two crop cycles of six months each and
with evaluations at the end of each cycle. Symptomatic varieties infected
with the above mentioned diseases are eliminated from the field by pulling
them out of the soil and letting them dry for burning. Disease-free varieties
that successfully undergo quarantine period are prepared to be sent to
Guatemala's sugarcane growing area in the southern pacific so they can be
incorporated in the stage II of selection in the CENGICAÑA's breeding and
selection program.

Germplasm collection

CENGICAÑA's Variety Program counts with a germplasm collection called

the National Collection, which consists of 2,040 accessions or cultivars,
most of them Saccharum spp. hybrids. The accessions or cultivars were
generated by different breeding programs throughout the world, such as:
United States (initials CP and L), Barbados (B), Puerto Rico (PR), Mexico
(MEX), Brazil (RB and SP), Colombia (CC), Ecuador (ECU), Cuba (C, Ha
My and others), India (Co), Australia (Q), Thailand (MPT), Mauritius (M),
Guatemala (CG) and others. The collection was established according to: a)
preserve, expand, and use the variability for breeding purposes, b) identify
suitable cultivars for commercial exploitation, and c) hold a genetic seed-
cane source to initiate the increase of any cultivar of specific interest.

The National Collection is established at the CENGICAÑA’s Sugarcane

Field Station Camantulul (300masl). The area is in a safe place, with
suitable soil characteristics, which allows proper management in
irrigation, fertilization, pest control, weed and others. The collection is
renewed every 3 or 4 years, and the previous plantation is left at least
for one year, while the new plantation is established successfully.

52
The National Collection's genetic variability is increased by through the
incorporation of elite national germplasm: (CG, CENGICAÑA-Guatemala) and
elite foreign germplasm (different acronyms), introducing in average 60
accessions per year. The national accessions are those that have been evaluated
in the stage IV on multiple environment field trials. The international
accessions, after quarantine process, are evaluated in an early selection stage
(stage II) in two locations, both representatives of the sugarcane area of
Guatemala then they are finally introduced to the collection. These evaluations,
in some extent, allow identifying the level of adaptation of each of the
accessions. Those varieties that have outstanding performance in stage IV are
usually used as parents.

Originally, CENGICAÑA's Sugarcane Breeding and Selection Program

characterized the agricultural and industrial features of the National Collection
such as juice quality and morphological features. This defined groups of
valuable cultivars with potential to be used in hybrid generation based on their
origin (Soto and Orozco, 1998; CENGICAÑA, 1999). Subsequently, some
varieties have been characterized as they were being evaluated in advanced
stages of selection, considering the variables: cane yield in ton/ha (TCH),
apparent sucrose content, expressed in percentage (Pol%-cane), adaptability,
agronomic characteristics, and reaction to mayor diseases. A group of
varieties of the National Collection was characterized through molecular
markers using microsatellite DNA sequences or simple sequence repeats
(SSRs). According to the genetic similarity, homogeneous groups of
cultivars were formed. This classification helps to optimize the planning of
the combinations in the crossing process (Quemé et al., 2005).

CROSSING AND TRUE SEED PRODUCTION

Due to the dependence on introduced cultivars for commercial cultivation,

as well as susceptibility to local diseases, import of new cultivars is
upheld. However, the varieties import has some drawbacks: a) the cultivars
are developed in different conditions to those in which they will be
commercially grown, limiting their adaptability and raising disease
susceptibility as well; b) the sugarcane breeding programs around the
world are limiting the free access to new cultivars, due to the policies on
“Varieties Obtaining rights”. This situation supported, in part, the creation
of the CENGICAÑA’s Sugarcane Breeding and Selection Program, in
order to obtain local cultivars with high sugar yield per hectare, adequate

53
agronomical features, good adaptability, resistance to the main diseases in
the surroundings where they are cultivated, and others. The Sugarcane
Breeding and Selection Program begins with an appropriate hybridization
system (CENICAÑA, 2004; Miller, 1994; South African Sugar
Association, SF).

Any plant breeding program has two main components: a) creation of genetic
variability (usually through crosses), and b) discrimination within this
variability (selection). The elements that make sustainable genetic improvement
of sugarcane are: a) the release of new improved cultivars and b) the continuous
improvement of the populations that are used as parents. The improvement of
populations can be achieved through the use of elite clones as a result of the
selection program, introduction of new foreign clones and elimination of the
unproductive parents (Cox et al., 2000).
Hybridization in sugarcane is based on the crossing of populations among them,
through the technique “plant to plant” (P to P), from which F1 true seed (sexual
seed) is obtained. When the sexual seed is sowed, it produces plants that are
subjected to the selection process (Márquez, 1988). Since the importance of
hybridization in creating variability in the breeding program, crosses strategy of
CENGICAÑA’s Breeding and Selection Program is described below.

Source of Parents

As a result of the characterization of the national collection, the working

collection has been formed, which is composed by 418 cultivars which have the
potential for making crosses. This collection constitutes the main source of
parents, complemented by the national collection.

The working collection is located at the Sugarcane Field Station Camantulul

(middle stratum, 300masl) and at the “Los Tarros” sugarcane experimental
station at “La Union” sugar mill (high stratum, 760 masl).

The reasons for establishing a replication of the work collection at the high
stratum are: 1) in this area, higher frequencies of varieties with flower are
obtained in a natural way (Table 1), which facilitates the increase in the number
of combination through the crossing process, 2) higher frequencies of the
flowering synchronization, which allows crossings within parents that flowers
at the same time but in different locations.

Table 1. Flowering incidence (%) in cultivars of work collection in two

altitudinal strata

54
 Harvest High stratum Middle stratum
Difference
season 760 masl 300 masl
2007-08 91 68 23

2008-09 83 36 47

2009-10 67 26 41

Parents Selection for crosses

The selection of top-quality parents is essential for the crosses success. The
value of the parents can be defined by their combination ability to produce good
progenies and their performance per se in terms of sugar concentration,
adaptability, agronomic features, disease and pest resistance, and other
attributes.
CENGICAÑA's Variety Program has a well-established crossing schedule that
includes different groups of cultivars, according to the following criteria:
a)varieties with adequate agronomic characteristics and a good sugar content,
b)varieties identified as contrasting through molecular markers, c)CG advanced
cultivars and high-quality introduced cultivars, d) cultivars that were cultivated
and/or varieties are successfully cultivated in Guatemala, e)successful cultivars
as parents in other breeding programs, f) cultivars classified by its natural
maturation, and others.

The criterion to take into account a parent in a cross is based on: a) the sugar
content, b) tons of cane per hectare (TCH), c) disease resistance, and d)
others. In the last two years, a lot of importance has been given to the
resistance to Orange rust (Puccinia kuehnii) and Brown rust (Puccinia
melanocephala). For example, using the criteria from Table 2, the CG97-97
cultivar was coded as NSRN, MSRM, P2, T1, meaning that the cultivar does
not have symptoms of Orange rust, it is moderately susceptible to Brown rust
(15.1-20.0% incidence), the Pol%-cane is similar or greater to the control
cultivar (CP72-2086) and tonnage is equal or greater than 20 percent
compared to the control cultivar. This means that a potential parent with a
record equal or better than the commercial control for traits of interest, is
selected. Parents that have shown the ability to produce good offspring in
previous crosses are also selected. Ranges of the "value in relation to control”
(Table 2) were defined according to Viveros et al., 2009.

Table 2 Criteria for selecting parents for crosses

55
 Value
Degrees of resistance or susceptibility
relative to Pol %
TCH
CP72-2086 cane Resistance to
Orange rust Brown rust
(%) both rusts
Different Different
>=120 P1 T1 RR*
codifications codifications
Different Different
100-119 P2 T2 RR*
codifications codifications
Different Different
90-99 P3 T3 RR*
codifications codifications
* RR is assigned to cultivars with resistance to both rusts

A study conducted in 2008 (unpublished) showed that using females with no

incidence of orange rust increases the probabilities of having an orange rust
resistant progeny (Table 3). This suggests that it is necessary both parents show
resistance (or absence of symptoms) or at least the female must not to show the
symptoms to orange rust.

Table 3. Progeny response from parents with different percentages of incidence

of Orange rust

Incidence Orange rust Progeny with

Crosses (%) * Orange rust
Female Male (%) **
CP73-1547 x CP89-1288 0 0 0
CP73-1547 x B74418 0 0 0
CP73-1547 x L82-41 0 0 0
CP92-1401 x V71-51 0 8 0
CP72-2086 x L79-321 10 0 25
SP79-2233 x CP72-2086 15 10 42
CP72-2086 (control) 35
*Incidence rate (from 0% to 50%) in the leaf No. 7.
**Percent of bunches with presence of Orange rust.

Crossing techniques and procedures

Location and season for crosses: Crossings take place in two crossing houses,
one located at the Sugarcane Field Station Camantulul and the second one
located at the Los Tarros sugarcane field station at La Union sugar mill.
Average relative humidity and temperature is 83% and 27° C, at Camantulul

56
and 81% and 25º C at “Los Tarros”, respectively. These conditions are
considered appropriate to maintain the pollen viability. The crossing season is
defined by the natural flowering, which usually occurs in November and
December.

Monitoring of flowering and sex definition for parents

The judgment of the natural flowering is performed every two days, with the
purpose of assessing how many flowers are available for crossings. The sex of
the parents is determined by magnifier-glass, classifying as male (♂) the
parent that presents purplish to brownish plump anthers exuding pollen from
both lobes; and as a female (♀) the one presenting shriveled, small, pale
yellow colored and with scarce pollen. The sexuality of the parents is
corroborated by examining the iodine stained pollen under the microscope (0
to 20% of tinged pollen is considered female and over 30% it is regarded as
male).
In special cases, where both parents are classified as males, and there is interest
to make a cross between them, masculine sterility is induced using alcohol at a
70% of concentration, as described by Soeprijanto and Sukarso (1989).

Stems Management: at the beginning of the anthesis, stems of selected parents,

are cut at their base, they are also labeled and put in filled-water buckets; stems
are carefully transported to the crossing house. Inside the crossing house, a new
cut is made at the base of the stems and each stem is then placed in a one-liter
capacity plastic or glass bottle. In order to extend stem life, and, consequently,
flowers life; it is necessary that the bottles contain water as well two more
solutions: a) sulfurous acid (H2SO3), and b) fixed acids (H2SO4, HNO3 and
H3PO4). The H2SO3 Sulfurous acid is obtained by mixing of sulfur dioxide gas
(SO3) and water. These solutions preserve stems and provides nutrients. During
the crossing phase, both solutions are applied according to a weekly schedule as
follows: Monday (sulfurous A. and fixed A.), Wednesday (sulfurous A.), and
Friday (sulfurous A. and fixed A.). Another technique used to prolong the life
of the flowers are marcotting, they are made in the bottom of the stems of 4-6
weeks before anthesis, then the stems with the marcotting are taken to the
crossing house and placed in buckets with water or in combination with
preservatives solutions.

Management and crossing type: To perform crosses, the stems are placed in
isolated conditions inside of the crossing house (cubicles or lanterns), the male
parent flowers are placed above of the female flowers; in the morning, male
stems are slightly shake in order to improve the release of pollen. Regarding
the type of crossing, most of the crosses made in CENGICAÑA, have been bi-
parental also called two-parent (a female cultivar for a male cultivar), and a

57
fewer number of crosses have been poly-crosses (a female cultivar by two or
more males cultivars). In a minimal proportion, open-pollinated crosses have
been obtained, which are females located in the collections which are pollinated
by one or more males outdoors. For any type of crosses, the pollination period
occurs approximately in the first 14 days, then comes the period of seed
maturation (10-15 days). At the crossing house, sometimes males are removed
after 14 days, since for those days they have already completed the pollinator
function.

Ripeness, harvesting and drying of the true seed: after completing

pollination, female pollinated stems, enter into the sexual seed maturation
phase. Approximately 20 days after the start of crossing, the female flowers are
covered with white tulle bags (1 mm mesh), keeping stems inside the solution
of the crosses. Female flowers can be harvested 25 to 30 days after the
beginning of cross, cutting the peduncle of each panicle. Depending on the
breeder’s criterion sometimes males are harvested, mainly when females and
males are in an intermediate point of their sexual classification (e.g. between
20% and 30% of tinged pollen). For the drying process, panicles inside the tulle
bags are placed at 35° C in a forced air chamber for 24 hours. The seed drying
process is the result of a two consecutive year study that determined that such
treatment does not affect the seed germination (unpublished).

Cleaning and storage of the true seed: true fuzzy seed (fuzz) can be
manually cleaned by rubbing it against a carpet or mechanically using a defuzz
machine. Clean seed is identified and stored in plastic bags with a desiccant in a
-12°C chamber. Finally, seed is germinated in a greenhouse and the resulting
seedlings are transplanted to the field, two or three months after germination to
start the selection program. Currently, more than 550 crosses are being
established each year with an average production of 160,000 seedlings.

SELECTION PROGRAM
The selection procedures vary among the different sugarcane breeding
programs throughout the world. These selection procedures depend mainly
on plant age, and the number of harvests or ratoons (Ming et al. 2006). In
Guatemala, the sugarcane varieties commercially used, reach the harvest age
around 12 months old with an average number of five harvests. The
selection criteria applied in the Sugarcane Breeding and Selection Program
of CENGICAÑA, regarding the above mentioned aspects, are addressed to
the definition of the genetic prototype which is established jointly with the
sugarcane growers. This prototype must be according to the harvest duration
in Guatemala, which begins in November and ends in April. Due to this

58
situation, sugarcane growers ask for varieties whose natural ripening is
according to this harvest period. Consequently, CENGICAÑA, develop two
different groups of cultivars: “flowering” varieties and “non-flowering”
varieties. The flowering varieties should have early ripening, whereas the
“non-flowering” materials should ripe at the end of the harvesting period.

Early stages of selection

Selection Stage I. According to its genetic composition this is the largest stage. In
this stage the genetic material is surveyed until a whole plant with several stems
or stalks develops from each true seed. True seeds are the result of the crossing
process. Therefore, these individuals are considered as genetically recombinants.
The recombinant individuals are the basis for the entire variability which is
found in the selection stage I and they are selected throughout all the
selection process. These individuals are acclimatized into a greenhouse
and then planted in the definite field.
The stage I, is carried out under the responsibility of the professional and
technical personnel at CENGICAÑA's Sugarcane Field Station Camantulul,
with the aim of preserving this genetic variability in optimal field conditions.
The main principle of stage I, is: “each single plant has the potential to become
a superior variety with a high performance”.

Stage I, is carried out during two growing cycles at the same trial: plantcane and
first ratoon. Final selection is performed during the harvest of the first ratoon,
where tillered plants are selected. During the first growing cycle, at the location
where selection is carried out, the plants grown from true seeds do not express
their entire performance potential. Due to the large number of individuals as a
result of the different crossings, the observation levels in this Stage is limited to
general aspects such as vigor in terms of number of stalks per plant, height and
stalk diameter as well as overall good health.

In Stage I names of all the selected individuals are assigned. These names
include: the letters “CG” from CENGICAÑA Guatemala followed by the
number of the crossing experiment and by a correlative number for each
selection, according to the specific field book records. This name will identify
the genetic material in the next selection stages until its eventual releasing.
With the assigned name the corresponding genealogy is also established. In
different breeding agreements, with other breeding programs, the names can
vary; nevertheless in general, the structure is preserved.

59
In Stage I, the number of surveyed genetic materials is usually more than
160,000. Two groups are recognized during the selection: “flowering” and
“non-flowering” genotypes, according to the flowering habit. The flowering
habit is an indicative of the genotype’s chronological adaptation: those
genotypes that have the flowering habit are adapted to the first harvest months,
that is, from November to January. On the other hand, those materials with low
flowering rate are fitted for latest harvest months, that is, March and April. In
between, there are also some materials that fit for the harvest in January and
February, as they have an intermediate flowering rate. No experimental design
is applied in the Stage I trials.

The CENGICAÑA's Sugarcane Breeding and Selection Program, with the

objective of optimizing the selection process, has established, as a part of Stage
I, two trials of “families evaluation”, where the offspring of each cross
constitutes one family. The evaluation is done in a randomized complete block
design with two replications. A sample of each cross (family) is planted in two
rows of 10 meters long each. The family evaluation trials are settled out in two
locations, one in the Medium Stratum (at 300 meters above the sea level) at the
Sugarcane Field Station Camantulul. Other trial is located in the Low/coastal
stratum (less than 10 meters above the sea level) at Sub Experimental Station
located in “El Retazo” farm property of the “Magdalena” mill. These trials
allow the identification of superior crosses (families), which will be the basis
for the later clonally individual selection in the Stage I.

Selection stage II. The selected tillered plants in Stage I provide the
propagation plant material for the next trial in the clonally selection process: the
selection Stage II. In this stage, each selected clone is planted in a row of five
meters long. The selection stage II, with much less genetic materials than
the Stage I, can also be regarded though, as a big trial, which can
comprises between 1,000 and 5,000 genotypes.

Around 25 percent of these materials correspond to genotypes

predominantly “non flowering”, and the rest of them are predominantly
“flowering” genotypes. In this stage, a more detailed characterization process
of the genetic materials is initiated, in order to perform a more accurate
selection. However, given the size of the trials and the amount of genetic
materials, the observations for selection are reduced to: plant general
appearance, disease presence, and refractometry (Brix) (Quemé et al., 2010).

60
In this stage the disease description is made in a more detailed manner
with special attention to the next diseases: Leaf Scald (Xanthomonas
albilineans); smut (Ustilago scitaminea H Syd & P. Syd); brown rust
(Puccinia melanocephala); Orange rust (Puccinia kuehnii); Sugarcane
yellow leaf virus (SCYLV); and the Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV)
(Ovalle, 1997).

Stage II is carried out at two representative altitudinal strata: Mid stratum at 300
meters above the sea level and low and coastal stratum, between 5 and 30
meters above the sea level. Guatemala’s low/coastal strata represents the major
sugarcane growing area, with lower flowering rate and higher yield potential
due to its good soil fertility (Pérez, 2002; Suárez et al., 2007). The medium
stratum presents clayey shallow soils (Pérez, 2002; Suárez et al., 2007), with
higher annual precipitation and lower solar irradiation, which correlates with
higher flowering rates (Quemé et al., 2009; Orozco et al., 2010; Castro et al.,
2010), which also is related to lower yields.

Each trial in the stage II is organized in two kinds of experiments:

flowering and non-flowering genotypes. The designation of flowering or
non-flowering is established at Stage I of selection. The flowering to non-
flowering genotype ratio is usually 3:1 due to the naturally higher occurrence
of the flowering genotype at the medium stratum where the Stage I is carried
out. The inverse relation is found in the coastal stratum, where the non-
flowering genotypes use to be more frequent. The trials in the Stage II
cultivars are evaluated and selected only in its first growing cycle; no ratoons
are surveyed. The trials are established in the two already depicted strata;
therefore, there are four different trials.

The selection in two different strata offers better estimation to the

adaptation of the different genotypes; consequently, it is expected to use
more efficiently the potential for the different genotypes that are released
in each stratum. En this selection stage no experimental design is used.
The selection is made according to criteria settled jointly by the breeders
and sugarcane growers.

61
Selection stage III: The genetic materials selected in the stage II, are used as
plant propagation source to establish the selection stage III. The stage III is
organized in two trials, one for each already depicted altitudinal stratum, with
“flowering” and “non-flowering” experiments, for a total of four different
trials. Each experiment is composed by two replications at each altitudinal
stratum. The experimental unit is constituted by five rows of five meters
long each; where only one genotype is located.

The composition of the trials in the stage III is differentially done for each
altitudinal stratum. In Between of 100 and 150 genotypes are selected for each
stratum in each flowering and non-flowering trials. It has been observed
that less than 10% of the selected genotypes in stage II are the same
genotypes selected in both strata; the rest of materials (the most) are
differential selections for each stratum; thus showing the high genotype
× environment interaction levels.

Superior genotypes are selected according to their best performance regarding

cane yield in tons of cane per hectare (TCH); sugar concentration expressed as
Pol%-cane, and sugar yield in tons of sugar per hectare (TSH). TCH is
estimated based on the measurement of sugarcane yield components: a)
population of milling stalks, b) stalk height, stalk diameter, and c) weight in
Kilograms from a sample of five stalks. TSH is estimated from the
interaction of TCH and the sugar concentration (Pol% cane), this last
variable is determined in the agronomic laboratory at CENGICAÑA.

The disease evaluation is performed and those genetic materials that do not
meet the selection standards are discarded. The sugarcane diseases surveyed are
mainly the same that are evaluated in the stage II. Additionally, other diseases
of relative importance are assessed; among them are: Pokkah boeng (Fusarium
moniliforme Sheldon), purple spot (Dimeriella sacchari), and others (Ovalle,
1997).

The trials belonging to Stage III are evaluated during two growing seasons:
plantcane and first ratoon. The information of plantcane is used to perform the
first selection. The information in the first ratoon of the previous CG series is
used to make the second selection. With these two groups of selections, the
“Stage III increase” is established; therefore, genotypes from two different

62
series are part of the “Stage III increase”. The selected experimental units in the
Stage III are used as propagation plant material to make the “Stage III increase”.
Usually 30 to 50 genotypes comprise the “Stage III increase”. This increase
plots provides enough propagation plant material to settle the Stage IV, also
called “Field Regional Trials”. The final selection to assemble the Stage IV is
achieved when the information from both growing seasons of the Stage III and
the information from “Stage III increase” are combined.

Late stages of selection and validation

Late selection stage and validation stage (Stages IV and V, respectively) are
initiated immediately after the early Stages (I, II and III) are completed. Thus,
the objective of late selection stages and validation is to assess the superior
fraction of stage III under the different environmental and soil conditions of the
sugarcane growing area of Guatemala. The ultimate goal is to identify those
cultivars that perform better than the local standard varieties; this is achieved by
two stages known as Field Regional Trials or stage IV and Semi-commercial
Trials or stage V.

Field Regional Trials (FRT): This FRT or stage IV are the first extended field
evaluation, in which grouped varieties in uniform experimental trials are
exposed to a wide diversity of environments in terms of rainfall patterns,
temperature, radiation, soils, and crop management. These trials are jointly
conducted by CENGICAÑA's breeders and mills staff responsible for sugarcane
variety research and development.

RFT are made up of varieties that performed better than the standard varieties
CP72-2086 and CP88-1165 in terms of sugar yield, disease resistance and
agronomic characteristics in the Stage III in plantcane and in first ratoon for
each particular experimental Station (Figure 2). According to this approach the
RFT for high and mid strata are made up from varieties selected in stage III
located in the mid stratum experimental station, while the varieties for RFT in
low and coastal strata are the ones selected in the low experimental station
(Figure 2). On the average, each FRT is made up of 20-30 varieties distributed
in a randomized complete block experimental design with four replications,
where each experimental unit is composed by five 1.5 m apart and 10 m long
rows.

The seedcane used to establish different FRT is produced in the Stage III
increase, which is located at two locations: the mid experiment station at El
Bálsamo farm belonging to Pantaleón mill and the Coastal experiment station at
El Retazo farm belonging to Magdalena mill. Stage III increase as well as Stage
IV, are controlled by breeders and mill researchers in charge of the stations.

63
The seedcane from “Stage III increase” is distributed to the mills, being the
mechanism for new varieties delivery to the growers officially recognized by
the CENGICAÑA's sugarcane breeding and selection program.

RFT are established according to the maturity pattern of the varieties and also
based in the conditions of the four different altitudinal strata already defined.
There is a specific group of early or flowering varieties for testing in the high
and mid strata and a second group of varieties for the low and coastal strata. The
same approach is applied for late maturity or non-flowering varieties thus
resulting in four different RFT. Each of the four RFT´s is tested at different
locations in every altitudinal stratum, with the objective of identifying those
cultivars that perform well at a specific location (specific adaptability) or in the
contrary, with good adaptation to several locations (general adaptability).

Field Regional Trials – FRT

Semicommercial Trials - SCT
Stage I Stage II and Stage III

Mid Stratum High stratum Farms

Experiment Station
El Balsamo Farm
Mid Pantaleon Mill
MidStrata
Zone Mid stratum Farms
Experiment
ExperimentStation
Camantulul
Station Farm
CENGICAÑA
Camantulul Farm
CENGICAÑA

Coastal Stratum Low stratum Farms

Experiment Station
El Retazo Farm
Magdalena Mill
Coastal stratum Farms

Figure 2. Selection Program for four altitudinal strata in the sugarcane growing
area of Guatemala. CENGICAÑA 2011

RFT's are carried out during three crop cycles: plantcane, first ratoon and
second ratoon. In this stage, some criteria for selection are: emergency in
plantcane, canopy density at 90-120 days after planting and disease resistance.
At the plant maturity phase, evaluations include the phenotypic value, which is
an index that involves: stalk population, stalk height, stalk diameter and quality
of stalks. Flowering and pith incidence are evaluated a week before harvest. At

64
the harvest moment other variable are measured: cane yield, sugar yield, and the
sucrose content is estimated. Right after harvest, re-growth is evaluated.

Yielding data obtained from the field trials are analysed according to each
location and through locations to determine the general or specific cultivar
adaptability. This value is specific for each altitudinal stratum or for a group of
altitudinal strata. Evaluation data is presented and discussed with the Variety
Release Committee (VRC) to determine which varieties will be selected for the
next Stage of Selection: Stage V. The VRC has a representative of each mill
who is in charge for the variety development.

FRT or Stage IV has recently been modified to improve its performance

Orozco, et al., 2007). The improvements are: a) increase the number of
varieties tested per field trial, b) evaluation of flowering and non-flowering
clones, separately, and c) utilization of sites regression (SREG) as a statistical
tool to determine clone adaptability (Quemé et al., 2006).

Semi-commercial trials (SCT) or stage V of selection: The SCT is the

validation phase of all the previous selection stages and is carried out under the
commercial management of the growers. The SCT allow making selections for
commercial use. The first SCT was established in the harvest season 2003-2004
and its main features as a field trial are: the randomized complete block design
and the large experimental unit size with four replications.

The varieties in the SCT are those selected from FRT. The selection in
FRT is based on statistical analyses for each particular maturity and
altitudinal groups (Figure 2). The SCT are managed at field by the VRC
staff with the CENGICAÑA´s breeders support. The SCT on the
average, are made up of three to five promising varieties plus the
standard varieties CP72-2086 and CP88-1165.

The seedcane required for the SCT's is produced by the corresponding “Stage
FRT increase” (in a similar approach to the “Stage III increase”) which is
managed by the members of the Variety Release Committee and located at their
own farms and guided and supported by the CENGICAÑA’s breeding program.
The seedcane for SCT is produced at the same time the FRT is in first
and second ratoon. The amount of seedcane that needs to be available should
be enough to plant the projected SCT. A key factor for the production of high
quality cane seed for SCT is to set the date in which the SCT will be planted.

65
The information collected from a SCT is similar to the one obtained from the
RFT with two differences: a) the sugar yield data is obtained from the cane
yield of a whole plot or experimental unit (i.e. approximately one hectare); b)
data from SCT is analysed jointly by breeders and the Variety Release
Committee for the decision making process. Thus, based on SCT data, it is
possible to determine which varieties can be released for commercial
use. Another important aspect of SCT is the measurement of fibre in tonnes per
hectare per each clone, which is based on cane yield and fibre percentage.

Released Varieties

CENGICAÑA'S Sugarcane Breeding and Selection program released the first

sugarcane varieties in 2006 (Orozco et al., 2006): PR75-2002 and CG96-59.
The selection criteria at that time were: a) higher sugar yield than the standard
variety CP72-2086 observed in the SCT (plantcane, first and second ratoon), b)
resistance to major diseases and c) adequate agronomic characteristics for
commercial management. Currently, the variety PR75-2002 is being used at the
four altitudinal strata in a total of 3,147 hectares, as a late maturation variety.

Using the same criteria, the second group of released SCT varieties were CG96-
01, CG96-78, CG96-135, CG97-97, and CG97-100 (Orozco et al., 2008); all of
them of late maturation, except the CG96-01 variety. CG96-135 is currently
being grown in 2,627 hectares in the four altitudinal strata.

The varieties released in 2011 were evaluated in the third SCT in both
maturation patterns (early and late) in plantcane, first and second ratoon. From
the early ones group CG98-46, PR87-2015, and LM2002 were released;
whereas from the late varieties group CG98-10, RB73-2577, SP71-6180, and
SP79-1287 were released. From these released varieties, CG98-10 is the one
that is mostly commercially cultivated, with 2,302 hectares in the four
altitudinal strata of production.

PGM89-968, CP88-1508, NA56-42, and Mex69-290 varieties were not released

in a formal process by the CENGICAÑA’s breeding and selection program;
however they are commercially used with 4,054, 1,826, and 1,072 hectares,
respectively (Orozco y Buc, 2010).

Genotype-environment interaction

Multiple-environment yield trials (MET) are a series of experiments in

which a set of genotypes (G) are evaluated in multiple environments (E),

66
considering these environments as a combination of sites and years. These
trials are important because the presence of genotype x environment
interaction (GE) complicates the selection and/or recommendation of
cultivars, otherwise if the GE interaction did not exist, a single environment
would be enough for the cultivars evaluation. Thus, the understanding of
the GE interaction observed in MET is very useful in breeding programs,
since it allows the identification of high-yielding cultivars with broad or
specific adaptation (Annicchiarico, 1997; Gauch, 1992; Smith et al., 2001;
Queme et al., 2010; Yan and Hunt, 2002).

The GE interaction special interest for breeding programs is the one that creates
a change in ranking of the cultivars from one environment to another
(crossover-interaction), so that, the best cultivar in one particular
environment might not be the best in another environment (Kang, 2002;
Crossa and Cornelius, 2002). Several statistical methodologies have been
developed for the analysis of GE interaction, being one of them GGE Bi-plot.
Breeders and agronomists have recently used this methodology for the analysis
of data from multi-environment yield trials (Quemé et al., 2010).

GGE bi-plot analysis: The GGE represents the main effect of genotype plus
the genotype by environment interaction (G+GE). The G and GE interaction
are two sources of variation of the sites regression model (SREG). GGE bi-plot
coming from the SREG model is based on principal components analysis
(PCA), and a graph formed with the scores of the genotypes and the
environments of the first principal component (PC1 scores) against their
respective scores for the second principal component (PC2 scores). GGE Bi-
plot displays the two sources of variation G and GE, and provides an adequate
graphical tool for cultivar evaluation (yield and stability), mega-environment
analysis (“which-won-where”), test-environment evaluation (discriminating
among genotypes and the representativeness of the mega-environments), and
others (Burgueño et al., 2009; Crossa et al., 2002; Ding et al., 2009; Quemé et
al., 2010; Yan et al., 2007). The GGE bi-plot from the SREG model can be
constructed according to the manual and SAS program available at the web
page of CIMMYT in Biometrics and Statistic Unit (BSU) or at
http://www.cimmyt.org/english/wps/biometrics/ (Burgueño et al., 2009).

CENGICAÑA's Sugarcane Breeding and Selection Program has used this

analysis to evaluate the performance of cane in sugarcane cultivars, through
sites and crops cycles, in order to identify cultivars of high performance with
wide and specific adaptation. For example, the study reported by Quemé et al.
(2010) included 14 sugarcane cultivars evaluated in nine different environments
at Guatemala's sugarcane production area. The nine environments refer to sites

67
× crop cycle (year) combinations, since the cultivars were evaluated in three
sites: San Bonifacio (280 masl), Margaritas (116 masl), and Tululá (220 masl);
and three crop cycles: plantcane (harvest season, 2004–05), first (2005–06), and
second ratoon crops (2006–07). Of the 14 cultivars tested, 12 are from
CENGICAÑA-Guatemala (CG and CGSP) and two testers, one cultivar from
Canal Point (CP), and one from Puerto Rico (PR). The field experimental
design used for each trial was a Randomised Complete Block with four
replications and with experimental units of 75 m2. Data on tonnes of cane per
hectare (TCH) were recorded.

According to the GGE bi-plot (Figure 3), the first two principal components
(PC1 and PC2) were highly significant (P <0.01) and explained 73 percent of
GGE (PC1=61% and PC2= 12%). The cultivar 13 (PR75-2002) presented a
high average cane yield (larger PC1 score) and broadly adapted or stable (PC2
score near to zero). Two groups of environments were defined; the first made
up of seven environments (Margaritas and Tululá with his three crop cycles, and
San Bonifacio in plantcane); and the second one by two environments (San
Bonifacio with first and second ratoon). The winning cultivars with the highest
cane yield were CG00-120 and CG00-092 for each of the groups, respectively.

Figure 3. GGEbi-plot of 14 sugarcane cultivars in nine environments

68
PROMOTION AND FOLLOW UP OF THE RELEASED
VARIETIES

Sugarcane Variety Directory

One of the key factors for the varieties adoption is the availability of
information for the decision making process, this information is presented in the
Guatemalan Sugarcane Variety Directory. Table 4 shows the variety directory
for the Guatemalan sugarcane industry. The sugarcane directory contains the
current commercial varieties, as well as the new varieties that are in commercial
development. New varieties in the Guatemalan sugarcane industry are those
that have a completed evaluation at the Four SCT of CENGICAÑA. At the
time of this publication, standing varieties from the third SCT are: CG98-46,
which is an early variety for the mid, low, and coastal zones; as well as the late
varieties CG98-10, RB73-2577, and SP71-6161 for low and coastal altitudinal
zones of Guatemala. Standing varieties from the fourth SCT are: CG98-78,
CG00-102, and Mex79-431.

Table 4. Sugarcane Variety Directory for the sugarcane industry of Guatemala

updated, July, 2011

Zones/ Ideal harvest month

Altitud
(masl) November December January February March April
CP88-1165 CP88-1165 Q107 Q107 CG98-10 CG98-10
CP73-1547 SP79-2233 SP79-2233 SP79-2233 Q107 Q107

High/ CG96-135 CG96-135 CG96-135 CG96-135

300 PR75-2002 PR75-2002 PR75-2002 PR75-2002
CG03-025 CG03-025
CP97-1931 CP97-1931

CP73-1547 CP73-1547 CP88-1165 CP88-1165 CP72-2086 CG98-10

CP88-1165 CP88-1165 CP72-2086 CP72-2086 CG98-10 Mex69-290
CG98-46 CG98-46 CG98-46 Mex79-431 Mex69-290 RB73-2577
Mid/
100-300 CG98-78 CG98-78 CG98-78 CG98-78 RB73-2577 CG03-025
Mex79-431 Mex79-431 CG03-025 CP97-1931

CP97-1931

69
 Zones/ Ideal harvest month
Altitud
(masl) November December January February March April
CP73-1547 CP73-1547 CP72-2086 CP72-2086 CG98-10 CG98-10

CP88-1165 CP88-1165 CP88-1165 CP88-1165 CP72-2086 Mex79-431

Low/
CG98-46 CG98-46 CG98-46 Mex79-431 RB73-2577 RB73-2577
40-100
CG98-78 CG98-78 CG98-78 CG98-78 Mex79-431 CG03-240

CG00-102 CG00-102 CG00-102 CG03-240

CP73-1547 CP73-1547 CP72-2086 CP72-2086 CG98-10 CG98-10

CP88-1165 CP88-1165 CP88-165 CP88-1165 CP72-2086 CP72-2086
Coastal
CG98-46 CG98-46 CG98-46 Mex79-431 RB73-2577 RB73-2577
0-40
CG00-102 CG00-102 CG00-102 Mex79-431 Mex79-431
CG03-240 CG03-240
masl = meters above sea level.

Methodology for facilitating the adoption of the new sugarcane varieties

The methodology that will facilitate the adoption of new sugarcane varieties
into Guatemalan sugarcane industry is still in progress, so far, two phases are
being considered: a) strategic planning of replanting with new varieties in short
and long term, which includes joint work of CENGICAÑA's breeders and mill
staff involved in crop management, and b) data analysis and sharing information
about the performance of new and commercial sugarcane varieties under
standard field management.

Seedcane availability is one of the limiting factors to adopt changes in the

varietal composition at the field. Thus a methodology for seedcane
propagation is suggested in Figure 4 which essentially is thought based
on the fact that there is a limited amount of seedcane of a new
sugarcane variety. The methodology scheme considers two issues: a) the
identification of the Stage of Selection to be the source of seedcane for the
new variety, and b) applying accelerated methods for seedcane production.

Stage of Selection V (SCT) is the proper stage for the production of

seedcane for the commercial development of a new sugarcane variety. For
seedcane propagation, the original source of the plant material needs to be
determined: a) a designated plot, or b) a fraction of a row in one replication
of the SCT. In both cases, the accelerated method for seedcane propagation

70
can be via pieces of stalks harbouring two buds or tissue culture as well.
Both methods are adequate, and the only difference among them will be the
multiplication rate thus the time to get the desired results.

SCT–Plantcane  SCT ‐ First  SCT ‐ Second 

Ratoon  Ratoon 

Seed increase at the same item of testing SCT 

Semi‐commercial  Semi‐commercial  Commercial 

Basic Nursery  Nursery ‐ 1  Nursery ‐ 2  Plantation 

       
      180 m long       1 hectare        35 hectares 350 hectares 
       
Planting eight  Planting eight  Planting eight  Planting normal 
buds per meter  buds per meter  buds per meter  (12 buds per 
long  long  long  meter long) 
seed stalk 

Figure 4. Suggested methodology for speeding up seedcane propagation of a

promissory sugarcane variety, in a mill with a total area of 16,000
hectares

REFERENCES
1. Allard, R. 1980. Principios de la mejora genética de las plantas. Barcelona,
Omega. 498 p.

2. Annicchiarico, P. 1997. Additive main effects and multiplicative interaction

(AMMI) analysis of genotype-location interaction in variety trials repeated
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IV. BIOTECHNOLOGY APPLIED TO
SUGARCANE CROP

77
 BIOTECHNOLOGY APPLIED TO SUGARCANE
CROP

Luis Molina and Mario Melgar*

INTRODUCTION
There are many definitions of biotechnology but, according to the Convention
for Biological Diversity, it is “Any technological application that uses
biological systems and live organisms or its derivatives to create or modify
products or processes for specific uses” (ONU,1992).

According to this definition, alcoholic fermentation is a biotechnology, since it

uses the microscopic fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae for the elaboration of
the product: wine, beer or bread. Also lactic fermentation which uses bacteria of
the gender Lactobacillus, for the production of yogurt and the acetic
fermentation produced by bacteria of the gender Acetobacter in the production
of vinegar, the biological pest control with Metarhizium anisopliae, Cotesia
flavipes, or Beauveria bassiana, the use of microorganisms to accelerate the
decomposition of residues. Therefore, bioremediation, meat fermentations and
other specific fermentations are also considered as biotechnologies.

Although, alcoholic fermentation and biological pest control are

biotechnologies used by Guatemala’s sugarcane Agro-industry, these are
described and analyzed in different chapters of this book. In this section we will
treat only those technologies included in the denominated modern
biotechnology, and which fall into 3 groups:

 Tissue or cell culture

 Molecular markers
 Genetic engineering

Modern biotechnology has applications in diverse sectors of the production of

goods and services like medicine, industry, environment, energy and
agriculture, among others. This chapter will focus on the applications in
agriculture; and more specifically in the cultivation of sugarcane, first,
reviewing the historical background and worldwide development, and then,
describing applications that are performed in Guatemala.

* Luis Molina is Agr. Eng, M.Sc., Biotecnologist, andy Mario Melgar is Agr. Eng, Ph.D., General Director of
CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org

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BACKGROUND OF BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT IN SUGARCANE

Tissue or cell culture

The vision, the purpose establishment, and the potential of the isolated cell
and tissue culture, were attributed to the German botanist Gottlieb
Haberlandt in the year 1902; however, he failed to demonstrate his ideas
with his experiments (Krikorian and Berquam, 1969). The basis of the
technique resides on the concept of cellular totipotency, that is, the cell
capacity to divide and form a complete plant. Philip Rodney White, in the
Unided States, Roger Gautheret and Pierre Nobecourt, in France, during the
1930s decade, were the first ones to achieve the growth of plant tissue
culture, for indefinite periods of time, (Vasil, 2008).

The continuous growth and the division of cells, which do not differentiate in
any specific organ or tissue, form cellular mass called, callus. Heinz and Mee
(1969) were the first to regenerate plants from callus in sugarcane. The callus
was induced in parenchyma tissue of apical shoots, leaves and inflorescences,
using a mineral basic medium, to which they added coconut water (10%) and
2,4-D. Regeneration was obtained when callus tissue was transferred to a
medium without 2,4-D.

From various explants, considering an explant as any part of the plant,

sugarcane plants can be regenerated directly or indirectly. Indirectly involves
the initial formation of callus and further regeneration of plants.

Direct regeneration from young leaf segments and indirect regeneration from
germinated seed callus, coming from leaf primordia, and apical meristems, has
been reported.

Gill et al., (2006) reported the direct regeneration of shoots from young leaf
segments (1.0-1.5 cm) of varieties CoJ64, CoJ63 and CoJ86. Explants were
inoculated in a medium based in Murashige and Skoog (1962) salts. The
highest frequency of shoot regeneration occurred in a medium supplemented
with naphtalenacetic acid (5.0 mg L¯¹) and kinetin (0.5 mg L¯¹) in variety
CoJ83.

Sugarcane plant regeneration can occur due to organogenesis, as the case cited
in the previous paragraph, or by somatic embryogenesis. Ho and Vasil (1983)
induced the formation of embryogenic callus from young leaf segments of
sugarcane cultivated in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium with 0.5 – 3.0 mg

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L¯¹ of 2,4-D, coconut water (5%), and 3-8% of sucrose. In this experiment, they
observed the formation of embryoids (somatic embryos) when callus was
transferred to a medium with low 2,4-D content (0.25 – 0.5 mg L¯¹) . The
embryogenic callus was formed by divisions in mesophyll cells, mainly located
in the abaxial half of the leaf and also from cells from the vascular parenchyma.
Embryoids were developed by internal division of individual cells rich in
cytoplasm, located on the periphery of embryogenic callus and showed the
typical organization of grasses embryos.

Ahloowalia and Maretzki (1983) also reported regeneration of plants by somatic

embryogenesis working with the IJ76-316 clone, and induction of callus
formation from leaf primordia, and apical meristems.

Among the factors influencing the response to tissue culture in sugarcane,

genotype, light, and growth regulators had been analyzed. Garcia et al. (2007)
evaluated the in vitro morphogenesis patterns in sugarcane, determined by light
and the type of growth regulator. On the other hand, Gallo-Meagher et al.
(2000) evaluated the effect of thidiazuron in the regeneration of shoots from
embryogenic callus.

Shiromani et al. (2010) evaluated the response to callus formation and plant
regeneration in 16 different Australian sugarcane cultivars, using leaf discs as
explant. The cultivars Q117, Q135, Q157, Q158, Q185, Q186, Q208 and
Q209 showed a high proportion of yellow and compact embryogenic callus,
approximately 30-40 g per disc of initial tissue after six weeks. The capacity
of plant regeneration was affected by several factors: genotype, 2,4-D
concentration in the stage of callus formation and light intensity.

In some cases tissue culture has been used to generate genetic variability by
inducing mutations that occur as consequence of mistakes in the DNA
replication, due to the process of accelerated multiplication under in vitro
conditions. This is known as somaclonal variation.

Somaclonal Variation, associated to tissue culture, has not been an important

factor in sugarcane. Lourens and Martin (1987), Burner and Grisham (1995)
and Irvine et al. (1991), cited by Lakshmanan et al. (2005), showed that
variations in sugarcane induced by tissue culture were frequently temporal,
since most of the variations reverted to the original phenotype in the first reboot.
Nevertheless, there are reports of stable somaclonal variants. Oropeza et al.
(1995) reported obtaining two somaclonal variants AT626 and BT627, which
showed up to be resistant to sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV) for 7 years in field
trials. These materials were obtained by somatic embryogenesis from the PR62-

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258 cultivar, increasing the number of subcultures on MS medium
supplemented with 3mg/l of 2,4-D.

Tawar et al. (2008) reported a new variety released in India, Co94012, derived
from somaclonal variation in variety CoC 671, as well as the variety VSI 434
with high precocity, which could not be reliably differentiated by analysis with
RAPDs. Therefore they concluded that plants of somaclones VSI 434 and Co
94012 produced in vitro, showed high genetic fidelity among them, and that from
333 loci analyzed by RAPDs only some weak bands were polymorphic, with a
rate lower than 0.33 percent of polymorphisms that could be preexistent or
attributed to punctual mutations.

Other application for tissue culture in sugarcane is the recovery of disease-free

plants. Leu, 1978 obtained healthy plants through apical meristem culture and
callus re differentiation from plants that showed symptoms of mosaic virus,
ratoon stunting disease and leaf yellows.

Parmessur et al. (2002) reported regeneration of healthy plants free of yellow leaf
virus (SCYV) and yellowing phytoplasm (SCYP), using foliar discs as explants
for calli formation.

Other area in which sugarcane tissue culture has application is in germplasm

conservation. Taylor and Duckic (1993) developed a methodology for
establishment and storage of more than 200 clones of Saccharum spp hybrids.
Using apical buds as explants and a culture medium supplemented with 6-
benzylmaminopurine (BAP) and 6-furfurylaminopurine (kinetin), they
regenerated multiple shoots, which were transferred to a medium with low
mineral content medium with no growth regulators. After 12 months at 18°C,
plants were transferred to a new medium and then turn back to storage. No
genetic integrity alterations were observed in clones based on phenotypic
characteristics.

Tissue culture is essential to develop genetic transformation in plants, since no

transformation is not performed on a whole plant, due to this would result in
chimerism, but in tissues or cultured cells, from which plants are regenerated.

Lakshmanan (2006) concluded that, since Hawaiian researchers pioneers in

sugarcane tissue culture reported the first successful plant regeneration, in vitro
and micro propagation, regeneration techniques have advanced rapidly and are
now being used in a commercial level for massive propagation of new cultivars in
many countries harboring sugarcane industry. Examples include reports from
Meyer et al. (2010) with Novacane® system in Southafrica, and Mordocco et al.
(2009) with SmartSett® system in Australia.

81
Molecular markers

As an example, consider two DNA fragments which were marked A and B,

which are located one next to the other: AB. Fragment A contains no
valuable information, but we know how to locate it on a sample of
individuals; on the other hand, fragment B contains a gene (allele), which is
of great interest, but it is unknown which individuals contain this fragment.
To figure this out, it could be proposed to find the fragment A in the
population, because if A is present, so is B, and viceversa. What we are
doing is using A as a marker to find B. This is a simplified way of
understand markers performance, in this case, molecular markers. A
methodology used to identify markers that are interrelated, is the analysis of
linkage disequilibrium. The relationships found among markers can generate
genetic maps, also known as linkage maps

Roughan et al. (1971) first reported the use of molecular markers in

sugarcane. Analyzing the variation of β-amylase isoenzyme on Saccharum
officinarum, Saccharum spontaneum and the F1 progeny originated by its
cross-breeding, they were able to differentiate the genotypes of each of the
two species, as well as the hybrid progeny, and the resulting from self-
fecundation; although no correlation was found among markers and starch
content in the stem of the plant.

Nowadays, DNA markers are the most frequently used. These can be
obtained by restriction of fragments or by amplification of fragments,
through Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).

Al Janabi et al. (1993) published the first genetic map of Saccharum for
clone “SES 208” of Saccharum spontaneum. Markers were generated using
Randomly Amplifyied Polymorphic DNA (RAPDs), in a progeny from the
cross-breeding of "SES 208" and a double haploid plant coming from the
same variety. Of all the analyzed markers, 176 were simplex and
polymorphic, forming 41 linkage groups. Segregation analysis showed that
"SES 208" behaves as an autopolyploid, it means, without preferential
pairing at meiosis.

The increasing availability of molecular markers has led to the development

of many sugarcane genetic maps, Da Silva et al (1993), using RFLP markers
(Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism, Hoarau et al., (2001) using
AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism), Aitken et al. (2005)
using AFLP and SSR (Simple Sequence Repeats). These Mapping Studies
have also allowed the identification of QTL (Quantitalive Trait Loci)
markers, possibly associated to characteristics of agronomical and industrial

82
interest. However, its use has not yet been reported as part of a breeding
program.

In sugarcane, molecular markers had been frequently used to study and

comprehend its genomic structure. D'Hont et al. (1998) determined that S.
officinarum has a basic chromosome number of x=10, by using in situ
hybridization of two ribosomal RNA gene families; , which means that these
plants are octoploid. They also demonstrated that S. spontaneum has a
chromosome number of x=8 and that the ploidy in this species varies
between 5 and 16.

The polyploid nature of sugarcane causes in most cases that each feature
considered should be analyzed as polygenic, so that markers identified as
associated to the phenotype will explain only a small fraction of the
observed variation (QTLs). This situation has limited the use of molecular
markers as a tool in breeding to perform assisted selection.

Wu et al. (1992) described a methodology to identify markers that could be

associated to a characteristic of monogenic nature. For this, a cross-breeding
must be done assuming that the characteristic –disease resistance for
example-, is shown only on one of the parents, because of the presence of
only one dominant allele, and the rest are recessive. Due to this situation,
gamete production would be made in proportions ½ Aaaa and ½ aaaa. On
the other parent –phenotypically susceptible- it can be assumed that the
dominant allele is not present. Thus, its formation of gametes would be aaaa
as a whole. We would expect that the offspring of this cross-breeding be a
population that shows half of individuals phenotypically resistant and half
phenotypically susceptible, if indeed the feature is controlled by the
dominant allele.

Another argument that is included in this methodology establishes the cross-

breeding of two individuals from the same phenotype – resistant, for
example-, or its equivalent, a self-fertilization. As in the previous case, it is
assumed that the characteristic is controlled by the presence of only one
allele dominant, and the rest of them are recessive. If this assumption is
correct, progeny would be expected to show ¾ of resistant population and ¼
of susceptible population.

So far, only one monogenic marker associated to a specific phenotype

developed by Le Cunff (2008) has been reported, this is a PCR based
marker, that is associated with the resistant allele of the disease known as
brown rust, caused by the fungus Puccinia melanocephala.

83
The genotype of varieties, also knowns as: fingerprinting is another
application of molecular marker that has shown benefits in sugarcane. The
generation of markers based on PCR, has facilitated the identification of
polymorphic markers, with which it is possible to generate genetic patterns
for each variety of interest. This has enhanced the process of quality control
in the production and vegetative seed propagation.

The analysis of molecular patterns also allows the establishment of the

similarity degree among varieties; permitting visualization of genetic
diversity levels that are available in the collections and breeding programs.
That information becomes a tool for hybridization planning.

The applications of molecular markers in sugarcane cultivars had

demonstrated to be useful in particular situations, as mentioned above.
However, there is still a gap that has not been covered, because not enough
markers have been generated to allow the analysis of the complete genome
and the consequent exploitation of this information.

The development of computing has facilitated advances in structural and

functional genomics. In sugarcane, the array technology is already being
used to identify markers (Heller-Uszynska, et al., 2010). It has also
demonstrated to be a powerful tool for the identification of genes associated
with processes or specific characteristics. Carson, et al. (2002) showed that
it is possible to identify genes, using a strategy that combines subtractive
hybridization and cDNA macroarrays.

Genetic engineering

In the breeding process, the most common way to generate genetic

variability is through cross-breeding. However, there are limitations that
restrict the cross-breedings, since they could only be made among
individuals of the same species and, in some cases, between individuals of
different species or genus. When performing a sexual cross-breeding, the
resulting progeny will possess half the chromosomes of the male parent and
the other half from the female. Recombinant DNA technology, allows
inserting one or a few genes of an individual, in the genome of another
individuals, without species, genus, or even kingdom restriction. This is
possible because the molecule of genetic material that regulates the structure
and function of an organism is the same in all of them. This technology has
made possible, among other things, the expression in bacteria, plants, and
animals, of proteins with pharmaceutical or industrial purposes, as well as
the transformation of plants with characteristics such as tolerance to
herbicides and insect and virus resistance.

84
Sugarcane has successfully been transformed by various techniques, such as
microprojectile bombardment, electroporation and Agrobacterium. Several
characteristics have been introduced including herbicide resistance, virus
resistance, insect resistance and enzymatic regulation of sucrose. The new
features that had been recently introduced in this crop include, collagen
production and bioplastics (Lakshmanan et al., 2005).

According to Butterfield et al. (2002), the development of new sugarcane

varieties (Saccharum spp. hybrids) is a long and unpredictable process. Genetic
transformation offers the potential to introduce some new desirable
characteristics in existing varieties, and the achievement of stable expression of
those transgenes.

Lakshmanan et al. (2005) mentioned that, besides of being an important

nutritional and energetic crop, there are other reasons that make sugarcane, a
candidate for engineered breeding. In the first place, genetic improvement of
elite sugarcane clones by conventional breeding is difficult due to its complex
polyploid-aneuploid genome, low fertility, and the long period required (12-15
years) to generate new cultivars. Backcrosses designed to recover elite
genotypes with desirable agronomic characteristics require long periods of time,
as well. Within this context, genetic engineering is a useful tool to introduce
valuable commercial characteristics in elite germplasm. In second place, there
are transformation systems available in sugarcane useful in practice, and the
useful transgenic lines can be maintained indefinitely by vegetative propagation.

Chen et al. (1987) were the first to report genetic transformation in sugarcane,
introducing a marker gene that confers resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin.
Transformation was performed in protoplasts isolated from commercial hybrid
F164, using polyethylene-glycol induced incorporation and using the vector
plasmid pABD1 isolated from E. coli strain JA221. Calli formed from
transformed protoplasts maintained the expression of resistance to kanamycin in
a medium with a concentration of 80μg mL¯¹ of antibiotic. The DNA in the
transformed tissue hybridized with the gene probe APH(3`)II (aminoglycoside-
phosphotransferase). The efficiency of the transformation process was 8
protoplasts in 107.

Bower and Birch (1992) were the first transforming sugarcane plants by
tungsten microprojectile bombardment, concluding that this method is more
effective than others reported.

Rathus and Birch (1992) improved transformation efficiency using

electroporation, to introduce the coding gene of the enzyme
neomycinphosphotransferase (NPTII) in sugarcane protoplasts isolated from

85
cultivars Q63 and Q96 (one callus transformed for each 102-104 treated
protoplasts). The integration and expression of NPTII gene, that confers
resistance to kanamycin antibiotic, were confirmed by Southern analysis and
enzymatic assays. The Southern analysis revealed a complex pattern of
integration with rearrangements and multiple copies. It has also
demonstrated the gene co-transformation of β-glucuronidase (GUS) in the
same construct or in separate constructs. Many of the calli that contained
intact copies of β-glucuronidase gene did not show detectable expression.
However, one line of calli regenerated after electroporation with a plasmid
containing both NPTII and GUS genes, showed a stable expression of both
marker genes.

Arencibia et al. (1992) developed a method of plant transformation and

regeneration based in the electroporation of meristematic tissue of cultivars
POJ 2878 and Ja60-5. Transformation was performed with plasmids pBI-
221.1 and pGSCGN-2 that conferred GUS and NPTII activity to transformed
cells. Transformed plants were analyzed with histochemical, fluorometric,
PCR and Southern blot methods. With the transformation of the intact
meristematic tissue, regeneration of plants was facilitated, which was
usually a major obstacle in the transformation of protoplasts. However, , the
chimeras obtantion is a regular problem that could be avoided transforming
embryogenic tissue, due to the meristematic tissue is composed of many
heterogeneous cell layers.

Arencibia et al. (1995) described an efficient procedure for genetic transformation

of commercial varieties POJ2878 and Ja 60-5, based on the electroporation of a
plasmid that confers GUS activity within a group of isolated cells from
embriogenic calli. Between 6 and 8 weeks after electroporation, plants
regenerated from Ja 60-5 were evaluated and confirmed as transgenic, using
histochemical glucuronidase and Southern hybridization analysis.

Arencibia et al. (1998) reported the first successful recovery of transgenic

morphologically normal sugarcane plants using a callus co-cultivation with
Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The transformation frequencies (total of transgenic
plants/number of cell clusters) were between 9.4 x 10-3 and 1.15 x 10-2. In their
experiments they found that strain LBA4404 (pTOK233) and EHA101
(pMTCA31G) were successful for sugarcane transformation with marker genes.
They found 3 crucial factors to increase the competence of the cells in the
transference process of T-DNA: (1) the use of young regenerable calli as target
explants; (2) Induction or increase of the virulence system of A. tumefaciens
with the sugarcane cell culture, and (3) the pre-induction of organogenesis or
somatic embryogenesis.

86
Almost simultaneously, Enriquez-Obregon et al. (1998) introduced the
character of herbicide resistance in sugarcane germplasm. Transgenic plants
resistant to phosphinothricin (PPT), active component of commercial herbicide
BASTA, were generated by transformation with Agrobacterium tumefaciens.
Meristematic sections were used as explants and the reached transformation
frequencies were from 10-35 percent. The regeneration of plants was high and
apparently it was not affected by the process of transformation. Southern
analysis in several transformed plants indicated the integration of one or two
intact copies per genome of the bar gene which codifies for PPT-
acetyltransferase and confers resistance to BASTA. The levels of resistance to
BASTA were evaluated under greenhouse conditions and small plots.

Manickavasagam et al. (2004) also reported the obtantion of transformed plants

with resistance to PPT by Agrobacterium co-cultivation with axillary buds of
sugarcane cultivars Co92061 and Co671. Through this technique,there is no
callus induction, plant stems is originated directly from the axillary bud and
chimeric transformants are removed by repeated proliferation of shoots in the
selection medium. Results show that generation and multiplication of
transformed shoots can be achieved in 5 months with transformation
efficiencies of up to 50 percent. Depending on the cultivar, 50-60 percent of
transgenic plants sprayed with BASTA (60g 1-1 of active ingredient) grew under
greenhouse conditions without herbicide damage.

Other reports of sugarcane transformation by co-cultivation with Agrobacterium

include characters such as insect resistance (Arvinth et al., 2010; Kalunke et al.,
2009; Zhangsun et al., 2007), tolerance to osmotic stress (Wang et al., 2005),
and ethylene regulation (Wang et al., 2009).

Elliot et al. (1998) used green fluorescent protein (GFP) for in vivo selection of
transformed cells by strain AGLO of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, avoiding the
use of antibiotics, herbicides and assays.

Santosa et al. (2004) described a protocol for transformation of sugarcane calli

trhough Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain GV2260 with which they introduced
appA gene that encodes for phytase enzyme of strain ATCC 33965 of
Escherichia coli.

Joyce et al. (2010) found that, the selection system and the co-cultivation
medium, were most important factors that influenced the success of
transformation and regeneration of transgenic plants.

Another widely used method for genetic transformation in sugarcane is known

as biolistic, a technique to introduce DNA through bombardment of tissue with
microprojectiles covered with DNA. Using this method, Franks and Birch
(1992) developed the first transgenic sugarcane plants from Pindar, a
commercial cultivar, in Australia. The obtained plants showed a stable
87
transformation after bombardment with neomycinphosphotransferase (nptII)
gene that confers resistance to the geneticin antibiotic, under Emu promoter
control.

Later on, transformations in different genotypes of sugarcane through biolistic

were reported in different laboratories around the world. (Gambley et al., 1993;
Snyman et al., 2006; Jain et al., 2007; Van Der Vyver, 2010), and for different
characteristics, like insect resistance (Christy et al., 2009; Sheng et al., 2008;
Falco y Silva-Filho, 2003) and virus resistance (Zhu et al., 2010).

Table 1 resumes the efforts directed to incorporate, by genetic engineering,

some economically important characteristics to commercial cultivar of
sugarcane in different countries.

Table 1. Introduced characteristics or characteristics under study for sugarcane

cultivar transformation in different countries (Maldonado y Melgar,
2007)

Transgenic Characteristics Countries

Herbicide tolerance
Glufosinate Australia, Brazil, USA, Mauricio, South
Africa
Glyphosate Brazil, USA, South Africa
Imidazolinone Brazil
Insect resistance
Bt mediated Brazil, Cuba, South Africa
Proteinase inhibitors Brazil, South Africa
Disease Resistance
Leaf scald Australia, Brazil
Sugarcane mosaic virus Australia, Brazil, USA, South Africa
Yellow leaf syndrome Brazil, Colombia, USA
Sorghum mosaic virus USA
Ratoon stunting disease USA
Fiji disease Australia
Abiotic Stress Resistance
Water deficit Brazil, Mauricio
Low temperatures Brazil, Mauricio
Salinity Mauricio
Others
Carbohydrate metabolism Australia, Cuba, USA
Control of flowering Brazil
Pharmaceutical enzymes USA
Biodegradable plastics Australia
Symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria Brazil

88
International Consortium of sugarcane biotechnology

The International Consortium of Sugarcane Biotechnology (ICSB) is a group

currently integrated by 19 institutions from 14 countries (Table 2) that,
according to Moore (2005), provide economic resources to share technologies
and information, invest in their own biotechnology institutional infrastructure
building, and fund collaborative research projects to make contributions to the
basic understanding of the molecular biology of sugarcane.

Moore (2005) gives a detailed account of the events that led to the formation
of the ICSB. In 1988, during an International Society of Sugarcane
Technologists (ISSCT) workshop, held in conjunction with physiology and
breeding sections, Paul Moore and James Irvine arranged a meeting between
the Hawaii Sugar Planters Association (HSPA) directors, the United States
and Brazil's Centro de Tecnologia Canavieira (CTC);.with the objective to
finance an investigation proposed by Steven Tanksley and Mark Sorrel at
Cornell University (United States of America), with the purpose of
evaluating the feasibility of using DNA markers to map the sugarcane
genome. The agreement between HSPA/CTC included the participation of
one researcher from each institution, working at a laboratory at Cornell and
to facilitate the transference of the acquired technology back to their
respective industries

The promising results obtained in this project, with the participation of K. K.

Wu from HSPA and William Burnquist from CTC, motivated Irvine to
organize the first International Workshop on Sugarcane Genome Analysis
held in March 1991 at Beltsville, Maryland, USA. During this event, five
additional institutions joined the first two institutions and formalized a
collaboration agreement to expand research efforts, gain a better
understanding of the sugarcane genomics and apply this knowledge to the
improvement of the crop (Moore, 2005).

The second workshop was held in Albany, California, USA in 1992, when
three additional research centers joined the previous seven. A new letter of
understanding was obtained, including the new members and naming this
growing organization as international consortium of sugarcane
biotechnology (Moore 2005).

Table 3 shows the achievements and impact of projects and investigations

financed by ICSB.

CENGICAÑA is part of the ICSB since 1999, and utilizes the generated
knowledge for the diagnosis of sugarcane diseases using DNA markers and
specific immunological reactions, which has strengthed seed production,

89
quarantine process, and germplasm exchange. Marker assisted selection and
molecular characterization are other derived applications that have
contributed to the selection of parent varieties.

CENGICAÑA is also investing in the development of its own biotechnology

institutional infrastructure, by developing their ability to perform genetic
transformation of plants, thereby it can also exploit the knowledge generated
initially in projects funded by the ICSB.

Table 2. Countries and institutions that integrate ICSB

Year of
Country Institution
incorporation
Argentina CHACRA Chacra Experimental Agricola Santa Rosa 1995
EEAOC Estación Experimental Agroindustrial Obispo 1995
Columbres
Australia CRC-SIIB Cooperative Research Centre for Sugarcane 1991
Industry Innovation through Biotechnology
Brazil CTC Centro de Tecnologia Canavieira, formerly 1988
COPERSUCAR Cooperativa de Productores
de Caña de azucar, Azucar y Alcohol del
Estado de Sao Paulo
Colombia CENICAÑA Centro de Investigacion de la Caña de Azucar 1992
Ecuador FIAE/CINCAE Fundacion para la investigacion Azucarera del 2004
Ecuador/ Centro de Investigacion de la Caña
de azúcar de Ecuador
France/ CIRAD/IRAD Agricultural Research for Development, 1994
Reunión France/Research Institute for Agricultural
Development, Reunion
Guatemala CENGICAÑA Centro de investigacion y capacitacion de la 1999
Caña de azucar
India VSI Vasantdada Sugar Institute 1999
EID E.I.D. Parry Ltd. 2001
Barbados BWICSBS British West Indies Central Sugarcane 1999
Breeding Station
Mauritius MSIRI Mauritius Sugarcane Industry Research 1992
Institute
Philippines PHILSURIN Philippine Sugar Research Institute 1994
Foundation before PSPA Philippine Sugar
Producers Association.
South SASRI South Africa Sugar Research Institute before 1991
Africa SASEX South Africa Sugar Experiment
Station
Thailand MITR PHOL Mitr Phol Sugar Research Center 2007
EUA FSCL Florida Sugarcane League 1992
HARC Hawaii Agriculture Research Center before 1988
HSPA Hawaii Sugar Planters Association.
ASCL American Sugarcane League, Louisiana. 1991
TAMU Texas A&M Ag. Experiment Station. 1991

90
Table 3. Research areas, achievements and impact of projects supported by ICBS
(Based on Moore, 2005)

Research Areas Achievements Impact

Diseases Isolation and description of the virus Basis for the
responsible for yellow leaf in sugarcane transformation of plants
(SCYLV) with resistance to
Sugarcane yellow leaf virus
(SCYLV)
Development of antibodies for the diagnosis of Tools available for
SCYLV monitoring sugarcane
Analysis of the worldwide diversity of SCYLV yellows virus and assist in
breeding for resistance
selection
Genetic Isolation of capsid protein genes of mosaic Basis for the
Transformation virus strains in sugarcane and sorghum. transformation of plants
and Genic with resistance to
Expression sugarcane mosaic virus
Improved methods for genetic transformation,
transformed sugarcane cultivars with viral coat
proteins to produce resistant clones
Isolation of proteins that interact with plant Increase of transgene
viral suppressors of post transcriptional gene expression
silencing (PTGS)
Development of methods to suppress host
protein required for PTGS
Development of a system for chloroplast Pollen unable to perform
transformation geneflow
Genetic Mapping Development of methods for genetic mapping
of polyploid organisms of unknown type and Several markers and maps
level produced the first of many sugarcane will allow breeders to make
genetic maps based on molecular markers a precise selection of
Mapping quantitative trait (QTLs) associated parental and progeny for
with the sugar content faster varietal development
Mapping QTLs for stem weight, stem number,
stem height, flowering, sugar, fiber, pol, fiber Basis for the identification
and ash. of genes in sugarcane
Assembly of four genetic maps of sugarcane in
one with correspondence to the map of
sorghum
Construction of bacteria artificial
chromosomes for gene isolation and
development of a physical map
Production of a database for identifying genes
by creating cDNA libraries
Fine mapping for resistance locus of brown
rust
Development of primers for microsatellite
markers
Development of SNP markers for fine mapping
Development of arrays and bioinformatics
tools

91
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN THE SUGAR
AGRO-INDUSTRY OF GUATEMALA

Cultivar (esta bien)

As already mentioned, tissue culture allows the regeneration of disease-free

plants. Any plant disease caused by systemic pathogens is absent in apical
meristem sections ranging between 0.1 and 0.2 mm in diameter, thus plants
regenerated from it will also be healthy. There are two important virus affecting
sugarcane in Guatemala: sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV) and sugarcane yellow
leaf virus (SCYLV). Among the diseases caused by bacteria are leaf scald
disease (LSD) caused by Xanthomonas albilineans and ratoon stunting disease
(RSD) caused by Leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli.

It is possible to eliminate both virus and bacteria using meristem as explants,

and by treating buds in a 51°C bath for an hour. After thermal treatment, buds
are allowed to germinate in plastic trays at room temperature.

The procedure used at CENGICAÑA is the following:

a) Stem collection and bud isolation

b) Bud thermal treatment
c) Germination (7-10 days)
d) Apical meristem extraction, sowing in culture medium and development
(75 days)
e) Propagation of the regenerated plants (30 days)
f) Molecular marker diagnosis
g) Propagation of disease free plants (60 days)
h) Rooting (15 days)
i) Acclimatization (60-90 days)

Explants are placed in MS (Murashige & Skoog, 1962) supplemented with

0.1mg/L BAP (6-bencilaminopurine) + 30g/L sucrose + 8g/L agar, incubated at
25°C in the darkness for seven days to avoid oxidation and finally placed in a
16 hour photoperiod.

Plants originated from meristem are allowed to reach about 4 cm height and
then are transferred to an identical liquid culture medium (no agar). This
promotes growing and formation of new shoots that can be sub-cultured and
propagated every 30 days, until a maximum of 5 sub-cultures. Rooting is
induced by placing plants in a medium without BAP for 15 days. Before second
subculture, tissue sample is taken to perform a molecular marker based disease

92
diagnostic. Healthy plants are continously propagated. Finally, plants are
separated and sown in trays containing substrate for greenhouse acclimatization.
Figure1 shows some stages of the process.

Whenever germplasm exchange is scheduled, disease free regenerated plants are

transferred to test tubes containing a solid medium without BAP for its packing
and shipping.

a b c

d e f

Figure 1. Sanitation of sugarcane varieties: (a) thermal treatment, (b)bud

germination, (c)apex from which meristem is extracted, (d)
regenerated plants, (e)clonal propagation, (f)greenhouse
acclimatization

Micropropagation

The in vitro plant vegetative multiplication procedure is known as

micropropagation. Compared with field propagation, vegetative propagation has
many advantages among which can be mentioned:

 Higher multiplication rate

 Less field area
 Better disease control
 Less time investment

93
The need of specialized facilities, equipment and technicians, can be mentioned
among the main disadvantages.

This procedure is performed at CENGICAÑA to propagate plants of introduced

varieties which have been healed from the diseases detected in the quarantine
process, according to the procedure of the section 3.1. This multiplication
process allows the production of about 500 plants starting from a single
meristem of each variety, which are ready for field transplantation and disease
free; this process takes eight month since the moment of the initial bud
isolation.

Besides quarantined plants, some varieties from the Evaluation Phase at

CENGICAÑA’s Breeding Program are propagated too. This action generates
enough plants for evaluation in a larger number of locations.

Some of Guatemala’s sugar mills have micropropagation laboratories for their

own use in the cleaning and multiplication of their varieties. For example,
Magdalena mill has been increasing their production volumes annually and is
projected that they will reach 3 million plants in 2012. Santa Ana mill has been
steadily producing 300,000 plants annually (Table 4). On the other hand,
Tecnología Agrícola Inc. started sugarcane micropropagation in 2010 for La
Unión mill, with the capacity of producing 600,000 plants per year (personal
communication with Ing. Mario Peña).

Table 4. Production of sugarcane plants by micropropagation at the Magdalena

and Santa Ana sugar mills, 2011

Sugar mill Year Plants Production

Magdalena 2009 1.2 million
2010 1.5 million
2011 1.8 million
Santa Ana 2010 300,000
2011 300,000
Distributed in:
Early varieties (15%):CP73-1547, CP98-46
Intermediate varieties (15%): CP72-2086, Mex79-431,
CG98-78
Late varieties (70%): CG98-10, RB73-2577, PR75-2002
Source: Magdalena and Santa Ana mills.

Disease detection using molecular markers

When DNA or RNA of an infected plant is extracted, the pathogen’s DNA and
RNA is extracted too. If there is a method that allows the identification of a

94
nucleic acid fragment from the pathogen, the pathogen presence in the sample
can be diagnosed. This reasoning is the base of nucleic analisys for disease
detection using molecular markers. CENGICAÑA uses this technology for the
diagnostic of the following diseases:

 Ratoon stunt disease (RSD)

 Leaf scald disease (LSD)
 Sugarcane yellow leaf phytoplasma (SCYLP)
 Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV)

Simultaneous detection of RSD and LSD is based on the Davis, Rott and Astua-
monge report (1998); SCYLP is detected according to Parmessur et al. (2002)
and SCMV is detected according to Smith & Van de Velde (1994).

Disease diagnostics is performed as part of the variety sanitation before

micropropagation so the absence of important pathogens is confirmed. In
general, the procedure involves DNA or RNA extraction, a pathogen’s specific
fragment amplification using polymerase chain reaction (PCR), separation of
fragments, using agarose gelelectrophoresis and the visualization of the
fragments using etidium bromide and UV light (Figure 2).
4

07
33

04

09

6
1

7
-7

-6

-4

-0
-0

-0

-1
-

-
00

96

98

02
00

00

98

98

01
M - +
G

G
G

G
C

C
1500bp
1250bp
1000bp

Figure 2. Agarose gel showing the results of a diagnostic procedure for SCYP.
Lane 1= molecular weight ladder, lane 2= negative control, lane 3=
positive control, lanes 4-12= evaluated varieties. CENGICAÑA 2011

The use of molecular markers for disease diagnosis has the advantage of being
more sensitive than the immunological counterpart. DNA analysis represents a
non-destructive assay.

95
Genetic diversity analysis

The evaluation of different polymorphic DNA markers in different sugarcane

varieties generates a group of bands, one set of bands per variety. A binary
matrix where the absence (0) or presence (1) of bands is represented can be
statistically analyzed to establish similarity levels among varieties. The results
of the analysis can be shown as a dendrogram and can be used to show the
degree of genetic variability in a germplasm collection or for cross planning in a
plant breeding program.

Figure 3 shows the similarity between individuals of a group of 48 varieties

used as parental in CENGICAÑA’s Breeding Program. In this study, the band
patterns of each variety were generated using 5 microsatellite markers (SSR).
The primers were provided by CIRAD (La Recherche Agronomique Pour Le
Developpement, France). The results of this work are being considered for the
annual cross planning (Quemé, Molina and Melgar, 2005).

B37-172
B65-15
CG96-37
CP72-2086
CG96-52
CG96-59
B73-06
Mex73-523
CP72-1312
CG98-91
Mex57-683
Mex69-290
C87-51
CC85-63
B76-196
Co421
CP57-603
CP63-588
B69-613
CG97-100
CG96-143
CG96-40
CP70-1133
MW CB46-47
CP72-1210
CC84-75
CG96-78
CGCP95-55
JA64-19
My74-64
JA64-20
L68-40
L80-38
SachOff
CP88-1165
MZC74-275
PR75-2002
PR78-3025
PR87-2048
V71-51
SP79-2233
CG97-83
CP88-1508
Mex79-431
POJ2878
IJ76521
CP65-357
CG96-01
0.03 0.15 0.28 0.40 0.52
Coefficient

Figure 3. Dendrogram (UPGMA) generated with the information of SSR

markers. This graphic representation shows the genetic relationships
between 48 sugarcane varieties (Quemé, Molina and Melgar, 2005)

96
Maldonado et al. (2009) characterized the genetic diversity of 26 strains of the
fungus Metarhizium anisopliae Metchnikoff using SSR and RAPD markers.
This fungus is used as biological control of sugarcane pests and other crops.
This study detected 8 local strains which remain viable three months after the
application to the soil.

Figure 4. Dendrogram generated with SSR and RAPD markers showing genetic
similarity between 26 strains of the fungus M. anisopliae Metchnikoff
(Maldonado et al., 2009)

Marker assisted selection

Despite great efforts to identify genetic markers associated to important traits

and to generate genetic maps, sugarcane’s complex genome remains as the
major barrier for the use of marker assisted selection (MAS). To date, only two
markers have been identified as tightly related to a monogenic characteristic:
rust resistance (Le Cunff, 2008). The research conducted to identify these
markers, was funded partially by the International Consortium of Sugarcane
Biotechnology (ICSB) . These markers have been given to CENGICAÑA by
CIRAD and they will be used for assisted selection markers .

The use of other molecular marker in assisted selection, has not been reported to
be used in sugarcane MAS, even when there has been shown the association of
several markers to QTL’s.

97
Development of transgenic varieties

The use of sugarcane transgenic varieties places its users in a comparative and
competitive advantage. Guatemala’s Sugarcane Agro-Industry is well aware of
this and the technological development limitations of the country. Nevertheless,
the genetic transformation process itself seems to be at the reach of Guatemala´s
Agro-industry. For this reason, CENGICAÑA has initiated the development of
local capacities to perform genetic transformation. At the moment, it is planned
to execute laboratory confined activities, since the country has no regulatory
frame that allows the field experimentation of transformed plants.

As already mentioned, the genetic transformation is not possible if there is not

an established tissue culture procedure that allows cell transformation and
efficient plant regeneration. For this reason, the optimization of a tissue culture
protocol aimed towards genetic transformation is being performed; the varieties
with better response to in vitro culture are CGSP98-16, CG01-17 and CG98-10.
These varieties have regenerated up to 70 plants per foliar disc (unpublished
data).

Figure 5 shows part of the plant regeneration process by means of somatic

embryogenesis using foliar discs as explants.

a b

Figure 5. Plant regeneration from leaf discs (variety CG98-10). (a)foliar discs
showing somatic embryos and plantlets, (b) regenerated plants from a
foliar disc.

DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES
Biotechnology is a growing discipline nationwide thanks to the efforts of
enthusiast researchers, who are members of the Intersectorial Biotechnology
Commission of the National Council of Science and Technology (CONCYT). A
plan for biotechnology training was recently developed. Coordinated efforts of
private, academic, and government sectors to acquire bioinformatics capabilities

98
have been conducted. All the above, will permit to take advantage of
technological development.

CENGICAÑA’s Breeding Program has been progressively reinforced by the

biotechnological applications. It is expected that the genotyping, sanitaation,
varieties propagation, marker assisted selection, and genetic transformation
activities will work optimally together along with the rest of the plant breeding
program in the short term. It is also expected to use molecular markers to assess
pathogen diversity and the identification of genes of interest.

Additionally, Biotechnology Area can also continue its involvement in the

Integrated Pest Management Program, by means of genetic diversity as
performed in 2009 by Maldonado and collaborators in the analysis of
Metarhizium anisopliae. In a global manner, a growing demand of activities
involving the Biotecnology Area is expected, as a direct consequence of the
favorable and informative results obtained to date.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ahloowalia, B.; Maretzki, A. 1983. Plant regeneration via somatic
embryogenesis in sugarcane. Plant Cell Reports , 2:21-25.

2. Aitken, K.; Jackson, P.; McIntyre, C. 2005. A combination of AFLP and

SSR markers provides extensive map coverage and identification of
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Genetics , 110:789-801.

3. Al-Janabi, S.; Honeycutt, R.; McClelland, M.; Sobral, B. 1993. A genetic

linkage map of Saccharum spontaneum L. 'SES 208'. Genetics , 134:1249-
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4. Bower, R.; Birch, R. 1992. Transgenic sugarcane plants via

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7. Da Silva, J.; Sorrells, M.; Burnquist, W.; Tanksley, S. 1993. RFLP linkage
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9. Gallo-Meagher, M.; English, R.; Abouzid, A. 2000. Thidiazuron

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cultured young leaf segments of sugarcane. Plant Cell Tissue and Organ
Culture , 84:227-231.

12. Heinz, D.; Mee, J. 1969. Plant differentiation from callus tissue of
Saccharum species. Crop Sci. , 9:346-348.

13. Heller-Uszynska, K.; Uszynski, G.; Huttner, E.; Evers, M.; Carlig, J.;
Caig, V.; y otros. 2010. Diversity Arrays Technology effectively reveals
DNA polymorphism in a large and complex genome of sugarcane. Mol
Breeding, Publicado en línea.

14. Ho, W.J.; Vasil, I. 1983. Somatic embryogenesis in sugarcane (Saccharum

officinarum L.) I. The morphology and physiology of callus formation and the
ontogeny of somatic embryos. Protoplasma , 118:169-180.

15. Hoarau, J. ; Offman, B. ; D'Hont, A. ; Risterucci, A. ; Roques, D. ;

Glaszmann, J., y otros. 2001. Genetic dissection of a modern cultivar
(Saccharum spp.). I. Genome mapping with AFLP. Theoretical and
Applied Genetics , 103:84-97.

16. Krikorian, A.; Berquam, D. 1969. Plant cell and tissue culture: the role of
Haberlandt. Bot. Rev. , 35:59-88.

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17. Lakshmanan, P. 2006. Somatic embryogenesis in sugarcane -an addendum
to the invited review 'Sugarcane Biotechnology: The Challenges and
Oportunities'. In Vitro Cell Dev. Biol. Plant , 42:201.205.

18. Lakshmanan, P.; Geijskes, R.; Aitken, K.; Grof, C.; Bonnett, G.; Smith, G.
2005. Sugarcane Biotechnology: The challenges and opportunities. In
vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. Plant. , 41:345-363.

19. Le Cunff, L.; Garsmeur, O. ; Raboin, L. ; Pauquet, J. ; Telismart, H.; Selvi,

A. ; y otros. 2008. Diploid/Polyploid Syntenic Shuttle Mapping and
Haplotype-Specific Chromosome Walking Toward a Rust Resistance
Gene (Bru1) in Highly Polyploid Sugarcane (2n=12x=115). Genetics ,
180:649-660.

20. Leu, L. 1978. Apical meristem culture and redifferentiation of callus masses
to free sugarcane systemic diseases. Plant Protection Bulletin , 20:77-82.

21. Maldonado, A.; Ovalle, W.; Márquez, J.M.; Quemé, J.L. 2009.
Caracterización de cepas del hongo Metarhizium anisopliae Metchnikoff y
determinación de su presencia en el suelo a través de marcadores
moleculares. Informe final proyecto FODECYT 066-2006. CONCYT,
Guatemala.

22. Meyer, G.; Banasiak, M.; Keeping, N.; Pillay, N.; Parfitt, R.; Snyman, S.
2010. Novacane as a tool for rapid propagation of material for the SASRI
plant breeding programme. Sugar Cane International , 28(6):246-248.

23. Moore, P. 2005. A personal view on coordinating international progress in

sugarcane improvement and linking biotechnology to application.
International Sugar Journal Vol. 107: 27-31.

24. Mordocco, A.; Brumbley, J.; Lakshmanan, P. 2009. Development of a

temporary immersion system (RITA) for mass production of sugarcane
(Saccharum spp. interspecific hybrids). In Vitro Cell. Dev. Biol. Plant ,
45:450-457.

25. Murashige, T.; Skoog, F. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and
bioassays with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiol Plant , 15:473-497.

26. ONU. 1992. Convenio sobre la diversidad biológica. Recuperado el 21 de

junio de 2011, de http://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-es.pdf

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27. Oropeza, M.; Guevara, P.; De García, E.; Ramírez, J. 1995. Identification
of somaclonal variants of sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) resistant to
sugarcane mosaic virus via RAPD markers. Plant Molecular Biology
Reporter , 13(2):182-191.

28. Parmessur, Y.; Aljanabi, S.; Saumtally, S.; Dookum-Saumtally, A. 2002.

Sugarcane yellow leaf virus and sugarcane yellows phytoplasma:
elimination by tissue culture. Plant Pathology , 51:561-566.

29. Quemé, J.; Molina, L.; Melgar, M. 2005. Analysis of genetic similarity
among 48 sugarcane varieties using microsatellite DNA sequences. Proc.
Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., Vol. 25:592-596.

30. Roughan, P.; Waldron, J.; Glasziou, K. 1971. Starch inheritance in

Saccharum. Enzyme polymorphism for B-amylase in interspecific and
intergeneric hybrids. Proceedings of the International Society of Sugar
Cane Technologists , 14:257-265.

31. Shiromani, W.; Basnayake, V.; Moyle, R.; Birch, R. 2010. Embryogenic
callus proliferation and regeneration conditions for genetic transformation of
diverse sugarcane cultivars. Plant Cell Rep , Publicado en línea.

32. Tawar, P.; Sawant, R.; Dalvi, S.; Nikam, A.; Kawar, P.; Devarumath, R.
2008. An assessment of somaclonal variation in micropropagated plants of
sugarcane by RAPD markers. Sugar Tech , 10(2):124-127.

33. Taylor, P.; Dukic, S. 1993. Development of an in vitro culture technique

for conservation of Saccharum spp. hybrid germplasm. Plant Cell Tissue
and Organ Culture , 34:217-222.

34. Vasil, I. 2008. A history of plant biotechnology: from the Cell Theory of
Schleiden and Schwann to biotec crops. Plant Cell Rep. , 27:1423-1440.

35. Wu, K.; Burnquist, W.; Sorrells, M.; Tew, T.; Moore, P.; Tanksley, S.
1992. The detection and estimation of linkage in polyploids using single-
dose restriction fragments. Theoretical and Applied Genetics , 83:294-300.

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V. CROP ESTABLISHMENT
WORK

103
 SOIL PREPARATION FOR SUGARCANE
PLANTING

Joel García, Braulio Villatoro, Fernando Díaz y Gil Sandoval*

INTRODUCTION
Soil preparation is the combination of mechanized tasks that provides to
sugarcane seed (vegetative reproduction) the right conditions to stimulate
good “germination” (emerging) and vigorous canopy and root mass
growth. For good “germination”, sugarcane seed requires an adequate
relationship among soil, air, water and temperature. The optimal
development of the leaf mass will result in better use of solar radiation and
a high rate stalk production; also, a suitable root development will provide
nutrients, water, oxygen and foliage support to the crop during its
exploitation years until its total renovation.

The benefits obtained with the proper soil preparation are: stools
destruction and removal of residues and weeds from previous crops,
favoring the chemical and biological activity, facilitating gas exchange
required by the soil´s flora and fauna; soil pest control by burying
Froghopper eggs or by exposing larvae of white grubs and wireworms, also
improves water infiltration and subsurface drainage; soil preparation
contributes to brake compacted layers favoring the roots penetration and
its subsequent development (Campollo, 1999). Despite the importance of
soil preparation for planting, care should be taken for not over doing it
because this can result in damaging and in an inadequate preparation as
well.

Soil moisture content is very important in order to set the best time to
perform further preparation. The agricultural soil management under ideal
humidity reduces compaction, tractor’s tensile strength, the tractor’s and
implements wear and tear, fuel consumption and operating costs, resulting
all this in a better agronomic work.

*
Agr. Eng. Joel García Manager Head of Land Preparation at Pantaleon Sugar Mill, www.pantaleon.com;
Agr. Eng. Braulio Villatoro, Specialist in Information Systems for Precision Agriculture CENGICAÑA,
www.cengicana.org; Agr. Eng. Fernando Diaz Head, Department of Agricultural Engineering San Diego
S.A.Sugar Mill, www.sandiego.com.gt and Agr. Eng. Gil Sandoval Head of the Adaptation and Soil
Preparation La Unión Sugar Mill, www.launion.com.gt
 
104
The factors involved in the proper selection of the sequence of soil
preparation are highly variable; hence the field manager responsible, must
observe the field conditions and use the best criteria to select the labor
sequence to be followed.

SEQUENCE AND LABOR DESCRIPTION

The necessary work for an adequate soil preparation and its sequence will
depend on the characteristics of the soil, in the area to be renewed. These
can be known by observation and profile description in profile a pit (1m x
1m x 1m) or a profile box (0.6mx 0.6mx 0.6m) which must be
representative of the interest area. The main characteristics to be observed
in the profile are the sequence of the present horizons, its thickness, depth,
texture, and structure; it will be also necessary to detect compacted layers
and stones presence or other limiting factors. Additionally, field
compaction is measured at various representative points using an
instrument such as the penetrometer and by making humidity
determinations. Labor and sequence are variable due to the different soil
existent types in the sugarcane plantation area and to the variations in the
crop management activities used by mills; but, in a general manner, a
typical sequence of work preparation is shown in Figure 1.

a b
c d c e

Figure1. Implements used in soil preparation (sequence) a) plowing (chisel

plow), b) Flipping (Trail plow), c) Polishing (dredge), d) subsoiling
(subsoiler), e) furrowing (mowing)

In general and by order, the sequence would be: plowing with a chisel plow,
then turn up the soil with plough, afterward perform a first polished with a
harrow, subsequently, subsoiling with subsoiler; next, a second polished, and
finally the furrows formation for planting. Prior to the soil preparation, if

105
location and distance from the mill make it economically viable, industrial filter
cake residues (“cachaza”) can be applied. This compound is hauled by trucks
and deposited in piles distributed throughout the planting lot area, leaving a
uniform layer on the surface. This is accomplished using a rimmed tractor with
150 to 175 HP pulling a bulldozer. It is recommended to do this application
before 72 hours, in order to prevent the material compaction and fermentation
and the subsequent generation of gases and bad smells.

The function of each work in the field and the specific function of implement
are listed below:

Plowing

This activity is performed in compacted soil layers with resistance values higher
than 200 psi. It is made by inserting parabolic pieces of equipment on the soil,
spaced 0.45 m between each other, not exceeding 0.45 m in depth for loam
soils, for clays, 0.30 m is advised. The chisel plow consist of parabolic bodies
held in a tool bar, which is pulled by a rimmed tractor with 320 HP for five
piece equipment and 215 HP for three piece equipment. Operating speed goes
from 4.5 to 5.5 km per hour. The result of this activity is a substrate on which
sugar cane plants will develop properly. The chisel plowing labor is vertical,
and its main characteristic is to propitiate to loosen the soil, deeper than the
common plow or disc plows trail, without turning or mixing the layers of the
soil profile, which allows the maintainance of the internal structure of the soil.

The chisel plow labor is done parallel to the furrows, and could need a second
step performed in a 45 ° orientation. This is usually performed after subsoiling.
The labor is usually done in a transverse direction at 90 ° to the given direction
of the furrow (Daza Rodriguez, 1995). The quality of this work is measured by
the degree of fracturing of the compact layer, which in turn, is closely related to
soil texture and moisture content, and the implement used as well; also depends
on the speed and direction of the operation. The plough cuts, lifts, and removes
the topsoil, burying the stubble and crop residues, aerating the soil by increasing
its porosity and allowing a benefitial weeds, diseases, and pests control. The
depth depends on the equipment. In the case of soil pests, some observed results
have shown a control up to 70 per cent if it is waiting eight days between the
soil turning out and the following labor (Campollo, 1999).

Among the advantages of the chisel plow are the next: a) removes compacted
layers and imperfections caused by successive passage of disks to the same
depth, b) replaces the use of subsoiler, in soils with compaction at depths below
of 0.45 m, c) in some cases can replace a plow labor step, d) leaves noridges or
dead furrows during the operation and maintains the internal soil structure.

106
The operation method mostly used consists in several continuous passes. Chisel
plows are mounted on special frames (Figure 2)or in special rimmed frames
used for transportation (Figure 3).

Picture 2. Integral chisel plow

Picture 3. Chisel plow draft

Soil Flipping

The soil flipping is done with an implement called "trail plow". It is used to cut,
lift, and flip the soil, with the purpose of destroying the stubble of the previous
crop, this labor also helps in the weeds and soil pests’ control.

107
The soil tillage at depths greater than 0.20 m, allows the crop establishment and
its further development. The depth of this labor should be increased by at least
0.05 m from the furrow level, to ensure that the cane-seed will be placed on
prepared soil.

The trail plow can be used in two types of soil: a) soils with medium and heavy
slopes or with rocks presence; and b) stone free flat areas.

Small trail plows are used in areas with medium or heavy slope and in those
soils with presence of stones, this implement uses from 12 to 16 discs of 0.81 m
(32inches) in diameter, the cutting depth should not be less than 0.20 m, and in
rimmed tractors of 170 to 320 HP, respectively, should be use at a speed of 5-7
km per hour. In areas with a medium gradient slope, the plow drag is performed
in the sense of the previous furrows, forming beds to the proper equipment
circulation. If the aggregates diameter is still too big and if a second labor is
needed, this is mustly done in transverse direction or turning 45 ° mostly with
respect to the first labor. In areas with a slope greater than 50 per thousand, the
flipping takes place along the slope.

In stone free flat areas, harrows with 20 to 24 discs of 0.81 m (32 inches) in
diameter are used; pulled by rimmed tractor of 320 HP, at a speed rate of 7 -8
km per hour; cutting depth should not be less than 0.20 m.

To make the soil flipping, disc plow or moldboard plow can be used, arranged
in two eccentric throw sections, mounted on carriers or chassis frames (Figure
4). The separation between disks on the section goes from 0.35 to 0.45 m. The
weight per disc is 240 to 280 kg with a power requirement of 14-16 HP per disk
for rimmed tractors.

Picture 4. Trail plow 20 discs of 81 cm (32 inches)

108
 If the crests of the ridges are too high to facilitate the return of the tractor
and implement (beds outside-in), headers can be worked at the beginning or
at the end of the labor (beds inside-out), as shown in Figures 5 and 6.

Header

entrance

Picture 5. Melgas method, from the outside in.

Header

entrance Turn

Picture 6. Melgas method, inside out

If the crest of the grooves is too high, the first flipping step should be done
in parallel to the previous crop rows, if a second step is needed, it should be
done perpendicularly to the first step. On the contrary, if the crest of the
furrow of the previous crop is not so high to obstruct the displacement of the
tractor and implement, the first flipping step must be diagonal to the
direction of the furrows, and if a second step is necessary, this should be
perpendicular to the first step. It is necessary to verify that the overlap
between one step and the other is from 0.30 to 0.40 m, or that the overlap is
equivalent to the distance of the discs separation, otherwise, the direction of
the tractor must be adjusted.

It is necessary to check periodically that the depth of the plow is in between

of 0.24 to 0.27 m, and the maximum depth that can be achieved is ⅓ of the
disc diameter. Generally, when the furrows crest is too high, the desired
depth it is not achieved with the first step, then a second step is required.

 
Polishing

Polishing is performed with an implement known as harrow. The objective

of polishing is to plow and split clumps produced during the soil flipping or
underground. Polishing also destroys and incorporates crop residues and
helps to control soil pests.

109
A good polishing quality ensures a better contact between soil and seed;
consequently ensures good germination and high herbicidal effectiveness.
Its main functions are crumbling lumps remaining after the previous
activities , it also helps to destroy the previous crop stools and support the
control soil pests and weeds. Polishing smooths the bumps left from the
previous labor, and to till the soil between 0.15 and 0.21 m in size, to form a
bed of soil in which the seed can germinate and emerge without major
difficulties.

In areas with medium to heavy slope or stone presence, harrows of 28 discs

of 0.66 m (26inches) in diameter are used and are pulled by 170 horsepower
tractors. In flat areas, harrows with 66 discs of 0.61 m (24 inches) in
diameter are used and those are pulled by 320 horsepower rimmed tractors.
The operating speed of the equipment should ocillate between 7 and 10
miles per hour, with transversally displacement to the flipping soil. The
disks are arranged in two sections tandem, mounted on carriers or chassis
frame (Figure 7) with disks spacing from 0.20 to 0.25 m. The disk weight
ranges between 85 and 100 kg. The power required is 4.5 to 5.5 HP per disk
in a rimmed tractor. This is done with the method of “beds” as shown in
Figures 5 and 6.

Picture 7. Eccentrically Pulled Harrow

Subsoiling

An attachment called "subsoiler" is used during this operation. This work

breaks the impermeable layers of the soil, which are located below the

110
normal depth of cultivation layer (plow pan). Subsoiling improves the water
infiltration, drainage and root penetration, which leads to the increase of
crop yields (Campollo, 1999 and Rodriguez and Daza, 1995).

The need of subsoiling depends on an appropriate technical evaluation, since

it has a high cost. A penetrometer, which is an instrument that measures
penetration resistance expressed in pressure units, is generally used to
measure the compaction level. The measurement is done inserting the
tapered tip of the equipment to a certain depth (force per unit area). This
variable is not by itself, a direct measure of the state of soil compaction.
Subsoiling quality is measured by the fracturing degree, and depends on the
soil moisture content, soil texture, the equipment to be used, and the
operating speed. The depth of the tilled soil and other preparation work can
be measured with a simple instrument called soil depth gauge, which is not
more than a solid metal rod, graduated in cm, 75 cm long and 1.27 cm
diameter.

The most common implements used for this operation are the parabolic
subsoiler, which provides greater efficiency and consists of three or five
tillers of 0.6 m long, attached 0.75 - 1.00 m apart each other, in the frame
(Figure 8). Power demand varies between 50 to 65 HP by tiller; this depends
on the compaction degree, the depth of work, and the operation speed. The
operation method consists of continuous movements (Figure 9). During the
work execution, the field must be left unpacked within 200 psi, showing
cracks after the passage of the implement tillers (Figure 10).

Picture 8. Pulled Subsoiler

111
In

Picture 9. Suboiling Method in continues movements

Distance Distance
between between
breakage breakage
0.75 m. 0.75 m.

BREAKS

CROOK

Figure 10. Soil breaking during the work

Furrowing

This labor is done with the “ridger” or “furrower” implement. It builds parallel
furrows, distributed along straight or curved rows previously designed and
established by the agricultural design process. The furrows are made from 1.50
m to 1.75 m apart from each other; their depth is 0.15 0.25 m in conventional
tillage, and 0.25 - 0.35 m for crops planted under high moisture conditions. The
purpose of this labor is to prepare a bed of soil in which the seed can settle and
emerge properly, and also to allow crop development. In addition to ridge,

112
granular fertilizers based on phosphorus and / or potassium may be applied,
insecticide for soil pest control can be done as well, adapting special equipment
to the structure (Figure 11). This work can be ended with furrowers with two,
three or four bodies mounted on an integral tool bar. The power required
depends on the size of the equipment, depth of work and operation speed. The
operation speed in the field can be 6 to 10 km per hour under normal conditions.

Picture 11. Furrower of three bodies with equipment to apply fertilizer and
insecticide

Furrower Calibration

For the “furrower” calibration, the next steps must be accomplished:

• Place the tractor with the implement on a flat ground.

• Check that the distance between the furrower bodies is the required for the
field to be worked.
• Adjust the equipment longitudinally, with the third tractor’s fitting point, in
order to regulate the angle of incidence of the furrow forming bodies.
• Adjust the implement transversely using the lifting arms until the tips of
each furrower body touch the flat ground at once.
• Check that furrow depth for conventional tillage is between 0.15 to 0.25 m
and 0.25 - 0.35 m when planting under high moisture conditions.

113
• Adjust the position of the markers in the furrower to make the distance
between overlapping rows would be the same between one passing and the
other (variation less than 5 percent).
• Currently the global positioning system (GPS), allows performing the
furrowing operation without the use of markers. These systems work with
correction mechanisms through RTK antenna, providing a better
equidistance and parallelism among the rows.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Campollo, P. S. 1999. Fundamentos de mecanización agrícola para caña de
azúcar. Ingenio Pantaleon. Guatemala. 43 p.

2. Storino, M.; Peche, A.; Hiroaki, S. A. 2010. Aspectos operacionais do

preparo de solo. In: Cana-de-açucar. Ed. Dinardo-Mirandda LL.,
Vasconcelos AN., Landell MG. Campinas. 1ª. Ed. – 1ª. Reimpresao. Sao
Paulo, Brasil. pp. 547-572.

3. Rodríguez, C. A.; Daza, O. H. 1995. Preparación de Suelos. En: El cultivo

de la caña en la zona azucarera de Colombia. Cassalett, C.; Torres, J.;
Isaacs, C. (eds.). Cali, Colombia. pp. 109-114.

4. Faveri, J. H.; Juárez, A. 1992. Manual de mecanización del campo cañero.

Grupo de Países Latinoamericanos y del Caribe Exportadores de Azúcar
(GEPLACEA). México. 40 p.

114
 NURSERIES AND COMMERCIAL PLANTING
Werner Ovalle, José Luis Quemé, Héctor Orozco and Ovidio Pérez

NURSERIES
Sugarcane Nurseries Establishment

In the sugarcane profitable plantations establishment, one of the important

issues is the nurseries planning, in order to obtain high quality asexual seed.
This seed should gather several characteristics: genetic, physiological,
sanitary, and physical quality. Also several factors that are related with the
establishment of sugarcane nurseries should be taken into account.

Location, size and nursery planting planning: The nursery should be

located in a strategic place to reduce transportation costs to the other nursery
areas or commercial fields. The size of the nursery depends on the final
commercial planting area. If it is considered that, semi-commercial and
commercial nurseries will be in production, then two increments cycles will
occur, starting in the “basic nursery”. Usually, the rate of stalk-seed
multiplication in sugarcane is 1:10, then, the area of basic nursery must be
the thousandth part of the final commercial area, that is, if someone wants to
plant 1,000 hectares of commercial sugarcane, then the basic nursery should
be 1 hectare, the semi commercial nursery 10 hectares, and finally, the
commercial nursery 100 hectares.

Nurseries planting dates will depend on the date on which the planting of the
commercial field will take place. It is necessary to take into account that the
proper age of the seed is seven months for most varieties. An example might
be: if someone wants to make commercial planting on January 15, 2014,
then the commercial planting of commercial nursery would be June 15,
2013; the semi commercial nursery planting on November 15, 2012 and the
basic nursery on April 15, 2012. That means that the planning of the
commercial planting must be made two years in advance. It is important also
to consider the reduction of time between cutting the seed, and nursery
establishment and commercial planting.


Werner Ovalle is Agr. Eng, M.Sc., Plant Pathology; José Luis Quemé is Agr. Eng, Ph.D., Plant breeder;
Héctor Orozco is Agr. Eng, M.Sc., Sugarcane Breeding and Selection Program leader; Ovidio Pérez is Agr.
Eng, M.Sc., Agronomy Program Leader at CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org 

115
Area management before planting of nurseries: To sugarcane nurseries
planting, the location of areas whose potential yield is better than the
average of the farm and ideally with irrigation availability is
recommended. (South African Sugar Association, 1999). It is convenient to
divide the area into three parts: one third dedicated to the first ratoon
nursery, other third to plant nursery, and the last third for resting, and
waiting for the next nursery planting. Proper handling of previous
plantings avoids the presence of crop residues or stools, which can turn in
undesirable plant mixtures within the desired variety and also could be
infected with pathogens. For avoiding this, the burning of residues of the
previous crop is recommended. Subsequently, the stools of previous
cultivar should be killed, using an herbicide, 35 to 40 days after harvest.
The recommended dose and product are 4 to 5 liters per hectare of
glyphosate (Montepeque, 2007).

Rotations with leguminous plants for their incorporation as green manure, were
evaluated in areas designated for nurseries, and the results are promising, in the
third of the nursery waiting area. Rotations with green manure, further of
providing nitrogen, it improves structure and preserve the soil. Rotations also
are able to break the soil, pests and diseases cycles, and restore biodiversity.
Rotation is advised either with Crotalaria juncea or Cannavalia ensiformis.
These two leguminous plant species are well adapted to the soil and climate
where sugar cane is grown in the south coast of Guatemala. It has been
estimated that C. juncea can produce up to 35 metric tons of fresh biomass per
hectare in relatively poor soils with a total contribution of 235 kg of nitrogen
per hectare. Under favorable weather conditions and high fertility soils C.
juncea can produce up to 50 tons of fresh biomass, with a total contribution of
more than 300 kg N / ha (Perez et al., 2008, Balañá et al., 2010).

Soil preparation for planting of legumes matches with common labors used to
grow sugar cane. One to two weeks after of herbicide application to kill the old
stools, plowing is performed, which depending on the soil; consists of one or
two passings of Breaking plow and after, one or two passings of Leveling plow
(leveling). This ensures a good bed for seed germination of legumes. Planting of
rotation plant is made immediately after leveling, sowing in furrows with
spacing of 0.5 to 0.6 meters between rows for both legumes. For C. juncea plant
one or two seeds per hole is recommended, with a distance of 0.10 m between
holes, whereas for C. ensiformis sowing one or two seeds per hole every 0.2
meters, is suggested. With these distances, the average amount of seed used is
about 15-20 kg / ha in the case of Crotalaria and 100-150 kg / ha for
Cannavalia.

116
Depending on the altitude stratum and the planting date, the maximum
accumulation of biomass occur between 60 and 75 days after planting in
the lower stratum, and this in most cases, corresponds to the onset of
flowering. In the higher stratum, where growth is slower, this can be
extended to 120 days. The biomass is incorporated mechanically, through
two passings of plow that allow a good incorporation of the material to a
depth of 0.15 m to 0.20 m. The furrowing and sugarcane planting must be
made in the first two weeks after green manure incorporation, in order to
take advantage of the availability of nitrogen from mineralization of green
manure.

Hot water treatment of the seed: For the systemic bacteria pathogen control, as
the causal agent of the ratoon stunting disease (Leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli) and
leaf scald (Xanthomonas albilineans), hot water treatment is important. It has
been demonstrated the production increasing of sugar per area by removing
those pathogens. For L. xyli, the average differences in production of healthy
and infected nine varieties were 7.88 percent, 16.47 percent and 21.38 percent,
in cultivated cane, first ratoon and second ratoon, respectively, which a
represented up to 26.9 tons of cane per hectare on average in the second ratoon
(Ovalle and García, 2006). For X. albilineans, the differences in sugar
production between healthy and disease plants were 8.69 percent and 2.48
percent for two varieties with different susceptibility levels to the disease
(Ovalle, 2002). Due to these differences in the resistance of L. xyli and X.
albilineans to the heat, it has been experimentally determined the better
treatment for each of these pathogens (CENGICAÑA, 2001; Egan and Sturgess,
1980).

For L. xyli, any of the following two treatments to the seed is recommended: a)
Dip inmersion in hot water at 51oC for 10 minutes, followed by resting out of
water for 8 to 12 hours and finally, inmersion in hot water at 51oC through one
hour, b) Hot water treatment at 52oC for 30 minutes. In both cases, seedpieces
(setts) with one or two buds should be used. It has been shown that either
described treatments can decrease the amount of cells of L. xyli to undetectable
levels using the serological test "dot blot immunoassay". In the case of the
second depicted treatment, 52oC for 30 minutes, further losses of the buds
germination can occur (seven percent more losses on average in three studied
varieties) (Ovalle et al., 2001). If records show the seed rotting due to soil
fungal infection or termites infestations, it is desirable that after hot water
treatment, the cutting surfaces are protected by fungicide application (Captan+
carboxin) 25 grams per gallon, and insecticide (Fipronil) 8 cc per gallon during
two minutes (Azañón et al., 2005). It is important to emphasize that immersion
in fungicide and insecticide is recommended only if there have been problems
in previous plantings in the used fields.

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Most varieties evaluated by CENGICAÑA have shown increases in sugarcane
production when treated thermally, compared with L. xyli infected plant
material. Therefore, hydrothermal treatment to control the ratoon stunting
disease is recommended in any of the varieties to be used commercially.

For X. albilineans control, immersion of one or two bud setts in a constant

water flow, at room temperature for 48 hours is recommended. It can be made
in a tank with a controlled water flow to allow the continuous overflow water
renewal, and thus prevent the fermentation. After that, the seed-pieces are
dipped in water at 50°C for three hours. Steindl, cited by Egan and Sturgess
(1980) showed that such treatment can completely eliminate the infection by the
leaf scald. Taking the necessary precautions to prevent reinfection by X.
albilineans, in subsequent cycles, treatments can be made at 52oC for 30
minutes (the same short treatment used to L. xyli control). Since some sugarcane
cultivars are resistant to infection by X. albilineans, it is not necessary to subject
them to specific hydrothermal treatment for that bacteria.

Care must be taken to avoid reinfection by systemic pathogens: Fungi,

bacteria, or viruses are Systemic pathogens found in at least one infection stage,
located into the plant vascular system and / or within their tissues. Due to this
factor, an important way of systemic disease dissemination in sugar cane is
through the use of infected seed pieces. As it was mentioned, it is possible to
obtain systemic pathogen free seed pieces, which drives to healthy plants in the
nursery; reinfection of these nurseries should be avoided to maintain good
quality seed.

Both for the ratoon stunting disease and for leaf scald, the causing bacteria, can
be transported through the tools, for that reason, the next recommendations
must be taken into account: 1) Use of specific tools, equipment, and clothes for
each work in the nurseries. 2) Avoid the use of machinery in nursery areas, after
having been used in commercial fields. 3) Make machetes disinfection by
dipping them for 30 seconds, in a 5 percent Iodine solution (Victoria et al.,
1985), or by washing them with detergent, and burning them with ethanol at 95
percent of purity. (Ovalle and Nelson, 2005). In tasks carried out in the nursery
(tilling or seed cutting), such disinfections should be done as often as possible.
It has been found that this kind of care eliminate the possibility of reinfection in
seed-pieces free from L. xyli infection (Victoria et al., 1985; Ovalle and Nelson,
2005). 4)In the leaf scald case, if stools with disease symptoms are observed in
the nurseries, they should be eliminated by applying the Glyphosate (Roundup
35.6 s.l.) at a dose which can be in between of 250 and 500 ml in 20 liters of
water as follows: cover the hand with a chlorinated latex glove and with a sock,
then introduce covered hand in the Glyphosate solution to soak the sock. Rub
the scald infected leaf stool until the top, with careful, to cover the top as far as

118
the tip leaves. Immediately, bend the tip of the stool to be left as marked. The
effect is observed from 8 to 10 days after treatment, and it has the advantage of
avoiding the damage to surrounding stools and mechanical dissemination of the
bacterium too (Mayén, 2007; Sáenz, 2007).

The described procedure can also be used to remove stools of unwanted clones
(remnants or mixtures into the row) and Johnson grass plants (Sorghum
halepense) or itchgrass plants (Rottboellia cochinchinensis) growing within the
nurseries into the sugarcane rows. All the described care to achieve nurseries
free from systemic diseases caused by L. xyli and X. albilineans is useless, if the
commercial field management does not also includes certain precautions to
reduce reinfection; that is: the disinfection of the cutting tools, which can be
made as recommended for nurseries, as often as possible (at least every time the
change of labors from one plot to another is made) and although, initially, this
activity seems to represent decreases in efficiency of cutting the benefits will be
more.

Nurseries sampling for detection of pathogens which cause ratoon

stunting disease and leaf scald disease

Age of Plant: To detect the ratoon stunting disease bacterium, the best results
are obtained from sampling seven months of age plants. For leaf scald
bacterium, sampling can be made from four months of age, but for practical
reasons, it is better to use the same stalks sampled to ratoon stunting disease, at
seven months of age.

Sample size: Regardless of the size area of the nursery, the sample for
laboratory analysis must be 50 stalks. The stalks should be obtained randomly,
covering the entire area of the nursery, without regard, if stalks are primary,
secondary, tertiary or "suckers" and, therefore, regardless its diameter size.

Useful portion of the stalks: For detection of the bacterium that causes the
ratoon stunting disease (L. xyli) it is required the sampling of the basal portion
of the stalk (the lower third). Therefore, the stalks are cut off at ground level
and 50 pieces must be sent to the lab, with four or five internodes from the base,
all in the same position (the bases on the same side). To detect the bacterium
that causes leaf scald (X. albilineans) is required the upper portion of the stalk
(upper third). Therefore, the stalks are cut out in half and 50 pieces from the
upper half of the stalks, without tips are sent to the laboratory, all in the same
position (the tips to the same side).

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Identification of samples: For each package of 50 stalks an identification label
must be attached to it with the following information: Date, Sugar mill, farm
name, plot number, variety, nursery age, nursery category (basic,
semicommercial or commercial), total area of nursery and the requested
analyses.

Qualification criteria for nursery categories

Taking into account the results of laboratory tests, at seven months of age
(incidences of the ratoon stunting and leaf scald), also regarding the field
evaluations at four months of age (genetic purity; smut, rust brown, orange rust
and mosaic incidence) and other factors, the quality level of the nurseries will
be defined and therefore whether a nursery qualifies as source material for the
establishment of the following category of nursery, or for commercial planting.
Suggested criteria for genetic purity and disease infection level for nurseries
categorizing, are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Maximum permissible limits depending on nursery category

Nursery category
CRITERIA
Basic Semicommercial Commercial
Genetic purity (%) 99 99 99
RSD <2 <2 <4
Smut 0 0 0
Leaf scald <2 <2 <4
Brown rust * < 10/5 < 10/5 < 10/5
Orange rust ** < 10/5 < 10/5 < 10/5
Mosaic <1 <5 <5
* + 3 leave assessing, ** + 7 leave assessing

Commercial cultivation

The commercial cultivation of sugarcane is characterized by having productions

for several years, from one sowing.
. This situation makes important to take into account several factors involved in
the initial phases of the crop, on these factors the good crop development and
production will rely. Hence, it is necessary to consider, in addition to the soil
and nursery preparation, (described in previous sections) the sowing of
sugarcane.

Sowing includes the obtainment of seed from the nurseries, fertilization,

distribution of the seed-pieces in the furrow, the seed covering with soil, the
irrigation for “germination”, and the population evaluation (shoots) in the initial
phases (Subiros, 1995; Bakker, 1999).

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Varieties and sowing date

For choosing the varieties to be planted, the "Sugarcane Variety Directory"

(described in the Sugarcane Breeding and Selection chapter) should be
consulted. This directory was developed by the Sugarcane breeding and
selection program of CENGICAÑA and the Variety Release Committee of the
Sugar Agro-industry of Guatemala. This directory includes the current
commercial varieties and new varieties that are in commercial development. It
is a matrix, whose first row are the planting/harvest months (from November to
April) and the altitudinal strata appear in the first column; therefore the varieties
are located in the month and stratum where the sugar production and other
interesting features are optimized.

Seed quality

Seed should have different characteristics, such as the genetic quality (varietal
purity), health (free from pests and diseases), physic (stalk vigor without
mechanical damage, mixtures and others) and physiological state (Tarenti,
2004). For physiological quality, the seed age, the good condition of buds and
the good germination, should be considered, also the time between cutting and
planting, and others issues should be regarded. These elements must be
evaluated throughout the entire process of the nurseries production, which are
finally evaluated to define whether they have the necessary conditions for the
seed using or not.

Densities and planting systems

Single furrow method: : it is the most used in Guatemala. There must be

prepared packages of seed of 30 pieces with approximately 0.60 m of length and
preferably with 3-4 buds per piece. The distance between rows can be from 1.5
m to 1.75 m, depending on topography, field production potential, altitude,
variety and other factors such as the type of harvest (manual or mechanized)
and the availability of suitable machinery for each case. Planting is done
manually and the cuttings can be distributed in different ways, being one of
them the "double overlapping chain", which is achieved by placing
approximately 15 viable buds per lineal meter when the seed have good quality,
ensuring thus a good population density in the furrows. The spacing to
distribute a package of 30 cuttings in the furrow (“estaquillado” in Spanish)
depends on the variety and quality of the seed, usually are 9 m. According to
Orozco et al., 2000, in assessments conducted by CENGICAÑA it has been
found that “estaquillado” of 12 m shows results similar to those of 9 m. Planting
depth ranges from 0.20 m to 0.35 m. In traditional planting (with irrigation),
seed-pieces should be covered with approximately 0.05 m of soil, while without
irrigation planting, coverage must be from 0.10 m to 0.15 m.
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Double furrow method: This method is also known as "Australian furrow” or
"Pineapple type”. The distance between simple furrows of each pair can be
from 0.40 m to 0.70 m, and the distance among the pairs of furrows can
befrom 1.40 m to 1.80 m. With this type of modifications, the density of stalks
per hectare is increased, therefore the adjustments in fertilizer levels,
“ripener” doses and others, should be considered.

Fertilization and irrigation for germination

The phosphorus fertilizer must be applied at the same time of the furrows
opening and the amount to be applied depends on the soil type and the
phosphorus content determined in a previous soil analysis. The lamina
irrigation depends on soil texture, making the first irrigation of germination
between the moment of covering of the seed-pieces and 24 hours after
planting, applying a lamina of 30 mm. The second irrigation germination is
between 8 and 10 days after the first germination irrigation, applying a lamina
of 40 mm. In the “Pineapple type” system drip irrigation can be used, placing
the distribution hoses at the center of the two each pair of furrows.

Evaluation of the population and the replanting

The evaluation of the plant population has the aim to determine the success of
the planting and for making decisions in case of replanting. From 30 to 40
days after planting, a counting of the plant population (shoots per linear
meter) must be performed, and a population of 10 shoots per meter is
considered suitable, assuming near of 70 percent of germination. Where
spaces of more than 0.75 m along the furrow without shoots are found,
replanting must be done only on those empty spaces.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Azañón, V.; Portocarrero, E.; Solares, E.; Guevara, L.; Ovalle, W. 2005.
Efecto de tres calidades de semilla en la producción de dos variedades de
caña de azúcar. In: Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación.
Zafra 2004-2005. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 54-58.

2. Balañá, P.; Pérez, O.; Alfaro, M. A.; Fernández, M. V. 2010. Crotalaria

juncea, Canavalia ensiformis and Mucuna sp. As Possible Nitrogen Sources
for Fertilisation in Sugarcane Commercial Nurseries. Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar
Cane Technol., Vol. 27.

122
3. Bakker, H. 1999. Sugar cane cultivation and management. Kluwer
academic/Plenum Publishers. New York.

4. BSES. Sugarcane for the future. Ratoon Stunting Disease.

5. http://www.bses.org.au/InfoSheets/IS05053.pdf. Consulta del 23-07-07.

9:25 a.m.

6. Egan, B.T.; Sturgess, O. W. 1980. Commercial control of leaf scald disease

by thermotherapy and a clean seed programme. Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane
Technol., 26:1602-1606.

7. Mayén, Mario. 2007. Comunicación personal. Febrero 2007.

8. Montepeque, Romeo. 2007. Comunicación personal. Febrero 2007.

9. Orozco, H.; Ceballos, L.; Azañón V. 2000. Aumento de la distancia de

estaquillado. Una opción viable para la reducción de la cantidad de
semilla agámica por unidad de área. In: Memoria Presentación de
resultados de investigación. Zafra 1999-2000. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 31-37.

10. Ovalle, W.; López, E.; Cojtín, J.; Azañón, V.; González, A.; Oliva, E. 2002.
Efecto de cuatro enfermedades en la producción de la caña de azúcar en la
zona sur de Guatemala. In: MEMORIA. 14 Congreso de la Asociación de
Técnicos Azucareros de Centroamérica. pp. 93-99.

11. Ovalle, E.; García, S. 2006. Efecto de la enfermedad del Raquitismo de las
socas (Leifsonia xyli subs. xyli) en el rendimiento de caña de nueve
variedades. Segunda soca. In: Memoria. Presentación de resultados de
investigación. Zafra 2005-2006. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 95-99.

12. Ovalle, W.; López, E.; Oliva, E. 2001. Evaluación de cinco tratamientos
hidrotérmicos para el control de Raquitismo de las socas. In: Memoria.
Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2000-2001. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 63-65.

13. Ovalle, W.; Nelson, A. 2005. Efecto de la enfermedad del Raquitismo de las
socas (Leifsonia xyli subs. xyli) en la producción de nueve variedades. In:
Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2004-2005.
Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 49-53.

123
14. Pérez, O.; Hernández, F.; López, A.; Balañá, P.; Solares, E. y Maldonado A.
2008. El uso de abonos verdes como alternativa para mejorar la
productividad y sostenibilidad del cultivo de la caña de azúcar. Sugar
Journal, Vol. 70, No. 9. 14-21 p.

15. Sáenz, Oswaldo. 2007. Comunicación personal.

16. Soto, G.; Orozco, H.; Ovalle, W. 1997. Multiplicación y certificación de

semilla asexual de caña de azúcar (Saccharum spp) para la Agroindustria
Azucarera Guatemalteca. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. Documento Técnico
No. 12. 37 p.

17. Subiros Ruiz, F. 1995. El cultivo de la caña de azúcar. San José C. R. Ed.
UNED reimpresión 2000. 448 p.

18. South African Sugar Association. Experimental Station. 1999. Seedcane.

Good quality seedcane. Information Sheet. 3 p.

19. Tarenti, O. 2004. Calidad de semilla, lo que implica y como evaluarla.

Consultado 17 de Agosto de 2011.
http://www.inta.gov.ar/sanluis/info/documentos/Semillas/Cal_semillas.htm

20. Victoria, J. I.; Guzmán, M. L.; Ochoa, O. 1985. Chemicals used to

disinfect tools in order to limit the spread of ratoon disease of sugarcane.
CENICAÑA. Colombia. Documento Técnico No. 69. 8 p.

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VI. WEED CONTROL AND
MANAGEMENT

125
 WEED CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT
Gerardo Espinoza

INTRODUCTION

Weed control and management development has had several phases. First,
the intensive use of herbicides, followed by mechanical work sequence
integration and herbicide use as a second line of defense. Second, herbicide
molecules rotation, dose reduction and application of less polluting
molecules; and finally, weeds control through the use of precision
agriculture, green manures, and herbicide-tolerant varieties.

The critical period of weed interference in sugarcane production occurs in

the first 120 days, after cutting or planting. Therefore, in the sugar industry
pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides applications are the basis for
weed control, combined with mechanical control that help, in some way, to
control weeds. Among the most important weeds in the zone are: Cyperus
rotundus, Rottboellia cochinchinensis; weeds from Convulvulaceae family
(Ipomoea and Merremia), and Sorghum halapense, Cynodon dactylon,
among others. These weeds cause several complications in crop
management, which can be summarized in production loss and
overspending. It is important to know the strategies for herbicide selection,
which must be founded on technical criteria related with environmental
variables, edapho-climatic issues, cultural practices, and also, physical and
chemical properties of selected herbicide.

The aim of this chapter is to describe the management and rational

recommendations of weed management to the Guatemalan sugarcane
industries.

MAJOR WEEDS OF GUATEMALA’S SUGARCANE

REGION

The major weeds of Guatemala’s sugarcane regions are listed in order of

importance in Table 1. “Coco-grass” (Cyperus rotundus), is the most


Agr. Eng., M.Sc., Specialist in Weeds and Ripeners at CENGICAÑA www.cengicana.org

126
important weed, with greater presence in the low (40-100mASL) and coastal
strata (<40mASL), where soils with loam, and sandy loam predominate
(Figure 1).

Figure 1. Behavior and distribution of Cyperus rotundus

The Itchgrass (Rottboellia cochinchinensis) is the weed that is second in

importance and is one of the most difficult weeds to control because its
biology, rapid growth and high competitivity ability against sugarcane. The
weeds in the sugar industry, not only affect the first days of the crop growth,
but some such as Convulvulaceae family (Ipomoea and Merremia), due to
their kind of growth,invade sugarcane stalks at the end of its cycle, and
cause problems at harvest, with losses in crop-cutting efficiency. In recent
years, there has been a difficulty to control two other weeds species present
throughout the sugarcane area: Momordica charantia y Croton lobatus, and
so far it is not known whether they have some kind of tolerance to certain
herbicides used in Guatemala. Finally, there are some grasses difficult to
control due to their reproduction system as it is the case of Sorghum
halapense and Panicum maximum.

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Table 1. Guatemala’ sugar industry major weeds in order of importance

No. Weed Scientific Name

Cyperaceae
1 Coco-grass, Purple Nut Sedge Cyperus rotundus
Gramineae
2 Itchgrass Rottboellia cochinchinensis
3 Red Sprangletop Leptocloa filiformis
4 Johnson grass, Johnson, Sorghum Sorghum halapense
5 Guinea grass, Buffalo grass Panicum maximum
6 Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon
Broadleaf
7 Snakevine, Wood roses Merremia quinquefolia
8 Picotee morning glory, Japanese Ipomoea nil
morning glory
9 Littlebell, Aiea morning glory Ipomoea triloba
10 Bittermelon, Bittergourd or Bitter Momordica charantia
squash
11 Lobed croton Croton lobatus
12 Desert horse purslane Trianthema portulacastrum
13 Verdolaga, Pigweed, Little Portulaca oleraceae
hogweed
14 Big Caltrop Kallstroemia maxima

Crop interference with growing weeds

In Agriculture, the term “interference” refers to the sum of pressures on a

particular crop, as a result of weed presence in the common environment,
including competition and allelopathy concepts. Weeds have the ability to
compete for limiting environmental resources (mainly water, light and
nutrients), by releasing allelopathic substances, harbor pests and diseases, and
especially affecting the crop yields, by reducing the number of plantation cuts
(harvests). The degree of interference depends on other factors of competition,
duration, and time of occurrence, modified by soil and climatic factors and by
management factors. It is important to mention that the crop itself has the ability
to limit weed growth, primarily through shading.

According to Meirelles et al., (2009), there are three critical periods for the
weed interference: a) Period before weed interference (PBI), b) Total period of
interference (TPI) c) Critical period of weed interference (CPWI).

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The period before weed interference (PBI) refers to the period from sugarcane
sprouting in the presence of weeds, but without negative interference in the final
stalks production.

The total period of interference (TPI) refers to the time from sugarcane
sprouting, in which the crop must be free of weeds without significant
production loss.

The critical period of weed interference (CPWI) is when effective control

methods must act to minimize production losses (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Sugarcane production percentage observed (blue squares) and

estimated by sigmoidal Boltzman equation (red circles) as a function of
initial periods of coexistence and weed control

In Guatemala several studies have been conducted to determine the critical

period of weed interference. For the upper stratum (<300 mASL), the critical
period is 63 days after planting, while for the middle stratum (100-300mASL)
the period is 57 days. Although there are no data points for low and coastal
strata, empirical experience has shown that the critical period may be less than
40 days, due to that the soil and water conditions, promote a stronger
competition

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Weed control methods

In Guatemala, two methods are used for sugarcane weed control: a)

mechanical control and b) chemical control.

Mechanical control: Refers to the use of different implements as part of the

mechanical work carried out in the crop. Among those mechanical works is
the “step tiller” which aims to level the ridge between rows in plant-cane.
This work is done at 40 or 50 days after planting, controlling weeds for
about 15 days, depending on infestation conditions.

Optionally, a second step tiller can be made between 55 and 65 days after
achieving integrated management with chemical control.

In ratoons, cultural work will be 45 days after cutting, i.e. after pre-
emergence herbicide application. A second mechanical control can be
performed 60 days after harvest.

Chemical control: Involves herbicide application. This method is of ample and

easy use in sugarcane crop and with successful control results. The combination of
the two indicated methods is used to achieve longer periods of control. Herbicide
application can be done in three ways: a) mechanized, b) manual, and c) aerial.

-Mechanized application: It is commonly used in Guatemala; involves pre-

emergence and post-emergence herbicide application through sprayers
mounted to 120HP tractors. These sprayers are composed of a reservoir tank
for mixing, and a boom with 25 nozzles depending on its type, distributed in
a band of 12m width. This type of application is generally for flat areas, in
order to be more efficient. When making post-emergence applications in
further developed cane (up to 1.5m) “High Crop” tractors are used.

-Manual application: This is practiced where it is not possible to control

weeds mechanically, because of sugarcane development (closed) or in areas
of irregular topography. It is also performed to control weeds in specific
areas or small areas infested in the lot. For this type of herbicide application
knapsacks with constant pressure are used, which are more efficient than the
traditional ones. This practice is more expensive than the mechanized
practice, that’s why, it should be evaluated whether use it or not, in areas
which really deserve it.

-Aerial application: It is only used for pre-emergent herbicide application

in flat areas, located away from other crops, due to damages that it may
cause.

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FACTORS AFFECTING HERBICIDE EFFICIENCY
Environmental factors

Solar radiation. There are herbicides that have high evaporation losses,
causing decreased effectiveness in weeds control. These losses are given by
photo-decomposition of the herbicide molecule due to sunlight (ultraviolet
radiation). Herbicide degradation is induced when they are applied to dry
soil surface, without irrigation or rainfall. So, when pre-emergent herbicide
is applied, it is recommended its incorporation into the soil to ensure product
efficiency and residual effect. This operation can be performed with
irrigation or rainwater.

Precipitation (humidity). The rain interferes with the action of herbicides,

depending on when it occurs. The occurrence of rainfall before herbicide
application increases the water content in the soil and in the top plants hydrates
the waxes of the leaf surface, thus increasing the plant’s susceptibility to
herbicides and improving the control degree.

The influence of rainfall on herbicide-uptake through leaves, also depends

on the characteristic of each product, as some are absorbed quickly, and
others slowly. Herbicides formulated in oil are less affected by rain than
those ones that are based on water formulation. The time required for the
absorption of post-emergence herbicides in plants is of great importance.
This varies according to the herbicide, but generally, is about 30 minutes.
Plants exposed to prolonged stress moisture, may have thicker cuticle, more
pubescence, and consequently, herbicide leaf-uptake and translocation will
be less, due to lower metabolic activity. Herbicide must be applied when
topsoil moisture is suitable to favor herbicide molecule-binding with the
soil’s solid phase, reducing the risk of losses to the atmosphere. In pre-
emergent herbicide applications, soil moisture is important, due to product
dispersion through the soil, reaching, seed or weed’s roots.

Temperature. Air temperature influences in many ways herbicide action,

they can modify physical properties such as solubility, vapor pressure and
alter plant’s physiological processes. Generally, within the physiological
limits of each plant, herbicide absorption by the leaves increases with
temperature. High temperature increases the leaf cuticle and affects plant’s
metabolic activity, also promotes the volatilization of herbicide molecules.
In general, high temperature on the ground surface is a factor that enhances
the loss by herbicide volatilization. There are some practices that reduce the
negative impact of adverse environmental conditions, these include:

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1.-Do not apply, when relative humidity is less than 60 percent, when
temperature is higher than 35°C, and when wind speed is greater than
10km/hour.
2.-Do not apply herbicides when plants are under stress.
3.-Apply formulations less sensitive to environmental conditions.
4.-Apply at initial morning hours, late afternoon or evening.
5.-Use, if possible, large drops during pulverization.

Edaphic factors

Sorption. It refers to the organic molecule retention by the soil, without

distinction of specific processes of adsorption, absorption, precipitation and
hydrophobic partition (Oliveira et al., 2003). These specific sorption
processes, can act concurrently in herbicide molecule retention. Thus,
sorption of these molecules is much more complex than ions that serve as
plant nutrients (Oliveira et al., 2003). Herbicide sorption involves
hydrophobic interactions, physical and chemical processes in the compound
that passes from the soil solution to the external and internal colloid surface.

In some situations, sorbed molecules can convert in unavailable forms,

called residues. Organic matter is the main residue site formation. Residue
formation is an important mechanism of herbicide dissipation. While the
formation of these compounds may compromise herbicide efficacy,
especially residual herbicide applied to the soil, the amount of herbicide
sorbed depends on the physical-chemical soil characteristics, the
formulation, the applied product dose, and the climatic conditions.

Plant factors

Herbicides can penetrate through aerial structures (leaves, stems, flowers,

and fruits) and through underground organs (roots, rhizomes, stolons, tubers,
etcetera), younger structures and also seeds.

Leaves. They are the weed’s main organs involved in the penetration of
postemergence applied herbicides. In foliar surfaces with low epicuticular
wax content, drops of applied herbicide cover large areas. In leaves with
high epicuticular wax content, the leaf surface covered by herbicide,
decreases. Leaves present various levels of trichomes and gland
development, which may vary with the species. Leaves can intercept applied
drops, preventing them to reach the epidermal surface. Although, it is stated
that small absorption can occur through trichomes.

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Cuticle and stomata. This is the main route of herbicide absorption in
postemergence application. Therefore, the use of selected surfactants in the
mixtures, contribute to the mixture’s surface tension breakup that is applied
in the leaf, causing a better spread of the product and allowing stomata sorbs
more product making an important role in the herbicides penetration. The
maximum mixture’s surface tension needed to penetrate stomata is 30
dynes/cm2. The cuticle over the guard cells appears to be thinner and more
permeable (less epicuticular wax), being a less rigid barrier to herbicide
penetration. All weed species have stomata on both adaxial and abaxial
surfaces, although most of these stomata are located on the abaxial surface
of the leaf. The exact penetration mechanism is not yet known for all
products, but it is admitted that the nonpolar and polar compounds follow
the lipophilic and hydrophilic route, respectively.

WEED CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT

Ratoon. The first weed control in ratoon is performed 3-12 days after cutting
(dac), according to weeds area incidence or coverage and soil moisture. The
second control should be effective around 30 to 35 dac, after verifying the soil
moisture and when the maximum coverage threshold is reached (15 percent). In
areas without irrigation, or low soil moisture, high solubility products should be
used. The herbicide mixture and dose will be made in terms of incidence and
type of weed, and the highest control days will be seek (120 days).

Plant cane. In plant-cane, weed control starts 8 or 10 days after planting (dap)
with a pre-emergence herbicide application after a second irrigation. Coverage,
mixture, and dosage should be previously determined. The second herbicide
application (post-emergence) is performed after fertilization work. It is
important to define the maximum threshold and the weed development to
calculate mixture and dose that will be applied. There are intermediate
mechanical tasks that help achieve longer control thus, is important to note that
in areas with high infestation, weeds must be uprooted and/or patching (directed
applications) in the lot.

In plant-cane and ratoon-cane, trials have been made in the sugarcane region
with diverse soil types with the presence of “Purple Nut Sedge and “Red
Sprangletop”. In these trials herbicides of the Imidazoline group (Plateau 70
WG; Arsenal 24 SL and Mayoral 350 SL) have been applied; these products
have shown 64-89 percent weed control, achieving between 48-75 control days
(Figure 3). Also postemergence control with Sulfonylureas herbicides (Sempra
75 WG) mixed with low 2-4D Amine dose (0.41/ha), have shown satisfactory

133
control of Purple Nut Sedge, both aerial and underground, although for grass
control like Red Sprangletop, Krismat 75 WG has proved to be efficient
(Morales et al., 2010).

For Imidazolinone applications is important to consider soil type, to avoid

Toxicity, particularly in sandy soils. These products can cause a negative effect
on crop growth and development at an early stage thus, is recommended ratoon
applications not later than five days after harvest.

For post-emergence broadleaf weed control, herbicide applications based on

triazine (Ametryn and Terbutryn) applied 15 days after harvest have shown
control that ranges from 60 to 79 percent with 60 days control. In late
applications (over 30 days), the controls are inefficient and with phytotoxic
effects (burning effect) in the sugarcane plants, resulting in lower sugarcane
production.

Another pre-emergence weed control management option is Clomazone

herbicide, which has an effect on a wide range of broadleaf weeds and grasses.

Results indicate that 90 percent weed control is obtained with control

applications at 40 days. In post-emergence control applications of Cynodon
dactylon, satisfactory results are obtained, since no repopulation appears at least
100 days after application. Indaziflam herbicide is another option for pre-
emergence grass weeds control, especially “Itchgrass” and some broadleaf
weeds. In summary, there are new and traditional herbicides as technology
options for chemical weed control. Herbicide use should be done in an
integrated manner with mechanical control tasks to achieve good control, at the
lowest cost.

Figure 3. Cyperus rotundus and Leptochloa filiformis control, A) Control

treatment without application and B) Plateau 70 WG, Verapaz Farm,
Pantaleon Sugarmill, 2010

134
Herbicides used in sugarcane cultivation

There are about 70 commercial products from 17 chemical families used as

herbicides in Guatemala’ Sugar Agro-Industry, which information is detailed
in the herbicide catalog harvest 08-09, with links to online dynamic
presentations.
http://www.cengicana.org/Portal/Biblioteca/PublicacionesCENGICAÑA/Man
uales/CatalogoHerbicidasZafra08-09.pdf). The description of the most
relevant herbicide management aspects are listed below.

1. Aryloxyphenoxypropionate: Fluazifop-p-butil. This is a post-emergence

systemic herbicide used in grasses in doses of 1 to 2 L/ha. It is recommended
to apply before tillering when weeds are young (5-8 leaves) and before
flowering. Some species under control are: Echinochloa spp.; Setaria spp.;
Cynodon dactylon; Digitaria sanguinalis; Paspalum dilatatum and Sorghum
halapense.

2. Phosphonic acid: Glufosinate-ammonium. This is a post-emergence non-

selective herbicide. Under water stress conditions decreases its effectiveness
on broadleaf weeds. The recommended dose is in between of 1.5 and 2.5
L/ha. In high relative humidity conditions the product efficiency increases.
When applied with ammonium sulphate (adjuvant) this one increases the
product absorption and is highly soluble, with poor absorption into the soil.
Some species under control are: Echinochloa colonum; Setaria spp.; Cynodon
dactylon; Digitaria sanguinalis; Sorghum halapense; Portulaca oleraceae and
Amaranthus spinosus.

3. Benzoic Acid: Dicamba. Post-emergence contact herbicide in relation to

the weeds. The recommended doses range from 1 to 1.5 L/ha. It is an
herbicide used on broadleaf weeds and sedge, it is recommended to mix it
with water at pH less than 7. Some species under control are: Amaranthus
spinosus; Bidens pilosa; Croton lobatus; Cyperus rotundus; Euphorbia
heterophylla; Ipomoea nil; Kallstroemia maxima; Oxalis neaei and Richardia
scabra.

4. Bipyridilium:Paraquat. These are post-emergence contact herbicides. The

recommended dose ranges from 1.5 to 3L/ha. It is a herbicide used on
broadleaf weeds and sedge. It is recommended to mix it in water with pH less
than 7. This herbicide has a solubility (also called Log Kow) of4. It is a non-
selective herbicide; therefore it has a wide weed control spectrum.

5. Cyclohexanone: Cletodium or Cletodim. This is a systemic post-

emergence herbicide recommended for target applications and during summer.

135
It is used in grasses in doses from 0.12 to 0.18 kg i.a/ha. It is a herbicide that
leaches rapidly and it is recommended to be applied with adjuvants, such as
oils. Tank mixtures with sodium bentazone salts, must not be prepared. Some
species under control are: Digitaria sanguinalis; Echinochloa spp.; Cynodon
dactylon and Sorghum halapense.

6. Chloroacetamide: Acetoclor. This is a pre-emergent systemic herbicide,

with relation to weeds, with poor mobility within the plant. The
recommended dose is 1.4 to 1.8 kilograms of i.a/ha. This is a herbicide used in
grasses and some broadleaf weeds with waxy appearance. Some species
under control are; Sonchus oleraceus; Polygonum aviculare; Raphanus
sativus; Digitaria sanguinalis; Croton lobatus; Echinochloa colonum;
Portulaca oleraceae; Richardia scabra; Leptochloa filiformis y Rottboellia
cochinchinensis (Leonardo, 1998).

7. Diphenyl ether: Oxyfluorfen. It is a post-emergence contact herbicide and

for some pre-emergence weed species. Doses range from 0.5 to 2 L/ha,
depending on soil type. This herbicide has a log Kow = 4.47; it is inmobilized
in clay soils with high organic matter content, which affects weed control.
Some of the species under control are: In post-emergence: Bidens pilosa;
Ipomoea nil; Kallstroemia maxima; Panicum maximum and Portulaca
oleraceae. In pre-emergence: Croton lobatus; Echinochloa colonum;
Euphorbia hirta and Leptochloa filiformis.

8. Dinitroaniline: Pendimethalin: These are pre-emergence contact

herbicides recommended in dose that ranges from 0.6 to 1.2 kilograms i.a. /ha.
These are used on broadleaf weeds and grasses. The product is almost
insoluble in water and therefore must be added in the mixture after surfactant
application. It is slightly soluble with a low Kow of 5.18. Some species under
control are: Digitaria sanguinalis; Echinochloa colonum; Eleusine indica;
Ixophorus unisetus; Leptochloa filiformis and Rottboellia cochinchinensis.

9. Phenoxycarboxylic acid: 2, 4-D. It is a post-emergence herbicide with a

recommended dose of 0.8 to 1.3 liters of i.a/ha. The application should be
directed to the weeds and when the plant is in a young stage and greater
physiological activity. The mixture should be done with water at pH below 7.
It is a moderately soluble product with a log Kow of 2.81. Some species
under control are: Amaranthus viridis; Bidens pilosa; Commelina diffusa;
Croton lobatus; Cyperus flavus; Cyperus rotundus; Euphorbia hirta; Ipomoea
triloba and Kallstroemia maxima.

10. Phosphonic acid: Glyphosate. These are postemergence contact

herbicides in relation to weed, recommended dose is between of 0.5 and 0.8

136
kilograms of i.a/ha. It is a herbicide recommended for perennial weed
directed or previous cane emergence application. The water for mixtures
should have a pH of between 4 and 6. Cane phytotoxicity causes leaf chlorosis
and young leaves yellowing. It is highly soluble with a log Kow of -1.6
(Alister and Kogan, 2005). Some species under control are: Brachiaria
mutica; Commelina diffusa; Cynodon dactylon; Cyperus flavus; Cyperus
odoratus; Cyperus rotundus; Echinochloa colonum; Panicum maximum;
Sorghum halapense and Tirantia erecta.

11. Imidazoline: Imazapyr and Imazapic. These are non-selective

herbicides applied to pre-emergence weeds in doses of 0.5 to 1 L/ha. They
can be applied to post-emergence weed and cane, but in a targeted manner.
The product has a residual effect, which is activated in humid conditions and
is soluble with a log Kow of 1.30-0.16. Some species under control are:
Croton lobatus; Cynodon dactylon; Digitaria sanguinalis; Echinochloa
colonum; Euphorbia heterophylla; Ipomoea nil; Leptochloa filiformis and
Melampodium divaricatum.

12. Isoxazole: Isoxaflutole. This is a herbicide applied in pre-emergence of

the weed and cane, in doses of 100 to 400g/ha. It can be applied to
posemergence weed and cane, but in a targeted manner. A phytotoxicity
symptom is a cane leaf chlorosis. This herbicide is highly mobile in the plant.
It has log Kow=2.50 (DKN) and 2.32 (IFT). It is recommended water pH less
than 7. Some species under control are: Amaranthus spinosus; Amaranthus
viridis; Digitaria sanguinalis; Echinochloa colonum; Eleusine indica and
Portulaca oleracea.

13. Sulfonylureas: Trifloxysulfuron, Halosulfuron-methyl,

Ethoxysulfuron, and Metsulfuron Methyl. These are herbicides applied to
the weeds post-emergence weeds. The Krismat (Trifloxysulfuron) and Sempra
(Halosulfuron-methyl) recommended dose are 160 to 180g/ha and 100 to 150
g/ha, respectively. They can be applied to the post-emergence weeds and cane.
It is highly mobile in the plant. It has a log Kow=1.40 (Trifloxysulfuron).
Some species under control are: Cyperus flavus, Cyperus odoratus and
Cyperus rotundus. Krismat controls in pre-emergence and post-emergence:
Amaranthus spp.; Digitaria sanguinalis; Euphorbia spp.; and Rottboellia
cochinchinensis.

14. Triazine: Ametryn, Atrazine, Hexazinone, Metribuzin, Terbutryn.

These are herbicides frequently used for pre-emergence weeds, with
combination of several triazines to increase the weed control spectrum.

137
Metryn used doses are 1 to 1.8 kg i.a/ha. Atrazine 1 to 1.5 kg i.a/ha.
Hexazinone and Metribuzin 0.5 kg i.a/ha. Soluble products, Atrazine with a
log Kow of 2.34 and Hexazinone with 1.17. Some species under Atrazine and
Metribuzin control are: Amaranthus spinosus; Anagallis arvensis; Bidens
pilosa; Croton lobatus; Euphorbia hirta; Ipomoea nil; Kallstroemia maxima
and Melampodium divaricatum. Terbutryn, Ametryn and Hexazinone control
in pre-emergence and post-emergence control: Bidens pilosa; Digitaria
sanguinalis; Echinochloa colonum; Ixophorus unisetus; Panicum
fasciculatum; Rottboellia cochinchinensis; Leptochloa filiformis; Melanthera
nicea; Cyperus flavus; Cyperus odoratus; Oxalis neaei; Portulaca oleracea
and Sida rhombifolia.

15. Substituted urea: Diuron. These are contact herbicides that can be
applied in pos-emergence in relation to weeds, and in some cases, they can be
applied in pre-emergence. Recommended doses ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 kg
i.a/ha. These are herbicides used on broadleaf weeds and some grasses.
Moderately soluble product with a log Kow of 2.77. Some species under
control are: In pre-emergence: Croton lobatus; Echinochloa colonum;
Euphorbia hirta and Leptochloa filiformis. In post-emergence: Bidens pilosa;
Ipomoea nil; Kallstroemia maxima; Panicum maximum and Portulaca
oleracea.

Herbicide phytotoxicity on promising sugarcane varieties

Figure 4 shows sugarcane’s susceptibility and tolerance stages to applied

herbicides according to their phenological stages. Stage 1 comprises from
planting to 20 days, during which sugarcane regrowth shows greater cuticle
thickness. At this stage, herbicide does not reach inner leaves, so the plant
becomes tolerant to herbicides and weeds (Christoffoleti and Lopez, 2009). In
ratoon cane, this phase is faster, thus, more residual herbicides can be
considered for application. Stage 2 comprises from 20 to 50 days after
planting, when there are two to three leaves; likewise there is root loss from
the seed or wand, this stage is susceptible to herbicide application. In ratoon
cane there is higher number of roots, thus the crop tolerates more soluble
herbicide applications. Stage 3 is in between 50 and 90 days after sowing,
when there are true roots. At this stage, there is severe weed competition with
the crop, affecting plant tillering and making it susceptible to post-emergence
herbicide application. Stage 4 or commonly called: crop closing, occurs after
120 days after planting. At this stage, the stalks are developed and defined,
and they will not be affected by herbicide application.

138
Figure 4. Tolerance and susceptibility instars to sugarcane’s herbicide
application (Bezuidenhout, 2003). Adapted by Espinoza and Morales,
2010

Table 2. Tolerance or susceptibility of new or recently introduced varieties to

pre-emergence (15 days after planting dap) and post-emergence (50
dap) herbicide application

Variety of Herbicide tolerance Susceptibility to the herbicide

sugarcane Preemergence Posemergency Preemergence Posemergency
CP73-1312 Terbutryne
CP72-2086 Terbutryne
CG99-048 Diuron and Ametryne
Terbutryne
CG98-10 Terbutryne and Ametryne
Diuron
CP88-1165 Terbutryne and
Diuron
RB87-2015 Terbutryne Terbutryne
RB84-5210 Diuron
RB73-2577 Terbutryne and
Diuron
CG96-78 Terbutryne,
Diuron
CG98-78 Diuron
CG96-135 Terbutryne
SP79-1287 Terbutryne, Terbutryne
Diuron
Mex82-114 Terbutryne Terbutryne and Diuron
Diuron

139
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Alister, C.; Kogan, M. 2005. ERI Environmental risk index. A simple
proposal to select agrochemicals for agricultural use. Crop Protection., v.
25, n. 3, p. 202-211.

2. Bezuidenhout, N.; O'Learya, J.; Singelsa, G.; Bajicb V. 2003. A process-

based model to simulate changes in tiller density and light interception of
sugarcane crops. Agricultural Systems Volume 76, Issue 2, P. 589-599.

3. Christoffoleti, P.; López, R. 2009. Comportamento dos herbicidas,

aplicados ao solo na cultura da cana-de-açúcar. 1era Edición, CP 2,
Piracicaba, SP. 72 p.

4. Espinoza, J. G. 2009. Acumulación de sacarosa y función de glifosato como

madurante en caña de azúcar. Guatemala: CENGICAÑA. 7 p.

5. Espinoza, J. G. 2010. Evaluaciones de herbicidas en la agroindustria cañera

de Guatemala. Presentaciones de resultados 2008-2009-2010 Comité de
malezas y madurantes. CENGICAÑA. Presentación Power Point 15
diapositivas.

6. Meirelles, G.; Alves, P. L. C. A.; Nepomuceno, M.P. 2009. Determinação

dos períodos de convivência da cana-soca com plantas daninhas. Planta
Daninha, Viçosa-MG, V. 27, n. 1, p. 67-73,

7. Leonardo, A. 1998. Manual para la identificación y manejo de las

principales malezas en la caña de azúcar en Guatemala. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. 131 P.

8. Morales, J.; Pérez, V.; Garita, I. 2010. Evaluación de la eficiencia de

Sempra 75 WG (Halosulfuron metil) + 2,4-D, en el control de coyolillo
(Cyperus spp).Informe Técnico, Ingenio Pantaleon-Duwest. 2010. 5 p.

9. Oliveira, P.; Silva, A.; Vargas, L.; Ferreira, F. 2003. Manejo de plantas
daninhas na cultura da caña de açúcar. Vicosa, MG. 150 p.

10. Ufer, C.; Mejía, M. 2010. Mapeo de la distribución de malezas en la zona

cañera del ingenio Pantaleon. Informe de resultados, Departamento de
Agronomía. 15 p.

140
VII. CROP NUTRITION AND
FERTILIZATION

141
 NUTRITION AND FERTILIZATION
Ovidio Pérez

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT OF SUGAR CANE

Plants like sugar cane, require 16 essential elements for growth and
development. These nutrients are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O),
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg),
sulfur (S), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B),
molybdenum (Mo) and chlorine (Cl). Further, silicon (Si) could be included,
although it is not considered essential it is important and a beneficial element in
the nutrition of sugar cane cultivar. C, H and O which conform a mayor portion
of the weight in the plant, are obtained from water and air. The other elements
are minerals and may come from the soil or are added as fertilizers.

Nutrient requirement for sugar cane varies depending on variety, soil type,
weather conditions and crop management. Table 1 shows the total nutrient
extraction (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) by for four sugar cane varieties, under
irrigation conditions, on the central region of the Guatemalan sugar cane
planting area.

Table 1. Extraction of N, P, K, Ca and Mg by each tonne of comercial sugarcane

(kg/t cane) by four varieties of sugar cane in Guatemala
Variety
Nutrient
CP72-2086 PGM89-968 SP79-2233 CG96-59
Nitrogen (N) 1.0 0.92 0.88 1.19
Phosphorus (P2O5) 0.40 0.45 0.45 0.48
Potassium (K2O) 2.65 2.81 3.1 2.87
Calcium (Ca) 0.60 0.51 0.64 0.65
Magnesium (Mg) 0.27 0.19 0.33 0.21

It can be observed in Table 1, that K is the nutrient required in the highest

amount by the sugarcane plant and it ranges from 2.65 kg in variety CP72-2086
to 3.1 kg of K2O per tonne of cane in variety SP79-2233. With regard to N,
requirements among varieties are different too. For example, variety CG96-59
requieres more N than the others, with 1.19 kg of N/t cane. Variety CP72-2086
is considered of intermediate extraction ability with 1 kg of N/t cane.


Agr. Eng., M.Sc., Agronomy Program Leader at CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org

142
Varieties such as SP79-2233 and PGM89-968 have smaller requirements with
lower extraction values such as 0.88 and 0.92 kg of N/t of commercial cane. The
lower requirements of N for these two varieties could be associated to the
presence of efficient nitrogen fixing bacteria as reported in a study on biological
fixation of nitrogen where isotopic 15N techniques were used (Pérez et al., 2005).

Nitrogen

Nitrogen is an essential component of aminoacids, nucleic acids, chlorophyll and

other pigments and it also takes part in all enzymatic processes. Nitrogen is
absorbed by the plant roots in the form of ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3-)
ions (Mengel and Kirkby, 2000). Lack of nitrogen is manifested in poor
development of the whole plant, poor stunting ability, thin, raquitic stalks and
pale yellowish green tone of the leaves (Figure 1). Symptms appear first on older
leaves due to the mobility of this element in the plant.

Figure 1. Sugar cane variety CP73-1547 on a Mollisol soil with residual humidity, in
the coast area. a) without N application it presents general deficiency
symptoms. b) with 130 kg of N/ha applied as urea. Finca Santa Elena,
San Diego Sugar Mill.

Forms of N in the soil: Soil N can be found mainly in organic forms (more than
95%, in general), bound to C in humus of in plant cells (dead of alive),
microorganisms and small animals (Allison, 1973); only a very small amount is
found in mineral forms. The organic forms on soil N are not available for plants
and they should be transformed into mineral forms (NH4+ y NO3-) through the soil
microorganisms, so they can be used by the plant roots. This is how
mineralization of organic N, coming from organic matter (OM) is an important
source of available N for the plants. Mineralization rate of the soil organic N is

143
determined by environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and the
amount and type of the present organic N.

Organic Matter of the sugar cane plantation area in Guatemala: In general, it

can be said that the contents of organic matter in the soils of the sugar cane
plantation area in Guatemala are high when compared with other tropical regions
cultivated with the same crop. Accumulation of organic matter is a characteristic
of soils that derive from volcanic ash, especially, the Andisols with high contents
of amorphous clays such as “alophane” (Broadbent, 1964).

Figure 2 shows the distribution of OM in the soils of the Guatemalan sugar cane
plantation area. In the coast level stratum (< 40 masl) most soils have a content of
organic matter below 3.0 per cent, with predominance of Mollisol and Entisol
soils, with high productivity potential, due mainly to temperature conditions,
humidity and solar radiation which benefit crop development in these areas. It is
common to find intermediate contents of OM (3.0% – 5.0%) in Inceptisol and
Mollisol soils of the low stratum and in Andisol soils derived from recent
volcanic ash in the higher stratum or piedmont. The higher levels of organic
matter (MO > 5.0%) are found in more evolutioned Andisol soils of the middle
zone in the region.

Figure 2. Organic Matter Map for the Guatemalan Sugar cane plantation area

144
Crop response to nitrogen application: sugar cane crop response to nitrogen
application shows a high correlation with organic matter in the soils of the
Guatemalan sugar cane plantation area. Figure 3 shows the ratio of organic
matter with the response of the crop in terms of the percentage increases in cane
yield. In the inserted table, the probabilities of response to N are included.

Figure 3 shows that in 94% of cases when the organic matter content of the soil
was low (OM < 3.0%) increments over 20 per cent TCH were obtained,
whereas for all soils with higher contents (OM > 5.0%) the increments were
below 11 per cent. In soils with medium levels of organic matter (3.0 – 5.0 %)
responses were variable, but in most cases they were lower tan 20 per cent.

50

45

40 Response probabilities to N
TCH increase (%)
OM (%)
35 < 11 11 – 20 > 20
TCH increase (%)

<3 0 6 94
30 3–5 31 47 21
>5 100 0 0
25

20

15

10

5 *
Low Medium High
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Soil organic matter (%)

Figure 3. Ratio between soil organic matter and percent increase in tonnage due
to N application

It was determined also that N doses are increased with ratoon crop, especially
for those soils with low contents of organic matter. Figure 4 shows the
evolution of the response of variety CP72-2086 to the application of different
levels of N in four consecutive years, the optimum economic dose is also
shown (OEDN). The Soil was Mollisol with low content of organic matter (1.8
%). In plant crop stage (1995), the application of 50 kg of N/ha was sufficient
enough to achieve high yields of cane, similar to those obtained with the higher
doses of N and showing a very significant difference with the non fertilized

145
control crop (0N). For the first ratoon (1996), it was observed that the
application of 50 kg of N/h was not sufficient and 100 kg N/ha was needed to
achieve high yields. For second and third ratoon crops (1997 and 1998
respectively), responses to N were even higher, requiring high N doses
(equivalent to the NODN) to maintain adecuate yields. These doses which
varied within harvestings were estimated from the cuadratic adjusted
regressions for each year of the experiment (Pérez, 2001).

170
160 Variable OED N
150
140 100 N
130
TCH

120 50 N
110
100
0N
90
80
1995         1996             1997              1998             
(Plant cane) (1st ratoon) (2nd ratoon) (3rd ratoon)

Figure 4. Evolution of the response of variety CP72-2086 to applications of

different doses of N and the estimated Optimal Economic Dose (OEDN)
during four consecutive years in a Mollisol soil with low content of
organic matter (1.8 %)

Higher doses of N that are required each time the crop is harvested could be
explained by the decrease in the mineralization ratio of organic mater, as a
consecuence of soil compactation, which is caused by heavy machinery and
traffic used during crop management after harvesting (tillage and
transportation).

Recommended N doses: Table 2, shows the Guide for N application doses that
are recommended considering basically organic matter content of soil, expected
cane yield and cultivar cycle (plant or ratoon crop). N dose recommendations
for plant crop go from 60 to 80 kg of N/ha, according to organic matter content,
while the recommendations for ratoon crop are made according to the expected
cane yields (TCH), using the nitrogen per tone of cane ratio (Rel N:TC), which
varies with organic matter level.

146
For soils containing low OM levels (< 3.0 %) the N per hectare dose is
determined multiplying expected sugarcane yield (TCH) by 1.14 factor. In
medium content soils (3.0 – 5.0 % of OM) it is obtained using a factor of 1.0
and for soils with higher levels of OM (> 5.0 %), by using the factor 0.9. For
sandy soils, add between 10 and 20 kg of N/ha additional to the recommended
amount.

Table 2. Recomended N doses (kg N/ha) for the sugar cane crop in Guatemalan
soils originated from volcanic ash

Ratoon Crop
OM
Plant Crop 1/ Minimum Maximum
Cathegory N:TC
(kg N/ha) Dose Dose
(%) Ratio
Kg of N/ha
Low
80 1.14 100 150
(< 3.0)
Medium
70 1.0 90 130
(3.0 – 5.0)
High
60 0.9 80 120
(> 5.0)
1/
N:TC ratio= Ratio of kg of N per metric tone of cane expected

Minimun recommended N doses should not be lower than 100, 90 and 80 kg per
hectare respectively for low, medium and high OM containing soils, as shown in
Table 2. The reason is that in marginal areas there are limiting factors other than
N that affect the efficiency in the use of the nitrogenous fertilizer by the plant,
causing very low yields. In the same way, maximum doses of N should not
exceed 150, 130 and 120 kg per hectare respectively for low, medium and high
OM containing soils, since higher expected cane yields are generaly associated
with favorable conditions that allow more efficient use of N by the crop.

Time and forms of N application: proper application of nitrogen in terms of

time and shape is important for the best use of the fertilizer by the crop. In
ratoon crop, it is recommended that N be applied 30 days after cutting or
harvesting (dac) in a band, incorporating it into both sides of the groove. In
Plant crop, fertilization should be done 45-60 days after sowing, which is when
the crop roots initiate the absorption and utilization of the fertilizer.

For not irrigated areas (with residual humidity) which have been harvested
during the first or second third of the season (from November to February) early
application of fertilizer is recommended (15-30 dac), applying it in both sides of
the groove in precense of residual humidity. This practice is better than delaying
the application until May or June in expectation of the rainy season. This
information was obtained with experimental tests which showed that when the

147
interval between early fertilization (30 dac) and delayed fertilization was 145
days, there was a significant advantage of 14 TCH for an early fertilization, as
shown in Figure 5 (Montenegro et al., 2000).

160
150.5
150
140
130
117.3
120
TCH

110 104
100
90.5
90
80
70
60
Urea 30 dah Urea 30 dah Urea 145 dah, No N, No irrigation
incorporated in a incorporated in a broadcast
band band application
(4 irrigations) (with residual (beggining of rainy
humidity) season)
Nitrogen forms and times of application

Figure 5. Effect of early application of N (urea) under residual humidity conditions

vs late application when expecting establishment of the rainy season in
a Mollisol soil with low content of OM

Early fertilization against late fertilization when expecting establishment of

the rainy season, also offers very important operative advantages in sugar
cane crop management such as being able to perform the application of
fertilizer in mechanical way avoiding less efficient and more expensive
manual applications. Fertilization operations can be programmed according
to the harvesting season, avoiding accumulation of areas to fertilize with the
other form.

Fractioning of N doses in sugarcane crop depends mainly on edafic (texture)

and climatic (rain) factors. In Guatemala, it has been found that only one
application of N is needed (30 dac) for most soils and climatic conditions.
Nitrogen dose fractioning in two applications (30 and 120 dac) has been
found important for Andisol soils with coarse texture, located in the high

148
stratum with heavy rains, also in superficial Andisol soils in the medium
stratum and Entisol sandy soils (Pérez, 1998).

Nitrogen Sources: most widely used sources are: a) Urea (CO(NH2)2) with
an N concentration of 46 per cent, completely in amide form (NH2). It is the
most preferred granulated fertilizer due to its high N concentration. In order
to avoid losses, urea has to be incorporated, since it will suffer volatilization
if left in the surface. b) Ammonium Nitrate (NH4NO3): it contains 33.5 per
cent of N, half of it in the form of NH4+ and the other half in the form of
NO3-. It has to be transported and be kept in storage with caution since it
may become explosive when in contact with organic materials. c)
Anhydrous Ammonia (NH3): it contains 82 per cent N. Since it is a gas
under normal atmospheric pressure, it must be stored in high pressure tanks
or in refrigeration. Ammonia application in the field requires special
injection equipment and adequate preparation of the soil. d) Ammonium
Sulfate ((NH4)2 SO4) contains 21 per cent of N and 24 per cent of S. Since
this fertilizer is not hygroscopic, it does not require special handling. It has
the lowest concentration of N of all the sources described above.

Phosphorus

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants since it plays a vital role in

photosynthesis and other biochemical processes. Its main functions are:
energy transportation and storage and maintenance of cell wall integrity.
Phosphorus promotes tillering and root development, making it
indispensable during the first growing stages of the cultivar (Humbert,
1974). It is absorbed by the plant roots in primary and secondary
orthophosphate ions (H2PO4- and HPO42-) depending on soil pH (Marshner,
1995).

Phosphorus deficiencies in the sugarcane plant show poor rattoning ability

with thin stalks and short inter nodes; leaves are thin, small and narrow, as
shown in Figure 6.

149
Figure 6. Left: sugarcane variety PR75-2002 without P, in an Andisol soil
poor of the element. Right: Plants of the same variety fertilized with
80 kg of P2O5/ha, in the same soil

Phosphorus in soil: P is found in the soils in both organic and inorganic

forms. Inorganic forms are in the solid phase compounds mainly as Ca, Fe
and Al phosphates, depending on the soil pH. Organic Phosphorus is in
phospholipids, nucleic acids and phytine and its derivatives. These organic
forms have to be mineralized in order to be used by the plants.

Available Phosphorus in the soils of the sugar cane plantation area in

Guatemala: phosphorus availability in the sugar cane plantation area in
Guatemala depends on soil type especially on clay type (alophane)
(CENGICAÑA, 1996).

Presence of amorphous materials and alophane are characteristics of the fine

portion of those soils derived from recent volcanic ashes. These materials
give special characteristics to the soils such as high phosphorus fixation.
This fixation is defined as the transformation of soluble phosphates to
insoluble forms which are not easily used by the plants. Figure 7 shows the
map of P levels in soils of the cane planting zone.

150
Figure 7. Availability of Phosphorus in the Guatemalan Sugar cane plantation
area

In the higher and medium strata there are soils with high retention of P and in
consequence with low levels of the available forms of the nutrient. These
regions are dominated by Andisol soils with high amounts of alophane. Moving
to the lower zones towards the Pacific Ocean, the levels of alophane decrease
and high contents of P are found on the predominant Mollisol and Entisol soils.

Measuring soil pH in a sodium fluoride solution is a good indicator of alophane

and amorphous material presence. Figure 8 shows the relationship determined
between sodium fluoride (NaF) pH and available P in Andisol soils and other
soils in the region. It can be noticed that the Andisol soil pH values determined
in NaF are close or above 10 showing a big difference when compared to the
lower values obtained for the other types of soil. It is also observed that
Andisol soils are associated to low levels of available P (< 5 ppm).

151
 70

60

Available P (ppm) 50

40

30

20

10

0
7 8 9 10 11 12

pH (NaF)

Andisols other soils

Figure 8. Relation between pH in NaF and soil available P (Mehlich 1) in

Andisols soils and other types of soil of the sugar cane area in
Guatemala

Crop response to phosphorus applications: sugar cane response to

phosphorus application in the Guatemalan cane planting zone are related to the
original contents of P in the soils extracted with the Mehlich 1 solution, as
shown on Figure 9. It can be observed that relative yields (RY) that are equal or
below 90 per cent of maximum yield are associated to original soil contents of P
below 10 ppm, indicating that the higher probabilities to get a response to
phosphorus applications are below that level (Pérez et al., 2003).

152
Figure 9. Relation between soils P (extracted with Mehlich 1 solution) and cane
relative yield percent (RR), during planting crop on volcanic soils in
Guatemala

Figure 10 shows the importance of applying P to the soils deficient in this

element and which have been planted with sugar cane. These are: Andisol,
Inceptisol and Vertisol soils (Pérez et al., 2011). Also it can be observed
that all P deficient soils increased cane yield when applied with this element,
more than those applied only with N, and higher increments of up to 33 TCH
were obtained in a sandy Andisol, located on the high stratum of the region,
which is the one where the higher responses to phosphorus have been
observed.

P Residual Effect: low residuality has been determined for soils with high P
retention (Andisol soils) for this reason it is recommended to apply this
element every year, instead of applying the whole dose during planting, as
shown for an Andisol soil in the medium stratum of the region in Figure 11.
It can be seen that in all cases the media for sugar cane yield was higher
when the dose was fractioned into two years between planting and ratton
stages, independiently of the total dose of P applied (adapted from Perez et
al., 2007). Similar results were reported in other studies performed on
Andisol soils in the region (Pérez y Melgar, 1998).

153
Figure 10. TCH increments after P application in different soils of the region

110 101.1
96.7
100
88.8 90.3
90 86.2 84.3
80
TCH

70
60
50
40
Whole 40 Whole 80 Whole 120
fertilzation planting+ fertilzation planting+ fertilzation planting +
planting 40 1st planting 40 1st planting 40 1st
ratoon ratoon ratoon
80 120 160
Total P applied and dose fractioning (P2O5/ha)

Figure 11. Effect of P dose fractioning on average yield (TCH) when applied in
planting crop and first ratoon, in an Andisol soil of the sugar cane
plantation area in Guatemala

154
Recommended P doses: dose recommendations are presented in Table 3,
for different categories of soils according to their original P contents,
cultivar cycle and soil type.

In new planting areas or renewals of Andisol soils with low levels of P (<
10 ppm) it is recommended to apply 80 kg of P2O5 /ha and for other soils,
the recommendation is 60 kg of P2 O5/ha. For soils with medium levels of
P, dose is lowered to 60 and 40 kg of P2 O5 for Andisol and no Andisol
soils, respectively. P does not need to be applied in soils with high levels
of P (>30 ppm). For ratoon crop, P should be applied only if the original
levels are below 10 ppm, due to the lower response to this element that has
been observed in this stage. Recommended doses are 40 kg of P2 O5 /ha for
Andisoles and 25 kg of P2 O5 /ha for other soils with lower retention rates of
P.

Table 3. P dose recommendations (kg de P2O 5/ha) based on initial content,

cultivar cycle and type of soil

Planting crop Ratoon cane

P level in soil
Andisol Other soils Andisol Other soils
Low (< 10 ppm) 80 60 40 25
Medium (10 – 30 ppm) 60 40 0 0
High (>30 ppm) 0 0 0 0

Sources of P: the most common P sources used in sugar cane crop are: di
ammonium phosphate (DAP) which contains 46 per cent of P2 O5 , mono
ammonium phosphate (MAP) with 52 per cent of P2 O5. These fertilizers
also bring N in its ammonia form in their original composition. Tri Super
Phosphate (TSP) with 46 per cent of P2 O5 also contains between 15.0 and
18.5 per cent of Ca. Another source of P is the phosphoric rock, a less
soluble compound with variable P content which is recommended only for
acid soils.

Potassium

Potassium is an essential element for osmoregulation, enzyme activation,

pH regulation and cell anion and cation balance. It takes part in
photosynthesis and controls sugar mobility and the efficient use of water
by the plants. It is absorbed as an ion and moves inside the plant. Lack of

155
potassium is noticed first in the old leaves of the plant with spots and
chlorosys in the edges which ends up in the death of the affected leaves.
Long term deficiency of potassium may affect mersitem development
indicated by spindle distortion and a “bunched top” or “fan” appearance.
(Anderson and Bowen, 1994). In the other hand, an excess in potassium
increases the content of ash in cane juice affecting sugar crystallization
during processing.

Potassium in Soil: potassium in soil can be found in different forms and

with different availability levels. The most available fractions are those
exchangeable forms that are in solution; these are extracted for lab analysis
in order to measure K availability in the soil. The soils that are originated
from volcanic ashes have good storage of K, however, the combination of
some factors such as rain frequency and intensity and light texture promote
lixiviation of available forms of K.

Potassium in soils of the sugar cane plantation area in Guatemala: in

the sugarcane plantation area of Guatemala it is common to find low levels
of exchangeable K (< 100 ppm), in the Andisol soils of the high stratum
(piedmont) which are characterized by a high precipitation (>3500
mm/year) and by light texture soils. Low to adequate levels of
exchangeable K have been detected in soils of the medium stratum with
predominance of medium texture Andisol and Inceptisol soils, in contrast
with higher levels of K in soils which are found in the low and seashore
stratum with high fertility Mollisol soils.

Crop response to K application: different studies performed in the region

have shown that the response obtained by the plant correspond to the levels
of exchangeable K in soils. In Andisol soils with low content of this
element (below 100 ppm) the application of potassium has produced
significative increments in cane yield and sugar concentration. No
response to K application was detected in Mollisols with sandy loam
texture with contents of K higher than 200 ppm. In the other hand, a
positive interaction between K and N was observed. Figure 12 shows this
interaction, for a K deficient soil (86 ppm). It is observed that with no
amnendment for potassium (0 K), nitrogen effect was null. But for the
applied crop with 120 kg de K2 O/ha a positive lineal effect of N was
obtained (Figure 12 a). For a soil with 203 ppm of K, response to N was
similar with or without K (Figure 12 b), indicating that this element was
not a limitant for the production (Pérez y Melgar, 2000).

156
 Sandy Andisol soil Loamy Mollisol soil
16 20
K: 86 ppm K:203 ppm
14 18 120 K
12 16 0K
120 K 14

Sugar (t/ha)
10

Sugar (t/ha)
12
  8 10
6 8
0K 6
4 4
  2 2
0 0
50 100 150
  50 100 150

N (kg/ha) N (kg/ha)
 

Figure 12. Effect of applying 120 kg of K2O/ha over response to N in sugar yield
(t/ha), in two soils with different content of exchangeable K. a) Soil with
86 ppm of K and b) soil with 203 ppm of K

K application in soils that were defficient improves sugar cane juice purity, as
shown on Table 4 (Pérez y Melgar, 2000).

Table 4. Effect of K in juice purity (%) in two Andisols in Guatemala

Juice purity (%)
Applied K Finca Cristobal, Finca Delicias,
(kg K2O/ha) La Unión Sugar Mill El Baul, Pantaleón Sugar Mill
(102 ppm K) (86 ppm K)
0 84.3 87.0
40 88.9 89.2
80 90.2 90.9
120 88.5 91.4
160 89.2 90.5
200 90.4 89.5
240 89.4 90.8

Recommended K doses: dose recommendations are presented in Table 5,

according to original contents of exchangeable K in soil and the amount of clay
present.

Recommended application dose is 60 kg of K2O/ha when levels of

exchangeable K in soil are below 100 ppm and 80 kg of K2O/ha for soils with
more than 35% of clay. Medium levels of K are different for soils with clay
content below or equal 35 per cent or for levels above that percentage. In both
cases doses of 40 kg of K2O/ha are recommended. For soils with more than 150
pm of K and less than 35 per cent clay or for soils with more than 300 ppm of K
and clay content over 35 per cent the application of K is not recommended.

157
Table 5. Recommended doses of K in the Guatemalan sugar cane plantation area

Clay content in soil =<35 % Clay content in soil > 35 %

K in soil (ppm) Dose K K in soil (ppm) Dose K
(kg K2O/ha) (kg K2O/ha)
< 100 60 < 100 80
100 – 150 40 100 – 300 40
>150 0 >300 0
Soils with > 150 and > 300 ppm of K check base ratios respecting to K.
Apply 40 kg of K2O/ha if (Ca+Mg)/K > 40 and Mg/K<15

Sulfur

Sulfur is essential for amino acid, protein and vitamin synthesis, also in the
production of chlorophyll and plant growth. It is absorbed by the plant roots as
SO42+ ion and is a non mobile nutrient in the plant. Deficiency symptoms are
first shown in young leaves with purple edges and chlorosys, being smaller and
narrower than normal. Stalks are thin.

Sulfur in soil: soil sulfur can be found in inorganic and organic forms. In
humid and semi humid areas, S is principally found in organic forms as part of
OM, similar to nitrogen. When OM is mineralized, it releases S in the SO42+
form.

Response to sulfur application has not been evident in the sugar cane plantation
area in Guatemala, due maybe to the high contents of OM of soils in the region.
Some responses have been noticed in sandy soils and in the higher stratum soils
which receive high levels of rain, also in low OM Vertisols with drainage
problems (Pérez, 2004). It has been observed that N/S relation in the sugar cane
cultivar may be a good indicator for detecting nutritional levels of S with
respect to N. In Figure 13, N/S ratio is presented for a plant (4-6 months old), in
28 fields of the cane plantation area and its relationship to cane production. It can
be observed that the higher tone production was associated with N/S ratios close
to 12.

Sulfur applications are justified when the soil OM contents are low (< 3.0%) in
high rain conditions and bad drainage soils. In general, S deficiencies are over
come with the application of 40 kg S per ha.

158
 200

150

TCH

100

50
11 12 13 14 15 16

Rel N/S in leaves

Figure 13. N/S Ratio in sugar cane plant and its relation with yield (TCH) on 28
fields of La Unión sugar cane mill, sampling between 4 and 6 months

Sulfur sources: the most common sources are ammonium sulfate (24 % S
and 21 % N) and calcium sulphate (18.6 % S). Ammonium sulfate is a
high solubility fertilizer, easily available which also has a significant
amount of N. Calcium sulfate or gypsum is an economical source of S,
which also contains Ca in variable proportion. A cheaper option is
elemental sulfur (90.0 – 100% S), however it has slower reactivity since it
needs to be oxidized to SO 4 2+ by soil microorganism and may suffer losses
by lixiviation.

Calcium

Calcium is an essential element which forms part of Ca pectates, a very

important constituent of cell walls. Calcium takes place in electrostatic
equilibrium in the cell and is an activator of numerous enzymes in the
plant such as amylases, phospholypases, kinases and ATP-ases and it plays
a very important rol in N metabolism. Calcium is a relatively inmobile
nutrient within the plant. Calcium deficiencies produce thin stalks and
poor radicular growth. Also, old leaves have spots and present local
chlorosys with similar symptoms to rust and which may die prematurely
(Anderson and Bowen, 1994). When Ca deficiency is acute, leaves are
necrotic and distorted.

159
Calcium in soil: In the Guatemalan sugar cane plantation area, soils are
characterized for having adequate levels of exchangeable Ca, except for
those in the higher stratum and some middle areas with medium to low
levels due, among other factors, to the high precipitation in the region and
to the presence of sandy soils (Villatoro et al., 2009). Soils Ca levels
lower than 4.0 meq/100 g are considered low. However, one has to
consider Ca saturation in soil and the relationship among bases.

Some responses to lime application have been detected only in soils with
pH below 5.5, in Vertisoils and some Andisoils in the higher stratum.

The most common sources of Ca are gypsum (18-22%) and different types
of lime such as Ca carbonate, important to acid soils. Simple super
phosphate (20%) and triple super phosphate (15 %) are Ca containing
fertilizers.

Magnesium

Magnesium is a constituent of chlorophyll, in consequence, is involved in

CO2 assimilation and protein synthesis. It is important for the P mobility
in the plant and participates in the respiration processes. Mg is absorbed
by the roots in its Mg 2+ form and is a mobile nutrient. Mg deficiencies
may cause intravein chlorosis, turning old leaves from orange to yellow,
and may migrate to young leaves under severe deficiency contidions.
Sprouts are weak and cane growth is retarded.

Magnesium in the soil: low levels of Mg in the soil (< 1.0 meq/100g) are
found mainly in the higher stratum (over 300 mosl) where precipitation is
high and there is abundance of sandy soils. Adequate to high levels of Mg
are found in the other strata (Villatoro et al., 2009). Deficient soils would
contain lower than 1.0 meq/100 g and application of 30-40 kg of Mg/ha is
recommended. In soils with higher contents, Mg saturation has to be
checked along with soil bases. For poor Mg soils (0.4 meq/100g) located
in the higher stratum of the sugar cane plantation area the application of 30
kg of Mg/ha has resulted in the increment of up to 8 TCH. (Pérez et al.,
2011).

160
ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF FERTILIZERS

Cachaza

Cachaza is a residue in form of sediment, which result from sugarcane juice

clarification in sugar cane production process. For each tone of milled cane,
about 34 kg of cachaza are produced. During the last harvesting season, after
milling 20,000,000 ton of cane, 680,000 ton of cachaza were obtained.

Cachaza contains high levels of organic C, phosphorus, calcium and lower

amounts of nitrogen, this is the reason why is used during fertilization and soil
improvement practices. In Table 6, the general chemical composition of
cachaza from different mills is presented.

Table 6. Cachaza analysis (dry basis) average obtained for various mills in
Guatemala

Nutrient Content
Water (%) 75
pH 5.8
N (%) 1.2
P2O5 (%) 2.2
K2O (%) 0.6
CaO (%) 1.0
MgO (%) 0.6
C (%) 40
Ratio C/N 33.3

From table 6, it can be concluded that each tone of fresh cachaza contributes
with 3.0 kg of N, 5.5 kg of P2O5 and 1.5 kg of K2O. This amount could give
between 0.6 and 1.5 kg of availabe N per tone of cachaza depending on the
soil; 3.3 kg of P2O5 and 0.9 kg de K2O available per ton of fresh cachaza (Pérez,
2003).

Cachaza applications increase available P levels in soil in relation to the applied

levels. Soil P went form 6.1 to 10.4, 17.4 and 33.8 ppm with applications of
100, 300 and 500 t, respectively, on all the soil surface of a Mollisol soil in the
seashore stratum, therefore, P went from low to high level of available P in that
soil. (Pérez, 2003).

Higher TCH increments were observed with applications of cachaza in poor

soils such as superficial Entisols with low humidity retention. The highest
increments, up to 35 TCH were obtained after applying 500 t of cachaza/ha.

161
Azañon et al., 2002, reported cumulative increases in productivity for five
years from 52 to 64 TCH when applying 100 and 200 t of cachaza/ha before
planting and compared to the control without cachaza. The most economical
dose was determined to be 100 t. On table 7, the forms and doses of applied
cachaza for the Guatemalan sugar cane plantation area are shown.

Table 7. Recommended doses and forms of cachaza application

Application
Form of aplication Level Observations
(t/ha)
- Dose by distance considering high
transportation cost
- High TCH increments, especially for high
On total surface doses (300 t/ha or more)
applied during - Problems in application uniformity, especially
100 - 300
plantation labor for low doses (<200t/ha)
activities - Doesn´t require special equipment
- When using 100-200 t/ha, reduce nitrogen
fertilization down to 50 per cent and eliminate
N fertilization if using more than 300 t/ha
- Lower trasportation cost
At the end of the - Better application uniformity
Furrow during 20 -30 - Requires adequate equipment for application
plantation - It is recommended to apply 30-40 kg of N
with this doses of cachaza
- Lower trasportation cost
- Better application uniformity
On the band during - Requires adequate equipment for application
40-60
ratooning - It is recommended to make adjustments in
N and K doses considering soil type and
crop cycle

Vinasse
Vinasse is a liquid residue originated during alcohol distillation and is formed
principally by water, organic matter and minerals, K being the most abundant
among these elements. Vinasse is used in cultivation fields with positive results
increasing productivity, saving in the use of fertilizerers and helping to improve
soils in general (Pennatti et al., 2005).

In Guatemala, it has been observed that vinasse application has increased cane
production in different soils, providing all of the K and part of the N that the
cultivar needs. In a study conducted for six consecutive years on an Andisol
soil and with applications of vinasse and N doses, it was observed that every
year, sugar cane yield increased in relation to the amount of vinasse that was
162
applied. In average, with the higher dose (120m3/ha) an anual increment of
16.6 TCH was obtained compared to the control with no vinasse applied, this
represented a cumulative increase of 100 TCH over the years of the study
(Pérez et al., 2011).

Also, in this study it was found that vinasse modifies the cultivar response to N.
In Figure 14, average effect of different doses of vinasse on N response is
shown for this soil.

130

125
0 vinasse
120
10 vinasse
TCH

115 30 vinasse

110 60 vinasse
90 vinasse
105

100
0 50 100
N applied (kg/ha)

Figure 14.Average effect of the application of different levels of vinasse (m3/ha) on

the response to N during 6 consecutive years, in an Andisol soil with a
high content of OM (7.6 %). El Bálsamo, Pantaleón Sugar Mill.

In figure 14, it is observed that when zero (0) vinasse is applied, the
application of N resulted in cane yield increases (TCH), with an average of 8
per cent with the 100 kg N/ha dose, which is an expected result for this type
of soils. However, in the presence of any level of vinasse, N effect on yield
was null or small and yields were comparable or a little higher than those
obtained for the witness crop, which was applied only with N in the higher
dose. The highest yields were obtained for those treatments with vinasse
and 0 N when compared to traditional treatment (100 kg N/ha), this indicates
that vinasse is covering for all the N that the cultivar need and also is
making corrections for other nutrients which affect the production in these
soils.

163
The use of high doses of vinasse (> 60 m3/ha) is attractive due to the production
increments and the potential reduction of N doses; however, it is important to
consider that the continuous application of high levels of vinasse may cause the
significant increment of exchangeable K in soils, as shown in Figure 15. It is
observed that annual application of 120 m3 of vinasse/ha, for six consecutive
years increased 25 times the original K concentration on soil surface (0-25 cm)
going from 70 up to 1,750 ppm at the end of the study. On the other hand, it
can be observed, for those treatments with the higher doses of vinasse, that K
concentration has migrated to lower stratum (but no lower than 75 cm in depth).

Increments of exchangeable K in soil produce disbalances in soil bases due to

the fact that Ca and Mg contents do not change, while K saturation is increased
(Pérez et al., 2011). In consecuence, it is important to have control on the
applied doses of vinasse in commercial fields and to monitor the evolution of K
in soil. In Brazil, it has been reported that with high concentrations of applied
vinasse, cane maturation is retarded, pol %cane is reduced and the contents of K
and ashes are increased in sugarcane juice, which may result in problems during
sugar production process in the mill ( Silva et al., 1976; Orlando Filho et al.,
1995).

25

50
Depth (cm)

75

100

125

150

175

200

225
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

K (ppm)

0 30 60 90 120 Vin (m3/ha)

Figure 15. Effect of application of different doses of vinasse for 6 consecutive years
on exchangeable K in the profile of an Andisol deep soil. El Bálsamo.
Pantaleón Sugar Mill. (Pérez et al., 2011)

164
Green manure

Green manure are an option to reduce N use in sugar cane cultivar and are
a practice that aims improvement on productivity and sustainability of the
crop. Introducing a crop such as legumes in the traditional cane
cultivation system, derives in various direct and indirect benefits by
breaking the monocultivar practice (Wiseman, 2005). Planting Crotalaria
juncea and Canavalia ensiformis as green manures, rotating in sugar cane
seed fields and in renewal plantations allows for potential savings in N
fertilization of up to 100 per cent, with expected increments in yield.

On a Mollisol soil increments between 4 and 11 per cent in cane seeds

were observed, with the rotation of Crotalaria juncea and Canavalia
ensiformis, respectively (Balañá, 2010). In Australia increments of 20 and
30 per cent in tonage are reported with soybean and peanut rotation when
renewing sugar cane fields (Garside et al., 2001).

In Guatemalan superficial Andisol soils, it has been determined that planting

Crotalaria juncea as monoculture could cause an accumulation of up to 235
kg of N/ha in aereal biomass, in 65 days, while accumulation of N in
Canavalia ensiformis is a little lower (175 kg of N/ha) (Pérez et al., 2008).

Intercropping of Canavalia ensiformis with cane, during renovation of the

field or during ratooning, could be an option for soils with high OM contents
(such as superficial Andisol soils in the higher stratum), where growth is
slow. Average yield increments of 5.3 per cent were observed for this
system over four cycles of cane production (planting crop and three ratoon
periods), with inter cropping of Canavalia ensiformis with no application of
N in during the four years (Pérez et al., 2010).

In general and in a short term, use of green manure in Guatemala is

recommended for sugar cane seed production areas, since those areas are not
used between three and four months for productive activities. On the same
way, there is great potential in the intercropping of legumes with Crotalaria
juncea, in short term, , especially in those areas with the higher stratum
where planting is performed in humid conditions. Development of
Crotalaria juncea can be observed in Figure 16, previous to its
incorporation in a renovation field of the higher stratum under humidity
conditions (November) and growth of Canavalia ensiformis intercropping
with sugar cane, in an experimental field in Pantaleón sugar cane mill.

165
Figure 16. Left: Crotalaria juncea, in November, previous to its incorporation
during cane crop planting under residual humidity conditions (it was
originally planted in May in El Baul, Pantaleon), Right: Canavalia
ensiformis intercropping with sugar cane in an experimental field
(Pantaleon Sugar Mill).

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Allison, F. E. 1973. Soil organic matter. Elsevier North Holland, New
York. NY.

2. Anderson, D.; Bowen, J. 1994. Nutrición de la caña de azúcar. Instituto

de la Potasa y el Fósforo (INPOFOS). Quito, Ecuador. 40 p.

3. Azañón, V.; Sandoval J.; Pérez O. 2002. Evaluación de dos niveles de

cachaza bajo dos niveles de fertilizante químico convencional en siembra
y su efecto residual en 4 socas de caña de azúcar. Ingenio La Unión, S. A.
Guatemala. En: Memoria de XIV Congreso de Técnicos Azucareros de
Centroamérica. Guatemala. pp. 156 – 160.

4. Balañá, P.; Pérez, O.; Alfaro, M. A.; Fernández, M. V. 2010. Crotalaria

juncea, Canavalia ensiformis and Mucuna sp. As possible nitrogen
sources for fertilisation in sugarcane comercial nurseries. In: Proc. Int.
Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., Vol. 27, México.

5. Broadbent, F.; Jackman, R.; McNicoll. 1964. Mineralization of carbon

and nitrogen in some New Zealand allophanic soils. Soil Sci. 98:118-128.
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7. Garside, A.L.; Bell, M.J.; Bethelsen, J.E.; Halpin. 2001. Species and
Management of fallow legumes in sugarcane farming system. In:
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8. Humbert, R. 1974. El cultivo de la caña de azúcar. Compañía Editorial

Continental. Mexico. 697 p.

9. Marshner, H. 1995. Mineral nutrition of higher plants. Second Edition.

San Diego CA, USA. 889 p.

10. Mengel, K.; Kirkby, E. 2000. Principios de nutrición vegetal.

International Potash Institute. Worblaufen_BERN, Switzerland. 665 p.

11. Montenegro, O.; Chan, M.; Montepeque, R; Juárez, D.; Pérez O. 2000.
Épocas y formas de aplicación de N bajo diferentes épocas de iniciación
de riego. En: Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación.
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12. Pennati, C.; De Araujo, J.; Donzelli, J.; De Souza, S.; Forti, J.; Ribeiro, R.
2005. Vinasse: A liquid fertilizer. Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol.
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13. Orlando Filho, J.; Bittencourt, V.C.; Alves, M.C. 1995. Aplicaçao de
vinhaça em solo arenoso do Brasil e poluiçao do lençol freático com
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e Alcooleiros do Brasil. Vol. 13, n°. 6. Rio de Janeiro, Annais, p14-17.

14. Pérez, O.; Ovalle, W.; Urquiaga, S. 2005. Update on biological nitrogen
fixation research on sugar cane in Guatemala. Sugar Cane International
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15. Pérez, O.; Ufer, C.; Azañon, V. and Solares, E. 2010. Strategies for the
optimal use of nitrogen fertilisers in the sugarcane crop in Guatemala.
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16. Pérez, O.; Hernández, F.; López, A.; Balañá, P.; Solares, E.; Maldonado,
A. 2008. The use of green manures as an alternative to improve and
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fraccionamiento del fertilizante fosforado en el cultivo de caña de azúcar
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18. Pérez O.; Hernández, F.; Acan, J.; López A.; Ralda G. 2011. Potencial
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19. Pérez, O.; Hernández, F.; Sandoval, F.; Azañón, V.; Ralda, G.; Fillipi, J.
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V.; Solares E.; Acan, J.; Natareno E. 2011. Nutrientes limitantes en el
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22. Pérez, O. 2001. Fertilización nitrogenada en caña de azúcar. Síntesis de

resultados de investigación de la zona cañera de Guatemala. En: Memoria
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23. Pérez, O.; Cruz, W.; Hernández, F. 1998. Épocas de aplicación y

fraccionamiento de nitrógeno en suelo liviano. En: Memoria.
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24. Pérez, O.; Melgar, M.; LAZCANO-FERRAT. 2003. Phosphorus

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25. Pérez, O.; Melgar. M. 1998. Sugar Cane Response to Nitrogen
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26. Pérez, O.; Melgar, M. 2000. Sugar cane Response to Potassium

Fertilization on Andisol, Entisol and Mollisol soils of Guatemala. Better
Crops International. Vol. 14 (2): pp. 20-22.

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Comportamento agroindustrial da cana-de-açucar em solo irrigado e nâo
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14-21.

169
170
VIII. IRRIGATION OF SUGARCANE
CROP

171
 IRRIGATION
OF SUGARCANE CROP
Otto Castro 

INTRODUCTION
Irrigation is a very important activity in the Guatemalan sugarcane plantation
area. It takes place along with the harvesting during the dry season (from the
middle of November to mid May). Irrigation activities are increased as one gets
closer to seashore were water deficiencies are bigger. By 2000 there was a
burst in the irrigation practices in the area under administration by the mills,
growing from 61 per cent up to 80 per cent by the 2009/2010 harvesting season.
The objectives of the irrigation practices are: assure initial crop population and
increase of stalk weight. The activities are programmed post harvest, during
plantation or before harvesting, depending on the crop need and phenological
stage.

Nowadays, to select the appropriate irrigation system, the following parameters

are considered: efficiency in the use of water, investment savings and irrigation
system management. These allow to reach optimal use of water from different
sources such as: rivers, wells, deep wells, artisan wells and wastewater from
industrial sources.

In this chapter, first the evolution of irrigation practices is described, then the
classification of irrigation systems in use and the influence of these activities in
increasing productivity (in tones of sugarcane per hectare, TCH). Also, there is
information on irrigation planning and decision making from a technical point
of view, and important recommendations on the use of technical tools used to
ease irrigation activities in the field.

EVOLUTION OF IRRIGATION PRACTICES IN

GUATEMALAN SUGARCANE PLANTING ZONE
During the 1990´s the predominant irrigation systems were by gravity, by
flooding, canyon spraying; then by 1998, new technologies came to hand.
Different approaches to irrigate among furrow (all or every other furrow); uses
of water pumping systems, gravity conduction or canyon spray were employed.


Agr. Eng., M.Sc., Specialist in Irrigation at CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org

172
Growth of irrigation practices is observed in Figure 1. From 1990/91 to
1998/99 irrigation activities had a growth index of 0.89. Between 2001/02 and
2008/09 growth included twice the area. In 2009/10 the irrigated physical area
was 146,347 hectares, five times the area from 1990/91 and 2.58 times the area
irrigated from 2001/02.
180,000

160,000

140,000

120,000
Area (ha)

100,000

80,000

60,000

40,000

20,000

0 90/91 94/95 96/97 98/99 01/02 03/04 04/05 05/06 06/07 07/08 08/09 09/10 10/11
Hectáreas regadas
Irrigated area 29,068 43,907 55,425 55,048 71,240 81,971 86,571 95,755 119,170 128,709 132,497 146,347 155,740
Índice de crecimento
Growing index 1 1.51 1.91 1.89 2.45 2.82 2.98 3.29 4.10 4.43 4.56 5.03 5.36

Harvesting Season
Zafras
Figure 2. Growth in area of irrigation activities in the Guatemalan sugarcane
plantation area (CENGICAÑA 2010)

Today, the use of the different irrigation systems will depend on factors such as:
investment costs, water use efficiency, operational costs and management
easiness. Pressurized systems have become popular in the past 5 years; an
example is canyon type spraying, since its growing index goes up to 1.43. This
is due to factors such as handling easiness, accumulated experience of the staff
and adequate adaptability to special areas.

Medium pressure systems are considered innovative, such as mini spraying

central fixed pivot (mechanized, low pressure), and have grown in area 38 and 9
times, respectively, when compared to their use by the 2005/06 harvesting
season. Mini spraying has been used mainly in the fields under administration
by Magdalena Sugar Mill. While central fixed pivot is an alternative for most
sugar mills. The three mentioned systems are used along the three altitudinal
strata and before or after harvesting.

Rivers continue to be the most important source of irrigation water (63%),

followed by wells (15%), deep wells (11%), residual water (10%) and artisan

173
made wells (1%). It Is important to mention that the use of deep wells has
grown 5 times during the last harvesting season if compared to season 2003/04.

CLASSIFICATION OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN

GUATEMALAN SUGARCANE PLANTING ZONE
The Agro Industry Irrigation Committee analyzed and validated in 2005 the
following classification for the sugarcane plantation area:

Irrigation systems by groove

These are different because of the way water is extracted from the source: a)
furrows with water extracted by gravity and b) furrows with water extracted
using fossil energy. For both, water transportation and distribution on the plot
can be done by any of the following modalities:

1. Continuous furrows, without piping in the water transportation or

distribution
2. Alternated furrows, withoutpiping in the water transportation or
distribution
3. Continuous furrows with mobile PVC piping and use of impulses
4. Continuous furrows using polyethylene sleeves during water distribution,
it is a fixed system
5. Alternated furrows with mobile PVC piping and use of impulses
6. Alternated furrows using polyethylene sleeves during water
transportation and distribution, it is a fixed system that uses gates

Pressurized irrigation systems:

Stationary sprinkler systems: They are fixed during irrigation, are

differentiated by the energy type and operation pressure of sprinklers,
according to Tarjuelo, 1995, these are classified as:

1. High pressure spray gun type, powered by gravity. This system uses
the height differential energy, it has fixed pipe in drive and distributes
water to the plot through hydrants. It uses mobile pipe sprinkler
distribution of high pressure (40-50 PSI). Two sprinklers operate in each
hydrant. The water distribution efficiency should be between 75 and 80
percent in the plot.

2. High pressure spray gun with fossil energy type. This is a mobile
system in all its components, works with a pump, conduction and

174
 distribution piping with high pressure sprinklers (40-50 PSI). The number
of operating sprinklers varies from two to eight. Water distribution
efficiency by plot should be between 75 and 80 percent.

3. Medium pressure spray and fossil energy. Used variants: Mobile

system in all its components and the mobile system only in the water
distribution part. It works with motor pump which sprinklers are medium
pressure (30-40 PSI). Amount of sprinklers per side varies from 25 to 30.
This is a system designed to work mainly with eight sides. It is known as
mini spraying in the industry (when compared to the high pressure spray
gun).

Sprinkler systems with continuous displacement:, and are classified as:

1. Pivots (circular displacement) fixed and mobile

Fixed pivot (not transportable system): this system has a fixed irrigation
branch where it receives water and electric energy, and a mobile branch which
moves in circular manner, rotating over the first. It is formed by emission
carrying piping, mounted on approximately 11 automotive towers.
Pluviometric results are different for each tower. Branch mobility could be
hydraulic, too. Water distribution efficiency by These systems irrigate the
crop while moving, they differ in the way of displacement, and the sprinklers
are characterized by operating at low pressure (<20 psi) and are classified as:

- Moving branches known as mechanized systemsplot should be

between 85 and 90 percent.

Mobile pivot (transportable system): it is transported by tractor in

different positions depending on the agronomical design. It can work in a
fixed position, irrigating just as fixed pivot system, but with a smaller
amount of towers, usually four. Water distribution efficiency by plot
should be between 80 and 85 percent.

2. Frontal Advance (parallel displacement): Water distribution

efficiency by plot should be between 85 and 90 percent.

One wing frontal advance, not pivot: this system moves in parallel, at
the same time it applies water, it is formed by a side branch or wing, and
in one side it gets the water from a channel with the use of a pump. It
may vary between 200 and 600 m in length. Pluviometry is uniform along
the branch. When it finishes its trip along the plot, it returns in the same
plot.

175
 One wing frontal advance, pivot: the difference between this system and
the one described above is that it makes a 180º turn at the end of the plot,
allowing it to apply water in a different plot.

Two winged frontal advance: it moves in parallel form while applying

water, it is formed by two side branches or wings, one, to each side of the
water supply line. It can be 200 to 500 meters in length. Pluviometry is
uniform along the branch. At the end of its trip, it returns over the same
plot.

Giant Sprinkler:

Travelling gun: the gun is mounted over a vehicle that moves guided by a
cable and is fed by a flexible hose tied to a hydrant. It uses high pressure
gun type sprinklers (> 50 PSI). Water distribution efficiency in the plot,
should be between 75 and 80 per cent.

Drip irrigation systems: the characteristic of these systems is that water

distribution is by drips, which only wet the area with the highest
concentration of sugarcane roots. Irrigation water should be of high
quality. The system is very efficient in water distribution, closer 95 per
cent.

IRRIGATION EFFECT ON SUGARCANE AND SUCROSE

YIELD INCREASE
Sugarcane crop is managed under very different conditions among the
sugarcane plantation area in Guatemala; different types of soil have different
capacities to store and/or provide water, the climate can cause different signs of
hydric deficiency, depending on the altitudinal stratum. Besides, sugarcane can
generate different responses to irrigation, depending on the time of the year,
when it was planted.

Research work (including experimental research, validation fields and

observations) performed since 1994 in different parts of the sugarcane
plantation area; indicate that crop response to water application depends on the
following factors: altitudinal stratum, cane phenology, period in the harvesting
season, soil water retention capacity and management of the irrigation systems.
Figure 2, includes a qualitative analysis of the best results obtained in terms of
crop response to irrigation.

176
 SUGAR CANE CROP RESPONSE TO WATER APPLICATION THROUGH
IRRIGATION
RESPONSE FACTORS

Crop Water retention

Water phenology: Harvest
capacity of soils:
deficiency Initiation season
Sandy, Clay, Sandy Irrigation systems
according to period: 1st,
Tillering Loam, Loam, Silt operation: fixed or
altitudinal 2nd and 3rd
Loam free frequency
stratum Elongation and third
Maturation

1/3 season (post-

Free operation
Below 200 Initial Stage and harvest irrigation) Sandy soils, systems and hydro
mosl Elongation 3/3 season (pre- Sandy Loam, Silt balance application
harvest irrigation) Loam

Higher response

Figure 2. Qualitative analysis of the sugarcane crop response, to water

application through irrigation. Guatemalan sugarcane planting zone
(CENGICAÑA, 2008)

The higher responses of sugarcane crop to water application were obtained in

areas between 0 and 200 meters above the sea level, masl. Variable responses
have been obtained with increments between 10-70 TCH when comparing to
non irrigated crops, lower increments were obtained in high capillarity silt loam
soils and better results were obtained in soils with high contents of sand (sandy
loam). For the 200-300 masl stratum, increments are between 20-30 TCH. In
the areas over 300 masl, increments are between 10-20 TCH, the lower response
is due mainly to water deficiency.

Different responses of sugarcane crop to water application after harvesting have

been obtained due to interactions between phenological stages and harvesting or
planting dates. Higher responses are obtained during the first third of the
season (Nov 15-Jan 15), especially in areas below 200 masl, where the dry
season is longer. Yield increments (TCH) obtained for different research work
in the lower stratum (treatments compared to the witness crop without
irrigation) are presented on Table 1.

177
Table 1. Yield increment (TCH) due to after harvesting irrigation, for soils with
main texture types in Guatemalan cane planting zone (CENGICAÑA,
2006)

Texture Predominant sandy Loam Silt Loam

LARA2 30 40 50 60 70 80
TCH Increment 60 51 43 34 26 17
(according to non irrigated
witness crop)
Mm of required net water3 270 240 200 240 140 160
Note1: Results are given for harvesting or planting performed during the first third of the harvesting season, in the
low stratum (<100 masl)
Note2: LARA=Readily available film of water, at 60 cm of soil depth, given in mm
Note3: For harvest performed during the first third of the season, the industry average is 360 mm using gun type
sprinkling aspersion,: 6 applications of water, frequency of 20 days during 3 hours, 60 mm of net water film per
irrigation

When evaluating susceptibility of sugarcane crop to water deficiency, the

following stages are considered: initiation or preparation (45 days), rapid
growth period or elongation (about six months). These stages are more
sensitive to water deficiency so they must be prioritized during irrigation
planning for each one of the harvesting periods. The main objective of applying
water after harvesting (post harvesting irrigation), during the initiation stage is
to assure optimum crop population, also optimize fertilization and weed control
practices. When harvesting or planting is performed during the first third of the
harvesting season, there is a critical period for irrigation during elongation of
the plant which comes between April and May. Water deficiency effects are
more evident after hot phases of the “ENSO” phenomenon, known as Niño.
This phenomenon causes a delay in the beginning of the rainy season, moving it
to the beginning of June in the low and seashore strata; when this occurs, yield
reductions have been observed between 10 and 20 TCH under the absence of
water application and rain delay.

When harvesting or planting during the second third of the harvesting season
(between January and March) the critical period is at the end of elongation
stage, especially if the rainy season ends by mid October, in which case, pre
harvesting irrigations should be performed by the second half of October and
November. These irrigations are necessary up to 30 days before harvesting,
mainly in areas predominant in clay and sand, while in those soils with adequate
water retention such as silt loam or silty clay loam, last irrigation can be
performed 45 days before harvesting. Tillering stage is less sensitive, so
irrigation frequency may be spaced.

The objective of irrigation before harvesting is to assure the increment in

weight of sugarcane stalks at the end of the elongation stage, which takes place
at the end of the harvesting season. Important outcomes were obtained in

178
different research works. In sandy loam soils, yield increments between 27 and
36 TCH were obtained, in clay loam soils, the increments were between 15 and
28 TCH. On soils with sandy streaks, sugarcane crop response to water
application was found to be highly significant; increments between 70 and 84
TCH were obtained in two different trials as compared to the control crops in
these sandy areas.

Positive response of sugarcane crop to water application in a loam soil, during

three harvesting periods (higher response in the first period and lower at the
end) is shown in Figure 3.

200 186
178
180
156
160
138
140 131 129
145
Yield (TCH)

120 135 Irrigated

128
100
104 104 106
80 without
irrigation
60
40
20
0
DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY

Figure 3. Sugarcane crop response to water during different harvesting periods in

the lower stratum (La Unión, 1999)

Irrigation practice is profitable and its variability will depend on the following
factors: water application costs, amount of water to be used which depends on
soil´s water retention ability, price of the sugarcane tone in the field. According
to Table 2, if a sugarcane field Price of USD 11.00 is considered, it can be
observed that LARA is equivalent to the applied sheet and cost of irrigation
(water application) are factors that influence the capital return index which can
vary between 4.44 and 0.33 (interpretation: if the value inside indicated
variation is 1.50, it can be concluded that USD 1.50 is obtained additional to
each invested dollar). The higher the application costs, the smaller the return
index values. And sometimes the practice can result not profitable at all, as it is
observed on Table 2.

179
Table 2. Rates of return of capital as net benefits and costs in irrigation, in
different soil types of the sugarcane area of Guatemala (CENGICAÑA,
2006)

LARA a 60 cm depth 
(mm) 20 30 40 50 60 70 801
▲ adjusted TCH (15%) 68 60 51 43 34 26 17
# total irrigations 23 9 6 4 4 2 2
Total requirement 
(mm) 460 270 240 200 240 140 160
Cost fluctuation
$/mm/ha Rate of return=Net income/Total cost extra ton produced

0.3‐1
4.44 ‐ 0.33 Non 
1‐1.2 profitable
Non  Non  Non  Non 
1.2‐1.7 profitable profitable profitable profitable

Field price:  US$ 11.00

1/increments(∆)  are lower due to capillar properties , characteristic of  silty loam textures

When investing in irrigation systems, the following factors should be

considered: 1. the areas with highest water deficiency are in the low and coastal
strata, so these are the most adequate for investment. 2. It is important to
consider that irrigation is more profitable when applied in crops during the first
third of the harvesting season. 3. Within the lower stratum and coastal, the soil's
ability to retain moisture and represented by LARA is determinant. In this
sense, mechanized irrigation systems (pivots and frontal), should be performed
in soils with LARA between 30 and 60 mm, representing return rates of 2.48 to
0.75. While investments in spraying gun systems should be done only in soils
with LARA between 30 and 50 mm, in these conditions return rates from 0.87
to 0.38 are obtained and these are much lower than those for mechanized
systems because of the cost of operation.

IRRIGATION PLANNING
This process is determined by deduction. In this manner, water use is
prioritized and optimized. Planning sequence is described in Figure 4.

180
 ALTITUDINAL STRATUM 
DEFINITION (masl)
1 DEFINITION OF HARVEST  DEFINITION OF TYPE OF 
• COAST LINE (0‐20) PERIOD TO IRRIGATE  2 IRRIGATION
• VERY LOW(20‐40) •FIRST THIRD (15 Nov‐15 Jan)
• POST‐HARVEST 3
• LOW (40‐100) • SECOND THIRD (16 Jan‐15 Mar) • PRE‐HARVEST
• MEDIUM (100‐300) • THIRD THIRD (16 Mar‐15 May)
• HIGH(>300)

DURATION OF PHENOLOGIC 
DEFINITION OF SOIL CAPACITY TO  DEFINITION OF  STAGES AND DAYS UNDER 
RETAIN WATER AND CAPILLARY  CLIMATIC DEMAND DEFICIENCY
CONTRIBUTION
• CLAY 6 ETo 5 •INICIATION 4
• CLAY LOAM •TILLERING
• SANDY LOAM
•ELONGATION
• SILT
• SILT LOAM DEFINITION OF SUGAR CANE 
• SILTY CLAY LOAM CROP ABILITY TO EVAPO  DEFINITION OF THE 
• SANDY LOAM TRANSPIRATE IRRIGATION SYSTEM 
• SANDY •INICIATION OPERATION
•TILLERING FIXED FREQUENCY
•ELONGATION 7 FREE FREQUENCY 8

HOW MUCH,    
WHEN AND   INTEGRATED MODELING 
HOW TO  (WATER‐SOIL‐SUGAR CANE‐
IRRIGATE  
CLIMATE‐OPERATION)
SUGAR CANE 
CROP?

Figure 4. Irrigation Planning Process in the Guatemalan Sugarcane planting zone

Altitudinal stratum, harvesting period and irrigation system: planning the

water application activities depend on the altitudinal stratum and period of the
harvesting season. Irrigation systems determine if the application will be performed
after or before harvesting the crop for each stratum and period. If soils are
abundant in sand or clay, water should be applied 30 days before harvesting, but
silty loam soils, must be irrigated 45 days before harvesting. See Figure 5.

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
canícula
High Days under irrigation

Medium

Low

Very
low

Coastal
Coast line

Período de lluvia
Rainy season
Post harvest irrigation Pre harvest irrigation
Notes: 1. Five altitudinal stratum are defined for irrigation purposes.   2. For pre harvest irrigation, number of days was calculated
based on 30 days previous to harvesting.  If harvesting was performed 45 days before, substract 15 days.

Figure 5. Information on average amount of days under water deficit, irrigation days before
and after harvesting for each of the harvesting periods and altitudinal strata

181
Phenological stages and irrigation: sugarcane crop needs irrigation during
its different phenological stages which depends on harvesting period and
irrigation system. Sugarcane stalk growing behavior is analyzed in Figure 6,
through a gamma type model which includes duration and accumulation
during each phenological stage. Sugarcane stalks reach their maximum
growth (average 1.95 cm/day) in a period between 135 and 250 days after
planting (PS-3). This is a critical stage in which the crop should not be
stressed. The initial stage is also important (PS-1) due to low water content
in the soil, which ends up reducing crop population, significantly. The
number of days for each phenological stage can be estimated using this
figure and then relate them to irrigation frequency (previous or after
harvesting) for each stratum.
Height (cm)

115 days 65 days

1.95 0.77
Accumulated (days)

cm/day (average)

PS‐1 PS‐2 PS‐3 PS‐4 PS‐5

Source: Trial performed on a lysimetric area, Camantulul Experimental Station. CENGICAÑA, 1997

Note: duration of phenological stages varies depending on variety, number of cuts and altitudinal stratum.

Figure 6. Sugarcane crop phenological stages in the Guatemalan sugarcane

planting area

Climate demand: This is determined through a crop evapotranspiration

(ETo), which is a parameter related to the climate that expresses the
evaporation power of the atmosphere. The only factors affecting ETo, are
climatic parameters (FAO, 2008). Eto values, estimated by Penman-
Monteith, are shown in Table 3, for each phenological stage and harvesting
period.

182
 Table 3. Average ETo values for phenological stages and harvesting periods
PS-1 PS-2 PS-3 PS-4
Stratum
1/3 2/3 3/3 1/3 2/3 3/3 1/3 2/3 3/3 1/3 2/3 3/3
High 4.36 4.75 5.00 4.84 5.08 5.16 4.48 4.44 4.45
Medium 4.70 5.30 5.41 5.39 5.54 5.47 4.66 4.60 4.89
Low 4.76 5.13 5.74 5.29 5.75 5.69 5.82 4.88 4.83 4.79
Lower 4.31 5.25 5.55 5.35 5.50 4.89 5.18 4.40 4.37 4.59
Coastal 4.51 5.03 5.55 5.14 5.48 5.10 5.28 4.57 4.65 4.63
Remarks: Evapotranspiration of a witness crop (ETo) estimated with Penman-Monteith. Average for 2006-
2010. The PS-3 on the 2/3 coincides with rainy season. The PS-4 does not apply for the first third of the
harvesting season
Phenological Stages Harvesting
periods
Initiation (PS-1) 1/3=first third
Tillering (PS-2) 2/3=second third
a. Elongation Stage I (ES-3) 3/3=last third
Elongation
b. Elongation Stage II (ES-4)

Water retention capacity of soil: soil capacity to retain water is variable in

the zone and depends on soil texture. Soils rich in sand have low retention
capacity, the contrary occurs for loam soils. This ability to retain water is
equivalent to usable water depth (LAA), which can be calculated with the
gravimetric humidity in soil constants: Field capacity and Wilting point,
both determined in the lab under pressures of 0.3 and 15 atmospheres,
respectively. Apparent density and soil depth are considered, too.
Determined LAA for each type of soil texture and their humidity constants,
are included in Figure 7.
4.50

4.00

3.50 FC

3.00
1.63 1.75 1.85
1.61 1.86 LAA
mm/cm soil

2.50
1.51
2.00
1.30
WP
1.50
O.71
1.00

0.50

0.00
Arena 
Sand Loamy
Arena  Clay
Arcilloso Clay
Franco  Sandy 
Franco  Loam
Franco Silty clay
Franco  Silt loam
Franco 
Sand
Franca loam
Arcilloso loam
Arenoso loam
Arcillo  Limoso
Limoso

Figure 7. Mean values of water holding capacity of soils in the Guatemalan

sugarcane area, according to their texture

183
Evapotranspiration ability in sugarcane crop: Kc values are selected based on
the crops ability to evapotranspire and then used to calculate amounts of water
that the crop needs during each phenological stage (Fig. 6). Different Kc values
are shown on Table 4 for areas in the sugarcane planting zone.

Table 4. Kc values for selected phenological stages and types of soil in Guatemala

Phenological Stages (DAC)

Elongation
Soil Texture PS-1 (0-45) PS-2 (45-135)
FS-3 (135-250) PS-4 (250-315)
Kc (evapotranspiration ability of cane crop)
Sandy loam
Clay loam
Clay 0.3 0.6 0.9 1
Loamy
Sand
silt loam
Silty clay loam 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.7
loams
Silt loam + capillary in
0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
soil
Source: Kc values were selected based on sugarcane response to irrigation. Different levels of Kc in soils with
different texture were evaluated in the trials.

Irrigation system operation: This factor is very important during irrigation

planning, since it determines how to irrigate. The selection of the ideal irrigation
system, will be determined by the use of mobile irrigation systems; which due to
their characteristics of mobility, have to operate with frequencies or fixed
intervals (pipe type sprinkles –high pressure-, and miniaspersion – medium
pressure-, mobile or semi-fixed, frontal moving –one or two laterals-, and
continuous or alternate furrows using hoses or floodgates, among the most
common)., The other decision in the irrigation system selection that could be
operated with frecuencies or free intervals (stationary fixed permanent spraying –
total covering buried-, temporary stationary spraying –total aereal covering-, fixed
pivot and dripping –total covering buried, without turns-). The most common
irrigation operation form in the Guatemalan sugarcane zone, is the use of
frequencies or fixed intervals. In the near future, the frequencies and free interval
systems, will be more relevant, mainly in agriculture of precision. Models for the
different modalities, are described on Figure 8.

- Planning follow up

Examples of irrigation planning and follow up (depending on system operation)

are included on Tables 5 and 6. As it can be seen in Figure 8, available
information for each process, will determine the model to be used in order to
answer the questions of how much and when irrigation should be performed.

184
Sample calculation for the use of a fixed frequency system: required
information is described on Table 5.

FIXED FREQUENCY
Non dynamic water balance with fixed
parameters for:  soil, cane and climate for
each phenological stage
MODELS
How much water/20 cm deep?
LARA= LAA *DPM (1)   » where:
FREE FREQUENCY
Dynamic water balance with weather
parameters in real time and soil and cane
parameters fixed in each phenological stage
¿How much water to apply?
LARA= LAA *DPM  (2)  » where:

LARA,  readily available water depth in mm.   Different from model (1)

LAA, available water depth in mm, defined in 6. 
DPM= 0.2 a 0.3. Residual water in soil between  0.7 and  0.8 
DPM, allowed defficiency to manage=  0.6 
(non dimensional).   Residual water in soil 0.4  Depth(cm)=  20 (PS‐1),   40(PS‐2) y 60 (PS‐3 and 4)

Depth (cms)=  20 (PS‐1),   40(PS‐2) and 60 (PS‐3 and 4) ¿When to apply water?

When to apply water?

(4)
IRRIGATION INTERVAL (IR)

LARA LARAfd = readily available water depth at the end of 

IR (cm)= (3) the day
ETo * Kc
LARAid = readily available water depth at the
begining of the day
P = Precipitation, R = Irrigation, 
ETo = Reference Crop Evapotranspiration (FAO), 
Kc = constant on the ability of cane crop to evapo
transpiration (non dimensional  value), 
ETc =  Maximum Evapotranspiration (daily water
demand for the crop)

Figure 8. Models to determine How Much and When should water be applied,
depending on the operation of the irrigation system

Table 5. Basic information required for the calculation example of a fixed

frequency irrigation system
Planning process Information
Irrigation period based on altitudinal
Coastal, Oct 20-May 25 (Figure 5)
stratum
First third: Nov 15 (191 days under defficiency)
Harvesting season period
(Figure 5)
Irrigation Type Post harvest irrigation (Figure 5)
Phenological stage duration and days under Iniciation: 45, tillering 90 y elongation Stage I: 56
defficiency (Figure 6)
Iniciation: 4.5, tillering:5, Elongation Stage I: 5.5
Climatic demand (mm)
(Table 3)
Soil ability to retain water (mm/cm) Sandy loam: 1.63, no capillarity (Figure 7)
Evapotranspiration ability of sugarcane Iniciation: 0.3, tillering: 0.6 and elongation: 0.9
crop (Kc non dimensional) (Table 4)
Irrigation system operation Fixed frequency, spray gun system

Based on the information provided in Table 5, it is established that analysis

frequency should be performed as indicated on Table 6.

185
Table 6. Calculation example for planning how much and when to apply water,
for a fixed frequency system (traditional operation)

Factor Variable to consider Value Calculation Results

mm/cm of soil 1.63

Depth during initiation stage (cm) 20 20 * 1.63 = 32.6
LAA (mm)
Depth during tillering (cm) 40 40 * 1.63 = 65.2
Depth during elongation stage (cm) 60 60 * 1.63 = 97.8
Remarks: In the exercise, a homogeneous soil is considered, it is recommended to determine
the texture for each 20 cm in depth for a good diagnosis of the soil's ability to retain moisture.
LAA at 20cm 32.6 32.6 * 0.6 = 19.56
LARA (mm)
LAA at 40cm 65.2 65.2 * 0.6 = 39.12
(¿How much
water?) LAA at 60cm 97.8 97.8 * 0.6 = 58.68
DPM= 60% 0.6 Use equation (1)
Remarks: LARA equals the net sheet, to quantify the gross depth, measure the efficiency with
which the system operates
Eto during Initiation 4.5
Eto (mm/day) Eto during tillering 5
Eto during elongation 5.5

Kc en Initiation 0.3
Kc
( dimensionless)
Kc en tillering 0.6
Kc en Elongation 0.9

Initiation 4.5 * 0.3 = 1.35

Etc (mm) Tillering 5.0 * 0.6 = 3.00
Elongation 5.5 * 0.9 = 4.95

IR (days) Initiation 19.56 / 1.35 = 14

(¿when to Tillering 39.12 / 3.00 = 13
apply Elongation 58.68 / 4.95 = 12
irrigation?) Use equation (3)

Initiation (Nov 15-30 Dec 30) 45 45/14= 3

No. of Tillering (Dec 31-March 30) 90 90/13= 7
irrigations Elongation (March 31-May 25) 56 56/12= 5
total 191 15
Note: The planning considers the period November 15, 2011 to May 25, 2012. Not taking into
account the scattered showers that may arise in the period.

For using the free frequency option, especially fixed pivot, meteorological
information is the most viable and economic way to use the hydric model
balance (Figure 8, equation 4). When using this model, ETo and atmospheric
precipitation daily records, must be kept. As indicated before, the best model to

186
estimate ETo is Penman-Monteith, which can be obtained on daily bases from
the Meteorological Information System (SIM) in CENGICAÑA´s website.

Other models can be used to estimate ETo, but correction factors must be applied.
The use of equation (4) on Figure 8 gives the user the advantage of making the
decision of irrigating being at the office, without any problem. Moreover, hydric
balance calculations can be done on the computer using spreadsheets. The use of
this model can also be very important in terms of savings, especially in the years
under “La Niña” conditions, which in Guatemalan latitude, it represents an
increment of isolated rains coinciding with irrigation periods, also, it is adequate to
determine, each year, the beginning and the end of the irrigation period.

Sample calculation for a system which operates with free frequency: in Figure
9 the calculation example of hydric balance using Equation 4 is presented:
Día LARAid ETP Kc ETm P LARAfd R D
1 30 4.5 0.6 2.7 0 27.3
Example: Sandy soil,  2 27.3 5 0.6 3 0 24.3
tillering stage 3 24.3 5.5 0.6 3.3 0 21
4 21.0 3.5 0.6 2.1 0 18.9
BH 5 18.9 6 0.6 3.6 0 15.3
n
LARA fd = LARAid + Σ [P + R – (ETo*Kc)] 6 15.3 4 0.6 2.4 0 12.9
t=1
7 12.9 4 0.6 2.4 0 10.5
ETc
8 10.5 4 0.6 2.4 6 14.1
Values given in mm 9 14.1 5 0.6 3 0 11.1
LARAfd = readily available water 10 11.1 5 0.6 3 31 30 9.1
depth at the end of the day 11 30 4 0.6 2.4 0 27.6
LARAid = readily available water 12 27.6 4 0.6 2.4 0 25.2
depth at the begining of the day
13 25.2 4.5 0.6 2.7 0 22.5
P = Precipitation, R = Irrigation,  14 22.5 5 0.6 3 0 19.5
ETo = Reference Crop 15 19.5 5.5 0.6 3.3 0 16.2
Evapotranspiration (FAO),  16 16.2 5 0.6 3 0 13.2
Kc = constant on the ability of  17 13.2 4.5 0.6 2.7 0 10.5
cane crop to evapo transpiration 18 10.5 3.5 0.6 2.1 0 8.4
(non dimensional value), 
19 8.4 4 0.6 2.4 0 6
ETc =  Maximum
20 6 4.5 0.6 2.7 0 3.3
Evapotranspiration (daily water
demand for the crop) 21 3.3 5 0.6 3 0 0.3 30
22 0.3 4 0.6 2.4 0 27.6
D = drainage
23 27.6 4.5 0.6 2.7 0 24.9

40
30
L
20
A 10
R
A 0
-10
-20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

RAIN LASf DRAINAGE IRRIGATION

Number of days under water balance

LARAfd

Figure 9. Calculation example of hydric balance using Equation 4

Hydric balance calculation is dynamic since it is necessary to keep registration

of daily crop consumption calculating Etc = maximum evapotranspiration
(daily water demand for the crop). Daily consumption can also be determined
on the soil by controlling humidity in the soil, using direct or indirect
methods. On site, humidity control requires investment in specific equipment
and additional cost on human labor.

Soil humidity control: It is an important alternative for irrigation application

control, water distribution in the plot, adjustments in irrigation frequency
187
during tillering and elongation stages (especially for those systems operating
under fixed frequencies). This option also allows the performance of the
hydric balance for free frequency systems.

Soil water can be measured using direct or indirect methods. Gravimetric-

volumetric and determination by touch are direct methods.

Determination by touch is the oldest and simplest method, it may be efficient

when perfomed with experience. This method consists on examining the soil
in an ocular form or by touch in the soil sampling from the rooting zone
extracted with a drill. Israelsen technique, 1965 is used to determine humidity
by touch.

The gravimetric-volumetric method is the most accurate method, but it has

the disadvantage that requires too much time, is more expensive, and
destructive when sampling in the same point, constantly. Direct method is
used to calíbrate indirect procedures and is very important for basic research.
Figure 10 shows soil water relation and equations (5) and (6) are used to
determine gravimetric and/or volumetric humidity values.

Indirect methods measure soil water with instruments such as: tensiometer and
granular matrix sensors (GMS), which measure matrix potential, also, the
neutron probe is used, this equipment uses radioactive sources. New
instruments which are based on electromagnetism are available today, for
example TDR (time domain reflectometry), and FDR (frequency domain
reflectometry).

GRAVIMETRIC MOISTURE
´
Water mass (Mw)
Masa (M) Volumen (V) Hg =
Soil mass (Ms)
Ma~ 0 Air(a) Va

PSH - PSS
Vp Hg = (5)
Mw Water (W) Vw
PSS
PSH = moist soil weight
Mt Vt PSS = dry soil weight
´
Ms Soil (s) Vs VOLUMETRIC MOISTURE
Water Volume (Vw)
Hv =
Total Volume (Vt)
Hv = Hg x Da (6)

Figure 10. The mass-volume relation and gravimetric-volumetric determination

of soil moisture (used in calibration of indirect methods)

188
-Technical criteria to be considered when using indirect methods:

Site selection: this step is very important since the spot must represent the
area where the irrigation system is located. The amount of representative
sites will depend on the homogeneity of the area, needing more sites for less
homogeneous areas. For those soils with much heterogeneous areas, the
decision will depend on the agricultural practices and irrigation system.
Precision agriculture would need many sites. All decisions depend on How
much and When will water be applied.

Humidity interval: It is defined by the selection of the way of operating the

irrigation system. For example, if irrigation systems are used which operate
with dynamic water balance, as an example, the fixed central pivot. Under
these circumstances, the moisture range among saturation will be quantified
to 30 percent of consumption, the range between FC and WP.The calibration
in this case could be done in the humidity range among saturation at 40% of
water consumption, which evaluates the lowering of the moisture in this
range. If indirect methods are used as a mean of controlling soil moisture for
fixed frequency systems, the calibration range should be among 70 percent
saturation of soil consumption. For experimental trials, used method should
be calibrated between saturation and wilting point.

Indirect method: this should be chosen based on the range under study.
Every distributor provide specific recommendations for using and
calibrating the instruments. For example, for calibrating the FDR probe,
enviroscan type, it is necessary to make readings for the sensor frequency
under dry air, under water, and in the soil, in order to calculate normalized
or universal frequency.

- Measurement Units and Conversions

Length units
Basis 1 meter (m)
1m=0.001 kilmeters= 100 centimeters= 1000 millimeters= 39.37 inches
= 3.28 pies= 1.094 yards

Area units
Basis 1 hectere (ha)
1 ha=10,000 m2=2.471 acres= 1.429

Pressure units
The atmosphere (atm) is equivalent to 76 cm of mercury. As the specific
weight of mercury is 13.5951 g/cm3 follows:
1 atm=13.5951 g/cm3 * 76= 1,033 g/cm2=1.03333 kg/cm2
1 atm=1.013 bar
189
 Another form of pressure measuring, is by making it wquivalent to a water
column, which basis is: 1 cm2 and its height is h.
1 atm=1,033g/cm2=1,033 g/cm3=1 cm * 1 cm * h cm
h= 1,033 cm = 10.33 m de water column (mca).
In the practice, the following is considered:
1 atm= 1 kg/cm2 = 10 mca = 1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa = 100cb = 0.1 MPa =
14.7 psi

- Conversion of pressure values to soil gravimetric moisture (%)

Conversion of pressure (or stress) values in soil to gravimetric moisture percent

can be performed using the Palacios Vélez method (1966). This is based on the
facts that the determination of Field Capacity and Wilting Point are determined
in the lab under 0.3 and 15 atmospheres, respectively. In Figure 11, there is an
example for this calculation.

k Sandy soil
T = + C Ps (%) T (atm)
Ps n FC 5 0.3
WP 2 15
T=  soil tension, atm
Ps=       Percent humidity, %
n,k ,c= Constant depending on the soil C= ‐ 0.000014 (5)2.6 + 0.3 = 0.2989
physical properties Log (0.3– 0.2989) – Log (15– 0.2989 )
n =
Log (5) ‐ Log (2)

n = ‐ 10.368
Log k = Log (15– 0.2989) – (‐10.368) Log (2)
C =  ‐ 0.000014  CC 2.7  +  0.3  Log k = 4.2878 10x = 4.2878 k = 19,399.9

19,399.9
Log (T FC – C) – Log (T WP – C ) T =  + 0.2989
n  = Ps 10.368
Log (Ps FC ‐ Log (Ps WP) Building the curve:
1/ 10.368
19,399.9
Log k = Log (T WP – C) – n Log Ps WP Ps = 
T ‐ 0.2989

Figure 11. Converting pressure values to percent water in soil

Volume units
Basis 1 cubic meter (m3)
1 m3= 1,000 liters= 264.1 gallons = 35.31 cubic feet
1 Megaliter (ML)
1 ML= 1,000 m3

190
Flow units
Basis 1 cubic meter /second (m3/s)
1 m3/s= 1,000 liters/second= 6 x 104 liters/ minute= 36 x 105
liters/hour=864 x 105 literss/day
1 m3/s=60 m3/min=36 x 102 m3/h= 864x 102 m3/day
1 m3/s=264.17 gallons/second= 15,850.32 gallos per minute

Sheet units
Basis 1 millimeter (mm)
1 mm= 1 liter/m2= 10,000 liters/hectare= 10 m3/hectare
1 mm/day= 0.116 liters per second/day= 1.83 gallons per minute/day= 10
m3/hectare/day

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Barragán, F., Javier. 1998. Evaluación de los regadíos y mejora de su
eficiencia. Departamento de Ingeniería Agroforestal. Universidad de Lleida,
España.

2. Bos, M.G. 1990. On irrigation efficiencies. Publication 19. Fourth edition.

International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement/ILRI, P.O.
Box 45,6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.

3. CENGICAÑA. 2010. Presentación en PowerPoint. Análisis de la zafra

2009/10.

4. CENGICAÑA. 2011. Base de datos estaciones meteorológicas

automatizadas. Base electrónica.

5. Castro, O.; Pinzón, J.; Montúfar, J. 2004. Abatimiento del aporte capilar en
el período de verano, caso finca “Laguna Blanca”. Corporación San Diego-
Trinidad. In: Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra
2003-2004. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp.168-162.

6. Castro, O.; Pinzón, J.; Montúfar, J. 2004. La respuesta de la caña de azúcar

al riego, resultados de plantía temporada de riego 2002-2003. In: Memoria.
Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2003-2004. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 173-179.

7. Castro, O. 2005. El balance hídrico (herramienta para la planificación del

riego en caña de azúcar). In: Memoria. Presentación de resultados de
investigación. Zafra 2005-2006. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 134-141.

191
8. Castro, O.; Esquit, V. 2006. Recomendaciones para la optimización del uso
del agua, el balance hídrico en pivotes fijos, con un ejemplo de su
utilización en la finca “Monte Alegre”, La Unión. In: Memoria.
Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2004 – 2005. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 230-237.

9. Castro, O.; Veliz, E.; Osorio, R.; Esquit, V.; López, H.; Toledo, E.;
Pocasangre, R.; López, F.; Rosales, E. 2006. Recomendaciones técnicas y
económicas para la aplicación del riego en la caña de azúcar. In:
Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2005-2006.
Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 238-244.

10. Muñoz, E.; Castro, O. 1999. Análisis cronológico y espacial de la respuesta

de la caña al riego en la zona cañera guatemalteca. In: Memoria.
Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 1998-1999. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 153-159.

11. Castro, O.; Suárez, A.; Villatoro, B.; Rosales, C. 2007. Estrategias técnicas
de riego para el manejo de vetas arenosas. Una aproximación de agricultura
de precisión para la zona cañera guatemalteca. In: Memoria. Presentación
de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2006–2007. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 188-197.

12. Castro, O.; Rosales, C. 2007. Recomendaciones técnicas y económicas para

la aplicación del riego en ambientes con aporte capilar, en la zona cañera
guatemalteca. In: Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación.
Zafra 2006 – 2007. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 179-187.

13. Castro, O. 2008. Recomendaciones técnicas y económicas para la

programación del riego en la zona cañera guatemalteca. VII Congreso de
Técnicos Azucareros de Latinoamérica y el Caribe. Presentación en Power
Point.

14. CENGICAÑA. 2009. Base de datos de información de análisis físico de

muestras de suelos ingresados al laboratorio de suelos desde 1994. Archivo
electrónico.

15. CENGICAÑA. 2009. Base de datos de variables meteorológicas de 2005 a

la fecha. Área de Agrometeorología. Archivo electrónico.

16. CENICAÑA. Torres, J; Cruz, R.; Villegas, F. 1996. Avances técnicos para
la programación y manejo del riego en caña de azúcar. Colombia. 53p.

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17. CIMMYT. 1988. La formulación de recomendaciones a partir de datos
agronómicos. Un manual metodológico de evaluación económica. Edición
completamente revisada. México D.F. México. CIMMYT.

18. García, I.; Jimenez, J.; Muriel, J.; Perea, F.; Vanderlinden, K. 2005.
Evaluación de sondas de capacitancia para el seguimiento de la humedad de
un suelo arcilloso bajo distintas condiciones y tipo de manejo. Estudios de
la zona no saturada del suelo Vol. VII. Andalucía, España.

19. FAO. 2008. Evapotranspiración de un cultivo de referencia. Folleto serie

Riego y drenaje Número 56. Archivo electrónico. 71 p.

20. INSIVUMEH. Base de datos históricas de lluvia de las estaciones

meteorológicas “San José” y “Camantulul”. Base electrónica.

21. La UNIÓN. 1999. Base de datos estación fenológica, finca Tehuantepec.

Archivo electrónico.

22. Sentek. 2001. Calibration of Sentek Pty Ltd. Soil Moisture Sensor sentek.
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Ediciones Mundi – prensa. España. pp. 81-135.

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194
IX. INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT

195
 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
José Manuel Márquez

INTRODUCTION
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a broad concept which refers to a pest
population management system that uses all suitable techniques in a consistent
manner to reduce and maintain these populations below those levels that cause
economic damage (Smith and Reynolds, 1966). It combines and integrates
chemical, cultural, physical, ethological, genetic and biological methods, for the
purpose of reducing economic losses. In decision making, the fundamental
question on which it is based, is the need to know how many insects may cause
certain damage and if it is significant to initiate control. Clearly, population
evaluation through monitoring should involve a decision-making process, and
according to Pedigo (1966) this knowledge fall in Bioeconomics, defined as the
study of the relationship between pest density, host responses to injury, and
resulting economic losses. On decision rules, none has been more successful
than those related to the concept of economic injury level (EIL) from Stern et
al. (1959). This concept is the basis for most integrated pest management
programs that are currently used, with the advantage of practical and simple
application in most situations. The economic injury level should be interpreted
as the pest population density, in which the cost of the control measure equals
the expected economic benefit, so, the control action “saves” a part of yield,
which would have been lost without pest control management decision making.

This condition is expressed by the equation:

C = ID*D*P*K

From where:

C = Cost of the management tactic per production unit.

ID = Injury units per pest.
D = Pest density
P = Market value of product, managed resource.
K = Proportional reduction in pest attack.


Agr. Eng., M.Sc., Integrated Pests Management Program Leader at CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org

196
Saved or protected yield has a monetary value, which is estimated using
biological and economic parameters that are represented by (ID, D, P, and K). It
should equal the value spent on the control action (C), in other words, EIL is the
pest population density where the value of saved yield covers the cost of
control. The injury unit (ID) is the loss of sugar (pounds, kilograms or tones)
per hectare, associated with a unit of pest density or damage. To determine ID,
experiments are designed in order to provide insight and quantify the
relationship between pest density and its effect on yield reduction in sugarcane
weight or sugar recovery. The IPM-CENGICAÑA program in collaboration
with the IPM committee (CAÑAMIP) generated values of postharvest losses
and injury levels for the major pests, which are represented in Table 1. These
values are relative and variable, according to local conditions and management
values of each sugarmill.

Table 1. Loss factor and injury level estimated for the main pests in Guatemala.
CENGICAÑA-CAÑAMIP

Pest Loss Factor Injury Level Economic

Threshold
Sugarcane 8.21 TCH/1adult/cane 1465 kg Sugar/ha/1 0.05-0.10 nymphs
Froghopper 5.83 kg Sugar/t/1adult/cane adult/cane and adults/stem
White Grub 70.9 kg Sugar/ha/1
0.62 TCH/larvae/m2 10 larvae/m2
larvae/m2
Field Rat 0.5 TCH/1% infestation.
65 kg s/ha/1%
2.19 kg Sugar/t/1% 6% damaged cane
infestation
infestation
Sugarcane 0.36 kg Sugar/t/1% 32.4 kg Sugar/ha/1%
Borer 7% infestation
infestation infestation
Brown 2 6.09 kg
Burrowing Bug 0.053 TCH/insect/m 100 insects/m2
Sugar/ha/insect/m2
Subterranean 0.45 TCH (CP72-1312) 23.3-47.7 kg Sugar/ha/ 10% damaged cane in
Termites 0.22 TCH (CP72-2086) 1% infestation harvest

INTEGRATED STEMBORER MANAGEMENT IN

SUGARCANE
Borers from Diatraea genus

Species of Diatraea genus (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae) have greater economic

importance and geographic distribution in Guatemala. Diatraea nr.
crambidoides (Grote) has a relative abundance of 73 percent in the lower and
coastal stratum, compared with 27 percent of D.saccharalis (Fabricius). Other

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species such as Xubida dentilineatella (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), Phassus
phalerus Druce (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae) and others yet undetermined,
occurring at altitudes above 300 meters in the temperate and humid sugarcane
region. The biology of Diatraea indicated that both species deposit their eggs
in clusters (Figure 1) and require between 5 to 6 days to hatch (Figure 2). The
larval development period is significantly different, since in D.saccharalis is 21
to 23 days, while in D.nr.crambidoides extends from 33 to 43 days. That’s why
the average life cycle is estimated between 41 and 57 days respectively.
D.saccharalis larvae have dorsal mesothoracic tubercle transversely elongated
and rounded at the front; while D.nr.crambidoides has the dorsal mesothoracic
tubercle in an elongated B-shape form, with an anterior midline incision (Figure
3). The pupal period requires 8 to 10 days; afterwards adults emerge (Figure 4).
The adult stage averages 3 to 8 days. Rarely, adults are seen in the field, since
they are nocturnal and short range flying, attracted by artificial lights at night.

Figure 1. Oviposition of Diatraea nr.

crambidoides

Figure 2. Borer larvae emergence from

egg cluster

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Figure 3. Mesothoracic tubercle from D. saccharalis (left) and D. nr.
crambidoides (right)

Figure 4. Female and male adults of D.nr. crambidoides

The damage is the result of larvae feeding activity, which may cause the death
of meristems in young sugarcane tillers that have not formed aboveground
internodes (deadheart), but in elongation and maturation periods, damage is
associated with the construction of tunnels, where the larvae lives most of its
cycle (Figure 5). The reduction in tonnage appears not significant, in contrast to
juice quality due to the presence of fungus Colletrotrichum falcatum in borer
tunnels. C. falcatum is responsible of sugarcane red rot causing reductions in
Pol, Brix, and increase of fiber percentage. CENGICAÑA-CAÑAMIP studies
indicate that the loss factor is 0.36 kg sugar/t, for every one percent of damaged
internodes. For an average production of 90 t/ha, an injury level of
approximately 32.4 kg sugar per hectare/ 1 percent damaged internodes is
estimated. The greatest losses occur in the Pacific coastal stratum, where at

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least 57,075 hectares have been monitored, of these about 11.9 percent
exceeded the action threshold of 5 percent intensity of infestation (i.i.) in the
2010-2011 harvest.

Figure 5. Drilling on the stem and borer larvae within the gallery.

Phassus phalerus Druce

Phassus phalerus (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae) is a borer of seasonal occurrence

between July and November, in sugarcane fields located at altitudes above 300
masl. According to Marquez et al. (2009), the relative abundance is between
19.9 and 20.8 percent in Guatemalan temperate and humid sugarcane regions. In
Figure 6, there are larvae, pupa, and adult of this borer.

Figure 6. Phassus phalerus borer life forms in sugarcane. IPM-

CENGICAÑA program

Elasmopalpus lignosellus Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

The larvae has a variable coloration, from pale to greenish yellow, then pale
green and finally blue green coloration. Reddish purple transverse bands and
several reddish brown longitudinal lines are present on the larvae’s back, which
are interrupted at the end of each segment (Figure 7). The highest infestation
occurs every year between January and April (15.7-19.9 percent), when soil is
dry and the crop is in tillering stage. The larvae pierces the seedlings neck,

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penetrates and builds a gallery where it feeds, causing drying of the central bud
(deadheart). E. lignosellus larvae disappears when rain is established or due to
irrigation period. Is not considered a specie of economic importance.

Figure 7. Elasmopalpus lignosellus larvae

Control strategies

Tillering: Based on the measured damage value at harvest, ranges are

established to program a basic sequence of control. Low ranges between 0.001
and 2 intensity of infestation (i.i) requires at least two releases of Trichogramma
exiguum (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), an egg parasitoid, at the rate of
40 square inches per acre. Ranges of 2.01 to 4.00 require the same release rate
of Trichogramma (Figure 8) and “deadheart” thinning to extract larvae, between
60 and 90 days after harvest. Between 4.01 and 6 percent, requires three
Trichogramma releases, deadheart thinning and consider the application of
commercial biopesticides, like Bacillus thuringiensis, Nuclear Polyhedrosis
Virus (NPV), Cytoplasmic Polyhedrosis Virus (CPV). Damage greater than 6
percent requires the capture of adults with light traps, 20 days after harvest; four
release program of Trichogramma; dead heart thinning, when sampling
indicates larval density greater than 1300 larvae/ha; as well as the possibility of
three biopesticide applications. Weed control in and out of the plantation is
necessary to get rid of alternate hosts.

Elongation: Control actions are reduced due to the difficulty to enter the fields,
but according to prioritization obtained with damage and larval density
sampling, it will be necessary to implement an alternative program of Cotesia
flavipes (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and Paratheresia claripalpis (Diptera:
Tachinidae) releases. This action must be supported by parasitism sampling,
which is obtained by collecting borer larvae 15 and 30 days after release (Figure
9 and 10).

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Maturation: Infestation is growing at this stage, associated with the dry season
establishment and high crop development, however, control actions taken in
previous stages should show an effective reduction. In cases of high infestation,
aerial biopesticide application or Tebufenozide can be made. It is recommended
to harvest in blocks, ensure a flush cut sugarcane and remove the buds, as they
become alternate host for the next crop cycle.

Figure 8. Trichogramma exiguum wasp on borer oviposition (left) and

detail of parasitized borer eggs

Figure 9. Paratheresia claripalpis adult (left) and borer larvae parasitism

(a (b) (c)

Figure 10. Cotesia flavipes adult (a), release cups (b), and cocoons
resulting from parasitization
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FOLIAGE PESTS
Integrated Pest Management of Sugarcane Froghopper (Homoptera:
Cercopidae)

Aenolamia postica and Prosapia simulans are the important species in

sugarcane plantations, with 96 and 4 percent abundance, respectively (Marquez
et al., 2002). These are insects with sucking mouthparts, feeding from xylem of
a wide variety of neotropical grasses. Sugarcane infestation is repeated every
year with diapausic eggs deposited on the ground the previous cycle. These
eggs give rise to the first nymph generation in the rainy season, and from there,
several adult generations arise with no diapausic eggs which hatch in 15 days,
increasing field population density (Figure12).

Figure 11. Froghopper spittle inside which a nymph can be found

Both nymphs and adults use their stylus to make feeding tunnels, ending in the
xylem (Byers and Wells, 1996). Due to low nutritional quality of xylem sap,
nymph state lasts for at least 30 days, forming a foam around its soft body and
remain in the adventitious roots of the crop. When they reach adult stage, these
insects migrate to the foliage and while feeding, they introduce a toxic
substance that destroys and interferes with the formation of chlorophyll (Figure
13), which is known as “scorch”, symptom that affects the plants normal
development and sucrose accumulation.

Based on the biology, it is clear that successful pest control relies in the
reduction of diapausic eggs and nymphs, reduce or delay the occurrence of the

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critical period that produces high adult densities (Marquez et al., 2009) between
July and August. Due to accumulation of diapausic eggs through time and high
humidity conditions, there are fields that quickly reach the status of “high
infestation” where leaf damage is greater than 60 percent and since the critical
period of occurrence is 6 to 8 months crops age, the loss rates can achieve 8.21
TCH and 5.83 kg sugar/t, for every adult/cane (Marquez et al., 2001).

En la figura traducir: Biological cycle of froghopper

Figure 12. Life cycle sugarcane froghopper

Figure 13. Leaf damage caused by sugarcane froghopper (left) and scorch
symptom in a sugarcane field

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Diapausic egg control after harvest

The Integrated Pest Management Committee (CAÑAMIP) and the Integrated

Pest Management Program of CENGICAÑA have documented a basic
reference sequence that includes information about timing for each activity,
how it is done, using criteria, equipment, operating efficiency, and special
conditions to ensure execution effectiveness (Marquez, 2010). Integrated
management success is based on egg population reduction, through a basic
sequence of mechanized work, which includes implements like the harrow
health, barber roll or Lilliston (Figure 15), hilling, taking away all the heaped
soil over the plant, crop-hilling and drainage improvements of fields that are
flooded during the rainy season. The purpose of cultural control is to reduce the
number of diapausic eggs, by means of sun and predator exposure. These tasks
are performed immediately after sugarcane harvest, to avoid damaging strain-
sprouting and ensure at least 60 percent egg reduction.

Figure 14. Use of harrow health

Figure 15. Use of barber roll or Lilliston

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Nymphs and adults control: When rainy season starts, is necessary to initiate
monitoring of nymphs and adults, either by using yellow sticky traps around the
field edges, or visual sampling using the tiller as observation unit. The action
threshold for land applications of Metarhizium anisopliae varies between 0.05
and 0.10 insects/stem aimed at controlling nymphs’ first generation, which will
cause the epizootic in adult’s infield (Figure 16). Areas with a history of severe
damage in previous harvests, requires an analysis that considers the option of
applying preventive synthetic chemicals (Thiamethoxan, Imidacloprid),
changing the fields harvest time or the crops renewal.

Figure 16. Appearance of adults parasitized by Metarhizium anisopliae

Foliar damage should be measure by late September or early October and, based
on percentages, sort fields in categories of slight damage (0-40%), moderate
(41-60%) or severe , more than 60% foliar damage.

Sugarcane Lace Bug, Leptodyctia tabida (Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Lace bug is an insect with sucking mouthparts, which was first described by
Eric Schaeffer as Monanthia tabida in specimens collected in Mexico in 1839,
although later was named Leptodyctia tabida by Champion, in 1900. Adults
have flattened body, with oval, semitransparent, elongated wings, extending
beyond the abdomen with ribs that simulate a fine lace, hence their name “Lace
Bug” (Figure 17). The antennae are yellowish, long and thin; pronotum is
narrow in the front. Nymphs are flat, whitish with many spines branched,
straight and long. Nymphs molt five times and reach maturity in about 15 days.
Eggs are very small, deposited in the parenquima cells of leafs´ underside.

According to Chang, 1985, lace bug have been reported on corn (Zea mays);
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq); Johnson grass (Sorghum jalapense);
Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauvois, Bamboo; Sugarcane (S. officinarum) and
Teosinte (Zea mexicana). There seems to be a relationship between levels of

206
stress in plantations caused both by excessive moisture and drought, which
favor the emergence of the pest and its eventual dispersal.

The presence of lace bugs in Guatemala (Figure 18) has been increasingly
evident infield, as reported in the Harvest Analysis 2007-2008, where at least
19,670 hectares had some degree of incidence. Heavy rains during July-
September period influence the reduction of lace bug infestation, because it
drops nymph colonies to the floor. For now, rain is a beneficial factor in
sugarcane fields and thereby reduces the risks of adverse effects in
development. Infestation preference was determined on variety CP88-1165,
which is widely distributed in the sugarcane region.

Figura 17. Detail of lace bug adult and colony formation in sugarcane

Figure 18. Appearance of sugarcane fields with lace bug infestation

West Indian Canefly or “Coludo”; Saccharosydne saccharivora

(Homoptera:Delphacidae)

This is an insect with sucking mouthparts known as West Indian Canefly, or

Green Leaf-Hopper. It has been important in regions of the Caribbean and

207
Jamaica, although its distribution occurs from southern United States through
the Caribbean to Venezuela. The adult male (Figure 19) has transparent, well-
developed wings, while females and nymphs have white waxy filaments,
attached to the abdomen (Figure 20), from where derives its Spanish name
“Coludo”. Direct damage is a general weakening of the plant, but indirect
effects results from the rapid colony development, where both nymphs and
adults, produce large amounts of honeydew that falls on the lower leaves. This
secretion serves as a substrate for sooty mould development (Capnodium sp.),
which covers the leaves with a thick black crust that consists of sooty mould
spores. This layer blocks gas exchange through leaves, affecting severely
transpiration, photosynthesis and, consequently limits plant growth (Giraldo-
Vanegas et al., 2005). Systemic insecticide control is recommended in
sugarcane plantations less than three months old, especially in seedcane
condition, plus a nitrogen fertilizer to speed recovery.

Figure 19. Sugarcane Leafhopper adult

Figure 20. Sugarcane Leafhopper nymph colony (left) and presence of

sooty mould in lower leaves (right)

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Sugarcane Delphacid: Perkinsiella saccharicida (Homoptera: Delphacidae)

Perkinsiella saccharicida (Figure 21) is native to Australia and its occurrence in

sugarcane produces yellowing, slow growth, shortened internodes, premature
leaf drying and in severe cases, death of young plants. Nymphs and adults
excrete a sugary liquid that covers the foliage and serves as a substrate for sooty
mold development. In general, both Cane Leafhopper and Sugarcane Delphacid
appear together in sugarcane fields. However, the real importance of this insect
lies in being the transmitter of Fiji disease virus, pathogen not reported in the
region.

Figure 21. Perkinsiella saccharicida adult

Yellow Sugarcane Aphid: Sipha flava Forbes (Homoptera: Aphididae)

Aphids are manifested gregariously, forming colonies located on the underside

of leaves, and are characterized by their yellow color, which differentiates from
the gray aphid Melanaphis sacchari. Major infestations in Guatemala are
presented between February and April in a warm and dry environment, when
the crop reaches 3 to 4 months old (Figure 22). Aphid populations increase,
mainly by asexual reproduction (parthenogenesis), where females are not
fertilized because there are no males, thereby placing small adult aphids.
Damage symptoms are characterized by yellow color on the leaves of the edge
and apex, which consequently dry up, causing a delay in crop growth.

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Figure 22. Aphid colony and symptoms in sugarcane

Control Strategies

Sprinkler Irrigation: It is an effective measure when the initial focus of

infestation is detected and when feasible, efficiency is higher with the use of
vinasse in irrigation.

Crysoperla carnea larvae releases: This aphid predator known as “Aphid

Lion” (Figure 23) whose air or land release requires at least 23,000 larvae/ha.
Also recommended coccinelid larvae releases (Hippodamia convergens,
Cycloneda sanguinea). In Guatemala’s sugarcane region, Cycloneda sanguinea
larvae, is frequently found preying on aphids (Figure 24).

Figure 23. Crysoperla spp. larvae Figure 24. Cycloneda sanguinea adult

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RODENTS
Integrated rat management; Sigmodon hispidus (Rodentia:Crecetidae)

Sigmodon hispidus (Figure 25) is the predominant rat species in Guatemala´s

sugarcane tropical region, with 93 percent of abundance, compared with other
genus occurrence, such as: Peromyscus, Heteromys, Liomys and Oryzomys.
Distribution is associated with large grassland areas, riverbanks, vacant areas
and crops such as corn, rice, sorghum, and sugarcane. Sygmodon hispidus
population increases due to the high reproductive capacity, expressed by
female’s continuous polyestrous cycles, bicornuate uterus and rapid sexual
maturity, 40 to 60 days old. The average gestation period is very short and
requires only 27 days for a litter that can be from 5 to 12 offspring. Longevity
is 3 to 5 years, but under cane’s natural condition, life expectancy is about 6
months.

Figure 25. Sygmodon hispidus, the most abundant species in Guatemalan

sugarcane

For Guatemala, the largest rat population and damage increases is recorded in
the Pacific Ocean´s seashore stratum, where approximately 10, 949 monitored
hectares indicate levels above the five percent threshold of damaged crop stalks,
for 2010-2011 harvest. Damage is caused by rodents feeding activity and the
need to wear down the incisors, biting stems, which eventually lead to lodging
and further plant deterioration. Studies by IPM-CENGICAÑA claim that the
stem’s weight reduction is more significant than the juice quality, and the loss
factor is 0.5 TCH for every percent of damaged stems at pre-harvest time
(Marquez, 2002; Estrada et al., 1996).

Harvest as population reduction factor: Sugarcane harvest affects rat

population by destroying its habitat and reducing their primary food source,
which forces a dispersion process of survivors to the surrounding areas.
Machinery for lifting and transporting sugarcane is the main factor of mortality
and dispersal in high infestation areas, and it is the right time to start a healing
process within and outside the fields, for the purpose of reducing the shelter and

211
making the environment less favorable for rat survival. Mechanical control
when burning is a necessary activity for those areas located in low and coastal
stratum, wherein preharvest sampling presents a value greater than 30 percent
capture. It is an extreme measure for controlling high populations infield at
harvest, to avoid dispersion and further damage to adjacent fields.

Figure 26. Devices for mechanical control when cane burning; metal
structure designed by Pantaleon Sugarmill (left) and other,
rubber-based, designed by La Union Sugarmill (right)

Biological control in tillering: This is the appropriate stage to take advantage

of biological control by placing structures called “hangers” (Figure 27), that
facilitate the predatory action of owls Tyto alba (Figure 28) and hawks (Buteo
platypterus), that still occur in sugarcane fields. The preservation and
promotion of natural reserve areas in farms and the use of nesting boxes, placed
in leafy trees (Figure 29), are other important activities.

Figure 27. Bamboo hangers, properly designed to facilitate the predatory

action of owls and hawks in sugarcane fields (Palo Gordo
Sugarmill)

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Figure 28. Owl Tyto alba (Pantaleon Sugarmill)

Figure 29. Wooden boxes for owl nesting (La Union Sugarmill)

Weed control is key in elongation phase: Generally, rainy season starts

(May) at this stage and is the factor that promotes vegetation abundance in cane
fields neighboring areas. These areas can easily become breeding grounds
called “source habitats”, where the rat population has ideal conditions for a
higher birth rate, driven by grass-weed seeds abundance, that provide
supplemental protein to females for continuous periods of gestation and
lactation. It is also a period in which, exploratory pulse increases, hence
expanding their range of action, thereby colonizing new areas of food and
shelter. These conditions significantly increase the probability of population
survival and with this abundance, begins the process of social organization,

213
ending with the formation of a hierarchical structure composed of the
“dominants” which are burly, aggressive and skillful, individual adults and the
rest, accept the “subordinate” role. Dominant individuals have preferential
access to water resources, food, space, and reproduction. To counteract this
phenomenon, weed control is recommended (Figure 30) in and out of
sugarcane fields.

Figure 30. Weed control to eliminate “source habitats” as breeding

grounds for rats.

Another element that has been successful in most sugar mills is a program of
massive catches with “Victor traps” or “guillotine” and “cage-type” (Figure 31).

Figure 31. Mass capture with traps require specific maintenance and
distribution

The tiller overturning, due to strong winds, creates an excellent coverage and
protection for rat population, another favorable factor to population increase.
Monitoring and chemical control, by using first-generation anticoagulant baits,
is recommended as a rational choice at the end of this stage.

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Colonization process in the maturation period: In sugarcane’s maturation
phase, rat populations find the right conditions for growth as the sugarcane
increases its energy value and thus becomes the most abundant food source. The
high population density leads to the emergence of strong competition between
rats, which force them to make further trips in search for food, mating or space,
favoring the uniform infestation of sugarcane fields. Also, in October,
sugarcane’s prostrate condition and residual moisture stimulate the emergence
of new shoots (suckers) that rats use as an alternate water source.

In the last months of that the maduration period (November-February), the rat
has additional energy expenditure due to lower night temperature, which forces
them to thermoregulate their body temperature. Rats are “homeothermic”
individuals, meaning that they maintain a constant body temperature and also
“endothermic” because what determines its internal temperature is metabolic
heat. Thus, rats are able to modify their metabolism to maintain constant body
temperature, being this process the core component of thermoregulation (Coto,
1977). Consequently, the energy deficit produced by thermoregulation is offset
by higher daily food consumption. But this process is also responsible for a
reduction in rat’s reproductive activity, since this power is now intended to
subsidize the search for food and space. Understanding these aspects of rat
ecology in sugarcane’s production system, justifies resources and preventive
plan implementation with unavoidable rationality and greater efficiency to
reduce losses infield (Figure 32).

Figure 32. Damaged stems by rats infield

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Gophers; Orthogeomys hispidus (Rodentia: Geomydae)

Gophers are mammalian rodents, moderately small sized; without clear neck
differentiation; unremarkable ears and small eyes (Figure 33). Legs are short,
with well developed muscles; nails are long and strong, curved and sharp. Due
to their eating habits and underground life, these mammals have become a pest
of economic importance in areas of high and middle strata of Guatemala’s
sugarcane areas. They are responsible for tiller depopulation, by destroying the
root system until causing plant’s death (Figure 34).

Figure 33. Gopher specimen causing depopulation in Guatemala’s

sugarcane plantations.

Figure 34. Tiller destruction by gopher in sugarcane

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Control strategy: Gopher’s integrated management depends mainly, on the
skill and cunning of gopher hunters in capture programs, either using bellow
traps or traps with rod and spear. Chemical control is not recommended as it
exposes people that use gopher as a food source. Habitat modifications by weed
and stubble control, deep fallow, live hedgerows with repellent shrubs, such as
Castor oil plant, are important cultural strategies.

ROOT PEST COMPLEX

The pest complex that inhabits the root system has variations, depending on the
region and altitude. Within this complex the following white grub species have
been identified: Phyllophaga dasypoda (Figure 35); Phyllophaga latipes;
Phyllophaga parvisetis and Phyllophaga anolaminata. Wireworm genus and
their relative abundance are: Dipropus spp (92%); Horistonotus spp (3.3%);
Agrypnus spp (2.6%) and Dilobitarsus spp (2%). Also other insects have
integrated like the Brown Burrowing Bug (Scaptocoris talpa), weevils
(Sphenophorus spp) and termites (Heterotermes convexinotatus).

The combined insect population that affects roots is expressed as the number of
individuals per square meter and the size of the sampling unit is a block of
0.90m X 0.60m X 0.40m deep, reviewing all insects that occupy the soil and
roots. Subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) are social insects that
commonly infest Guatemala’s sugarcane fields, and studies carried by
CENGICAÑA with the collaboration of Dr. Rudolf H. Scheffrahn from
University of Florida, show that at least four species have been identified:
Heterotermes convexinotatus, Microcerotermes nr. gracilis, Amitermes
beaumonti and Nasutitermes nigriceps (Marquez, 2006), however, the most
abundant is Heterotermes convexinotatus (Figure 37).

Figure 35. Phyllophaga dasypoda larvae, adult and male genitalia shape

217
Figure 36. Wireworm larvae and Brown Burrowing Bug nymph in
Guatemala’s sugarcane.

Figure 37. Soldier, colony and sugarcane stalk damage by Heterotermes

convexinotatus

Control strategy: Sampling before soil turning and planting is the basis for
decision making either for cultural or chemical control. Good soil preparation
with deep plowing and the dredge use with long fallow at least for 15 days have
shown high efficiency, to reduce by 73 percent white grub larvae population,
and 40 percent of wireworm (Marquez, 2001). The largest possible debris-
crumbling of previous crop roots infested with Wireworm larvae, Termites or
Bidentate Scarabs (Euetheola bidentata) is necessary to increase mortality and
reduce reinfestation. The use of light traps (Figure 38), night tours with tractor
lights or personnel with flashlights during April-June period is effective for
massive capture of white grub adult. Another strategy is to plant “Flamboyan”
(Caesalpinia pulchemina) and “Caulote” or “Guacimo” (Guazuma ulmifolia)
due to the attraction exerted on adults, and then spray them with an insecticide
solution. Chemical control in ratoon cane is recommended when grub
populations exceed the action threshold of 10 larvae/m2 and applications must
be made between June and July. Currently biological control is promoted and
experiments are carried on with strains of Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria
bassiana and entomophatogenic nematodes of Heterorhabditis genus.

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Native parasitoids of the genus Ptilodexia (Diptera: Tachinidae) have been
observed in white grub host, as shown in Figure 39. The use of
entomopathogenic nematode Heterrorhabditis spp. in a 60 million/ha dose, is a
suitable biological option in endemic areas.

Cambiar título en la figura 38: Light traps

Figure 38. Different types of light traps to capture white grub adults

Figure 39. Ptilodexia parasitoid larvae affecting white grub larvae

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Scarab beetle; Podischnus agenor in sugarcane

The Scarab bettle, Podischnus agenor, Oliv (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae,

Dynastinae) is a potential pest in sugarcane that usually appears during the rainy
season, between June and August. It is known by other common names like
“Rhinoceros Beetle”, “Coco”, “Cucarron”, “Mayate Rinoceronte” and
“Escarabajo Cornudo”. Their life cycle is annual, females lay eggs in soils with
high organic matter content. Larvae complete their development in the soil, but
unlike other coleopteran larvae, these feed only on decaying plant material.
Larval stage may last 4-8 months, with a pupal stage of 2-3 months, and adults
can live for up to 2.5 months (Mendoça, 1996). Adults damage the stem when
they drill them in the middle and upper part of the plant (Figure 40), or by
introducing themselves beneath the floor to drill the base of young sprouts,
killing the leaf primordium giving the “deadheart” symptom (Figure 40). Adult
males emit a pungent odor that will attract other adults of both sexes, which can
be used to improve light trap catches infield. Because galleries serve as their
home for one or two weeks, every adult will damage several stems during his
lifetime, with greater activity at night. The areas with high adult infestations
may have a lot of holes in the ground, which can be an indicator to locate them.

Figure 40. Podischnus agenor and damage in sugarcane

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Byers, R. A.; Wells, H.D. 1,966. Phytotoxemia of coastal bermudagrass
caused by the two lined spittlebug, Prosapia bicincta (Homóptera:
Cercopidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 59 (6):
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2. CAÑAMIP (Comité de Manejo Integrado de Plagas de la Caña de
Azúcar, GT). 2004. Boletín No.7; Importancia del control de ninfas de
Chinche salivosa (Aeneolamia postica) en gramíneas. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA, Julio de 2004. 4 p.

3. Chang, V. C. S. 1985. The sugarcane lace bug: a new insect pest in

Hawaii. Annual Conference Report, Hawaiian Sugar Technology 44:
A27-A29.

4. Coto, H. 1977. Biología y control de Ratas sinantrópicas. Editorial

Abierta, Buenos Aires, Argentina. 187 p.

5. Estrada, J.; Salazar, R.; Carrillo, E. 1996. Estimación de pérdidas

causadas por la rata cañera en caña de azúcar variedad CP72-2086. In:
Memoria I Simposio Nacional de Plagas de la Caña de Azúcar.
Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 64-67.

6. Fewkes, D. W. 1,969. The biology of sugarcane froghoppers. In: J.R.

Williams, J.R. Metcalfe, R.W. Montgomery y R. Mathes (Eds.). Pests of
Sugar Cane, pp. 283-307. Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam.

7. Giraldo-Vanegas, H.; Nass, H; Hernández, E.; Amaya, F.; A. Vargas P.;

Amírez, M., Ramírez, F.; Ramón, M.; Lindarte, J.O. 2005. Incidencia del
Saltahojas verde de la caña Saccharosydne saccharivora (Westwood), en
siete cultivares de caña de azúcar en el Valle San Antonio-Ureña, Táchira,
Venezuela. Agronomía Trop. 55(4): 553-567

8. Márquez, M.; Hidalgo H.; Asencio J. 2001. Estudios de las pérdidas

causadas por Chinche salivosa (Aeneolamia postica) en tres etapas
fenológicas de la caña de azúcar. In: Memoria. Presentación de
Resultados de Investigación. Zafra 2000/2001. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 69-76.

9. Márquez J. M.; Hidalgo, H.; Echeverría L. 2001. Efecto del daño del
ronrón (Podischnus agenor) en caña plantía. In: Memoria. Presentación
de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2000/2001. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 82-85.

10. Márquez, M. 2001. Efecto de la mecanización sobre la población de

plagas de la raíz en caña de azúcar y su estimación con diferentes tamaños
de unidad de muestreo. In: Memoria X Congreso Nacional de la Caña de
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11. Márquez, J. M.; Peck, D.; Barrios, C. O.; Hidalgo, H. 2002.
Identificación de especies de Chinche salivosa (Homóptera: Cercopidae)
asociadas al cultivo de caña de azúcar en Guatemala. In: Memoria.
Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2001-2002. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 54-59.

12. Márquez J. M. 2002. Metodología del muestreo de daño y pérdidas

ocasionadas por rata en caña de azúcar. In: Memoria. Presentación de
resultados de investigación. Zafra 2001-2002. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA.
pp. 69-75.

13. Márquez, M.; Barrios, C.; Hidalgo, H. 2002. Identificación de especies de

Gallina ciega del género Phyllophaga en tres sitios de la zona cañera de
Guatemala. In: Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación.
Zafra 2001-2002. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 47-53

14. Márquez, M.; Ralda, G. 2005. Efecto de Gallina ciega (Phyllophaga

spp.) y Gusano alambre (Dipropus spp.) sobre el rendimiento de
caña de azúcar en Guatemala. In: Memoria. Presentación de
resultados de investigación. Zafra 2004-2005. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 67-72.

15. Márquez, J. M.; López, E. 2006. Nivel de daño económico para las
plagas de importancia en caña de azúcar y su estimación con base en un
programa diseñado por CENGICAÑA. In: Memoria. Presentación de
resultados de investigación. Zafra 2005-2006. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA.
pp. 194-200.

16. Márquez, J. 2006. Biología básica e identificación de termitas

subterráneas que afectan el cultivo de caña de azúcar, en varias fincas de
Guatemala, Zafra 2005/2006. In: Memoria. Presentación de resultados de
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17. Márquez, J.; Valle, F. 2006. Caracteres taxonómicos de los géneros de

elatéridos de mayor ocurrencia en caña de azúcar. In: Memoria.
Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2005-2006. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 155-164.

18. Márquez, J. M. 2007. Chinche de encaje (Leptodyctia tabida: Hemíptera:

Tingidae) una plaga de daño potencial en caña de azúcar. In: Memoria.
Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2006-2007.
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de la distribución y abundancia de los Barrenadores del tallo en finca
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20. Márquez, M.; Ortiz, A.; Motta, V. H.; Lemus, J. M.; Torres, E.; Aguirre,
S. 2009. Evaluación de la eficiencia de planes de manejo integrado de
Chinche salivosa: efecto de nuevos productos en el control de la
población de ninfas y adultos de Chinche salivosa (Aeneolamia postica).
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Unión. In: Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra
2008-2009. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 116-126.

21. Márquez, M. 2010. Secuencia de labores en el manejo integrado de la

Chinche salivosa (Aeneolamia postica) en Guatemala. In: Memoria.
Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2009-2010. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 166-173

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Insetos & Cia. 239 p.

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1996. Prentice-Hall Pub., Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 679 p.

24. Smith, R. F.; Reynolds, H. T. 1966. Principles, definitions and scope of

integrated pest control. Proc. FAO Symp. Integrated Control. 1:1 1-17.

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integrated control concept. Hilgardia 29:81-101.

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224
X. DISEASES IN SUGARCANE
CROP

225
 DISEASES IN SUGARCANE CROP
Werner Ovalle

INTRODUCTION
In general, crop diseases can affect processes such as photosynthesis,
respiration, and circulation of water and sap in the vascular system,
absorption of water and nutrients from the soil. Consequently, there are
decreases in the production of the plant component of interest, such as for
man, as grain, plant biomass or other, for example sucrose in the sugarcane
case. Therefore it is important to keep the crop free of diseases, which can
be achieved either by the application of chemicals or by the use of resistant
varieties. In sugarcane, in most countries of the world, the diseases control
in sugarcane is focused on the use of resistant varieties and Guatemala, is
not the exception.

More than 126 diseases have been reported for sugarcane in 109 different
countries (Chinea et al., 2000), and in Guatemala 24 have been identified
(unpublished data). Taking into account the incidence, severity, effect on
production, and discard of varieties with good production potential when are
free of disease, it has been determined that in Guatemala the most important
diseases are: ratoon stunting, smut, leaf scald, brown rust and orange rust.
The second largest group is composed by: mosaic, red stripe and yellow leaf
(leaf yellowing) and the third group: pokkah boeng, purple spot, yellow spot
and chlorotic tripe.

Studies on the disease effect on sugarcane production like ratoon stunting,

have been made in CENGICAÑA. It was found that production decreases
depending on the resistance of the varieties, but in average of nine varieties
losses were significant. In plant sugarcane the loss in cane yield was 7.88
percent, in first ratoon, 16.47, in the second, 21.38, in the third, 23.2, and in
the fourth, 20.9, (Ovalle and Garcia, 2008). These results are an illustration
of what diseases can mean in the production, and the importance of
maintaining disease-free sugarcane fields.

Below is a description of symptoms, transmission, the importance to our

country, and control methods for these and other common diseases in the
Guatemalan Pacific sugarcane zone.


Agr. Eng., M.Sc., Plant Pathologist at CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org  

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FUNGAL DISEASES
Smut

Causal agent: Sporisorium scitamineum (Syd.) M. Piepenbring = Ustilago

scitaminea H. Syd & P. Syd.

Symptoms: The main symptom of smut disease is a whip-like structure that

develops at the apex of infected stalks (Figure 1). The structure is formed by a
center with corky appearance, which is initially covered by millions of spores
(chlamydospores), which together present a black color. That is why the
common name of the disease, because it looks like coal dust (smut) (Martin et
al., 1961). The whip-like structure is covered by a thin silver-gray membrane,
which while breaking, releases spores (Ramallo and Ramallo Vázquez, 2004).
After the release of spores the structure can remain as a corked appendage. The
structure has no ramifications, and depending of the variety it is variable in
thickness and the length varies from a few centimeters to over a meter (Chinea
et al., 2000). It can also be straight or curved.

Before the whip emergence, the infected stems may show abnormalities and
can be thinner, flattened rather than cylindrical and the leaves of the infected
plant are reduced in size and width, taking a position in which the insertion
angle of the stem is reduced (more upright than normal) (Ovalle, 1997; Vázquez
de Ramallo and Ramallo, 2004).

In susceptible varieties, infections of the stalk pieces used as seed can produce
dozens or even hundreds of thin stalks that produce stools with “grassy”
appearance and eventually develop whips in their tops.

Secondary infections can cause the development of small lateral whips type
"lalas or side shoots" (called lalas to anticipated growth of lateral buds) on
stems with normal development (Martin et al., 1961).

Transmission and spread: The transmission and spread of the disease occurs
when wind or rain release the spores and carry them to the neighbor plants or
neighboring fields (Chinea et al., 2000). The spores germinate and infect the
buds, the infection can remain dormant until the next cycle when the pieces of
stalks are used as seed in other fields, or produce the appearance of side whips
in the same cycle (Ovalle, 1997) where infection occurred.

Importance: Smut disease is considered one of the most important diseases in

sugarcane, because of this potential to cause losses of production, which has
impacted various sugarcane producing countries. In Guatemala severe losses

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occurred in the eighties in varieties like CP57-603 and B49-119, forcing the
substitution by resistant varieties.

Control: The recommended method for smut disease control is the use of
resistant varieties (Tokeshi, nd)

Figure 1. Typical whips of S. scitamineum on infected stem tops

Brown rust

Causal agent: Puccinia melanocephala H. Syd. & P. Syd.

Symptoms: The first symptom of this disease is the appearance of small

elongated yellow spots which are visible on both surfaces of the leaves. The
spots change to brown color with a thin yellowish-green halo (Hughes et al.,
1964). The size of the spots is variable and lesions have been observed from 2
millimeters to 30 or 40 millimeters. Later, when the development of the
pustules starts, slightly elongated bulges are observed beneath the epidermis
of the lower leaf surface. Generally, these bulges break up to release the
spores (urediospores) which, when ripe, are brown in color (Fig. 2). After a
period of active sporulation, lesions darken until reaching a blackish tone and
sporulation stops. Most lesions occur at the tips of the lower leaves. When the
variety is susceptible, and environmental conditions are favorable to the
pathogen, the lesions coalesce (come together) and large areas of dead tissue
are produced which can completely dry the leaves.

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Transmission and spread: It happens in a very quickly form and when the
epidermis of pustules breaks, the spores are carried out to other plants and
other fields by wind and rain (Ovalle, 1997). The spores require a thin layer of
water on the leaf surface for at least six hours, for optimal germination
(usually on the underside of the leaf). Optimum temperature for germination is
21° C. (Magarey et al., 2004).

Importance: The importance assigned to brown rust, varies in different

countries. In Guatemala it is considered very important, because recently there
have been outbreaks of the disease on previously resistant varieties, such as
CG97-97, CP73-1547 and PR75-2002. This disease is the reason to discard
the highest amount of varieties in the selection program.

Control: The recommended method is the use of resistant varieties, however,

because sudden breaking of resistance is usual, then fungicide application is
recommended, while the susceptible variety is replaced by a resistant one.

Figure 2. Lesions caused by P. melanocephala on the underside of a leaf.

Uredospores in a microscope view

Orange rust

Causal agent: Puccinia kuehnii (Kruger) Butler

Symptoms: The first symptom of this disease is the appearance of yellow

lesions, small and elongated, developing a pale yellowish-green halo when
enlarged (NORTH AMERICAN PLANT PROTECTION ORGANIZATION
(NAPPO), 2007). After enlarged, the lesions turn from yellow to orange-brown
or orange when pustules open to release the spores (Figure 3). The pustules tend
to occur in clusters or spots on the underside of leaves and are most abundant in

229
the apical zone. One characteristic which distinguish orange rust from brown
rust, is its tendency to produce additional infections in the middle and basal
areas of the leaves in pustule patches. Another difference is the size and shape
of the lesions, which are larger and more elongated in brown rust that can be
distinguished only by the experience of repeated observations. The color of the
lesions does not allow differentiation, in old lesions. Adequate differentiation is
achieved only by observing the spores under the microscope. The behavior of
infections is different in both rusts, since forfor brown rust infection occurs in
young states of the plant (up to 5 or 6 months) and after the, symptoms of the
disease disappear. In orange rust, lesions have been observed with active and
abundant sporulation until maturity of the plant and even on necrotic tissue and
during dry seasons.

Transmission and spread: The transmission and spread, occurs when the
epidermis of the pustules breaks and spores are carried out to other plants and
other fields by wind and rain. The spores require Relative Humidity values
above 98 percent and the optimal temperature for germination is 21°C.
(Magarey et al., 2004).

Importance: In Guatemala, the disease is considered of high importance, since

its arrival to the country caused major changes in varieties composition. The
most important variety CP72-2086 decreased from 66 percent to 30 percent in
three years; and the variety CP88-1165 increased from 5 percent to 35 percent
in that period, with consequent expenses for these changes. In addition, the
disease caused discarding of many varieties in different stages of
CENGICAÑA´s selection program.

Control: The recommended method is the use of resistant varieties, however, in

countries like Australia and the United States, application of fungicides is
recommended while the susceptible variety is replaced by a resistant one.

Figure 3. Lesions caused by P. kuehnii on the underside of a leaf. Uredospores

in a microscope view

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Pokkah boeng:

Causal agent: Gibberella moniliformis (Sheldon) Wineland

Fusarium moniliforme Sheld. Snyd et Hans

Symptoms: Initially symptoms of the disease are manifested in the stalk apex,
subsequently it can be seen on lower positioned leaves, when the stalk continues
growing. Symptoms ranging from discoloration (chlorosis) of unopened leaves ,
which are whitish or yellowish (Figure 4), until the death of the apical meristem
(this is not common). Other symptoms of intermediate intensity are
deformations of unopened leaves, wrinkled or entangled, therefore the opening
and expansion is difficult. In other cases, a whitish or yellowish discoloration in
the basal part of the young leaves is seen, and red stripes are projected that can
be confused with those caused by red stripe disease (Pseudomonas
rubrilineans). During periods of high relative humidity, the base of the apical
leaves may show areas of necrotic tissue, redish-brown in color and when, the
sporulation occurs (Ovalle, 1997) (Figure 4). Sometimes, the infection causes
malformations of the stalks, which vary in intensity and the stalks can show
superficial or deep horizontal cracks. When the variety is susceptible, the
disease can cause death of the apical meristem and side shoot development
(lalas).

Transmission and spread: The transmission of the disease takes place mainly
by the transfer of spores by wind (Martin et al., 1961).

Importance: Despite the above symptoms, the disease rarely causes effects on
production. It is common, in the varieties growing in Guatemala, sometimes
with alarming symptoms that then disappear, with minimal or no effect on the
production.

The disease is more severe when the weather conditions are very hot and dry,
and after a rainy period that cause high environmental humidity ((Martin et al.
1961).

Control: The recommended control method is the use of resistant varieties.

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Figure 4. Symptoms of F. moniliforme in stalk tops. Tissue necrosis where
sporulation of the fungus occurs

Purple spot

Causal agent: Dimeriella sacchari (B. de Haan) Hansford

Symptoms: Purple spot disease is characterized by the formation of irregular

leaf spots, light red in color at the beginning and then dark, from 2 to 10
millimeters in diameter (Figure 5). Symptoms begin in the lower leaves and
progress over time toward the younger leaves. This means that in later stages,
severity is higher in lower leaves. Sometimes the spot is not solid and is formed
by a series of very fine parallel red lines following the direction of the
secondary veins (Ovalle, 1997). When environmental conditions are favorable,
the fungus produces perithecia (globosely structures covering spores) on the
spots surface on the underside of leaves. These resemble small black balls that
can be seen with a magnifying glass. In dried lower leaves, spots can be clearly
seen but reddish-brown to black in color. The disease is favored by high
humidity and high temperature periods. InThis is the reason why in Guatemala
appears towards the end of August and develops its maximum level in
September (Ovalle, 1997).

Transmission and spread: Like most fungal diseases, transmission and spread
take place through spores produced in the lesions. The spores are carried out by
wind and rain.

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Importance: The disease is considered non-significant despite being a disease
observed in all varieties grown in Guatemala. However, it can become
important since variety CP88-1165, which is rapidly expanding, shows more
severe purple spot infections than other varieties and has shown effects on plant
growth in slow drainage areas.

Control: The recommended method is the use of resistant varieties

Figure 5. Lesions caused by D. sacchari on the leaf surface

Yellow spot

Causal agent: Mycovellosiella koepkei (Krüger) Deighton

Symptoms: The disease can be seen as yellow spots on the leaves, from 2 to 10
mm in diameter, irregularly shaped, which can show reddish colors at maturity
(Ovalle, 1997) (Figure 6). If there are suitable conditions (high humidity
mainly) the fungus sporulates mainly on the underside of the leaf, developing a
woolly, whitish or greyish growth (Martin et al., 196). When spots become
reddish, the woolly growth differences the spots from those caused by purple
spot. In susceptible varieties and suitable conditions for infection, the spots can
come together and cover large areas of the leaf. In these cases the leaves may
distort and become prematurely detached from the plant. Yellow spot could be
confused with the expression of genetic spots, which are usually yellow. Both
can be distinguished because those of genetic origin are smaller (as freckles)
and show no sporulation, regardless of the moisture and temperature conditions.

Transmission and spread: The transmission from plant to plant and spread
from one field to another occurs in periods of high relative humidity, when high

233
sporulation occurs and spores are splashed by rain and carried out by wind
(Martin et al ., 1961).

Importance: The disease is considered of minor importance in Guatemala, as

in the currently used varieties, it appears in advanced stages of plant
development.

Control: The recommended method is the use of resistant varieties (Ramallo

and Ramallo Vázquez, 2004).

Figure 6. M. koepkei lesions on the leaf surface

Rot of basal stem, sheath and root

Causal agents: Marasmius sacchari Wakker y M. stenospilus Montagne

Symptoms: The distinctive symptom of this disease is the mycelium

development in the basal leaf sheaths and in basal portion of the stalk (Tokeshi,
sf, Hughes et al., 1964). Mycelial growth is noticed more easily by separating,
the sheaths of lower leaves from the stalks which exposed show a whitish
growth on both surfaces. It seems that sheaths are glued or attached to the stalk;
this is due to mycelial growth between the two surfaces. If humidity and
temperature conditions are high, development of reproduction structure occurs,
which is characterized by an umbrella-shaped structure, white in color with a
yellow to light-brown center, from 2 to 4 cm in diameter, with long bases of 2-7
cm (estipites) (Tokeshi, nd), (Figure 7). Usually the reproduction structure
grows very close to or on the soil surface (Hughes et al., 1964). These structures
produce and release large amounts of spores from the underside. In severe

234
infections the stalks and attached leaves die, and a brown rot is shown at their
basis. Sometimes it may occur in complete stools.

Transmission and spread: The fungus is maintained as saprophyte in crop

residues (Hughes et al., 1964) and it is transmitted through the mycelium and
spores developed near the ground level. The spread from one field to another
occurs by the use of contaminated tools infected seed.

Importance: This is a minor importance disease. In Guatemala, infections

have been observed in areas with slow drainage and mainly in flooded areas.

Control: It is a weak pathogen that causes infections under abnormal plant

development conditions. If good conditions to the plant growth are maintained,
especially in terms of adequate soil drainage in areas of high humidity, the
fungus will not be able to cause damage.

Figure 7. M. sacchari reproduction structures. Cogumelos (umbrellas) abundant

in the basis of stools. Detail showing stipites (the long base of
Cogumelos -arrow-)

Sooty mold

Causal agents: Capnodium sp. and Cladosporium sp.

Symptoms: The condition known as Sooty mold is presented in plants infested

with pests such as West Indian Canefly or “Coludo” (Saccharosydne
saccharivora), Leafhoppers (Perkinsiella saccharicida) and Ribbed scale
(Orthezia sp.) and sometimes Yellow aphid (Sipha flava), which exude sweet
substances that serve as substrates for the fungus growth. The symptom can
occur on leaves, sheaths and stalks; and is visible by blackening of those organs

235
(Figure 8). The identifiable feature is that such blackening is removed when it is
rubbed with the nail, because the structures of the fungus cannot penetrate the
plant tissue and only form a superficial, thin black crust. Although fungi
Capnodium sp. and Cladosporium sp. are not plant parasites, they can cause
developmental disorders, as they interfere with the photosynthesis process,
blocking sunlight penetration and gas exchange by blocking the stomata
(Chinea et al., 2000).

Transmission and spread: These occur through spores (ascospores or conidia

depending on the causing fungi) that are carried out by the wind and rain.
Spores can also be carried out by pests of insects when they move from
affected to healthy areas.

Importance: In recent years sooty mold importance increased because of

infestations by West Indian Canefly or “Coludo”(Saccharosydne saccharivora)
and Ribbed scale (Orthezia sp.) .
Control: Control is obtained by eliminating pests that secrete sweet
compounds. Farmers are recommended to use products with the lowest impact
on the environment.

Figure 8. Blackening of the leaf surface by superficial development of Capnodium

and / or Cladosporium, causing agents of Sooty mold

236
Dry top rot

Causal agent: Ligniera vasculorum (Matz.) Cook

Symptoms: The disease called dry top rot begins with the drying of tips on
top leaves. After the entire surface of these leaves dry, the top internodes
are shortened and wrinkled, and the whole stalk dries dried (Comstock et
al., 1994) (Figure 9). When the stalk has not yet dried,, longitudinal cuts
show a color change in some of the vascular bundles, a salmon tone
(Comstock et al., 1994). Infections usually occur on developed stems
which the losses can be severe. Infections with the symptoms described were
seen in Guatemala, but no signs were found (spores) to allow confirmation
of the causal agent.

Transmission and spread: Transmission is by infected soil and spread by

infected seed pieces.

Importance: Considered of little importance due to its low incidence in

commercial varieties at the present time.

Control: Use of healthy nurseries is recommended.

Figure 9. L. vasculorum infection symptoms in sugarcane stalks

237
BACTERIAL DISEASES

Leaf scald

Causal agent: Xanthomonas albilineans (Ashby) Dowson

Symptoms: The characteristic symptom that gives the disease its name is death
of leaf tissue with burning appearance at the tips, which are curved up or down.
The disease presents different symptoms depending on the form of the disease.
Two possible phases or forms are:

Chronic Phase: The characteristic symptom of the chronic phase is the presence
of fine lines about 0.5 mm wide and well-defined edges, that develop in
secondary veins of leaves forming sharp angles with the midrib (called pencil
lines) (Martin et al., 1961; Ovalle, 1997). In most cases, lines are long and
initially white to yellowish (Figure 10). Later, the pencil lines can present red
sections intercalated with yellowish sections (Martin et al., 1961). Such
infections come from the stalk and through the leaf midribs. Most resistant
varieties show only this symptom when inoculated, without effects on
production.

Sometimes the lines arise from infections which start at the leaf edges through
the hydathodes. In these cases the lines tend to be wider and with irregular
edges.

Another symptom of the chronic phase is the growth of side shoots (lalas),
which develop from the base or from the middle part of the stalk. In most cases
the lalas decrease in size from the bottom to the top of the stem (Martin et al.,
1961; Tokeshi, nd; Vázquez de Ramallo, and Ramallo, 2004) (Figure 10),
unlike the lines developed as a result of chemical ripening, such as fluazifop
butyl and Glyphosate or by any damage to the apical meristem. In these cases
the side shoots develop first from the superior buds and then the upper lalas are
larger, and the size of the rest decreases along the stem. The lateral shoots
induced by leaf scald may or may not display "pencil lines", chlorosis or
burning of leaves. Finally, there may also be young shoots (suckers) with
etiolated leaves (white to cream in color due to the lack of chlorophyll and
chloroplasts) (Martin et al., 1961).

238
In the internal part of the stalks a change in color of the vascular bundles, may
occur which are presented light-red at the beginning and dark red (almost
black) at the end (Figure 10). The development of the color change is initiated
at the nodes and extends to the internodes (Martin et al., 1961).

Acute phase: When this phase is presented, the stems may suddenly wilt and
change from the normal color to a dark red, causing sudden deathwithout other
symptoms (Martin et al., 1961)

Transmission and spread: Transmission occurs primarily through the use of

infected “seed” pieces and contaminated tool during field works or at harvest
(Martin et al., 1961). However, the transmission and spread may also occur by
the combination of strong wind and strong rain, which can break the infected
tissue of stalks allowing exposure of the bacterium, which is dragged by water
and wind. (Autrey et al., 1991). This type of transmission has also been linked
to infections that occur through the hydathodes in the guttation process.

Importance: In Guatemala, this is an important disease due to environmental

conditions (severe rainy periods and severe dry periods) that favor its spread
and expression.
In addition, leaf scald has caused the elimination of some commercial varieties
of high potential of production.

Control: Use of resistant varieties is recommended. Some varieties with high

potential of production (as CP73-1547 and CP72-1312) that have shown soft
leaf scald infections (less than five percent) are still used successfully by
applying appropriate hot water treatment to eliminate the infections (immersion
of seed pieces in stream water at room temperature for 48 hours, followed by
immersion in water at 50°C for three hours) (Steindl, D., 1971; Frison and
Putter, 1993).

239
Figure 10. Side shoots on a stalk, induced by X. albilineans infection. “Young”
pencil line on a leave. Color changes of vascular bundles in an
infected stem

Red stripe

Causal agent: Acidovorax avenae subsp. avenae (Manns) Willems et al. =

Pseudomonas rubrilineans (Lee et al.) Stapp

Symptoms: The Red Stripe of sugarcane can produce symptoms on leaves and
at the apex of the stalks. Infections in the leaf-blades cause the symptom that
gives the disease its name. Infections appear as red lines of different intensity,
depending on whether they are recent or old, with well-defined edges and with a
width from less than one millimeter to two millimeters (Figure 11). The lines
may be short or long in size, but generally, they are long, sometimes occupy the
entire length of the blade; and may occasionally fuse to form bands of red
tissue. In high humidity and high temperature periods, the causing bacterium
exudes on the underside of leaves and on the site of the bands or stripes. When
dry, these exudates leave dry rubber flakes. Sometimes when strong winds
occur, the leaves are broken and divided into strips.

Infection of the tips of the stalks kills the growing point and cause drying of
young leaves. In these cases, a wet, soft rot, with disagreeable and
characteristic odor occurs (Figure 11). The death of the growing point induces
budbreak of lateral buds and growth of "lalas" (Martin et al., 1961).

Transmission and spread: They occur when bacterium exudes on the

underside of the leaves, which coincides with high humidity periods. If strong

240
rains and winds occur, the bacterium is spread by splashing and drag, and
penetrates through leave wounds (Martin et al., 1961). The bacterium does not
circulate through the vascular bundles of stalks; and therefore it does not spread
through the seed.

Importance: Currently, the red stripe is of relative importance in Guatemala,

because among the major varieties only CP72-2086 is severely attacked during
the growing phase in low slow drainage and ponding areas.

Control: The recommended method is the use of resistant varieties. It has been
observed that some varieties show susceptibility and resistance in young states from
7 or 8 months of age, lost stem infection recovery, issuing new stems.

Figure 11. Symptom of red stripe on a leaf and on the growing point of a stalk

Ratoon Stunting Disease

Causal agent: Leifsonia xyli subsp. xyli (Davis et al.) Evtushenko

Symptoms: This is one of the most difficult diseases to diagnose with certainty
in the field, because its symptoms are vague and can be confused with those
produced by other abiotic agents (CENICAÑA, 1995). When plants are
infected, there occurs a progressive reduction in sugarcane production through
the harvests; this effect gave the name to the disease. Such reduction is due to
the obstructions of xylem vessels caused by the bacterium, resulting in lower
growth (shortening of internodes and decrease of diameter –notice in Figure 12,
ten healthy stalks and ten infected stalks–). Besides, diseased stools may
produce fewer stems (CENICAÑA, 1995; Ovalle and Garcia, 2008). In some
varieties, there are reddish small lines (1-2 mm), at the base of the internodes in
longitudinal sections of diseased stalks (CENICAÑA, 1995) (Figure 12).

241
Transmission and spread: It mainly occurs through infected seed pieces and
infected cutting tools and tillage.

Importance: It is considered one of the most important diseases worldwide. It

has been found infecting all varieties growing in Guatemala, and it has been
demonstrated that it causes significant effect on production. (Bailey and Bechet,
1995; Ovalle and Garcia, 2008).

Control: Hot water treatment of seed pieces is the most used control method. In
Guatemala, five hydrothermal treatments were evaluated (Ovalle et al., 2001),
and the best results were found by dipping seed pieces in hot water at 51oC for
10 minutes, followed by reposing at room temperature for 12 hours, and finally
immersion in hot water at 51°C for one hour. However, good results were also
obtained by direct immersion of the seed pieces in water at 52oC for 30 minutes,
which is a simple treatment. Besides the use of healthy seed, control of ratoon
stunting, should include cleaning of the cutting and field work tools. This is
done with chemicals and good results have been achieved with Vanodine 1%
(Victoria, et al., 1985; CENICAÑA, 1995).

Figure 12. L. xyli infection effect on stems. Reddish lines at the basis of an
infected node

242
VIRAL DISEASES

Mosaic
Causal agent: Sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV), Sorghum mosaic virus
(SrMV)

Symptoms: This disease is characterized for causing decrease in the number

and size of chloroplasts in certain areas of the leaves, leaving other areas
without apparent damage. This causes the characteristic symptom of mosaic
with normal green areas on a background of lighter green to yellowish (Figure
13), with patterns that vary depending on the virus strain (Martin et al., 1961),
the variety (Koike and Guillaspie cited by CENICAÑA, 1995), and sometimes,
temperature and other growing conditions. Sometimes only limited chlorotic
stripes on normal green are observed. In common cases, chlorotic areas on the
normal green predominate, with varying intensities and patterns. The mosaic
symptom may or may not be associated with a decrease in normal growth
(Brandes, cited by Martin et al., 1961). The mosaic is most evident in young
shoots (1-3 months) and in the apical leaf basis (Cook, cited by Martin et al.,
1961). In some varieties changes in color of the stem bark can be seen
(Tokeshi, nd) similar to those seen on leaves.

Transmission and spread: The virus is transmitted in the seed pieces and also
through the aphids Rhopalosiphum maidis and Hysteroneura setariae
(CENICAÑA, 1995) and Toxoptera graminum.

Importance: Currently, it is considered without commercial importance in

Guatemala, even though one of most planted variety (CP72-2086) usually
shows high infection by this virus, without effects on production.

Control: The use of resistant varieties is the recommended method (Vázquez de

Ramallo, and Ramallo, 2004). It has been observed that some varieties have
symptoms in the seedling stages but without development effect, thus, they are
considered tolerant to the disease.

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Figure 13. Mosaic virus effect on growth. Leaf infection symptoms

Yellow leaf

Causal agent: Sugarcane yellow leaf virus (SCYLV)

Symptoms: Symptoms of this disease begin with yellowing of the leaf midrib,
in leaves +3 to +5, evident on the underside (+1 leave is the first leave with
fully visible neck at the apex. Count down to name the following leaves). At the
beginning it appears pale yellowish and after it turns like egg yolk color
(Figure 14). In some varieties, the upper face of the midrib takes a pinkish or
reddish color. Following, the leaves tips dry, and on susceptible varieties the
dry area advances on the entire leave. Plants may or may not show, an effect
on growth (stunting), depending on the susceptibility of the variety. In severe
cases, which rarely occurs, death of the apical meristem is observed; and
adventitious roots emission at the apex of the stem (which was described by
Witteveen, P., in 1969 in Tanzania, in what he called "yellow wilt" but it has
many similarities in symptoms, so it is probably the first description of the
yellow leaf disease). Any type of stress is associated with the manifestation of
the symptoms of the disease, mainly by drought and it is commonly more
severe, at the edges of the fields. Some association between low temperatures
and more severity, thus, certain varieties show problems with yellow leaf at
high altitude and none in the low altitude. Although nine years ago SCYLV had
been confirmed by serological methods in Guatemala (Ovalle and Nelson,
2003), recently, using molecular methods, sugarcane yellowing phytoplasma
(SCYP) was also detected and this patogen pathogen can cause the same
symptoms than SCYLV (Maldonado et al., 2009).

244
Transmission and spread: The transmission of the disease caused by the virus
is through seed pieces and by the aphids Melanaphis sacchari, and
Rophalosiphum maidis (Chinea, 2000; Vázquez de Ramallo, and Ramallo,
2004). The phytoplasma is transmitted by West Indian Canefly or “Coludo”
(Saccharosydne saccharivora) reported as the insect vector (Arocha et al.,
2005).

Importance: Although nearly one hundred percent of varieties analyzed by

laboratory methods in Guatemala have been infected with the virus, none of the
major varieties or the promising ones show effects on production.

Control: In countries where the disease is causing production losses, the

recommended method of control is the use of resistant varieties.

Figure 14. SCYLV infection symptoms. On the right photograph, a healthy leaf
(top) and two different symptom intensity

Chlorotic streak

Causal agent: Despite research conducted over 80 years in various countries, it

has not been possible to identify the causal agent of chlorotic streak. The
disease has several characteristics that suggest it could be a virus, but nobody
has been able to confirm its cause of the disease (CENICAÑA, 1995).

Symptoms: The main symptom of this disease is the presence of light green
bands on the leaves, variable in length, with defined edges that later become
yellowish bands with irregular edges. Eventually, necrosis can occur sometimes

245
along the entire length of the band (Figure 15). The bands are wide (from 3 to
10 mm), with irregular edges, sometimes, they are also wavy (CENICAÑA,
1995). Diseased plants show decreased development, which is evident at the
lower height and lower tillering. Pieces of seed from infected stools have
problems in germination and symptoms are frequently present in adult plants
that grow in heavy and wet soils (Tokeshi, nd; CENICAÑA, 1995).

Transmission and spread: The disease is transmitted through the roots, seed
pieces (Victoria et al., 1984) and runoff from rain or irrigation. An infested field
can be kept for long periods of time (several months) even in the absence of
sugarcane plants. The chlorotic streak can not be spread by cutting tools or
machetes.

Importance: Variety CG96-135 has been susceptible near the sea, when
planting seeds without heat treatment, in slow drain fields or waterlogged.

Control: Seed heat treatment by immersion in hot water at 50oC for 30 minutes
is effective (Chinea et al., 2000) therefore, the treatment for ratoon stunting
disease is enough to control also chlorotic streak. (Victoria et al., cited by
CENICAÑA, 1995).

Figure 15. Chlorotic streak symptoms on leaves

REFERENCES
1. Arocha, Y.; López, M.; Fernández, M.; Piñol, B.; Horta, D.; Peralta, E.;
Almeida, R.; Carvajal, O.; Picornell, S.; Wilson, M.; Jones, P. 2005.
Transmission of a sugarcane yellow leaf phytoplasma by the delphacid
planthopper Saccharosydne saccharivora, a new vector of sugarcane
yellow leaf syndrome. Plant Pathology 54. 634-642. (on line),
http://ag.udel.edu/delpha/110.pdf

246
2. Autrey, L. J. C.; Saumtally, S.; Dookun, A.; Sullivan, S.; Dhayan, S.
1991. Aerial transmission of the leaf scald pathogen, Xanthomonas
albilineans (Ashby) Dowson. In: ISSCT Third Sugarcane Pathology
Workshop. (Abstr. p. 4.)

3. Bailey, R. A.; Bechet, G. R. 1995. The effect of ratoon stunting disease

on the yield of some south african sugarcane varieties under irrigated and
rainfed conditions. Proceedings. South African Sugar Technologists
Association. pp. 74-78.

4. Barrera, W. 2010. Effect of environmental variables and crop growth on

development of Brown rust epidemics in Sugarcane. Master of Science
Thesis. Lousiana State University. 78 p.

5. BSESQCANES-Varieties for your future. Chlorotic streak. Information

sheet IS10013. (on line).
http://www.bses.org.au/InfoSheets/2010/IS10013.pdf

6. CENICAÑA (Centro de Investigación de la Caña de Azúcar de

Colombia). 1995. El cultivo de la caña en la zona azucarera de Colombia.
Cassalett, C.; Torres, J. e Isaacs, C. (eds.). Cali, Colombia. 412 p.

7. Chinea, A.; Nass, H.; Daboin, C.; Díez, M.D. 2000. Enfermedades y
daños de la caña de azúcar en Latinoamérica. FONAIAP, INICA,
FUNDAZUCAR, Universidad de los Andes. Barquisimeto, Venezuela.
108 p.

8. Comstock, J. C.; Miller, J.D.; Farr, D. F. 1994. First report of dry top rot
of sugarcane in Florida: symptomatology, cultivar reactions and effect on
stalk water flow rate. Plant Disease 78 (4):428-431.

9. Frison, E. A.; Putter, C.A.J. (eds.) 1993. FAO/IBPGR Technical

guidelines for the safe movement of sugarcane germplasm. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome/International Board
for Plant Genetic Resources, Rome. 44 p.

10. Hughes, C. G.; Abbott, E.V.; Wismer, C. A. 1964. Sugar-cane diseases of

the world. Vol. II. New York, Elsevier. 354 p.

11. INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR PLANT PATHOLOGY. Committee

on common names and plant diseases. List of pathogens, diseases and
references (on line).
http://www.isppweb.org/names_sugarcane_pathogen.asp

247
12. Maldonado, A. P.; Ovalle, W.; García, S. 2009. Metodología para la
detección molecular de enfermedades en caña de azúcar. Centro
Guatemalteco de Investigación y Capacitación de la Caña de Azúcar.
CENGICAÑA. pp. 106-115. .

13. Martin J. P.; Abbott, E. V.; Hughes, C. G. 1961. Sugar-cane diseases of

the world. Vol. I. New York, Elsevier. 542 p.

14. Magarey, R. C.; Neilsen, W. A.; Magnani, A. J. 2004. Environmental

requirements for spore germination in three sugarcane leaf pathogens.
Proc. Aust. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol. Vol. 26.

15. NORTH AMERICAN PLANT PROTECTION ORGANIZATION

(NAPPO). 2007. Detections of Orange Rust of Sugarcane, Puccinia
kuehnii, in Palm Beach County, Florida – United States. (on line).
http://www.pestalert.org/oprDetail.cfm?oprID=270

16. Ovalle Sáenz, W. R. 1997. Manual para identificación de enfermedades

de la caña de azúcar. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. 83 p.

17. Ovalle, W.; López, E.; Oliva, E. 2001. Evaluación de cinco tratamientos
hidrotérmicos para el control de Raquitismo de las socas. In: Memoria.
Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2000-2001. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 63-65.

18. Ovalle, W.; Nelson, A. 2003. Detección de patógenos con pruebas

serológicas en caña de azúcar. In: Memoria. Presentación de resultados
de investigación. Zafra 2002-2003. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 67-69

19. Ovalle, W.; García, S. 2008. Efecto de la enfermedad del Raquitismo de

las socas (Leifsonia xyli subs. xyli) en el rendimiento de caña de nueve
variedades en cinco cortes. 2004-2008. In: Memoria. Presentación de
resultados de investigación. Zafra 2007-2008. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA.
pp. 89-93.

20. Steindl, D.R.L. 1971. The elimination of leaf scald from infected planting
material. Proc. Int. Soc. Cane Technol. 14:925-929.

21. Tokeshi, H. s.f. Doenças da cana-de-açúcar. Programa Nacional de

Melhoramento da cana-de-açúcar. Instituto do Açúcar e do Álcool.
Piracicaba, São Paulo. 70 p.

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22. Vázquez de Ramallo, N. E.; Ramallo, J. 2004. Enfermedades de la caña
de azúcar en Argentina. Guía para su reconocimiento y manejo.
Tucumán. Estación Experimental Agroindustrial “Obispo Colombres”.
55 p.

23. Victoria, J. I.; Ochoa, O.; Cassalett, C. 1984. Enfermedades de la Caña

de Azúcar en Colombia. Centro de Investigación de la Caña de Azúcar de
Colombia. 27 p. Serie Técnica No. 2.

24. Victoria, J. L.; Guzmán, M. L.; Ochoa, B. 1985. Chemicals used to

disinfect tools in order to limit the spread of ratoon disease of sugarcane.
Centro de Investigación de la Caña de azúcar de Colombia CENICAÑA.
Documento Técnico No. 69. s.p.

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250
XI. SUGARCANE RIPENING AND
SUGARCANE FLOWERING AND
THEIR MANAGEMENT

251
 SUGARCANE RIPENING

Gerardo Espinoza

INTRODUCTION
Sugarcane cultivation shows during its development four stages: Initiation,
tillering, elongation or great growing and ripening (Castro y Montúfar, 2004;
Bezuidenhout, et al., 2003). The initiation stage ranges from the emergency
until 45 days after planting. Tillering stage has an average duration of three
months. On the other hand, elongation stage takes six months; this stage is the
most important in terms of the sugarcane growth. Ripening is the last stage and
its average length is 45 days.

In the ripening stage the sugarcane plant decreases its growth rate and starts
sucrose accumulation in the stalks. In general, the ripening process is gradual
until reaching the maximum point, after which, the sucrose content in stalks starts
to decline. According to Buenaventura (1986) the sucrose concentration in juices
depends onseveral factors such as: the temperature variation along the entire day
(15°C), the soil moisture or rainfall (30-100 mm/month) and luminosity from four
to six weeks before harvest (11.5-12.5 light hours). This stage is very important
since is directly related to the final product of: Sugar. In most sugarcane-
producing countries, weather conditions drive the harvest season. In Guatemala,
the best conditions for harvest are found from November to April.

In many sugarcane-producing countries the use of artificial ripeners is common.

This lies in: to deliver crop certain conditions to induce ripening; especially if
needed conditions are not given naturally, such as proper soil moisture and
temperature oscillation during the day (Deuber, 1998; Caputo et al., 2008;
Alexander, 1973 y Legendre, 1975). In Guatemala, the sugarcane that is
harvested in the very beginning of the harvest season, has low levels of sucrose
since the ripening stage is just started and the stalks still retains high humidity
quantities. The ripeners applications allow increase the sucrose accumulation in
such initial harvest period. As it progresses the harvest period, higher sucrose
accumulation values are reached, especially in February when the best sucrose
accumulation is achieved due to the better weather conditions.

In general terms, the ripeners application is part of a bigger harvest strategy,

dedicated to increase the sugar production. The results indicate that the ripeners


Agr. Eng., M.Sc. Specialist in weeds and ripeners at CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org

252
application contribute to the maturing, and then improving the sucrose
concentration (Villegas, 2003; Caputo et al., 2008 and Leite, 2005).

NATURAL RIPENING IN SUGARCANE

The natural ripening in sugarcane starts when the stalks growth rate decreases,
there is less moisture in soil and low temperatures are recorded (Almeida, et al.,
2003). In Guatemala such conditions are not given at the very beginning of the
harvest season, since the wet season is just ending.

The sucrose content in sugarcane is the result of the balance between the total
synthetized sucrose and the amount of hydrolyzed sucrose, mediated by acid
and neutral invertases activity. The acid enzyme is soluble and has its main
activity in the apoplast and in the the vacuole cellular level (Hatch et al.,
1963). The main function of this enzyme is to hydrolyze and to transport the
sucrose from the leaves to the stalks during the growing stage. The higher
activity of this enzyme is during the growing period and decreases in the
ripening stage, operates between pH values from 5.0 to 5.5.

The neutral invertase is a soluble enzyme which works at pH 7 and is located in

the cytoplasm of cells in mature tissues; consequently it is related with the
sucrose accumulation into the stalks. Its higher activity is noted in the ripening
stage (Hatch et al., 1963; Batta y Singh, 1986). The more advanced the ripening
in the sugarcane stem, the more sucrose accumulation is reached, meanwhile the
reducing sugar (glucose and fructose) decrease into the internodes (Azevedo,
1981).

In the productive process, , the juice quality is defined according to the high
sugar content (sucrose) and at the same time, for low reducing sugar content
(Chen, 1991). Fernandes (1985); Salgado (1995), and De Stefano (1985)
indicate that at the beginning of sugarcane ripening and during this process,
the minimum values of the technical parameters must be, between 80 to 85
percent for juice purity; 14.4 to 15.3 for Pol% and the reducing sugars
concentration must be less than one percent.

USE OF RIPENERS FOR SUGARCANE MANAGEMENT

In Guatemala, before the use of the ripeners, the sugar yield was 72 Kg of sugar
per cane ton (Buenaventura, et al., 1992, Buenaventura, 2000). It is important to
take in account that at the time, different sugarcane cultivars were grown, the
harvest season period was different (December to March). The harvest,

253
transportation, and the sugar extraction processes, have been modified since
then. Besides, all these factors have caused productivity improvement.
Nevertheless, while the actual contribution value of ripeners is not well
estimated, the use of them is, indeed, an important key in the sugar yield
enhancement.

From 1980 to 1990, the very first isolated tests on ripeners isolated tests began
in different Mills in Guatemala. Different products were using, including
Glyphosate. These tests were based on the application of the ripener in early
maturation sugarcane varieties, harvested in the middle of December and
January. Doses between 0.75 to 1.25 l Ha-1 were used. In the harvest season
1990-1991, ripeners were applied ripeners in 13,000 Ha. In the harvest season
2010-2011 the applied area was 148,000 Ha, which means the 82 percent of the
total cultivated area (Figure 1). In that harvest season, Glyphosate was the most
used ripener and it was applied in 80 percent of the total area where ripeners
were utilized. Currently, different products have been tested, trying to find
advantages over Glyphosate such as, the herbicide effect, (especially in those
sugarcane cultivars that are susceptible to the product) or with less negative
effect on the environment.

Figure 1. Trend of the use of ripeners, considering the cultivated area from 1986
to 2011 in the sugar agroindustry in Guatemala

CHEMICAL RIPENERS

Most chemical ripeners are compounds with herbicide properties which,

if applied in low doses, inhibit, modify or promote, in some way,

254
physiological processes in the sugarcane plant (Lavanholi et al., 2002 y
Almeida et al., 2003).

Ripener applications have as an objective, to modify or alter the

morphological and physiological conditions in the sugarcane plant. These
modifications could be qualitative or quantitative, for instance: early ripening,
inhibition or delaying of the vegetative development, promotion of the sugar
increase into the stalks, especially in the internodes near to the plant apex.
Also, ripeners allow for cutting larger stalks, diminish trash, induce early
foliage drying, and they also improve harvest efficiency, and therefore, raw
material (Villegas, 2003; Lavanholi et al., 2002 y Almeida et al., 2003).

Chemical ripeners modify plant development at enzymes level, which

catalyze the sucrose accumulation; this promotes the higher sugar
concentration into the stalks. In general, ripening is a physiological process
that comes from the photosynthesis (sugar producing process) and respiration
(process that releases energy through concumption of sugar). The ripeners
can practically stop the vegetative development through the translocation and
sugars storage, mainly sucrose, and lately, it can promote qualitative and
quantitative modifications in the final production (Castro, 1999).

The most utilized ripeners in Guatemala are non-selective herbicides, which

contains Glyphosate molecule as an active ingredient. Also some selective
herbicides applied to control grasses, have been evaluated. CENGICAÑA
jointly with Guatemala’s Sugar Mills, have tested several options, , among
these non-herbicide ripeners; such as those based on nutrients like Potassium
and Boron; among other growth regulators (plant-hormones-like compounds)
have been evaluated. At this time it is being investigated options that include
blends of herbicides with fertilizer elements such as Boron (B) and Potassium
(K) (Espinoza y Corado, 2011).

The ripeners based in elements such as Boron, Potassium, and Phosphorous,

are new options due to the physiological functions of each nutrient, which
have an additive effect on the final sucrose accumulation. In the case of
Boron, its function is to accelerate the transportation of the sucrose through
the phloem from the leaves to stalks; through the sucrose-borate complex.

Other functions of Boron are: Synthesis of the cell wall, lignification of the
cell wall, part of the structure of the wall cell; also Boron participates in the
carbohydrates metabolism, RNA metabolism and Indol Acetic Acid (IAA)
metabolism. Also, Boron is part of the respiration process, phenolic

255
metabolism, ascorbate metabolism and is an integral part of the plasma
membrane. Among those functions, two are well defined in the plant´s
physiological process: synthesis of the cell wall and integral part of the
plasma membrane (Cakmak & Römheld, 1997).
For Potassium, the main function is to act as a catalyzer in plant metabolism and
is found mainly where energy transference occurs (Taiz and Zeiger, 2006).
Potassium participates in the formation and neutralization of organic acids.
Besides it plays an important role in the sugars accumulation and their use into
the plant through the vegetative growth (Lazcano-Ferrat, 2000 e IPNI, 2007).

The role of potassium in the sugars transport is essential, since the deficiency
of this element restricts sugar movement from leaves (Supply organ: source)
to storage places (sinks), i.e. the stalks. In sugarcane sugar movement,
from leaves to stalks, happens in a speed of 2.5 cm per minute.

The lack of Phosphorous has not showed a significant effect in sugar

transportation. On the other hand, Nitrogen has showed a moderate effect, while
the lack of Potassium can reduce sugar transportation down to half of its
original potential (Lazcano-Ferrat, 2000; IPNI, 2007).

In the present, in Guatemala, as well as in other countries (USA, Brazil,

Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Australia), a higher trend in the use of ripeners based
on fertilizers is bigger, using products such as: (Potassium nitrate, Potassium
nitrate + Boron, Potassium carbonate, carboxylic radical compounds) and plant-
hormone-like compounds such as Trinexapac Ethyl, Ethephon. Also some
mixtures are being used such as, herbicides plus fertilizers (K, P, Si, B) or
herbicides plus plant-hormone-like compounds (CENICAÑA, 2011; Legendre,
1975; Almeida, 2003; Leite, et al., 2008; Leite y Crusciol, 2008; Leite, et al.,
2010; Crusciol, et al., 2010, Leite, 2010; Toro y Jara, 2011).

Chemicals utilized as ripeners and their mechanisms of action.

The chemical ripeners are divided in two groups: growth delayers and growth
inhibitors. Among the growth delayers Ethephon and Trinexapac Ethyl can be
found. These are growth regulators (plant-hormone-like compounds) applied in
sugarcane producer countries. Amongst growth inhibitors Glyphosate,
Fluazifop-buthyl and Cletodim can be found, the latest two are used in a lower
rate in Guatemala.

Next, some chemical characteristics and structural differences are depicted for
several riperners used in Guatemala, as well as their mechanism and mode of
action.

256
Glyphosate: Glyphosate is the active molecule in several herbicide brands.
There are structural differences in the Glyphosate molecule based in the acid
form. The molecule can contain an isopropylamine salt (IPA) displacing the
OH; such is the case of “Round up”(Hartzler, 2000). The molecule Glyphosate
N (phosphonomethyl) glycine is the active ingredient of “Round up”; it is
related toglycine, the simplest essential aminoacid. Another case is when the
salt of the molecule is replaced by the sulfonate, which contains
trimethylsulfonium salt (TMS), this is the “Touchdown” case; therefore both
have different molecular weight (Hartzler, 2000).

Glyphosate penetrates foliage, it is transported by phloem jointly with

photosynthesis products and is accumulated in meristems tip (Yamada y
Castro, 2007). The most accepted hypothesis about the Glyphosate action
mechanism as herbicide, states the inhibition of the enzymes chorismate
mutase and the prephenic dehydrogenase, which participate in the synthesis of
chorismate acid, which is, in turn, a precursor of aminoacids that are
synthetized only in plants: tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine (Jaworski,
1972; Zablotowicz and Reddy, 2004). On the other hand, it seems that
Glyphosate reduces the acid invertase levels in treated plants, which, in turn,
reduce glucose and fructose breakdown (Hatch et al., 1963).

Fluazifop-butyl and Clethodim: Fluazifop-butyl is a graminicide based in 2-

(4-(trifluoromethyl-2 -iloiloxipiridine)-phenoxi)-N-butyl propionate. This
ripener inhibits the growth by restricting the dry parenchyma volume and
promotes the sucrose accumulation in 30 days, approximately (Crusciol et al.,
2010). The action mode of this herbicide is the same to Clethodim. These
products are capable to inhibit lipids biosynthesis specific for grasses. These
compounds act in the enzyme levels by inhibiting the carboxyltransferase
action, which belongs to the enzymatic complex of the Acetyl-
CoACarboxylase, which, in turn, stops the triglycerides formation, which are
part of the cell membranes (Crusciol et al., 2010).

Fluazifop-butyl or Clethodim is accumulated in growth zones, damaging the

meristematic tissues in the stalk’s nodes and buds; this stops the growth in a
lapse of 48 hours. Young tissues and meristems are the most sensible organs
(Crusciol et al., 2010).

These products are being applied in areas where neighbor Glyphosate-

sensitive-crops are found. The dose is the same as the used for a ripener

257
product, especially when a short period between application and harvest, is
required.

In Guatemala, when the previously mentioned products are used, the harvest
is planned between 30 to 40 days after the application, mostly because higher
periods can damage the sugarcane plants. This is mainly due to that the
chemical destroys the growth points, therefore the apical dominance is lost
and the lateral buds sprouting start, this process inducts the glucose and
fructose breakdown. Besides, a progressive necrosis occurs in the growth
rings in the apical region (Crusciol et al., 2010).

USE OF RIPENERS IN SUGARCANE

General effect of ripeners application

The final result of the ripener applications is sucrose concentration increase in

juice, if it is develop within the proper period, which should be established for
each ripener. Figure 2 shows the ripening curve for Glyphosate in the cultivar
CP88-1508. In this figure the higher sucrose accumulation period can be
observed, which is the ideal harvest interval.

Figure 2. Ripening curve in the CP88-1508 cultivar with Glyphosate application

as ripener vs. no application control. (Espinoza et al., 2011b) DAA=
Days after application

Other effects driven by ripeners

Early foliage drying: The visual effect of drying after the application of
herbicides based ripeners, are observed within 15 days after such application

258
(Figure 3). This drying or “burning” effect is important due since it makes the
crop burning practice more efficient at the harvest, besides it reduces the trash
volume transported to factory. Due to the wet conditions at the end of the rainy
season, this practice is useful especially because it matches with the beginning
of the harvest season.

Figure 3. Ripeners Comparison with and without “burning” effect. Photo by

Manuel Corado, “Madre Tierra” Mill, 2011

Higher sucrose content: As it was mentioned before, the main objective of

applying ripeners is to increase the sucrose concentration into the sugarcane
stalks. In the internodes at the apex zone the sucrose concentration tends to be
low and the glucose and fructose concentrations tend to be higher, as compared
with the lower internodes (basal and intermediates) (Barreto, 1991). The
glucose and fructose tend to reduce juice purity. The efficiency about using
ripeners is directly related to the efficiency in the final sucrose recovery at
factory (Barreto, 1991).

Higher cut height: If a ripener is used, the height cut, at harvest moment, is
defined by the ripener effect. Since the ripener increase the sugar concentration
into the internodes in the apex region, the cut in the apix region is taller,
consequently, higher amounts of raw matter go to the factory (Villegas, 2003).

Herbicide effect on the sugarcane plant: The Glyphosate application

diminishes the internodes length without a necrotic effect; this can be observed
between 15 and 30 days after the application. In the Fluazifop-butyl and
Clethodim cases, necrotic rings can be seen; these rings start at the growth rings
in the young internodes, normally until the natural-break-point in the stalk; this
allows a chemical prune in a period of four or six weeks.

259
In Figure 4, the different effects for different ripeners are shown. It can be
appreciated the internodes shortening, yellowish foliage, and the “burning or
drying” feature (4A). Likewise, the figure shows the base of the apical
internodes (4B), also similar effects of Fluazifop-butyl, can be seen (4C).

A B C

Figure 4. A) Glyphosate used in CP72-2086 cultivar 27 days after the application

(daa). B) Graminicide effect of the Fluazifop-butyl 12.5 EC in the
Mex82-114 cultivar, 31 daa. C) Clethodim 12 EC effect in the cultivar
Mex82-114, 9 daa

Ripeners application effect over the regrowth: In Figure 5 the results from
one study related to the sugarcane regrowth (CENGICAÑA, 2010), are shown.
The figure displays that an overdose (similar to those that use to happen in
overlapping throughout air applications) to susceptible Glyphosate cultivars,
such as CP88-1165, especially in its first production season, provokes several
negative effects in the normal plant development; such as the reduction of the
plant height. The difference in plant height between the plants with ripeners
applied and the plant with no-ripeners application could mean a notable
difference in its age of 30 days along the entire crop life cycle; this implies a
negative effect in the final cane production (CENGICAÑA, 2009).

260
Figure 5. Effect of the overdose of Glyphosate over sugarcane cultivar CP88-
11565, first crop. Pantaleon Mill, 2009

Another negative effect from ripeners that can be observed, is the growth
inhibition on to the applications strips; this can be attributed to the fly height of
the airplane used for the application, which can induce an overdose. This effect
can be also due to the phyusiological crop condition during the application
moment (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Strips with growth inhibition on the regrowth after the harvest on an
area applied with ripener

261
Figure 7. Leaf Chlorosis on regrowth after the first harvest, attributable to the
Glyphosate transportation to the roots on the susceptible cultivar
CP88-1165

Although the regrowths often emerge within 20 to 30 days after the harvest,
these can reveal leaf chlorosis (lose of chlorophyll); at the same time, they can
show hyponasty (up-leaf-roll) or epinasty (down-leaf-roll); plants with this
problems frequently die.

Benefits in the sugarcane production

The use of ripeners technology is an important feature in the sugar production

costs, since the sugar content, based in the fresh weight, is an important aspect
to take into consideration, in order to determine the industrial expenses and
profitability. All the variable costs included in the harvest, transportation and
milling, are directly related with the cane amount required to produce each
sugar ton (Morgan et al., 2007). The use of chemical ripeners to accelerate the
process of sucrose increase is a relatively low cost technology; and at the
present time, it is still profitable. The potential is to gain up to 450 extra Kg of
sugar per hectare, attributable to the ripener application. With current prices
(2012), it is necessary to increase, approximately 83 Kg of sugar per hectare,
attributable to the ripener application, in order to pay for the application
investment.

Figure 8 showsthat ripeners application induces an increase in sugar production

per cane weight unit (Kg of sugar per cane ton) when compared with sugarcane
produced without ripener application (Espinoza, 2011a). The general production
average in both years goes from 270 to 493 extra Kg of sugar per ton of cane,
due to the ripener application as compared with the control without ripener
application. According to this study, ripener use is profitable regarding to
application costs, cutting, loading, and transportation.

262
 140.0 127.8 131.6 129.0 129.1
115.0 118.8 118.6 117.9
120.0

sugar kg /cane ton
100.0
80.0
60.0
2009‐2010
40.0
20.0 2010‐2011
0.0
Control Moddus 25  Round up  Actimax 
EC 35.6 SL AZ/Plu + Brix
Treatments

Figure 8. Cane Yield per area unit in the CP88-1165 cultivar. Three
ripeners vs. a no-application control

From the same experiment mentioned above, Figure 9 shows sugarcane

production trend in tons per hectare, which reveals that there was no reduction
in the sugarcane weight forthose treatments using Trinexapacetil (“Moddus”)
and Glyphosate (“Round up”) when they are compared with the results showed
by a non-applied control (Espinoza, 2011a).

160 138.0 
135.0  134.3 
140 125.1 
120 96.6
94.0 94.1 90.3
100
TCH

80
60 2009‐2010
40
20 2010‐2011
0
Control Moddus 25  Round up  Actimax 
EC 35.6 SL AZ/Plu + Brix
Treatments

Figure 9. Sugarcane Yield per unit weight, in the CP88-1165 cultivar.

Three ripeners in comparison with a no-application control

Ripener application season

263
In Guatemala, the harvest is divided into three periods (thirds): First one is from
November to middle of January; the second one from January to February, and the
third one from March to April. The ripener applications for the first-third start
between September and October. For the second-third, the applications are done
between November and December, and for the last third, the applications are made
between January and February.

The period between Glyphosate application and the harvest, is within 45 to 65 days,
according to the harvest third. As the harvest take place, it is needed to diminish
such period and also is necessary to diminish the doses, due that the natural ripening
conditions are occurring progressively. It is important to have an adequate
coordination betweenthe ripener application and the harvest in charge, in order to
have a continuous cutting in the appropriate moment for each applied area.

Selected Areas for ripener application

For the selection of the ripener application areas, it is required to have a good
knowledge of the conditions in these areas. The conditions for the selected areas
with sugarcane, which is not for renewal use, are more extensive, in comparison
with the areas that will be renewed.

Among the conditions required forripener application are the following:

 Sugarcane cultivars with good response to the ripener.

 Sugarcane cultivars with high yield potential (up to 100 TCH)
 Plantationswithout stress for humidity, plagues, and diseases.
 Topography that allows for flying safety.
 Areas without neighboring crops sensitive to the produc (ripeners).
 Uniform plantations regarding to the plant height feature.
 Big areas; for better efficiency in the application.
 Areas with non-flattened sugarcane.

Issues to take into consideration to the ripeners application

Productivity: In Guatemala, the ripener use is planned according to the estimated

productivity, type of soil, dose in each application, and the selected areas,
according to the conditions mentioned above. With respect to productivity,
production estimation is done in tons of sugarcane per hectare, before the
application (the estimation period ranges from 50 days before the application to 1
day before). The estimation is done taking in to account stalk population, plant
height and stalk diameter in five samples for every 20 hectares, besides the
production history in the area is considered. Sometimes the weight of thesample is
also recorded.

264
Soils: In sandy soils, the employed doses are usuallylower than the average, which
is 1.4 l Ha-1. Clay soils foster natural ripening and for that reason, lower doses are
utilized instead of the normal doses used at thebeginning of the harvest.

The soils dedicated to the sugarcane crop in Guatemala, have variable

characteristics. Mollisol, Andisol, Inceptisol and Vertisol can be found (Pérez,
2008). The Vertisol soils enable natural ripening in some sugarcane cultivars. This
soil is found mainly in the area of influence of the Tululá Mill south-westof the
production area in Guatemala, thus in these areas, use of ripeners is lower,
especially in the third-third of the harvest season.

Soil Moisture: In some sugar mills, it is suggested to limite the irrigation in field
from 30 to 45 days before harvest, with the objective to facilitate sugarcane
planting and transportation of sugar toward the stalks. When this recommendation
is not followed, “a signal” may be received by the plant, to use sugar in order to
continue with its growth: and, therefore, to decrease sugar yield in the stalks.
Regarding this, higher ripener doses can be useful when high humidity conditions
are present in the soil (Villegas, 2003).

Commercially, the Glyphosate doses used in Guatemala can vary according

to the harvest month and sugarcane cultivar. For example, in the harvest´s
beginning, doses can vary between 0.8 to 1.5 l Ha-1 . Also, the dose can
vary regarding to the expected yield. When the ripener is applied in an
area to be renewed, the ripener dose can vary within 1.25 and 1.75 l Ha-1 .
The average of Glyphosate applications fluctuate between 1 and 1.4 l Ha-1 .
For the graminicides case, the dose fluctuates between 0.5 to 0.8 l Ha-1 .

To get the expected results, using ripeners, the next must be taken into
account: the agro-ecological traits in the production area, the kind of
ripener to use, doses, and the harvest season. This last feature is important
because in Guatemala the ripeners use, starts with high doses, and as the
harvest progresses the ripener doses are lower than the beginning. This is
in partly, due to a gradual reduction in moisture excess , which allows a
better natural ripening.

The sugarcane variety and number of cutting (planting or ratoon):

These two features are important to define the dose. Among the used
sugarcane cultivars and most susceptible to the ripeners are CP88-1165
and CP72-1312. Both varieties suffer important damages, especially in the
/planting (first cut). These damages can be observed from doses of 0.8 l
Ha-1 , which is a low dose. It is important to point that the CP72-1312
cultivar is not grown in large areas. In ratooning, these cultivars do not
present important damages, maybe, due to their higher biomass amount.

265
The varieties CP72-2086 and CP73-1547, among others, do not present
negative responses to the Glyphosate treatment in the /planting in doses
between 1.0 and 1.2 liters per hectare for a production of 100 and 120 of
cane tons per hectare, respectively.

AIR APPLICATION GENERALITIES

Aircrafts

In Guatemala, the ripeners are applied by using airplanes or helicopters,

the latter are the most frequently used, since they allow air application in
areas with irregular topography. The airplanes are used mainly in large and
uniform areas (more than 100 Ha), where they are more efficient.

Equipment

(Global Positioning System) receptors are used during air application, in order to
get an accurate location where to apply the product; this avoids unwanted
application in not targeted crops.

Also a flow-meter is utilized (Flow-control), the main function of this device is to

fix the download of the ripener calibrated volume, which automatically
compensates the download when the airship’s speed varies.

Another device is the Thermo-anemometer, used to measure the weather conditions

through course of application, of such as wind speed, temperature, and relative
humidity. All this information serves to change ripener application volume, and
thus, avoid environmental damage. Occasionally, all these weather records are used
to explain variations in the final applied ripener effect.

To measure ripeners application quality, a special “Scanner” is used, jointly with

the DepositScan (USDA) software, determine variables such as: Number of
Droplets per square centimeter, size of the droplet (µm), and application volume.
With all this information a Variation Coefficient (CV %) can be calculated related
to the covered area (Figure 10). These parameters have the objective to determine
the application quality.

Some sugarcane mills still use the “magnifying glass” system for counting the
droplets in a square centimeter, however, with this method, it is not possible to
determine the droplet size, and this is a very important variable, as it will be seen
forward.
266
 a b

Figure 10. Equipment used to determine application quality variables. a) Water-

sensitive Card. b) Scanner to establish quality application parameters.

Other important equipment used are the application nozzles. In Guatemalan

sugar agroindustry, the next nozzles are utilized: DG80-02, DG80-03, DG80-04
DG80-06, and CP11TT, for various airships. These nozzles have the attribute of
diminish the drift of the applied product and manage the drop sizes, thus to
reduce the drop sizes to less than150 µm, so to avoid drifting.

Rules and control for air applications

During the application planning, the personnel in charge must coordinate all
work with the people responsible for the crop area to be applied. The personnel
verify that there are no complications such as: neighboring crops susceptible to
the ripener, electrical wires, trees, etc. When an obstacle is found, a strip from
300 to 500 meters must be left.

In order to assure a good application, airships are gaged with anticipation, with
the objective to fulfill rules and standars in a good application. The following
aspects must be taken into account:

a. Application strip width. For helicopters this is in between of 16 to 20 m

and for aircraft between 15 to 22 m.

b. Size uniformity, distribution and number of drops per square

centimeter. For some sugarcane mills in Guatemala, the ideal number of
drops per cm2, for Glyphosate as ripener, fluctuates on 15 to 30 drops/cm2.
According to the type of airship, the Variation Coefficient must be less than
30%.

267
c. Variation rate in the application flow volume. The water volume in the
application is in the middle of 18 to 30 liters of water per hectare. The
water volume defines the amount of droplets that finally reach the sugarcane
canopy. To measure the droplets amount and the application quality, the
monitoring equipment is employed, which is mainly composed of water-
sensitive cards, which are placed, at least, in the equivalent width of three
passes of the airship. This measure is merely a reference of the application
quality.

d. On the other hand, to achieve a good application, certain weather conditions

should be present such as: a temperature lower than 30° C; relative humidity
over 60%; and wind speed below10 km hr-1. Application with inversion must
be avoided, since this condition is propitious to drift. The inversion occurs
mainly from December to February. This event arises when in clear nights,
soil cools quickly. The soil, in turn, cools nearest air; due this, the air
becomes more dense and heavier as compared with the air in superior layers.
If this event coincides with wind absence, then no thermal convection
happens, also the speed of vertical mixture between two air layers
diminishes, and therefore drift occurs to neighbor areas which are not
targeted crops.

POST-RIPENER APPLICATION MONITORING AND

HARVEST
Usually, after ripener application, pre-harvest samplings are made, in order to
know the ripener effect in the sugar accumulation into the stalks. This
monitoring allows planning the harvest in its maximum sucrose accumulation
point. Pre-harvest samplings are developed in five different points in a 20
hectare area. . In each station (sampling point) five milling potential stalks are
collected in at least one linear metre or, it can be collected instead, a complete
tiller. Each stalk is cut in setts of 40 to 50 cm length. In lab, the juices are
analyzed to determine Brix (%), Pol%cane and the reducing sugars content.
Also juice purity(%) is determined; and finally the commercial and potential
yield is calculated (kg of sugar per cane ton).

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Glyphosate and the Effects of 2,4-D on Herbicidal Cane Ripening. Journal
American Society Sugar Cane Technologists, Vol. 24, pp. 98.

45. Villegas, F. 2003. Maduradores de caña de azúcar. Cali, Colombia.

CENICAÑA. 66 p.

46. Yamada, T.; Castro, P. R. C. 2007. Efeitos do glifosato nas plantas:

Implicações fisiológicas e agronómicas. IPNI (International Plant Nutrition
Institute), InformaçõesAgronômicas. nº 119.

47. Zablotowicz, R. M.; Reddy, K. N. 2004. Impact of glyphosate and

Bradyrhizobium japonicum symbiosis; with glyphosate-resistant transgenic
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831.

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 SUGARCANE FLOWERING AND THEIR
MANAGMENT

Gerardo Espinoza y José Luis Quemé

INTRODUCTION
The growth of angiosperm plants is divided in two stages a) vegetative and
b) reproductive. The vegetative stage is related to root, stalks, and leaves
development; while reproductive stage is concerning with formation of
flowers, fruits, and seeds. The reproductive stage is divided as well in two
stages: flowering and fructification, which are morphological and
physiological distinct from each other. The vegetative growth and the
fructification are determinded by the plant nutritive conditions while
flowering seems to be mainly affected by hormones (Meyer et al., 1970).

Flowering in sugarcane plant is produced when under specific conditions,

the growth apical point stops foliar primodia formation; and it consecuently
begins the production of flower primordia. This is the way the vegetative
stage turns on to the reproductive stage. The change result in stopping
internode stalk formation and then young stalks are expanded in their normal
diameter thus growth is stopped. That is the reason why sugarcane
flowering varieties concentrate more fiber in the top internodes which can
result in pith development (Bakker, 1999). The corklike pith prescense is
expanded from the top to the bottom and when stalks are processed, there
is a higher fiber production and low sucrose yield (Larrahondo y Villegas,
2009).

The flowering effect on sugarcane yield and sucrose content depends mainly
on the following factors: a) flowering intensity, b) Age of crop. In this
case, flowering effect is higher in young plants rather than in mature plant
stage. Flowering in mature stage effect is minimum on sugarcane yield, but
sugar content can increase; and c) Length of time between flowering and
harvesting. In late harvesting cork content formation increases (stalk
weigth decreases) the apical dominance stops and lateral bud shoots appear.


  Gerardo Espinoza is Agr. Eng., M.Sc. Specialist in Weed and Ripeners, José Luis Quemé is Agr. Eng.,
Ph.D., Plant Breeder at CENGICANA www.cengicana.org

274
This fact reduces the sucrose content in the stalks (Bakker, 1999;
Larrahondo and Villegas, 2009).

In Guatemala as well as in other sugarcane producing countries, in order to

minimize the negative effect of the flowering, some factorsthat influence
flowering are managed. . In this chapter, factors that affect flowering on
sugarcane are briefly described, and also several methodologies used to
reduce its negative effect on yield.

SOME FACTORS AFFECTING SUGARCANE

FLOWERING
Flowering in sugarcane is affected by both, external and internal factors
such as: length of photoperiod, temperature, insolation or sunshine, latitude,
altitude, nutrients, and soil humidity, physiological age of the plant, variety
sensibility to flowering, hormones, phytocroms, and others (Araldi et al.,
2010; Alexander, 1973; Castro, 1998; James and Miller, 1972; Morales,
1996; Soto, 1999; Viveros, 1990).

Photoperiod

Photoperiod is among the other factors the most important affecting the
flowering process (Alexander, 1973). Sugarcane plant related to
photoperiod behaves in flowering, as a short day plant. (Araldi et al., 2010;
Arrivillaga, 1988). The above fact implies that flowering induction is
favored when night length (Nyctoperiod) lasts longer than daylength
reaching up to a critical value. Concerning this ciritical value Alexander
(1973) reports 12 h 28 min (Nyctoperiod of 11 h 32 min) as the closest to
flowering induction. Nuss and Berding (1999) agreed on this result and
indicate that flowering induction is best achieved by diminishing the
daylength beginning from 12 h 30 min. There is also mentioned that
flowering induction is even best achieved in those areas where daylength
declines 30 to 60 seconds as a rate per day beginning from 12 h 45 min.
Quemé et al. (2011), based on daylength data from the Guatemalan Instituto
Nacional de Sismología, Vulcanología, Meteorología e Hidrología
(INSIVUMEH) reports that a photoperiod of 12 h 30 min ocurrs during the
dates 23 and 25 of August as shown in Figure 1 meanwhile during the first
six days of August a photoperiod of 12 h and 45 min, ocurrs.

275
Figure 1. Photoperiod curve at 14º 30´ North Latitude in Guatemala

In a study carried out in the Medium stratum of Sugarcane in Guatemala

plantation area with CP72-2086 commercial variety data recording on
inflorecence development was initiated the day (23 of August) when 12 h 30
min of photoperiod took place. From this study the first flowering primordia
was observed under the microscope until the first week of September. This
result suggest that flowering induction would take place during the last two
weeks of August (Quemé et al., 2008).

Temperature

Flowering is affected by minimun, maximum and oscilation temperatures which

iscalled termic amplitude. It has been determined that inductive night
temperatures are between 21°C and 24°C (James and Miller, 1972; Viveros,
1990). According to information from sugarcane comercial fields in Zimbabwe,
flowering prevention or reduction was obtained when night temperature
declined under 18°C four or ten times during flowering initiation. Quemé et
al. (2008) in a study carried out in the midzone of Guatemala, in the Camantulul
Experiment Station of CENGICAÑA by using the variety CP72-2086, found
that during the flowering induction period (the third and fourth week of August)
there was a frequency of seven days recorded with temperatures that were under
18°C. This result and the observed sunshine resulted in the decrease of
flowering down to 32% in 2006,, while frequencies with minimum
temperatures between 21-24°C favoured the increase of the flowering in 2007,
(73%). On the other hand, in tropical regions flowering inhibition was observed
when temperatures were higher than 32°C during flowering initiation. (Nuss y
Berding, 1999).

276
Sunshine or Sunstroke

Sunshine is also a wheather factor related with sugarcane flowering. Sunshine is

also known as heliophany and it is meassured by using the heliograph. The
heliophany is the number of sun hours over a certain place and can be recorded
by the heliograph. When cloudy the heliograph intercepts diffuse light
interrupting sunshine recording. (Castro, 1998; Guijarro, 2007; Wright, 2003).
In a study carried out in Guatemala in the mid zone it was found a higher
flowering incidente rather than in the litoral zone, due to insolation increment
(Castro, 2000). Particularly, in the mid zone it has been observed an opposite
relationship between number of sunshine hours in August and flowering
percentage, this means that with greater number of sunshine hours, flowering
tends to diminish (Quemé et al., 2008; Quemé et al., 2011).

Latitude

The latitude has a strong effect on flowering incidence for example in the
tropical environments in Sudan (13° 05' N) and Malawi (12° 30' S) flowering
values reported ranged between 80 and 100 percent, however; in the
subtropical regions like South Africa (25° 22' to 30° 30' S) flowering is scarce
and incidence is low (Singels and Donaldson, 2004, reported by Araldi et al.,
2010). The sugarcane growing area of Guatemala is located in the tropical
region near 14º 30´ N, with a photoperiod that allows high flowering incidence
and intensity (Figure 1).

Altitude

The Guatemalan sugarcane growing area is divided into four different altitude
stratum: litoral (0-40 masl), low (40-100 masl), medium (100-300 masl), and
high (>300 masl). At a higher altitude, temperature diminishes and this can
result in a flowering decrease; even though, in the sugarcane area, flowering
intensity is greater while altitude increases, where the higher flowering intensity
and incidence is obtained in the high strata (Figure 2). This situation is mainly
due to, the fact that in medium and high stratum, there is less sunshine (more
cloudy) at the induction time; and the night minimum temperatures, in most of
the years, are not less than 18°C (Quemé et al., 2003; Quemé et al., 2008).

277
Figure 2. Flowering behavior according to altitude zones in the Sugarcane
Agroindustry of Guatemala (CENGICAÑA, 2010)

Nutrients and soil humidity

High levels of nitrogen, especially during flowering induction, decrease flowering

due to the increasing carbon/nitrogen relationship. According to Berding et al.
(2004) and Gosnell (1973) double nitrogen rate causes a reduction of tassols
emergency resulting on a negative effect over flowering. In South Africa
flowering was delayed in 25 days by using high nitrogen rate in the soil (Nuss
and Berding, 1999). On the other hand, Brunkhorst (2003, 2001) reports that a
constant regime of nutrition through the initiation and development process of the
tassol, give better results.

Concerning soil humidity flowering decreases uner water stree condition.

Focus of management to prevent flowering can only be achieved in certain
environments mainly those with low precipitation (Humbert, 1974; Moore and
Nuss, 1987 cited by Araldi et al., 2010). However, Moore (1987); Moore and
Nuss (1987) report that irrigations can make environment conditions more
favorable for flowering; although Gosnell (1973) reports that flowering
response can vary according to water amount in the irrigation. A research by
Panje and Srinivasan (1960) showed a delaying of 14 days in flowering
development in clones of Saccharum spontaneum when precipitation was 74
mm in the inductive period.

278
Physiological maturity

Physiological maturity refers to the plant condition that allows to flowering

independiently from its age. Before sugarcane plant reaches its physiololigical
maturity it must pass through a physiological immaturity called “young phase”.
As general rule, stalks with three or four visible nodes are mature enough for
flowering. However, exact physiological conditions to distinguish between
potencial flowering stalks and young stalks, are still not determined (Alexander,
1973). During physiological maturity phase, sugarcane plant shows awide
capacity for responding to the flowering induction as shown in reports from
Colombia and Guatemala. Viveros et al., 1991 determined that sugarcane plants
between three and six months of age are able to respond to photoinductive
treatments in a similar way. In Guatemala based on the assumption that the
inductive period is in August, it has been confirmed that floweing induction has
been performed in plants between three and nine months of age. (Quemé et al.,
2011).

Variety sensibility to flowering

The genotype sensibility to floral stimulation is consider among the factors that
affect sugarcane flowering and its management. Under the Guatemalan climate
conditions, sugarcane agroindustry counts with specific varieties despite of the
fact that wheater conditions favor natural flowering and they can vary in the
flowering incidence. Examples of varieties with high percentage of flowers
are: CP73-1547, CP72-1312, and CP88-1508, intermediate flowering are:
CP88-1165 and CP72-2086; and non flowering PR75-2002 (Quemé et al.,
2011).

At commercial level, varietal sensibility for flowering has been proved in

Guatemala. In Palo Gordo mill harvest season 2010-2011 it was recorded that
the variety CP72-2086 showed on the average 46 percent of flowering, while
CP88-1165 variety showed 23 percent (Guzmán, 2011).

Phytocroms and hormones

Photoperiod response is detected on the leaf through the phytocroms while

flowering response is located at the stalk appice. The transportation of the
stimulus inductor from the leaf to shoot apical meristem requires the presence
of some hormones. Since decades ago, researchers have postulated the
existence of the florigen and have dedicated time to isolate and characterize this
hormone, trying to understand its interaction with phytocroms with no success
so far. Recently, based on genetic analyisis it has been demonstrated that
ARNm (florigen signal) has the capacity to translocate in phloem and alterate

279
the apex stalk. . This experiment has the hypotesis that the called florigen would
be a stimulant to ARNm gene of the flowering process (Araldi et al., 2010).

FLOWERING MANAGEMENT
In Guatemala, the negative effect of flowering, has been managed, in order to
diminish it, through the regulation of some factors mentioned above. Varietal
management and the use of flowering inhibitors chemical compounds are the
main factors under control.

Sugarcane Varieties

Guatemalan sugarcane agroindustry has categorized its varieties according to

planting and harvesting periods in thirds. The first third is in November and
December, the second third, in January and February; and the thirst third, during
March and April. Each of those harvest periods apply for each of the four
altitudinal zones or strata. Varieties classification, for both commercial and
semicommercial, is based on the following criteria: a)To identify varieties with
high incidence of flower (>50%) during the first third, b) Varieties with
intermediate flowering incidence (10 – 50%) for the second third; and c)
Varieties with low or null incidence of flowering (<20%) for the third third.
Based on these criteria, Guatemalan sugarcane agroindustry has a matrix called:
Variety Directory, which is described in the chapter concerning sugarcane
breeding and selection program.

Flowering chemical inhibitors

In Guatemala flowering control technology, is focused on the use of the growth

regulator Ethephon. However in countries like Brazil and Australia they apply
products like Sulfumeturon methyl and Trinexapac ethyl as flowering
inhibitors. Sulfometuron methyl belongs to the Sulfonylureas group, which
does not affect growth promoters, neither cell elongation nor the protein
syntesis and ARN, however; it is a strong ethilen production promoter due to its
stress action. (Castro et al., 1996). Concerning Trinexapac ethil it belongs to
the cyclohexanedione group, which is a new growth regulator that inhibits the
giberelina (AG1) formation. The AG1 is responsable for plant growth, after
application of Trinexapac ethyl giberelinas formation still exist which are
biologically active (Rixón et al., 2007).

Action mode of Ethephon: Ethephon is a growth regulator with special

sistemic characteristics. Ethephon penetrates into tissue and is traslocated. It
descomposes to ethilene which is the active metabolite. Ethephon is separated in

280
ethylene, phosphate, and chloride ion in an aqueous solution with pH 4-5. This
reaction dominates compounds destiny in the biological systems. Concerning to
Ethephon chemical degradation it is stable in aqueous solution under a pH 4.
However, if pH increases, the compound is desintegrated in ethilen, phosfate
and, chloro ion (Figure 3, chart 1). The reaction is catalysed by the hidroxyl ion
and the reaction rate increases depending on pH value. The Ethephon plant
metabolism, absorption and its movement has been described for many plant
species, which show a wide range of uses, however; the sugarcane crop
information on methabolic means is very scarce. In Figure 3, chart 2, a
Ethephon conjugate product is observed as well as the major methabolite: the
hidroxyetilphosphonic acid.

Figure 3. Charts 1 and 2. Ethephon pathway in soil, plants and animals.

Methabolite 2 has been found only in plants

In practice, care must be taken when mixing Ethephon and water. Water pH
must be between 3.5 and 4 to avoid hydrolisis reaction problems, in order to
assure product efficacy when it gets in contact with leaf pH (pH 7) and this may
allow product release of ethilene gas, which is the compound that finally
produces the physiological effect (PGR, 2010).

Ethephon effect on flowering inhibition: Ethephon (2-chloroethyl

phosphonic acid) acts as a bioregulator that positively promote stalk tisular
growth, specially, on parenchyma stalk cells. This action is a histological
parameter that affect in a favorable way in the fresh biomass increase.
Furthermore, as growth bioregulator, it promotes a marked effect on the phloem
development (Marrero et al., 2004). The growth regulators act on sugarcane
plant, modifying or delaying any growth aspect (Alexander, 1973). Ethephon
is a vegetal growth regulator that acts by releasing ethilen in the interior of
plants. In sugarcane crop Ethephon is used as flowering inhibitor (Coletti et al.,
1986). The seassonal effect of ethilen is turning leaves yellow three to four
days after application and the effect remains seven to 10 days depending on
the variety, and it promptly dissapears. The forming enternude, reduces in
length but get thicker resulting in a “Barril type” enternude. This result is
observed three to four weeks after application which is similar to a strong
drougth effect. Also, an alteration on bud high is observed, and at the final
stage, leaves tend to fall down. After plant is recuperated from stress produced
by Ethephon application (15 days after aplication), the normal plant growth will

281
continue, as well as internodes normal growth (Figure 4). Ethephon must be
applied one to two weeks before flowering induction. Flowering mostly
depends on sugarcane plant age, variety, duration of the day, and
environmental conditions (humidity availability, and temperature) before and at
induction date. Favorable conditions for flowering induction are when
daylength becomes less than 12 hours and 30 minutes, under adequate soil
humidity, and the average temperature is above 18 centigrates (Bocanegra,
1993).

Figure 4. Ethephon application effect on CP88-1165 variety in plant cane, Santa

Marta farm, Madre Tierra Mill, 2009

Aplication methodology: The ethephon methodology of application by using

helicopters and light aircrafts is similar to what is described in the chapter
concerning ripeners. The water volume in the application can vary between 18-
30 l/ha. The application is developed by using GPS, and in some cases, flags
and signals are used as tools for air application.

Application doses: Based on researchs carried out in Guatemala, the necessary

dose of Ethephon (Ethrel 480 SL), for flowering control is 1.5 l/ha. This dose
can vary according to the planted variety and its biomass (Xia, 2000). Other
researchers do not recommend high doses of the product to avoid unadequate
results (Nájera, 2005). According to Xia (2000) the use of a dose between 1.5
and 2.0 l/ha, showed a negative effect, demonstrating emergency of lateral
shoots in stalks. From the economic point of view, the application of flowering
inhibitor with a dose of (1.5 l/ha) is profitable when sugarcane yield is higher
than two metric tones per hectare.

282
Flowering inductive period:
In Guatemala, the definition of this period is a little difficult, due to crop
location in different altitudinal strata; and it is even more difficult to identify the
most adequate moment for flowering inhibitor application. Some sugar mills
start the application from the last week of July to August 15.

Application dates: According to Nájera (2005) in a study of six application

dates, less flowering incidence was found when application was done in August
in the low stratum conditions in Madre Tierra mill. Commercial applications of
flowering inhibitors, start the last week of July. According to climate
conditions, some mills initiate applications in the high stratum, based on
previous year experiences, where more flowering occur. Most mills start
applications from the first to the last week in August, depending on aircrafts
availability. It is important to mention that if dry seasson is present,
applications must not be done since lateral shoots formation (lalas) can be
estimulated.

Ethephon plus Silicio Dioxid 55% study (surfactants)

There is a study being conducted to find more options for improving Ethephon
use. Important synergic effects by adding Silicon dioxide (55%) to the product ,
have been obtained. In a study carried out in Santa Marta farm, Madre Tierra
mill, it was found that flowering incidence of 30 per cent (without application),
23 per cent (with Ethrel 1.43 l/ha) and 16 per cent (with Ethrel 1.43 l/ha plus 1.4
kg/ha of Silicon dioxide (55%), which confirms the synergy of both products
on flowering control.

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XII. SUGARCANE HARVESTING

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 SUGARCANE HARVESTING
Adlai Meneses

INTRODUCTION
In Guatemala, sugarcane harvesting represents about 33 per cent of all crop
production costs; so any variation during this operation will significantly affect
crop profitability compared to any other crop management activity.

During the 2010-2011 harvesting season, 231,000 hectares of sugarcane were

harvested, and 19,219,653 tones of cane were produced in the South Coast of
Guatemala. Today 12 sugar mills add up to an installed milling capacity of
135,000 tones per day administering 82 per cent of all the cropland.

Harvesting periods (“zafra”)

Sugarcane is harvested during the dry season, from November to April, and in
some cases, it is extended to mid May, according to the production volume.
There are four altitudinal strata in the crop production area, and season length
varies among them. Summer duration is presented in Table 1 for all the strata.
It can go from five months, in the higher stratum, to seven months in the area
close to the coast line.

Table 1. Summer lenght in different altitudinal strata (masl)

Stratum Dry Season

High (>300 masl) 15 November - 15 April
Medium (100-300 masl) 10 November - 20 April
Low (40 - 100 masl) 31 October - 15 May
Coast line (littoral) (0 - 40 masl) 25 October - 25 May
Source: Castro, O. 2001.

Due to differences noticed in productivity along the harvesting season, it has

been divided in thirds. First third covers the first two months (November and
December); second third includes January and February, and last third includes
March and April (and mid May in some occasions).


Agr. Eng., M.Sc. Training and Technology Transfer Program Leader at CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org  

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The highest productivity in tones of sugar per hectare “TSH” are obtained
during the first third, due to the higher yield in tones of cane per hectare “TCH”,
which raises up to 9 per cent when compared to the mean (data from the first
third in the harvesting seasons from 2007/2008 to 2010/2011), and to a high
sucrose content, as shown in Figure 1.

Analyzing data from the same harvesting seasons, it can be seen that second
third has the characteristic of having the highest sucrose concentration even
when productivity in TSH goes down 4 per cent compared to the mean. Yield
in TCH goes down to 12 per cent below the first third; productivity in TSH is
intermediate (Figure 1).

During the third period, the lowest productivity in TSH is obtained; with a 28
per cent less compared to the mean, and 44 per cent below the first third; for the
data under study, this was concluded by analyzing yield in TCH and sugar
content (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Productivity in tones of sugar per hectare for each third of the season.
Periods 2007/2008 to 2010/2011

Percentage of sugarcane processed in each third varies. The mean for the last
five seasons was 29 per cent in the first third, 39 per cent in the second, and 32
per cent in the last third.

In general, the crop is harvested at 11.9 months, with some variations depending
on the altitudinal stratum as shown in Figure 2, where the sugarcane crop age

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goes from 11.74 to 11.99 months. Harvesting age is slightly higher in the high
stratum.

Figure 2. Harvesting Age in months by stratum. Periods 2008/2009 to 2010/2011

HARVESTING SYSTEMS
Sugarcane harvesting system in Guatemala was transformed in 1981 with the
introduction of the Australian machete for cutting and mechanical lifting of
the harvested crop, displacing the previous system called Maleteado.
Previous system was done manually with efficiencies of 1 to 1.5 tones of
cane/man per day “tcmd”. The new system made labor simpler including
cutting, arranging, cutting edges, carrying and arranging steps to the
mechanical raising machine. These changes consistently raised efficiency of
the workers during the following harvesting seasons (2.4 tcmd in season
1981/1982; 4.2 tcmd in season 1983/1984 and up to 5.35 tcmd in season
1989/1990).

The benefits of the new system were: to provide the mills with sufficient
material (sugarcane) for 24 hours and raise the income of the laborers
(Cabarrús and Madrid, 1983; Méndez, 1990). This system is still in use.

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In Figure 3, a general representation of the organizational structure used in a
sugar mill for harvesting is presented. They have a Management of Cutting,
Lifting and Transportation Department (CLT)

Figure 3. General organization structure of the CLT Department in a

Guatemalan sugar mill

During harvesting season 2010/2011, 88 per cent of the crop was manually
harvested (16.9 million tones of cane) and 12 per cent, mechanical harvesters.
Most of the cane harvested manually (87.77 per cent) was previously burned;
the remaining 12.23 per cent was green cane mechanically harvested.

Yields obtained when harvesting manually, both green and burnt cane, are
shown in Figure 4, for the harvesting seasons between 2004/2005 and
2010/2011.

The relationship of performance between cutting burnt and green cane, went
from 1.61:1 in 2004/2005 to 2.47:1 in 2009/2010, with intermediate values in
other harvests.

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Figure 4. Laborer yield when harvesting burnt and green cane. Period from
2004/2005 to 2010/2011

Manual harvesting

During the 2010/2011 harvesting season, 89 per cent of cane was cut manually,
similar to the previous years. Laborers come from two groups: camping labor
force (not local) that come from different departments such as Quiché, Baja
Verapaz, and Chiquimula. They stay in apartment complexes where they are
provided with accommodation, meals, and other services. The other are called
“volunteers” (local people) come from towns, nearby. They are provided with
transportation and hydrating solutions. The proportion of these groups goes
from 50 to 70 per cent of camping labor force and the rest are “volunteers”,
changing according to the different mills.

In the last seven harvesting seasons, mean yield for a laborer cutting burnt cane,
has gone from 5.49 up to 6.31 tcmd and for green cane, from 2.53 up to 3.62
tones of cane, per men, per day (Figure 4).

Manual cutting can be done in two different ways; the first is called continuous
Chorra (piling up) (Figure 5), which was used for 85 per cent of harvested burnt
cane in 2010/2011 season.

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Figure 5. Continuous piling.

According to Pappa, 2003, manual cutting using this modality has several
advantages: laborer higher efficiency, in tcmd; higher efficiency when lifting up
the crop, in lifted tones per hour; higher transportation efficiency, in transported
tones per truck; and lower cost per harvested tone for the whole operation
(cutting, lifting, and transportation).

The second way is called Discontinued Chorra (Figure 6), and was used for 15
per cent of burnt cane during zafra 2010/2011. This modality has many mini
piles of cut cane, which are separated and are 1.2 to 1.5 m long.

Figura 5. Discontinuos piling (small piles)

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According to Pappa, 2003, manual cutting using this modality has the following
advantages: lesser amount of trash, specially the mineral component (earth and
stone), which contributes to higher sucrose recovery; lower wearing and
deterioration of the mill machinery; lower time losses in the factory. Peralta
(2011) (personal communication) mentioned other advantages such as lower
damage to the cane plant, resulting in higher number of cuts and lower
investment in re cropping the plantation (ratoon).

Trash percentages obtained for both harvesting modalities, are presented in

Figure 7. Even though values are similar, differences could be identified when
analyzing individual components.

Figure 7. Trash contents per season third with the different manual harvesting
systems (continous and discontinuous “chorra” piling)

Mechanical Harvesting

This modality was used in 30,080 hectares, which represented 14 per cent of
harvested cane, during the season 2010/2011. Most of this cane (90 %) was
green cane. Mechanical harvesting is used by most sugar mills to support the
operations when there is a lack of laborers for manual cut. The percent of
mechanical harvesting varies among sugar mills going from 5 to 33 per cent.
Efficiencies obtained per machine during the season 2010/2011 were 35.36
tones of harvested cane/hour, and 478 tones of cane harvested per day.

Figure 8 shows percent area harvested mechanically from 2000/2001 to

2011/2012.

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Figure 8. Area harvested using mechanical harvesters (in percent). Period from
2000/2001 to 2011/2012

HARVEST PLANNING
In general, when planning harvesting operations, the following steps are
considered:

- Establish optimum period of harvesting, depending on the age and

maturity of the cane variety, location, and soil type
- Program harvesting of plots under similar management, this allows the
optimization of sugar production.
- Program use of ripeners: determine harvesting week of applied plots,
procuring to do it between 7 to 8 weeks after ripener application (for
glyphosate).
- Determine the amount of cane needed for daily milling according to the
mills capacity.
- Sugar concentration before harvesting: it is determined with the sampling
program previous to harvesting.
- Time between burning the cane and its delivery to the mill reception area
(called bascule). The objective is to bring the biggest amount of cane

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 before it reaches 24 hours after being harvested, making fresh cane
available for the mill.
- Cane Quality: it is determined by measuring per cent and type of trash
and delivery time of cane (between burning and delivery to the bascule).
- Sugar losses between burning and milling time: in terms of the quality of
the cane delivered to the mill.

Harvesting planning should be focused in the conservation of the highest

amount of sugar when transported from the field to the factory. The cane
should be of high quality in order to make the extraction of the highest amount
of sugar possible and easy (Romero et al., 2009). During the 2010/2011
harvesting season, sugar content in cane ready to be harvested in the different
sugar mills, was between 15 and 16.5 per cent (300 and 330 pounds of sugar
per short tone); in the bascule (core sampler) sugar content was between 13.30
and 13.80 per cent (266 and 276 pounds of sugar per short tone). At the end
of the season, the industrial extraction average for the Guatemalan Agro
Industry was 10.65 per cent (213 pounds of sugar per short tone). Figure 9
includes these values for one sugar mill during harvesting season 2010/2011.
It can be concluded, from these values, that only 70 per cent of the sugar
synthesized in the field is recovered at the end of the industrial process,
representing a valuable opportunity to make improvements.

Figure 9. Sugar content in different stages: before harvesting, when delivered to

the bascule and after processing

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SPECIAL THANKS:
To Engineers Emilio Catalán and Danilo Peralta, Harvesting Managers of the
Sugar Mills Magdalena and Madre Tierra, respectively, for revising and
contributing to the contents presented in this chapter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Pappa, J. 2003. Cosecha. En: Diplomado de Ingeniería Cañera, Módulo
cosecha. Presentación en Power Point.

2. Giraldo, F. 1995. Cosecha, alce y transporte. En: El cultivo de la caña en la

zona azucarera de Colombia. Colombia, CENICAÑA. pp. 357-362.

3. Méndez, G. 1990. Corte de la caña de azúcar. ATAGUA (Gua) 4:(9) pp.

24-26.

4. Gil, A.; Álvarez, C. 2010. Pol % Caña, ingenio La Unión, S. A. En:

Análisis de resultados Zafra 2009/2010, del área de Fábrica. Presentación
en Power Point.
5. Cabarrús, P.; Madrid, G. 1983. Diseño y evaluación de un sistema de corte
y alce manual de caña de azúcar. ATAGUA, Boletín No. 8. pp. 1-17.

6. Meneses, A. 2011. Cosecha. In: Memoria XVI Simposio de análisis de la

zafra 2010/2011 Área de Campo. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. Disco
compacto.

7. Meneses, A. 2011. Productividad. In: Memoria XVI Simposio de análisis

de la zafra 2010/2011, Área de Campo. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. Disco
compacto.

8. Castro, O.; Monterroso, H. 2011. La Planificación del uso de la tecnología

del riego con base a procesos, zona cañera de Guatemala. In: Memoria.
Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2010-2011. Guatemala,
CENGICAÑA. pp. 215-221.

9. Romero, E.; Scandaliaris, J.; Digonzelli, P.; Tonatto, J.; de Ullivarri, J.;
Giardina, J.; Alonso, L.; Casen, S.; Leggio, F. 2009. Cosecha de la caña de
azúcar. En: Manual del Cañero. Argentina, EEAOC. pp. 131-143.

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300
XIII. THE SUGAR PRODUCTION
PROCESS

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 THE SUGAR PRODUCTION PROCESS
José Luis Alfaro, Enrique Velásquez, Luis Monterroso and Rodolfo Espinosa 

INTRODUCTION
The sugar crop in Guatemala has evolved considerably during the last
decades, and its course was marked by predominant agricultural indicators.
Some market requirements joined this course along the way as did the need
to satisfy the energy as well as the biofuel sectors. From an industrial
perspective, it is important to mention that some of the results sought in the
field brought about effects in the sugar mills ( Ingenios ) that explain much
of the final results and that are worth highlighting. Changes that oriented
the vivid operation during the last 30 years in the industrial areas were
observed. The main processes in which these changes took place were:
Preparation, milling, sucrose recovery, and energy co-generation

The theoretical and descriptive fundamentals of the process and

subprocesses that intervene in the production of sugar are approached in this
chapter; the production of the different sugar qualities found in the local
and the international market is covered: raw sugar, sulphite-whited or white
sugar and refined sugar. Statistical data on the sugar production and sales of
the Guatemalan Agribusiness are also described in this chapter.

A short chronology over a period of 40 years of the main impacts of the raw
materials on the industrial process is presented. Further on, a chronology of
the changes made in the sugar factories geared towards energy savings, to
support the consistent increase of milling quantities, as well as the
contribution to the Guatemalan power industry, is also presented

Some aspects of the preparation and milling are also described, as the first
stages of the sugar production process; in which the harvested sugarcane is
transformed into smaller pieces, so as to expose the fibers, making the
extraction of the juice as efficient as possible. These processes have
evolved technologically, therefore time losses have been reduced, milling


José Luis Alfaro is an Electronics Engineer and is the Head of the Electrical and Automatization
Department for the La Union sugar mill; Enrique Velásquez is a Mechanical Engineer and Head of
Machinery for the La Union sugar mill. www.launion.com.gt; Luis Monterroso has a major in Chemistry, and
is a former specialist in standardization and normalization for CENGICAÑA.; Rodolfo Espinosa, Ph.D., is a
Chemical Engineer and Industrial Research Program Leader at CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org

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capacity has been increased, and the extraction of sucrose has improved.
Regarding the preparation and milling of the sugarcane, a brief timeline of
the main changes that have left a mark in the development of the
Guatemalan Sugar Agribusiness, is also presented.

SUGAR PRODUCTION AND COMMERCIALIZATION

STATISTICS
It can be observed a 175 percent increase from the 1984-1985 zafra to the
1996-1997 zafra in Figure 1, that is, from 0.55 million metric tons to 1.5
million metric tons, in a 12 year period. Until the 1995-1996 harvest, all the
sugar refineries in Guatemala had only a single milling tandem, each. Back
then, the sugar mill with the largest daily milling capacity was at 12,000
T/day. From the 1997 to 2009, the sugar production had a 45 percent
increase, from 1.5 million Ton to 2.2 million Ton.

Figure 1. Sugar production per harvest in Guatemala

Source: ASAZGUA annual report [Acronym in Spanish for the Guatemalan Sugar
Producers Association]

Figure 2 shows the local sugar sales and the export sales in the Guatemalan
Agribusiness, during the period between the 1993 and 2009; an increase in
sales from one million metric tons to a figure higher than two million metric
tons (a 100% increase in a 15 year period). In the total sales period, on
average, 30 percent corresponds to the local market and 70%, to exports.

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Figure 2. Sugar sales in the internal and export markets of the Guatemalan
Agribusiness
Source: ASAZGUA [Acronym in Spanish for the Guatemalan Sugar Producers Association]
annual report.

The increase in sales and production of sugar is a consequence of the increase in

the cultivated area, as well as an increase in the installed capacity of the mills..
For the first time in Guatemala, during the 1996-1997 zafra, a sugar mill began
working with a double milling tandem, increasing its sugarcane milling up to
18,000 ton per day. By the year 2011, four sugar mills in Guatemala were
operating with a double milling tandem and one was working with a triple
tandem, the latter surpassed over 30,000 tons of milled sugarcane per day. This
is comparable to the sizes of sugar mills in Brazil and other top sugar
producing countries.

SUGARCANE COMPOSITION
It is important to know the main components of sugarcane, even if only on
general terms. For some cases, the characteristics, properties, and interactions
of those components are also known which have a significant effect during
development of the process and the quality of the final products.

The ranges of the percent content for the main components of sugar are
presented in Table 1.

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Table 1. Chemical composition average (%) of the stalks and juices of sugarcane

Chemical constituents in the stalks Percentage*

Water 73 – 76
Solids 24 – 27
- Soluble solids (brix) 10 – 16
- Fibre (dry) 11 – 16
In the soluble solids of the juice
Sugars 75 – 92
- Saccharose 70 – 88
- Glucose 2–4
- Fructose 2–4
Salts
- Inorganic 3.0 -3.4
- Organic 1.5 -4.5
Organic acids 1.0 - 3.0
Other non-sugar organics
- Proteins 0.5 - 0.6
- Starches 0.001 - 0.050
- Gums 0.3 - 0.6
- Fats, waxes, etc. 0.15 - 0.50
- Phenolic compounds 0.10 - 0.80

*In the stalks, the percentage refers to the sugarcane plant, whereas in the juice it
refers to the soluble solids.
Source: Chen, C. P. (1991),

Chemistry of Saccharose (inversion, pol, purity, and reducing sugars)

The main component of interest in sugarcane is sucrose. It is a disaccharide that

results from the chemical bond between two monosaccharides: glucose and
fructose (both hexose or sugars with six carbon atoms). The schematic
chemical structures from the monosaccharides involved in the chemical reaction
and the disaccharide formed, are shown in Figure 3. This reaction constitutes a
biosynthesis performed by the sugarcane’s own metabolism during its growth
and maturity process.

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 .
Figure 3. Schematic structures and chemical reaction between glucose and
fructose for the formation of saccharose
Source:
http://bibliotecadigital.ilce.edu.mx/sites/ciencia/volumen2/ciencia3/072/htm/sec_7.htm)

Sugars have optical activity, its acquous solutions divert (they rotate) the
polarized monochromatic light due to the asymmetry of several of its carbon
atoms (quiral carbons). Saccharose has an accentuated dextrorotary optical
activity (it diverts or rotates polarized light to the right). When the units of
glucose and fructose separate due to acid hydrolysis or enzymatic hydrolysis,
the resulting mixture is notoriously levorotatory (diverts or rotates polarized
light to the left). Therefore, when saccharose hydrolyses, the optical activity of
the solution tends to reverse its rotation, from dextrorotatory at the beginning of
the hydrolysis to levorotatory toward the end of they hydrolysis. It is due to this
fact that in the sugar argot, the separation of saccharose into fructose and
glucose is known as saccharose “inversion”; thus, the separated
monosaccharides are known as inverted sugars, even though from a strictly
chemical standpoint, it is an erroneous statement.

Taking advantage of the optical activity of saccharose, its approximate

percentual concentration is measured through the analytical technique known as
polarimetry. The saccharose concentration in sugary materials (juices, syrups,
mascuites, bagasse, etc.) determined by polarimetry is called polarization or
“pol”. Another important property for sugary materials is the percentual
concentration of soluble solids. This concentration is determined with a certain
approximation from the measurement of brix degrees ( °Brix ) and is simply
called “brix”. The brix can be determined by using brix hydrometers
(hydrometric brix) or by using refractometers (refractometric brix). From the
percentual relation between pol and brix (pol x 100/brix), another important

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property of sugary materials is obtained. It is known as apparent purity,
polarimetric purity or simply “purity”. Throughout this chapter, reference will
be made to the brix, pol and purity terms as has been explained in this section.

Glucose and fructose are also classified as reducing sugars, due to the fact that
its carbon group is available (be it in its open structure and/or that in its cycled
structure its carbon group is free or forming a hemiacetal) this availability refers
to the fact that it can react and reduce the copper cation (Cu 2+) to copper in an
oxidation state +I forming copper oxide (Cu2O); on the other hand, with
saccharose the carbon groups are blocked (the carbon groups are in acetal
form), and are not available to react with the copper ion (Cu2+). The reaction
between reducing sugars and the copper ion is called the Fehling reaction (see
Figure 4). There are very low concentrations of other reducing sugars in sugary
materials (which also react with the Fehling reactor) but its content is
insignificant compared to the glucose and fructose content. To determine the
glucose and fructose content (to a specific degree) in sugary materials, the
Fehling method is applied by titration . From here on, and in accordance to the
sugar industry argot, when mentioning reducing sugars or RS, it will be in
reference to glucose and fructose.

Figure 4. Fehling reaction

Reducing sugars, “RS” do not cristalize, therefore if the purity of the juice
(pol/brix relationship) going into the mill is low, then this will be a preliminary
indicator of a major presence of RS in the material. This will also mean a
higher volume of syrups to be handled, more recirculation, and in consequence,
more difficulty saccharose recovery.

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Pigments and Color Precursors

The pigments present in sugarcane are attributed to phenols and polyphenols

(among them, flavonoids). Proteins also act as color precursors. Their primary
amino groups (RNH2) react with the glucose (non-enzymatic glication) to
develop a series of complex reactions (Maillard reaction). These, in turn,
generate a brownish appearance in the crystal and in the third massecuites.

Polymerized Sugars

Polymerized sugars are more or less long chains generated by the bonding of
many units of monosaccharides. Starch is a polymer made up of straight chains
of glucose joined together consecutively in positions 1-4; it is synthesized by
the plant itself and its content will depend on various agricultural aspects of the
crop; starch can appear in the finished product and is troublesome for industrial
applications, especially in beverage factories, because it gives products an
undesireable appearance.

Dextrans are polymers that negatively affect the process. They are made up of
straight chains of glucose joined together in positions 1-6 that ramify into
eventual bonds at 1-3. In considerable concentrations, they add viscosity to the
material and this, in turn, causes problems during crystallization, centrifuging
and in the quality of the finished product. Dextrans are not synthesized within
the sugarcane in the field; they are brought about by the microbian action after
the plant is cut and throughout all of the agroindustrial process. The generation
of dextrans can be prevented with a series of good practices such as: a
reduction in the time between the burning of the crop and its entry to the mill,
and adequate handling of the sugarcane in the receiving yard, sanitizing of the
grinding mills and at critical points throughout the process.

RECEPTION AND HANDLING OF THE SUGARCANE IN

THE RECEIVING YARD
The industrial process begins when the sugarcane is received in the yard. We
can identify two sub-processes that intervene here:

a) Weighing: The gross weight of the transportation unit is determined here

(weight of the truck and of the hauling bins that contain the sugarcane) to
which the tare weight of the truck and the empty bin is subtracted.

b) Sampling and analysis: The frequency and the units that must go to the
sampling area of the sugarcane laboratory are determined and set in the scale

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 program according to the size of the “pante” from which it comes (pante or
plot of land: Area of reference into which sugarcane plantations are
subdivided; it varies in size, generally between 10 and 20 hectares). Samples
are taken from the selected units with a device called Core Sampler (Figure
7). These devices are supplied with a revolving probe with a crown tip. The
probe is located in a horizontal-transversal or oblique-longitudinal position
with respect to the haul. The laboratory does the required analysis on the
sample so as to determine the quality of the entering sugarcane.

Figure 5. Core Sampler diagram with oblique-longitudinal probe

Source: Chen, J. C. P. 1991. Sugarcane manual.

A report is then issued with weight at quality data collected on the sugarcane
samples, as well as the industrial yield data (pounds of sugar produced / tons of
milled sugarcane). The sugarcane suppliers (producers) are payed based on this
report. Provisions are made in the form of rewards and/or penalties for each of the
supplying plantations.

After the weighing and sampling of the sugarcane in the transportation units, the
handling of the cane in the receiving yard begins. Improvement in harvesting,
lifting and transportation logistics, as well as in the industrial process (less time
losses and more continuity in the milling and sugar producing process) have made
the handling of the sugarcane in the receiving yard evolve. This has also
contributed to a decrease in the deterioration of the sugarcane (less hydrolisis of
saccharose) due to the significant decrease in the time between the burning/crop
and the milling of the sugarcane.

With the implementation of special beds designed to unload the sugarcane directly
from the transportation units onto them, the operation pertaining the accumulation
of the sugarcane dispersed in the yard, as well as the use of bulldozers at ground
level has been drastically reduced. The now efficient handling of the receiving
yard uses modern transportation units that pull two bins full of sugarcane in bulk.
The bins are provided with chains manifolds upon which the sugarcane is put

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during the harvesting and loading process; this manifold is then lifted with a
device that then turns the bins so as to unload the sugarcane onto the set of feeder
beds or conveyors (Figure 6). The feeder conveyors have leveling rods that
homogenize the height of the sugarcane mat. The sugarcane is transferred from
the beds to the conveyors that carry it to the preparation system (pre-blades and
crushers). A typical sugar mill receiving yard is illustrated in Figure 5. In it, a
radial crane, sugarcane spread on the floor and a feeding bed can be seen.

Figure 6. Diagram of the sugarcane unloading on to feeding tables, crusher and

depither preparation system, and extraction through a five mill
tandem provided with a fourth crushing rod
Source: http://www.fundicionesuniverso.com/azucar.php

Figure 7 View of a receiving yard with unloading operation to feeding tables and
ground unloading operation, with a radial crane towards the center
Source: http://actualidaddelperu.blogspot.com/2007/04/per-vender-acciones-en-empresas.html

310
As the unloading process has become more efficient (the amount of unloaded
and discharged transportation units, per unit of time) the waiting lines of
transportation units to be unloaded and the number of units needed to transport,
a given quantity of sugarcane from a given distance have significantly
decreased.

The sugarcane tables have a manifold through which a hot water curtain is
applied to the sugarcane to wash it, mainly to eliminate unwanted debris, soil
and sand, which lead to unwanted wear of the equipment due to abrasion.
Elimination of this debris is also crucial for the efficiency of both, the juice
clarification and syrup depletion processes. These impurities can also affect
the finished product; they can be the cause of microbial activity and the
subsequent generation of viscosity (formation of dextranes); they can cause
problems in the purging of the centrifuges; and they may affect the color of
the final product, as well as the appearance of foreign particles in it.

Despite the benefits achieved by using water to clean the sugarcane, the
contact between the cleaning water and exposed surfaces of the sugarcane
results in sucrose losses. This procedure also has a significant environmental
impact, since it produces a considerable flow of water full of suspended and
soluble solids. This, in turn, requires a system to eliminate such solids at a
high cost. As a result, during the recent years the tendency has been to
eliminate the use of water as a means of cleaning the sugarcane, and instead,
alternative methods have been used (vibrating screens, air curtains, conveyors,
returning the debris to the plantation fields, etc.)

PREPARATION OF THE SUGARCANE

General Description of the Preparation Process

The preparation process comes after unloading the sugarcane. This is where
the sugarcane is transformed into a more homogeneous material, with a higher
density, so as to benefit the uniform and continuous feeding into the mills,
improve the imbibition action, ease juice extraction and reduce saccharose
losses in the bagasse. This process includes defibring, which is needed to
increase the surface area exposed for the adequate extraction of the juice from
the sugarcane fibers.

Preparation of the sugarcane is done by combining two processes: a)

Reducing the length of the sugarcane into billets by means of revolving blades
(pre-cutter blades and shredders); b) The disintegration of the cane tissue by
means of depithers. These have dull oscilating cane knives (or hammers)

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which hit the reduced pieces of cane. Analysis and measurements are carried
out to determine the preparation index or the open cell percentage, thus
evaluating the cane preparation process.

In order to adequately prepare the sugarcane, pre-cutters and cutters are

arranged in several different ways; generally one pre-cutter is installed,
followed by two or three shredders. The rotational velocity of the shredder
components (rpm) increases as the cane moves along the preparation line; the
number of blades also increases, and the height between the axis and the cane
carrier decreases.

Preparing the Sugarcane

During the 90’s, significant changes were made to the preparation of the cane.
One of the most important was substituting the fixed-blade cutters for swing-
back cutters. This allowed an improvement in the Preparation Indexes up to
81%. In some cases, fixed-blade shredders were placed at the end of the main
feeder into the cane conveyor; this allowed a homogenization of the
sugarcane in a pre-preparation process, reducing air filled spaces and
increasing its density. This equipment brought about uniformity in the milling
and less pulsating loads in the main shredders.

The first electrification projects in sugarcane preparation also came about in

the 90’s. The sugar mills that joined the co-generation business saw an
opportunity in improving the process by substituting the high-steam-
consuming turbines of the shredders for medium-tension electric motors or for
more efficient turbines. Thus, the steam oscilating demand from the shredder
turbines decreased. The boilers were unable to meet the high peak pressure
demands and the consequence was frequent stops.

The introduction of sugarcane croppers and lifters in the fields allowed the
transportation of cane at night, and with it the “zero cane in the receiving
yard” concept. The idea behind this was to avoid the prolongued storage of
sugarcane in the receiving yard and, as a consequence, losses in sugar yield
due to saccharose inversion. This originated the use of huge hydraulic
systems to unload the bulk sugarcane onto the carrier beds; the cane was no
longer being unloaded in “packets” but in bulk. These operations brought
about a new problem: Mineral trash in the sugar mills. The solution to this
problem brought with it huge water circuits used specifically for washing the
cane on the carriers; they became more and more important for the operation
in the mills. Large pumping stations were installed, energy consumption
increased, and sugar losses were being questioned.

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As sugar mills grew so did the amount of sugarcane being processed, and so, in
some cases, another sugarcane preparation line became necessary.
Improvements made during the previous decades are taken into account when
implementing expansions. One of the main implementations to take place
during the first decade of the new millennium was the introduction of the
horizontal depither manufactured by Copersucar. It consists of a rotor feeder,
oscilating hammer depither, which makes the cane go through a screening wall,
decreasing the exiting area and therefore separating the fibers. Preparation
indexes of up to 91% have been obtained with this type of depither. An
oscilating shredder is installed before the depither in this arrangement in order
to level out the cane. The output of prepared sugarcane from this system falls as
a shallow mat onto a conveyor belt with enough speed to allow the removal of
metals in the shredded cane with a magnet. There are high-horsepower
depithers dedicated solely to substituting shredders arranged in sequence.
Equipment such as this requires horsepower of up to 6,000 HP and 850 rpm.

Currently, some mills have begun using dry cleaning. A system like this
eliminates the use of water as a means of washing the cane altogether. It
consists of a kicker at the end of the first carrier; its function is to shake the cane
and make it fall onto a roller bed with discs separated in such a way as to form a
sieve. A system like this is able to collect between 1.6 and 3% in trash (both
vegetable and mineral) of the cane milled per day.

SUGARCANE MILLING
General Description of the Milling Process

The prepared sucarcane is fed to the milling tandem, where the juice extraction
is verified by the mechanical action of the mills, and by the physical-chemical
action of the compound imbibition process.

The milling tandem is positioned in four roll arrangements: Cane roll, top roll,
bagasse roll and fourth roll. Including the fourth roll in the milling arrangement
(Figure 8) integrates the Donnelly feeders (“chute”) into the system. These
feeders allow the bypass of any mill component that might need maintenance.
With a vertical feeder a mat of depithed cane is formed (in the first mill) or
milled cane (from the second to the last mill) in the box that feeds it to the
opening between the top and the fourth roll. The height of this mat (known as
just height or chute level) is used to control the feed into the mill and the
flotation of the top roll. (Flotation: Height to which the top roll rises in
counterflow to the 3000-3500 psig exerted by the hydraulic heads.) Flotation

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should be between 5/8” and 3/4”. The feeder control, the chute level and the
flotation of the top roll is attained by varying the rotational speed of said roll.

Figure 8. Roll disposition in a mill with vertical feed.

Source: http://www.scielo.org.ve/scielo.php?pid=S0254-07702005000300006&script=sci_arttext

Co-generating sugar mills have substituted steam powered turbines with electric
and/or hydraulic motors because they are much more efficient at converting
high pressure steam into an electric current in the turbogenerator that will be
transmitted through conductors to the electric motors, as opposed to the
transmission of steam from the boiler to the steam turbine in the mill.

The compound imbibition process (the most widely used in Guatemala) consists
of applying 70°C - 75°C hot water to the bagasse which feeds the last mill. The
juice extracted in the last mill is applied to the bagasse that feeds the next to last
mill and so on, until reaching the second mill. A diagram of the compound
imbibitions process is illustrated in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Compound imbibition diagram

Source: Chen, J. C. P. 1991. “Manual del azúcar de caña” [Sugarcane manual].

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Imbibition is not applied to the prepared defibered sugarcane that feeds the first
mill. The juice extracted from the first mill (first extraction juice) together with
the juice from the second mill (also called second extraction juice, where
retroextractions from the last mill are added) is called mixed juice. The latter
constitutes the raw material for the factory itself (also known as the cooking
house).

An important process that takes place in the mill tandem is the removal of the
coarser “bagacillo” particles and of suspended solids generally found in the mixed
juice. One of the equipments used for this purpose is a bagacillo separator (Fives-
Lille) also known as a “cush-cush”, “pachaquil” or bagacillo strainer. It consists
of rectangular deposits covered with a sieve screen, over which passess a series of
brushes passes that scrape and unclog the filtering holes. The particles are
removed and returned to the extraction system. DSM strainers with a 45°
inclination or rotating strainers may also be used. These are cleaned with steam,
so in this way, keep the filtrating holes unobstructed.

The bagasse that comes out of the last mill, which should contain the least amount
of saccharose (pol less than 2%) and of humidity possible (less than 50%), is
transported to feed the furnaces of the boilers and to be stored away to meet the
sugar mill’s requirements according to its dimensions. The amount of bagasse
stored should be enough to cover the demand of the boilers for non-programmed
stops, programmed maintenance stops, production line liquidations (mass balance
accounts ), partial or final, and start-ups.

Process of the Sugarcane Milling

The 90’s represented an awakening for the Guatemalan sugar agroindustry to a

series of events that marked the development of the milling. One of the most
relevant technological updates was the implementation of the fourth roll to the
cane mills. For decades the industry had evolved around three roll mills. Thus,
this change allowed for an increase in the milling, an improvement in juice
extraction in the mill tandem, and a reduction in time losses, due to mill
malfunction because of the substitution of the middle conductors with the
Donnelly chute. This improvement allowed the development of a bypass in the
malfunctioning mill and it still continues with the milling. With this change also
came the elimination of chevrons and messchaert grooves which were used
before in the rolls. Grooving 3” was introduced in the first mills, as well as the
perforated Lotus roll, which brought about a considerable increase in the juice
extraction of the first mill, thanks to the elimination of reabsorption and an
increase in the capacity.

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Figure 10. Average % time losses in the sugar mills consulted by CIASA
Source: CIASA annual reports [Sugar Mill Consultants, from their acronym in Spanish]

Figure 10 shows the behavior of average time loss in the mills of all the sugar
mills consulted by CIASA [Sugar Mill Consultants, for their acronym in
Spanish]. The introduction of secondary milling lines and the consolidation of
substituting technologies may be observed in the learning curves marked by the
shown oscillations.

As a result of the improvements made in the preparation and mills, sugar mills
were able to increase their milling times to higher levels. In some cases, they did
run into horsepower limitations in the low-speed motoreducers. This permitted
the beginning of the use of high-torque hydrostatic motors in the rolls, which goal
was to lower the load on the motorgear and allow an increase in the milling.
Various advantages were obtained: Independent speeds between the cane mills
and all the rest, an increase in energy efficiency in this operation and the busting
of the myth involving the sole use of turbines to move the mills. The use of
hydraulic power was the first option when the sugar mills evaluated the
elimination of steam powered turbines, completely. However, after much
consideration, variable speed motors, both with direct (DC) and alternating (AC)
current, were the most efficient, setting a milestone in the Guatemalan and
international sugarcane industry.

Because of the increase in the volume of sugarcane to be processed, some sugar

mills found it necessary to split the bagacillo sieve in two sections, and the use of
centrifugal pumps for maceration. This changed radically afterwards when the
pumps were changed for non-clogging pumps, thus making only one sieve
necessary. Thanks to this improvement, the amount of imbibition water increased

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to values close to 35 percent of its weight in cane, and the pol percent of bagasse
decreased to values close to 1.6. In some cases, this system was changed to a
rotary sieve which has some advantages, mostly operational, sanitary, and of
capacity.

Imbibition water was applied with much stability. It was controlled

automatically, and priorities were taken into account when it came to the water
supply. Both, temperature and flow were controlled. The maximum milling rate
during the 90’s was between 8,500 and 15,000 tons of sugarcane per day.

During the current decade, some facilities have placed six roll mills in order to
increase their milling capacity. In other cases, they opted for a second or third
mill tandem. Thanks to the introduction of electric motor power to the mills, to
more efficient turbines and to hydrostatic transmissions, monitoring and
controlling have become an integral part of the distributed control system; in
which visualizing the operation and monitoring the energy items has become a
new tool in the continuous improvement of the processes.

Figure 11 shows the improvement in sucrose recovery in the mills, reflected in the
Pol % index in the bagasse. It shows how consistent the improvement in the
Guatemalan Sugar Agroindustry has been over time.

Figure 11. Average Pol% in the bagasse of the sugar mills under CIASA
consulting.
Source: CIASA annual reports [Sugar Mill Consultants, from their acronym in Spanish]

Interest for systems powered by hydraulic motors has diminished and all new
projects are being powered by AC electric motors and MV (medium voltage)

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variable speed systems. Usage of steam powered turbines is no longer considered
in new projects, nowadays.

Usage of flexible couplings or torque converters substituting bar couplings began.

This technology helps to correct misalignment. Its major benefits are: Low
maintenance, less energy losses and they offer protection to the motoreducers.

There is an advanced regulatory control that may directly influence the milling
speed; it has the capacity to adapt to the previous and posterior processes to
minimize losses. Donnelly chute´s levels, milling speeds, flow, and temperatures of
the imbibition water and energy consumption of the whole operation are indicated
with better accuracy.

The milling rates for this decade reported were between 15,000 and 30,000 tons of
cane per day.

STEAM POWER AND ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION

Bagasse (a sub-product of the process) is used as fuel. It feeds the furnaces of
water-tube boilers for the generation of high pressure superheated steam. This
steam is utilized to move the steam powered turbines in mills and in electric power
turbogenerators. Depending on the design of the turbines and turbogenerators, the
generated high pressure steam may be between 200 and 1500 psig.

After the high pressure steam has given its energy to the turbines (either from the
mills and/or from the turbogenerators) the exhausted steam, which has a pressure of
20-25 psig, is used for the processes involved in the production of sugar and
Ethanol in adjacent distilleries. Figure 12 shows a diagram illustrating the steam
cycle at counterpressure, applied to a sugar mill.

Figure 12. Diagram of the steam generation cycle at counter pressure

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The consumption and production of steam at high pressure depends upon the
amount of sugarcane processed per day, the amount and quality of sugar
produced, the electrical power demand, the electrical power co-generation, and
the efficiency at which the sugar mill works. After making an analysis of
certain implied variables, Hugot gives a generic value to the capacity of the
required boilers; such capacity is around 637 kg of steam to be produced per ton
of processed sugarcane.

Energy Efficiency

Sugarcane varieties and their industrial impact: During the beginning of the
90’s, the predominant cane variety was CP57603, with an average fibre
percentage of 11%. This variety of cane completely changed the outlook, by
offering better quantities in fuel. Levels of yield reached 10%, similar to the
ones obtained the previous decade: 200lb sugar/ton of milled cane. The energy
balance of the factory became the daily operative strategy. The sugar mills
suggested a variety of equipment and procedure combinations to achieve the
coveted balance. Most of the mills obtained the benefit with technological
support, operative excellence and technical skill from a whole new generation
of technologists. All this, boosted the race to reach the highest yields in milling
and sugar production. Elements worth highlighting: Energy balance, milling
increase, identifying periods with bagasse surplus, the beginning of
technification, and the opening of the electric power market.

At the beginning of the new millennium, the predominant variety of sugarcane

was CP72-2086 . In some cases, it was already the predominant variety
cultivated by the end of the 20th century. Yields were around 11-11.5 per cent
(230 lb sugar/ ton of milled cane). More and better information was available
regarding its fiber’s performance. Yields were around 10 percent during the
beginning of the season, 12 percent around the middle, and up to 13.5 towards
the end of the season. During that decade, bagasse surpluses became more and
more predictable and the performace of the “tercios” ( thirds of crop season or
zafra ) became better known.

Figure 13 shows the tendency of the average shown by the mills consulted by
CIASA [Sugar Mill Consultants, for their acronym in Spanish] in the
percentage of industrial fiber in sugarcane over time. Oscillations and impacts
of the previously described operations in sugar mills are easily noticed.

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Figure 13. Average perfomance of the idustrial cane fiber percentage in the sugar
mills with CIASA consulting
Source: CIASA annual reports [Sugar Mill Consultants, for their acronym in Spanish]

Energy Evolution in Sugar Mills with co-generation: As previously

discussed, the raw material used, is decisive in obtaining a satisfactory
operation at the plant. Saccharose recovery and the energy balance are
predicted as soon as the sugarcane is received in the yard.

The correct usage of either thermal or electrical energy is vital for obtaining
good results in a sugar mill. Steam is necessary for cooking the sugarcane juice,
since at least 85% of the water contained in it, must be evaporated before it
leaves the mill. Each sugar mill operates by keeping an energy balance that
allows it to mill and process a specific quantity of solids going into the process,
evaporating the water, and having enough fuel available to use in the production
process.
 
The use of steam in the sugar producing process marked, during the last 30
years, an evolutionary line in technology development. It is defined as an
essential element for sugarcane processing, and for that reason, the industry
was forced to redesign and improve efficiency and competitiveness. Boilers
and power generators marked the evolution of the business from the energy
point of view. Through history, we can observe how steam pressures and
temperatures have slowly increased. This moved the industry from burning fuel
in the traditional locomotive-type boilers, with extremely low pressures (100 to
200 psig) together with very inefficient turbines; to the use of high pressure,
high capacity, and high efficiency boilers (1500 psig or more).

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The power generating systems used during the nineties were formed by many
small turbines with capacities ranging from 350 kW to some 850 kW, with
specific consumptions of 35 to 45 lb/kW. As the slowly growth was happening,
it was necessary for them to work in synchronization in order to withstand the
electric load required by the factories. Even though some of the machinery used
was in good operating condition, much of the ancilliary equipment dated back to
the first half of the 20th century (1935-1950). The energy usage of these machines
was very high, though they were extremely versatile in their operation. Many of
the interconnections from the sugar mills to the Guatemalan Electric Company
[EEGSA, from the acronym in Spanish] were done in 13.8 kV lines, mainly to
help in their start-ups and to maintain the operations keep going during the off-
season.

In the factory, steam consumption concentrated mainly on the triple and

quadruple-effect evaporators. The direct usage of steam within the factory was
commonplace. Outlet steam was the main source of energy for all the unit
operations in the factory. Steam consumption per ton of sugarcane exceeded
1,500 to 1,800 lb/TC.

From the energy standpoint, a new era began with the new millennium. A new
market opened up with the first private contracts between the Guatemalan Electric
Company (EEGSA) and the sugar mills. Finally, the existing monopoly in the
power generating business brokedown with the new “Law of Electricity” (Decree
Number 93-96), which allowed the introduction of private power generators into
the national network. With this new horizon on line, sugar mills had to adapt
their factories to change the existing operation philosophies to the most important
one from that moment on: Work all throughout harvest time linked to the
national electric power network.

During this stage, sugar mills looked after energy efficiency within the sugar
mills. Its main goals were: To assure the bagasse surplus all throughout harvest
time, and to sell electric energy by means of a new concept called Co-generation.
This new definition linked the sale of electric energy with sugar production. The
main improvements in many of the sugar mills were: a) changing the steam-
powered turbines to electric motors to drive the cane shredders, pumps, and large
sized fans; b) arrangements of triple and quadruple effect evaporators to quintuple
effect evaporators; c) use of pre-heaters for the alkalized and clarified cane juice;
d) usage of low pressure steam for the massecuite, as well as other particular to
each sugar mill.

All of these improvements, together with the arrangements that permitted energy
savings within the sugar mills, allowed sustainable bagasse surpluses. These
surpluses appeared to be consistently higher every harvest. Even though, the

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management of bagasse became more complex, its value as potential fuel
commodity became increasingly evident. As a result of this apparent problem,
there was an “awakening” of a secondary bagasse market. Sugar mills which had
improved their steam consuming efficiency and had no capacity to burn it for co-
generation began to sell their surpluses of bagasse to other sugar mills that did
have the capacity to do it. From this period on, bagasse obtained an economic
value per ton. Its heat value was the reference for its price in an emerging market.

Some of the sugar mills that visualized the newly created country’s incentive, by
promoting cheaper electric power generation, they proceeded to install redesigned
or modified boilers. Most of the equipment was modified to work at higher
pressures in revamped preexisting equipment or in completely renewed facilities.
This broke the old myth created by the sugar mill idiosincracy: Sugar mills
cannot work at a pressure above 200 psig. The learning curve was complex, and
the experience attained was varied, yet it brought the guild together; they decided
to share their experiences and advance as a group. A large part of this growth was
supported with generating equipment with higher efficiency and capacity than the
one used in the previous decade. Typically, the capacities found in these projects
were: 400 psig (635°F) or 600 psig (750°F) boilers, with steam production
around 125,000 to 150,000 lb/hr; generators were around 1.5 to 7.5 MW, with
consumptions in the range of 20 to 30 lb/kWh.

By the end of the decade, the concept of a thermal plant began to emerge. These
types of facilities brought about a combination between generation and co-
generation, and they broke another paradigm: Operating during the off-season to
sell electrical energy. They began to install and operate condensing-type thermal
plants, all of them generating between 20 and 35 MW. The combined burning of
bagasse-petroleum fuel (Bunker C or Fuel Oil No.6) in their boilers is
emphasized. Efficiencies within the thermal plants were forced to improve since
the new business demanded strict control of operative costs. Usage of petroleum
fuel and its financial impact made management focus its attention toward a new
form of administration, to insert an unknown, management structure, until then.
Figure 14 shows the fuel oil consumption during the different seasons; as a
worthy group´s effort to use bagasse instead of fossil fuel. Almost all of the sugar
mills belonging negotiated direct individual contracts with the Guatemalan
Electric Company (EEGSA). These thermal plants emerged with average
capacities between 250,000 and 325,000 lb/hr, and used “condensing” type
generators of 20 to 35 MW with consumptions in the range of 9.6 to 10.5 lb/kWh.
All of these were connected to the national electrical network with lines of 69kV,
and parallel to this, a growth of equipment for co-generation with available
capacities of 10 to 20 MW, specific consumptions of 16.5 to 18.0 lb/kWh.

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Figure 14. Bunker consumption (Fuel Oil No.6) of all the sugar mills under CIASA
consulting
Source: Annual CIASA reports [Sugar Mill Consultants, for their acronym in Spanish]

As a result of the continuing process of improving the efficiency of operations,

the electric power load within the factories, also slowly increased. This was
mostly due to the continuous replacement of steam-powered turbines with low
efficiencies used as primary motors of mill rotative equipment. One of the most
remarkable application was the powering of the drivers for mills with variable
speed controllers, through the use of either AC or DC.

Unit operations in the factories also underwent a series of changes and

improvements during this period. Among the most significant: Quintuple effect
evaporators, primary heating, using vapor two bled from the second effect (4 psig
duplex steam), and rectifying heating with vapor one from the first effect (10
psig). Continuous crystallizers were installed for first massecuits extraction, and
the cooking in batch crystallizers using vapor from the first effect, was also
implemented (10psi-g). Going from pneumatic to digital technology in industrial
instrumentation gave the process continuity, by optimizing the amount and
quality of the information in the plant. Long range automatization projects
allowed more inmediate responses and an increase in milling volumes, every
harvesting season. The result of this combination of improvements was a
decrease in the steam consumption within the factory to levels of 900-850 lb/ton
of cane or less.

2001 to the Present: Today, sugar production and co-generation form a perfectly
integrated operative strategy. Electric generation plants and sugar mills add up to
enough installed capacity and experience to continue broadening electric power
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operations. In the last 10 years, most of the electricity production contracts, have
either expired or are about to expire. The new electric power generation
expansions were inserted as energy blocks into the opportunity market with an
interesting and challenging dynamism for the electric sector.

During these years, sugar factories and electric power plants absorbed the growth
of the sugar mills, especially when dealing with the cane milling and sugar
production. High volumes of bagasse were burned in the thermal plants with
excellent efficiency levels. Thermal plants were adapted to market demands by
increasing equipment efficiencies and capacities. Old boilers were replaced by
the new ones, specifically designed for the burning of bagasse, yielding higher
operation pressures. Latest generation generators were bought, increasing the
production of kWh for every ton of bagasse burned in the boilers. Typical
equipments from this decade are: Boilers with a steam production of 350,000 to
450,000 lb/hr at pressures of 1500 psig at 950°F, 35 to 60 MW, condensing type
and dual casing electric generators, connected to the national energy network with
230 kV lines.

Continuous improvement in the consumption of steam in sugar production plants

was achieved through the application of new engineering technology. Among
them it can be found: Continuous crystallizers for all massecuites, usage of first
and second effect bled steam in operating crystallizers, and heat exchangers, pre-
heating of the juice and syrups, etc. All of this, added to the integrated
operations and businesses to the sugar mill, as sugar and bioethanol refineries.
Figure 15 shows the installed milling potential and processing in the factories of
all the sugar mills in Guatemala.

Figure 15. Installed capacity per year for the whole sugar industry in Guatemala
Source: ASAZGUA annual report.

Figure 16 shows one of the most used indicators in the co-generation sector
(bagasse generated KW/TC total) in order to know the energy sold per ton of

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milled sugarcane. A consistent growth in energy sales may be observed, as
well as an increase in the better use of energy per ton of bagasse used in the
factory.

Figure 16. Average performance of the kW/TC indicator for all the sugar mills
under CIASA consulting
Source: CIASA annual reports [Sugar Mill Consultants, for their acronym in Spanish]

The main conclusions regarding the energy topic can be summarized as

follows:
Sugar production growth in Guatemala and low international prices brought
about an economic crisis that forced an energy development in the sugar
production process, which itself brought about the bagasse surpluses available
for electric power generation.
The sugarcane production growth and the low prices in the worldwide
markets, provoked an economic-financial crisis, which oriented a search of a
better energy use in the sugarcane production; thus, obtain bagasse excedings
available for electric energy generation.

The opportunity was presented with the opening of the electric power market,
allowing private enterprises the generation and selling of electric power.

The Guatemalan Sugar Agroindustry was developed with 13.59 percent of

saccharose in cane and a bagasse percentage in cane in the order of 27.73.
Energy efficiency will always be a business opportunity for the industry.

JUICE CLARIFICATION
The mixed juice obtained from the milling tandem still contains a considerable
load of dirt, sand, bagacillo and other forms of trash typical of sugarcane. The

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juice clarification process implies the removal of the impurities contained in the
mixed juice in order to produce the required sugar quality.

Phosphoric Acid Dosage and Sulphitation

If the sugar quality to be produced is white sulphited sugar, it is recommended
that phosphoric acid be added to the mixed juice. Soluble phosphates are
typical components of sugarcane. They intervene in the conditioning of slugde
for the formation of precipitates when they react with the calcium from the lime
(calcium oxide CaO). It is estimated that a phosphate concentration of 300ppm
in the juice is necessary, but there are sugarcane varieties with less phosphate
concentrations. The juices of such sugarcane varieties are known as refractory,
due to the difficulty they present in their clarification.

Mixed juice is pumped to the sulphitation process where the juice comes in
contact in countercurrent with sulphurous anhydride (SO2), a gas generated by
the combustion of elemental sulphur. The furnaces and pipe through which the
sulphurous anhydride is conducted, are cooled down with jackets with cold
running water. This is done to avoid the formation of sulphuric anhydride (SO3)
and the subsequent formation of sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Figure 17 shows a
diagram of a typical sulphitation tower arrangement; it is equipped with a
furnace for sulphur combustion and a steam ejector to produce the draft in the
system by Venturi effect.

Figure 17. Sulphitation tower with furnace for sulphur combustion diagram
Source: Hugot, E. 1963. Sugar engineering manual.

The sulphurous anhydride forms sulphurous acid (H2SO3) through hydrolysis

with the juice. The sulphurous acid disassociates into protons (H+) and a

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sulphite anion (SO32-). Sulphite is a chemical species classified as a medium
power reducing agent; it chemically reduces pigments and coloring agents,
disactivating conjugate systems that partially absorbe the electromagnetic
radiation in the visible spectrum range. It also eliminates color precursors.
Juice sulphitation is essential in obtaining less color in the final white sugar
product. The criteria most widely used, is to burn as much sulphur as necessary
to achieve a drop of 0.5 pH units between the mixed juice coming from the
mills and the suphited juice coming out of the sulphitation tower. Sulphur
consumption is between 0.5 and 0.8 pounds per metric ton of milled cane.

As a positive additional effect of sulphitation, it has been proved that juice

decants more rapidly,it also decreases the viscosity in the main virgin syrup or
“meladura”, in the subsequent syrups or “molasses“ and in the massecuites,
which in turn produces faster cooking; there is an improvement in crystal
formation, syrup deplation and syrup purging in the centrifuges.

Clarification Process

Alkalinization: The fundamental process for juice clarification lies in the

formation of a sedimentable solids of complex composition. Its basic chemical
reaction is between the phosphate anion PO43- (contained in the cane and added
during the phosphoric acid dosage) and the calcium cation Ca2+ (given by the
lime dosage). The chemical reactions involved in the process are the following:

Juice alkalinization is done when it exits from the sulphitation tower. A lime
slurry may be used (lime as calcium oxide dispersed in water until a suspension
with a 15 °Baumé density, is obtained); the problem with this slurry or
whitewash, is the frequent scaling of pipes and pumping equipment. Usage of
calcium saccharate (a mixture of lime and clarified juice or main syrup)
produces a real solution with the lime and avoids the problems of pipe and
equipment obstruction; although some saccharose losses occur due to material
recirculation; the benefits obtained in the quality of alkalinization and
equipment maintenance, are considerable.

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The pH of the alkalized juice is fixed between 6.7 and 7.2, but the variable that
must be controlled is the pH of the clarified juice. If the clarified juice has pH
under 6.4, sucrose inversion (acid hydrolysis generating reducing sugars) will
be significant and this affects the recovery and recirculation of syrups (even if it
favors color decrease in the final sugar). If the pH in the clarified juice is over
7.0 the increase in color due to caramelization during heating in the evaporators
and cristallizers, is significant. Alkalinization of the mixed juice in order to get
a pH between 6.5 and 6.9 in the clarified juice is recommended. The quality of
sugar to be produced should be considered; if white sugar is to be produced, this
pH range is more rigid, whereas if raw sugar is to be produced, the pH in the
clarified juice may reach a value of 7.2.

Heating: Colaterally to the formation of insoluble calcium phosphate species,

alkalized juice should be heated up to a temperature slightly above the boiling
point of water (218-220 °F). When juice is heated up to this temperature, the
system is given necessary heat for the involved reactions to occur. Proteins
present in the juice also denature at this temperature; they cease to be soluble and
they are no longer suspended in the medium. Denatured proteins become part of
the settleable, insoluble solids. A temperature above the boiling point of water is
also important for an adequate flashing of the juice in the flash tank. Flashing
(instant boiling of water) is due to the sudden decompression of the juice when
passing through the pipes to a tank open to atmospheric pressure (flash tank);
elimination of water vapor through flashing prevents the formation of bubbles
from emerging gases, which negatively affect the sedimentation of impurities.

Heat exchangers, whether they be shell-and-tube or plate-and-frame heaters (the

latter being smaller and more efficient), may be used for the different heating
stages of the process. Figures 18 and 19 illustrate a shell-and-tube heat
exchanger and a plate-and-frame heat exchanger, respectively. Sugar mills use
both types in a variety of combinations in order to reach the required final
temperature in the alkalized juice.

Figure 18. Shell-and-tube heat exchanger

Source: http://avibert.blogspot.com/2010/06/patrones-de-flujo-en-intercambiadores.html

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Figure 19. Plate-and-frame heat exchanger
Sourcee: http://www.wcr-regasketing.com/es/heat-exchangers.htm

An additive necessary to complete the clarifying process is the floculant or

flocculating polymer dosage, a long chain synthetic polymer. There are many
types of flocculant, the most frequently used are the partially hydrolyzed
polyacrylamides. The flocculant is prepared by dissolving it in water and
letting it rest and mature before dosifying it. This allows the polymer chains to
extend themselves. The dosing of the flocculant is done directly into each
clarifier.

Clarifier Operation (clarified juice decanting and mud removal): The hot
alkalized juice is pumped to the flash tank and it tangently enters the wall of
such tank; in it, besides liberating water vapor, the juice loses velocity (which
will favor the sedimentation of the insoluble impurities). From the flash tank
the juice is fed by gravity to the clarifiers. Clarifiers are equipments to
sediment insoluble solids and separate them from the liquid phase. The most
widely used in Guatemala are the Dorr-Oliver type. These have four
independent compartments with conic bottoms, each one with a decanting head
for the clarified juice and a set of diaphragm pumps to extract the sedimented
sludge. Figure 20 shows a cross section of this type of clarifier. Some sugar
mills are already using SRI type Australian-made clarifiers with a single
compartment; these, by design, can manage a larger flow of alkalized juice for
the clarifying process with a lower retention time than a Dorr-Oliver.

During retention time in the clarifier, the precipitates of the calcium phosphate
species in formation are associated with the suspended solids in the juice (dirt,
bagacillo, trash, debris, etc.) and with the denatured proteins. This initial
combination forms solid particles called first stage flakes or flocs (first stage
flocculation process). The first-stage floc particles are joined in larger and more
compact conglomerates called clots (coagulating process). Parallel to
coagulation, the extended flocculant chains begin to bond with various first-

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stage flocs resulting in spongy aggregates (second stage flocculation), which at
the same time, join the clots and together form a highly dense sludge with a
high sedimentation velocity. This sludge is called clarifier mud or “cachaza”
(Not to be mistaken with the brazilian alcoholic beverage )

Figure 20. Dorr- Oliver clarifier cross-section diagram

Source: Chen, J. C. P. 1991. Sugarcane manual.

The decanted clarified juice is discharged by gravity and it is pipe conducted all
the way to a set of rotating sieves. These sieves are provided with a mesh small
enough to eliminate even the finest bagacillo particles: Which are not
eliminated during the mixing of the juice and its clarification process. The
strained juice is then collected in a clarified tank juice, from where it is then
pumped to the evaporation system. The quality of the clarified juice is
evaluated organoleptically in the overflow outlet of each of the compartments
for all the operative clarifiers. The clarified juice should contain the least
amount of suspended particles possible, and its color should be bright yellow.

The mud ( sedimented at the bottom of the clarifier compartments) is then

pumped by means of diaphragm pumps to a process where the last of
saccharose content will be extracted for its final disposition of it as a byproduct.

Rotating Sieve Operation (Cachaza Sucrose depletion and Disposition)

The muds took out from the clarifiers still contain a considerable amount of
juice, which has to be eliminated as much as possible, so that the byproduct
(sludge) contains as minimum amount of sucrose as possible. Depending on the
system and the equipment, it can have a pol of under 2%.

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The equipment used to recover sucrose from the cachaza consists of continuous
rotary vacuum filters. The raw cachaza, which has a slurry consistency, is
pumped from the cachazón ( cachaza container) to the filter vats. The vat is a
deposit or tray located under the filter drum. It contains a constant volume of
slurry so that the filter wall should always be in contact with it and form a layer
of mud. It has an oscillating stirring system.

Bagacillo, lime, and flocculant are added to the cachaza (usually in the
cachazón) to give it a consistency that will allow it be adhered to the filter drum
surface, and therefore increase its “filterability.” The layer of mud adhered to
the filter drum is then sprayed with hot water; this water is the one that washes
the saccharose away from the cachaza layer. The filtrate pipes suck away the
juice and they transfer it to the high and low vacuum tanks. The juice obtained
is called filtered juice. It is pumped back to the alkalized juice tank so it can be
integrated back into the process.

The filters discharge the final cake of the depleted cachaza. This is conducted to an
elevated hopper chute that unloads it onto dump trucks. It is then used as fertilizer in
the sugarcane fields. Figure 21 shows a diagram of a typical rotary vacuum filter.

Figure 21. Typical Rotary Vacuum Slurry Filter Diagram

Source: http://www.proequip.com.mx/todos_completos.html

JUICE EVAPORATION
During the juice evaporation, the clarified juice is concentrated from 15°-18°
Brix, until forming the material denominated as syrup of 65°-67° Brix. This
concentration is achieved by evaporating the water contained in the juice

331
through boiling (heating it until it reaches its boiling point) in evaporators (also
called evaporating vases or simply vases ). The most widely used evaporators
in Guatemala are tube evaporators and rising-film Robert evaporators. Some
sugar mills use plate and descending-film evaporators. These have proved to be
quite efficient but have an inconvenience: They require frequent cleaning with
chemicals so as to preserve the contact area (hest transfer area) between the
plates and the juice, and therefore maintain their efficiency.

Evaporators are arranged so as to form a multiple effect evaporating system

based on the Rillieux principle (first exposed in Louisiana around 1830 by the
French-American Norman Rillieux.) This principle establishes that the steam
generated by the evaporation of water, which is originated from juice heated by
an evaporator or set of evaporators, is able to heat up and evaporate water from
an already concentrated juice being transferred to another evaporator or set of
evaporators; therefore developing a multiple effect evaporation. The internal
pressure in the second evaporator (or set of evaporators) will be less than the
internal pressure in the previous evaporator (or set of evaporators), so as to
decresase the juice’s boiling point from system to system. Each set of
evaporators that form a system with determined pressure, temperature and
boiling point conditions, is called an“evaporation effect.”

If the arrangement of evaporation is in a quadruple effect, the bled vapor of the

third effect will heat the calandria (shell-and-tube unit) of the last effect
evaporator (this is where non-clarified meladura of 64°- 67° Brix is obtained.)
If the arrangement has five effects (Figure 22), then the bled vapor generated in
the fourth effect, with a manometric pressure of -7.0 psi (14.3” Hg vacuum at
181°F) heats the calandria of the last effect evaporator vase.

The last effect evaporator’s operation, even the system works from a four effect
or a five effect, is at vacuum pressure of -10.8 psi (22” Hg vacuum at 150°F).
To obtain boiling point at such a low pressure, a barometric condenser is
employed; in which, a cold water flow condenses and drags the steam generated
during boiling. Multi jet condensers are provided with a nozzle cage where the
nozzles are set up in such a way as to produce a negative differential pressure
(through the Venturi effect); they require a considerable injection flow of cold
water with a manometric pressure of at least 10 psi. These condensers also
extract the noncondensable gases from the evaporator’s body; their only
inconvenience is their large water consumption. Due to the problems in cold
water supply presently faced by sugar mills, and in an attempt to reduce
environmental impact, systems with countercurrent condensers (barometric
condensers provided with water curtain producing boxes) are currently used; a
vacuum pump is added so as to extract the noncondensing gases in the system
(Figure 23).

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Figure 22. Five effect evaporator diagram with extractions

Figure 23. Multi-jet and counter-current barometric condensers

Source: Chen, J. C. P. 1991. Sugarcane manual.

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It can be observed from Figure 22 that the bled vapors used to heat up the juice
for the masscuites and any other process in the factory, are extractions made
from the bled vapor lines of the various effects from the multi-effect
evaporators.

SYRUP CLARIFICATION
The impurities present in the clarified juice (color and suspended solids)
increase and are concentrated during evaporation, so if white sulphited sugar is
to be produced, these impurities should be removed as soon as possible; the
clarification process of non-clarified meladura is what gets this done.

Syrup clarification can be made with a combination of various sub-processes.

In general, a physical-chemical treatment must be done in order to prepare the
impurities for future separation. This physical-chemical treatment consists in
the formation of solid particle conglomerates and the removal of coloring
substances. The formation of solid particle conglomerates is accomplished
through the dosification of phosphoric acid, flocculant, and lime (as lime slurry
or as calcium saccharate.) The removal of coloring agents is achieved by
dosing sulphyte water or commercial chemical products for this particular
purpose (decolorants). After the chemical dosification and homogenization, the
syrup is heated from 145°-150° F (temperature at which it comes out of the last-
effect evaporator) to 175°-180° F. Figure 24 shows a generic diagram of the
syrup clarification process.

Figure 24. Diagram of the syrup clarification process

Source: www.engenovo.com.br/es/artigostecnicos/fxc.pdf

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Syrup is injected with tiny air bubbles that drag up the impurity flocs (sludge)
when they rise, forming a floating foam on the top surface of the syrup in the
clarifiers.

The Jacob-type syrup clarifiers are rectangular in shape and the Talo-type
syrup clarifiers are round. Both have a blade system that removes the foam
from the surface and it unloads it onto a canal; this canal returns the foam by
gravity to the alkalized juice tank. Talo-type clarifiers are a more recent
design, and therefore more efficient than the Jacob-type clarifiers. Clarified
syrup is decanted through a header to a tank, and is then pumped to the
respective tanks in the crystallizars or “tachos” area.

CRYSTAL DEVELOPMENT AND SYRUP DEPLETION

From the clarified syrup, two parallel and interrelated processes are verified.
One is the development of the sucrose crystal and the other is syrup
exhaustion (syrup exhaustion means the decrease of its apparent purity). The
saccharose crystals grow (develop) because the saccharose molecules in the
syrup solution are able to integrate themselves to a crystal structure.
Therefore, as the saccharose crystals grow, the syrup purity decreases
(depletion or exhaustion ).

Some terms have to be defined so they can be used and understood during the
remainder of this section:

Massecuite ( or cooked mass ) : Material in which both the depleted syrup at

a determined purity and the developed crystals of an established size, are
mixed together after finalizing its cooking process and reaching its final
density (Brix of the masscuite). Cooking of the masscuite is made through the
elimination of water in the boiling process at vacuum pressure in a
crystallizer tank or “tacho”.

Strike, or “Templa”(Tempered massecuite): Massecuite taken to its final

cooking point and discharged onto a batch tank. It is appropriate to refer to a
Strike or Templa when talking about the material contained inside a tacho or
in the process of being unloaded. But at the point where it is joined to the
total of masscuite found in a mixer, waiting to be discharged into a centrifuge,
it is not appropriate to refer to this generic material as a stike, rather it is
commonplace and appropriate to refer to this material simply as masscuite.

Saturation point of a sucrose solution: It refers to the maximum sucrose

concentration that can be maintained dissolved in water under determined

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temperature and pressure conditions. At this point, the rate at which the
saccharose molecules dissolve (dissolved saccharose molecules per unit of
time); and the velocity at which the saccharose molecules crystallize
(saccharose molecules that become part of the crystal network per unit of
time) are in equilibrium (they are the same). If the maximum concentration of
sucrose is surpassed under the given conditions, an oversaturation point is
reached, equilibrium is lost, and the mixture becomes unstable. To re-
establish equilibrium, two things can occur: The amount of molecules that
crystallize increases (and the size of the crystal increases as well) or new
crystals form spontaneously. The oversaturation coefficient is equal to one
(1.0) when the system is at saturation point; if it is greater than one, the
system is oversaturated; if it is less than one, the system is undersaturated.

Seed: Slurry or suspension formed by the milling and the dispersion of sugar
grains in isopropyl alcohol. There is specific equipment to prepare the seed
which guarantee a 95% of crystals with a maximum size of 10 µm. The best
equipments are those able to obtain a seed that varies less in the crystal sizes.

Vacuum Crystallizers: Equipment designed to develp the sucrose crystal by

eliminating water through boiling at vacuum pressure. When boiled, the
concentration of the syrup is increased and the migration of sucrose molecules
toward the growing crystal network is produced (sucrose crystallization). The
vacuum crystallyzers most widely used in Guatemala are the fixed shell-and-
tube type. Just like in the evaporators, vacuum is achieved through the
combined operation of a barometric condenser (countercurrent) and a vacuum
pump. These tanks work at a manometric pressure of -12.8 psi (26’’ Hg
vacuum) 1.9 absolute psi (at a temperature of 125 OF). Most of crystallizers
are provided with a mechanical mixer, but they can also be provided with
feeder manifolds for the meladura, designed to create natural stirring (by way
of density gradients). Figure 25 shows a diagram of a typical fixed shell-and-
tube crystallizer.

Purge: Separation of the crystals and the syrup from a masscuite in a

centrifuge.

Centrifuge: Equipment designed to separate the sucrose crystals and the

syrup combined in the massecuite. It contains a basket lined with a specific
sized filter screen. The masscuite is fed to the basket and a centrifugal force
makes the syrup goes out through the filter screen; the sucrose crystals are
held by the filter screen and are later discharged and guided by the
transportation systems for their conditioning and disposition. There are two
types of centrifuges:

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Figure 25. Shell-and-tube crystallizer or tacho with mechanic mixer
Source: Chen, J. C. P. 1991. Sugarcane manual.

Continuous centrifuges: As their name implies, they are fed and operated
continuously. They consist of an inverted conic basket, fed from down deep at
the vortex of the cone. Sugar ascends the walls of the cone all the way up to the
top; syrup is collected in the internal wall of the shell. Figure 26 shows a
diagram of a typical continuous centrifuge.

Automatic or batch centrifuges: As their name implies, these centrifuges are

fed discontinuously, one batch of masscuite at a time. They are provided with
perforated cylindric baskets lined with a set of filter screens, and counter-filter
screens. The syrup goes through the screens, counter-screens and basket; and it
is collected in the housing. A complete purge cycle is made with automatic
movements which can be controlled by electric timers and switches. Recently,
PLC (Programmable Logic Controllers) and proximity switches have been
incorporated (Figure 27).

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Figure 26. Continous centrifuge and its main components: 1) Stainless steel
basket. 2) Load container. 3) Support with rubber shock absorbers
4) Motor. 5) Masscuite feeder
Source: Chen, J. C. P. 1991. Sugarcane manual.

Figura 27. Automatic centrifuge and its main components .

Source: Chen, J. C. P. 1991. Sugarcane manual.

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Magma: Material with a slurry-like consistency. It is obtained by
conditioning the sugar coming from the purge of mass B or mass C. Sugar
is conditioned, so it can be managed and fed to the crystallizers as nucleus
for the development of crystals, for being dissolved and pumped to the
meladura tanks.

Crystallization

The crystallization process consists in starting the development of the

sucrose crystals. The most widely used process is through seeding. In this
process a sugar solution of defined purity is concentrated in a crystallizer
working at a vacuum pressure around 24’’ Hg until it reaches a
supersaturation coefficient (SS) between 1.00 and 1.25. The region found
between these ranges of supersaturation is known as a metastable zone and it
corresponds to 80°-81° Brix; its main characteristic is that in such zone,
crystals increase their size, but do not appear spontaneously. At this point
that a determined amount of seed is added and the evaporation regime is
maintained by adding hot water; this allows the definition of the crystals
faces when they are separated from the viscosity of the solution ( priming or
clearing). When the grain is adequately defined, the vaccum pressure is set
at 26” HG and the feeding of a sugary solution begins, by means, syrup or
meladura.

It is important not to concentrate the sugar solution to a labile

supersaturation point (SS greater than 1.40) because then sucrose crystals
begin to appear spontaneously. These crystals, also known are false grain,
are smaller than the seed that is introduced artificially to the system and they
cause the conglomeration of many crystals and they produce a crystal
population with too much size variation in the size.

Three-mass and two-magma system for crystal development and syrup

depletion: This is the base system most widely used for crystal
development and syrup depletion. Figure 28 shows a simplified diagram of
this system.

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Figure 28. Three mass system and double magma system for the crystal
development and syrup exhaustion

This is the basis and the most used for the crystal development processes and
for the syrup exhaustion, this is the three mass and double magma system. In
Figure 28, a simplified diagram is shown, ir order to illustrate the three mass
systems (mass A, mass B, and mass C); and double magma (magma B and
magma C).

First, the focus is on the development of the crystal. It is crystallized so the

third mass can develop crystals from the seed, with crystals (initial nuclei),
which have a size of 10 µm. The crystallized mass is fed into the crystallizer
with syrup A and syrup B until mass C is obtained. Mass C is then discharged
into the crystallizing tank system, where the process continues the
crystallization process through cooling tanks. From the crystallizers, mass C is
conducted to a mixer; And it is purged into continuous centrifuges, until sugar
C and molasses are obtained, the first with a grain size of 350 µm and the
molasses with an apparent purity of 33%. Magma C is prepared with sugar C
and such magma is loaded into the crystallizer for the development of mass B.

Magma C is loaded into the crystallizers that contain the seeds. The tanks are
fed with syrup A until mass B is developed. This mass, in turn, is fed to the
continuous centrifuges to be purged and to obtain sugar B, with a grain size of
505 µm and a syrup B with an apparent purity of 51%. Magma B is prepared
with sugar B and such magma is unloaded into the crystallizer for the
development of mass A.

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Magma C contains the crystallization seeds. First Crystallizer are fed with
meladura with an apparent purity of 86-88% until mass A is developed.
Mass A is fed to the automatic ( batch) centrifuges so it can be purged and
sugar A (finished product) and syrup A are obtained, the first with a grain
size of 800-1000 µm and the latter with an apparent purity of 70%. The size
of the crystal of sugar A can vary according to the desired quality of sugar to
be produced: Raw-normal, raw-granulated or free flowing, standard white,
etc.

Figure 29 sythesizes the diagram of interrelated parallel processes where it

can be observed how the purity of the syrup is depleted in one sense and the
size of the crystal is developed in the opposite direction.

Figura 29. Illustrative diagram of the crystal development and syrup

depletion in a three mass and double magma system.
NOTE: Pty = apparent purity

REFINED SUGAR PROCESS

The refineries that began operations in Guatemala in the 90’s, for being
integrated to a sugar mill, they use sulphited white sugar as raw material.

The process to refine sulfite white sugar consists in dissolving sugar of 230-
250 ICUMSA units in water; the resulting syrup is called dissolved liquor.
This dissolved liquor is treated with activated carbon and heat to remove
pigments by their adsorption to the activated carbon particles.
Simultaneously, diatomaceous earth is added as an aid in filtering. The
mixture obtained is called treated liquor and it is filtered again in a set of
primary filters. The obtained liquour is re-filtered in a second set of filters
called rectifiers. The final filtrated liquor has around 150 ICUMSA color
units and is free of suspended solid particles (Figure 30).

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Figure 30. Diagram of a four stage system for refining sugar from white sulphite
sugar

Chart 2 shows the expected color values for the different process materials and
for the sugars in a four stage system when refining white sulphited sugar.

Chart 2. Color of materials and sugar in process, for a four mass system in the
production of sugar from white sulphite sugar.

Material Color ICUMSA

Sugar to be dissolved 240
Filtered liquor 150
Mass A 240
Syrup A 350
Mass B 410
Syrup B 610
Mass C 730
Syrup C 1000
Mass D 1355
Syrup D 2100
Sugar A 20
Sugar B 30
Sugar C 40
Sugar D 60
Packaged sugar 25 - 35

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A total of 15 stages (8 A strikes, 4 B strikes, 2 C strikes, and 1 D strike) is
needed to close a cycle of a four stage sugar refining system.

Other process and system variations for refining sugar in Guatemala consider to
start with sugar 500 ICUMSA color units. To do this, the dissolved sugar must
undergo a pre-treatment of clarifying the dissolved liquor in order to remove the
excess of solid and color impurities, first with decoloration using activated
carbon, and then through filtering. A mixed stage system is also used as one of
the variations. This system crystallizes the final liquor (decolored and filtered
liquor) and develops the strike with syrup mixtures (obtained from the previous
mass purges). This mixed stike process is done to avoid using solid sugar, since
it is more efficient to mix and homogenize liquids (with less degrees of liberty)
as opposed to mixing and homogenizing solids (with more degrees of liberty.)

CONDITIONING AND HANDLING OF SUGAR

The sugar obtained from the automatic centrifuges has too much humidity to be
adequately handled in bulk, despite of the time it spent drying during the
centrifuge cycle. It would suffer damages during its transportation and/or
storage, and during the time it takes to get it to its final customer (sugar
refineries, in the case of raw sugar) or to be packaged and preserved with its
original quality (in the case of white refined sugars).

Thus, humid sugar is submitted to two sequential processes: First, drying and
then, cooling.

The sugar goes through an inclined rotating cylinder (approximately 6 feet in

diameter and 25 feet long) for both processes. The cylinder has a series of
combs that divide and form a sugar curtain transversal to the air flow. Such
sugar curtain moves lengthwise due to the cylinder’s inclination (Figure 31).
The sugar moves along from the extreme where it is fed, to the place where it
unloads (the level at which it enters the cylinder is higher than the level at
which it leaves.)

Air goes against the current through sugar curtain. The air thrust is produced by
a fan at the feeder end of the rotary cylinder. A series of bronze tubes provided
with bronze fins forming a beehive-like pattern, are situated at the cylinder
entrance. Steam flow inside them at 100 psig. These tubes heat up the air up to
290°-293° F. Sugar inside a centrifuge contains humidity between 1 and 2
percent. The temperature conditions of the drying air are fixed as a function of
the humidity requirements of the sugar to be produced. Raw sugar should
contain humidity between 0.11 and 0.35 percent, whereas refined sugar should
be at less than 0.04%.

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The air that flows through the cooler can be atmospheric air. A temperature of
110°-115° F is adequate for raw or white sulphite sugar, but lower packaging
temperatures must be achieved for refined sugar. This low temperature
combined with the right size and homogeneity of the crystals, and adequate
storage conditions prevent clumping of the product during storage.

Figure 31. Operation diagram for the sugar in line drying and cooling system.

Raw sugar is handled exclusively as bulk in Guatemala. Expogranel is the raw

sugar loading central located in Puerto Quetzal and its operation is considered
one of the most efficient in the World. Figure 32 shows some pictures taken at
Expogranel. Picture 32.a, shows how a container is unloaded on hydraulic
ramps, and picture 32.b, shows a view of the main warehouse. White sulfite
sugar and refined sugar can be handled in 50 Kg polypropylene sacks (Figure
33.a) in customized jumbo bags (depending on customer specifications) or in
bulk jumbos (Figure 33.b). The handling of refined sugar in bulk is a project
with infrastructure and logistics already underway, and it is expected to begin
operations for the 2011-2012 harvest season.

Figure 32. Views of the EXPOGRANEL raw sugar loading center

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Figure 33. White sugar and/or refined sugar in sacks and jumbos warehouses

THE FUTURE: BIO-REFINERIES

From the beginning of the sugar production, in any of its forms or presentations
(juice, concentrated syrup or meladura, panela, moscabado, melcocha, raw
sugar, table sugar, etc.) to the beginning of the XXth century, the main and
almost only goal of sugar mills and trapiches, was the production of the
sweetener known as sucrose or table sugar.

The necessary energy for this purpose was provided by animal or human drive
and by firewood cut from the nearby woods.

The main sub-product of these processes was molasses, which in some

occasions, and depending on the circumstances, was considered a “waste
material” and a nuisance; and it was used to keep the dust from rising on dirt
roads. Later, a more valuble and useful application was found for it, as a
nutritional supplement for cattle feed and a carbon source (substrate) for the
emerging alcoholic beverage industry (potable ethanol).

As the milling process got better, another use was found for another
accumulating nuisance: Cane bagasse, which began to be used as fuel for the
generation of heat and mechanical energy.

Thus, the next stage in the development of the sugar industry already had,
besides their main product, sugar, two sub-products with considerable value:
Molasses and bagasse.

Globalization of the sugar market also introduced the diversification of the main
product and the necessary technology for producing refined sugar and inverted
syrup (High Test Molasses – HTM), among other products.
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With the energy crisis during the second half of the XXth century, the
opportunity to add even more value to two by-products of the main sub-
products: The generation of electric power in turbines moved by the steam
generated by the boilers, for both sugar mill use and for the national network,
and the production of ethanol for motor fuel in distilleries annexed to the sugar
mills. These, additionally, presented the problem of two by-products:
Distilling slops (vinasse, stillage) and carbon dioxide (CO2).  In most cases the
CO2 is released into the atmosphere, and occasionally it is used industrially in
carbonated drinks or compressed for the production of dry ice (widely used for
food preservation.)

Recently, stillage ceased to be considered a “waste by- product” and it became a

valuable by-product from which heat, protein, fertilizing nutrients, a substrate
for methane production, etc., can be extracted.

Recently, in Guatemala, an integrated sugar mill can be producing various

valuable products and by-products for the country’s economy:

Sugars: Raw
Brown
White
Crystal
Refined
Bagasse: Lignocelullosic fiber
Steam: Heat
Movement / work
Electricity
Syrups: Hydrolized meladura (syrup, inverted or HTM)

Molasses: Food supplement for cattle

Ethanol: Potable
Industrial
Fuel
Vinasse: Fertilizer
Methane
Single cell protein
CO2

The next step, in which huge advances have already been reached in more
industrialized countries, is the development of industrial complexes called “Bio-
Refineries”, which exploit every fraction of the sugarcane in a large diversity of
products and by-products according to their technical and economic factibility,
during specific market moments.

346
The concept was developed at industrial level during the 70’s, in grain (corn)
processing plants for ethanol production. In them, originally the whole grain
was cooked to produce the fermentable must, which was later distilled to get
ethanol, and the residue was destined towards cattle feed. The innovated
process separates the fiber, oil, protein, and the cellulose; so they can be
separately processed and create a wide range of products. Starches are left for
fermentation, which not only makes fermentation easier, but the protein
enriched residue with the yeast protein is easier to dosify in animal diets.

Likewise, the integrated processing of sugarcane can permit the development of

a big and growing number of products, sub-products and by-products; their only
limits are the economy of scale and product demand. These go from residual
biomass in the field to products with specific reactions, in which the cane by-
products can be reactants and important raw materials, including, of course, the
products already mentioned which already have commercial value.

The 70’s, Paturau (Byproducts of the Sugarcane Industry) mentioned a

considerable quantity of special chemical products directly obtainable from
using sucrose and molasses as reactants, the use of bagasse as a fiber source,
and the cellulose for the production of several agglomerated products (Figure
34).

Figure 34. Sucrose products with important potential

Source: Paturau, J.M. “By-products of the cane sugar industry”. Elsevier

347
The diagram of interactions between primary energy producers, raw material,
and product and by-product users that impulse the global idea of bio-refineries
based on the growing of sugarcane, is illustrated in Figure 35.

Figure 35. Interactions between raw material and primary energy producers
Source: Murillo et al. “Chemistry base don renewable rawmaterials: Perspectives for a Sugar
cane- based Bio-refinery”

Given the accelerated and changing situation of the world economy and of the
demand of ever more specific products, must to be expected that the coming
decades will bring with them the development of processes that use sugar and
ethanol more and more, as reactants. Henceforth the recent rise of applied
chemistry branches such as “Sucrochemistry” and “Alcochemistry,” which
document the technical feasibility of many chemical reactions, which of course,
are possible since the necessary technology exists and some of them are already
being produced at an industrial level. It is necessary to note, though, that for
others, their economic feasibility depends on the product’s demand and its
economy of scale. Such is the case of ethanol obtained from cellulose; it has
been technically possible for over thirty years, yet some authors estimate that
another 30 years will pass before it becomes economically feasible.

Figure 36 illustrates a summary of some of the derivatives of the complex

technology of what is called a bio-refinery, which, as it has already been
pointed out, it is more a concept than an actual facility, since much of the
operations, could be done outside the sugar mill.

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Figure 36. Sugarcane subproducts in a bio-refinery
Source: Murillo et al. Chemistry based on renewable rawmaterials: Perspectives for a Sugar
cane- based Bio-refinery

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To Carlos René Cifuentes, Dietrich Haeckel, Raúl Rivera, Roberto Balsells, all
of the engineers, and to Consultores de Ingenios Azucareros, S. A. (CIASA)
[Sugar Mill Consultants] for their contribution and revision of this chapter.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Asociación de Azucareros de Guatemala (ASAZGUA). 2011.
Agroindustria Azucarera de Guatemala. Informe anual. Zafra 2008-2009.
Guatemala, ASAZGUA. 56 p.
2. Chen, J. C. 1991. Manual del azúcar de caña. Trads. Carlos García,
Constantino Álvarez. México, Limusa. 1,201 p.
3. Fuentes León, M. A. 2004. Evaluación del uso de aire acondicionado en el
secado de azúcar refino (en línea). Tesis Ing. Quim. Guatemala, USAC.
Consultado el 12 agosto 2011. 47 p. Disponible en
http://biblioteca.usac.edu.gt/tesis/08/08_5646.pdf.

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4. Guthrie, J. P. 1975. Carbonyl addition reactions: factors affecting the
hydrate-hemiacetal and hemiacetal-acetal equilibrium constants (en línea).
Can. J. Chem. 53 (6):898-906. Consultado 30 julio 2011. Disponible en
http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/v75-125.

5. Hugot, E. 1963. Manual para ingenieros azucareros. Trad. Carlos Ruiz

Coutiño. México, Cía. Editorial Continental. 803 p.

6. Larrahondo, J. E. et al. 1995. Calidad de la caña de azúcar (en línea). El

cultivo de la caña en la zona azucarera de Colombia. CENICAÑA. Cali,
Valle del Cauca, Colombia. Consultado 15 julio 2011. Disponible en
http://www.cenicana.org/pdf/documentos_no_seriados/libro_el_cultivo_can
a/libro_p337-354.pdf.

7. Manohar, P. J. 1997. INDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF SUGAR CANE

AN ITS CO-PRODUCTS. ISPCK Publishers. New Delhi.

8. Murillo, F.; Araujo, C.; Bonfá, A.; Porto, W. 2011. Chemistry based on
renewable rawmaterials: Perspectives for a sugar cane based biorrefinery. 8 p.

9. Paturau, J. M. 1989. By – products of the cane sugar industry. 3a. ed. New
York, Elsevier. 436 p. Sugar series No. 11.

10. RENOVETEC. 2010. Tipos de plantas de cogeneración (en línea).

Madrid, RENOVETEC. Consultado 22 agosto. 2011. Disponible en
http://www.cogeneracion.renovetec.com/cogeneraciontiposplantas.html.

11. Tecnicaña. 2001. ALCOQUIMICA 2011. Memorias seminario

internacional. Colombia.

12. Vaz, CM. Stamile Soarez, SM. Silva, JO da. Clarificación de meladura por
flotación (en línea). Río de Janeiro, Engenho Novo Cia. Ltda. Consultado
26 julio 2011. Disponible en
www.engenovo.com.br/es/artigostecnicos/fxc.pdf.

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XIV. SUGAR AGROINDUSTRY
DIVERSIFICATION

351
 CO-GENERATION IN THE SUGAR INDUSTRY
Mario Muñoz

INTRODUCTION
Co-generation has had sustainable evolution and development in sugar mills in
Guatemala; this impulse has sprouted due to the secondary generation of a
subproduct that came from being a waste product to being biomass in abundant
quantities, with an exploitable heat value that converted it into a good fuel:
Bagasse.

With the burning of bagasse as a fuel in the boilers, steam production was
produced and maintained, especially since it provides the necessary energy to
move most of the equipment in a sugar mill, as well as for being used in all
sugar production processes. As a result of the need to increase such steam
production, co-generating sugar mills have been developing their technology; so
they went from one-stage turbines to multistage turbines; the former are used as
simple power transmitters to equipment such as mills, whereas the latter are
connected to electric power generators. With this change, sugar mills became
electric power co-generators, since they are producing steam for electric power
generation and are then using the surplus energy from such steam for the
processes involved in the production of sugar, all of this from a single fuel
source.

, Co-generation has grown even more, by taking advantage of the improvement

in the country’s laws. The new laws have promoted and liberated the
generation, transportation, and distribution of electrical power. This also gave
the sugar mills an incentive to increase the quantity of sugarcane they were
milling, in order to optimize the consumption of steam in the factories and to
raise their electric power availability through more efficient turbogenerators
with larger capacities.

The processes associated to co-generation in sugar mills illustrated in this

chapter, are conceptually the same or very similar. However, each co-
generating sugar mill has a different arrangement; each sugar mill has its own
way of managing its operations, from the management and treatment of the
bagasse itself, going through the generation of steam and electric power, to the
use of the steam that comes out from the sugar factory. The energy balances
from each process and each co-generator are different.


Industrial-Mechanical Engineer, Energy Efficiency Professional from CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org

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Currently, resources have begun to limit co-generation. However, in the
country’s electrical power market, the demand for more cleaned electrical
power surpasses the offer; and therefore, sugar mills are facing two challenges:
First, investing and growing in the electrical power generation market together
with other fuels, such as mineral coal. Second, optimizing and improving their
co-generation processes by improving their internal energy efficiency and the
use of the bagasse as fuel efficiency. This section presents a brief summary of
the history of the development of co-generators, the efficiency indexes, the
benefits, and the processes involved in this form of energy management.

BACKGROUND
Some industries, like sugar mills in Guatemala, have been generating their own
electrical power for a little over 70 years, with the purpose of satisfying their
internal energy needs for the production of sugar. Initially, the generation of
electrical power was for local use only, and it was limited to satisfying the
kinetic energy demands of the juice extraction equipment, such as shredders and
mills, whose main moving force was the steam produced by boilers. The
second fundamental energy demand was made by the factory processes, known
as treatment, processing, and cooking of the juice and syrups, such as
evaporation, heating, and crystallization.

To meet this second energy demand, the so called “exhaust” steam was used;
that is, steam that has already given part of its energy in a first process (i.e.
moving a turbine) but it still has enough energy at a lower pressure and
temperature to still be used in other processes. This, to some, is the definition
of co-generation. The reason for this statement comes from the fact that the
source of the exhaust steam was the discharge of the extraction equipment that
used the kinetic energy found in the main steam for a first phase. This means
that the main steam used by the juice extraction equipment, is the same that is
later used in the sugar production process, except with less energy, lower
pressure, and lower temperature. Such energy is almost depleted by the
extraction equipment, and whatever remains in the exhaust steam is the
doubled used energy.

Co-generating sugar mills have been investing in larger turbines connected to

the electric power generators due to the increase in the amount of milled
sugarcane. This brought about, not only a growth in the size of the factories but
an optimization in the sugar production process, as well. Electrical power was
thus produced and during harvest season, the sugar mills were able to
disconnect themselves from the national electrical power network. This is

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translated into significant energy savings for the country. The turbines also
discharge exhaust steam, and therefore, the availability of the thermal energy
needed within the factory for sugar production, was maintained.

The next step taken by some co-generating sugar mills has been the change
from steam power to electrical power for the equipment used in the juice
extraction processes (shredders and mills). As a result, the use of energy is
much more efficient for the main steam flow, since the previously used to move
the shredders and mills, is now exclusively used to move turbogenerators.
These, in turn, produce electrical power, making the whole operation of
extraction and other much more efficient processes.

With this strategy, sugar mills have been able to co-generate, at the same time,
and sequentially, main energy and exhaust energy, both thermal and electrical.
The production of these forms of energy has been attained with the burning of a
single fuel in the boilers, the bagasse.

Bagasse is a sub-product of the sugarcane milling. It comes from the cane in

the form of fiber that can not be used in the extraction of sugar. Along history,
sugar mills have made tremendous efforts to efficiently burn bagasse so as to
obtain ever more surpluses and so, produce more electrical energy. Those who
have reached this goal, generate all the thermal and electrical energy they need
for themselves, and sell part of the excess to the national electrical network.
This has allowed sugar mills to contribute to the country’s ever increasing
electrical power demand.

Additionally, co-generation in sugar mills has represented a positive factor to

the environment. The argument is that the use of a “non-fossil” fuel has
decreased the amount of green house gases discharged into the air.

BASIC CONCEPT
There isn’t just one definition for co-generation. Various authors consider it a
technique while others say it is a process or system. From an energy point of
view, co-generation is defined as follows:

Co-generation is a technique employed for the sequential production of energy,

generally thermal and electrical, from a single source of energy.

However, co-generation can be viewed as an integral process and not as a

technique: It is a process by which a heat discharge from a process is converted
into an energy source for another later conversion process.

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In co-generation systems (Figure 1), primary processes and secondary processes
of energy use, are given simultaneously and sequentially; the energy that is
transformed can be electrical, mechanical, or thermal, in nature. This last one
usually comes in the form of heat, even though the concept can also apply to
cold. All these types of energy are always produced from the combustion of a
single fuel.

Figure 1. Co-generation system with simultaneous and sequential production of

thermal and electrical energy

The basic idea in co-generation is to raise the overall yield by integrating two
energetic systems, generally, electric with thermal power. As a result, the
combined system gives more efficiency and lower costs than developing the
operation of each energy resource, separately.

Types of Co-Generation

If the energy at first produced, is used but it releases heat that will later be used
as process heat, then it is called a head process or topping. If the heat discharge
from an industrial process is used in a second process to generate energy, then
we have a tail or bottoming configuration.

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Head Co-Generation Cycle: In this cycle, electrical energy is produced first;
steam turbines, gas turbines, or diesel engines are used to generate the electrical
energy and then the heat given off is used in some later industrial process.
Examples of processes using this discharge heat include evaporators and
cooker, or any other equipment using thermal energy. It is the most widely
used system in the sugar industry. If steam turbines are used, then both, the
exhaust gases from the boilers as well as the steam discharged by the turbines,
become sources of heat for other processes.

Tail Cycle Co-generation: This is a thermal cycle. Its goal is to recover heat
from an industrial process so as to produce electrical energy with it later. This
type of cycle requires steam at a specific pressure and termperature, for an
adequate operation of turbogenerators that generate electrical energy. This
process is not useful in co-generating sugar mills.

Necessary Characteristics for Co-generation

In principle, any process with an important heat and electricity demand is a

possible co-generator. However, in general terms, it can be established that
potential generators must meet some of the following characteristics:

 Produce important heat surpluses, either from the hot gases coming from
the boiler combustion, or as low pressure exhaust steam coming from the
turbine discharge.
 To have a very cheap fuel, with continuous supply, stable and uniform. In
fact, the higher the difference between the price of the fuel and the price of
electricity, the greater the financial or economic benefit from implementing
a co-generation system.
 The industrial process involved must be continuous; otherwise, the co-
produced energy would be lost.

CO-GENERATION IN THE SUGAR INDUSTRY

Co-generation in the sugar industry is subject for a legal framework, supported
by the General Law of Electricity.

Legal Framework1

The General Law of Electricity of Guatemala establishes that the generation of

electricity is a free market that requires no previous authorization from the

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State. Article 8 of the same legal body establishes that the installation of
electrical power generation centrals is open to anyone.

The generation, transportation, and distribution process of electrical energy in

Guatemala had been regulated by the Law of the National Electrification
Institute [INDE, for its acronym in Spanish] Legistlative Decree Number 1287
from March 27, 1959. It established the mechanisms to go into the electricity
business, and it was the Executive Council, the organism in charge of proposing
the fares to be charged. This institution was created as a de-centralized State
entity with operating autonomy, legal status, private funds, and full capacity to
acquire rights and contract obligations within its competency realm.

The electrical energy business had been managed by way of the State (through
INDE, Empresa Elécrica de Guatemala [EEGSA, for its acronym in Spanish],
and municipal electrical energy enterprises); the Guatemalan Constitution has
established for many years (article No. 129) that private sector can participate in
the production of electricity. In the last years, the national economy has
experimented a series of changes, framed within the globalization process and
the structural adjustment propelled by the international financial organisms,
which has promoted economic modernization. This aspect has been manifested
by a higher liberalization towards the international market and a restructuring of
the State, in terms of higher participation of private agents and under the outline
of a free market. The idea that the State has to relegate (subsidize) the
productive activities that the private sector cannot fulfill has become
fundamental. It has motivated an order, which in the case of the electrical sub-
sector has materialized in the form of concrete legal proposals. It is directly
allowing a free market in this sub-sector.

Within the electrical energy sub-sector framework briefly outlined above, the
free market process began. The first step was to name a Multi-sector
Committee that would take care of proposing integral solutions to the problems
produced by the upcoming General Law of Electricity.

Some of the most important conclusions produced by the Committee were:

a) Create a free market for the electrical energy sub-sector.

b) Establish the necessary mechanisms, so that the participating agents would
do so without political interference.
c) Guarantee that the agents participating in any of the operations of the
service (generation, transmission, distribution, and marketing) do so in
conditions of equality.
d) Revise the legislation and structure of the public enterprises of the sub-
sector.

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e) Guarantee the rational use of renewable and non-renewable natural
resources.
f) Promote the use of alternative sources of energy for the generation of
electricity.
g) Revise the energy distribution structure and promote competition and
reconversion of the companies in charge of distribution, as well as to
promote participations of new companies.
h) Establish the mechanisms for the sale of stocks and any other process that
allows the optimization of resources owned by the Guatemalan Electric
Company [EEGSA, for its acronym in Spanish].
i) All the electric companies will have autonomy to manage the production,
acquisition, and distribution of electricity.
j) Make the necessary changes to the existing legislation, so that each
company can set their own prices.

Law to Promote the Development of New and Renewable Sources of

Energy: The General Law of Electricity constitutes the framework for every
activity dedicated to any part of the process (generation, transmission,
distribution, and marketing). It is important to point out that where the process
of co-generation itself is concerned, there is the existence of this law (Law-
Decree No. 20-86). It has as its fundamental purpose, to promote the
exploitation for new and renewable sources of energy, non-conventional sources
and new sources of energy in the country. It establishes incentives and legal
advantages for the activities involving one or more of the following fields:
Research, experimenting, education, training, promoting, diffusing, production,
and the manufacturing of specific equipment. The use of new and renewable
resources of energy and the marketing of products obtained from theses
activities, are defined as “those such as solar radiation, wind, ocean tides, water,
geothermal, biomass, and any other energy source that is not nuclear or that is
produced by hydrocarbons and its derivates” (Article 7).

Flow of Energy in Co-Generation

In a typical co-generation plant, the main production of steam is made in the

boilers. A water tube boiler constantly receives hot condensates from the
evaporation process; the evaporators produce the condensate after using the
exhaust steam and they return it to the boiler again. The condensate evaporates
only if it receives heat transfer by radiation and convection supplied by the
combustion of bagasse. Simultaneously, bagasse (fuel) will not burn unless
there’s enough ventilation with air from the atmosphere flowing into the burner.
Most modern facilities nowadays pre-heat the air flowing into the combustion
chamber with the chimney gases from the boiler. This maintains an adequate
turbulence and a bagasse bed that favors complete combustion.

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Bagasse is a fuel obtained from the extraction process of sugarcane, meaning
that the efficiency in the boiler will depend on the stability of the milling and
the industrial processes. Two other energy flows generated from the boiler: On
the one side, we have the steam produced that will later be used by the turbines;
and on the other, the energy lost in the chimney gases, which represent the
entropy in this process and which are expelled into the atmosphere. Even
though, the boiler gases are sometimes used to pre-heat the condensates and the
combustion air, they still carry with them an energy surplus that will not be
completely used.

The turbogenerator uses all the energy contained in the steam when it converts
its enthalpy into electrical energy. This electrical energy is used to cover the
demand from the industrial process, the boiler needs, and the turbine itself. The
electrical energy surplus leaves the system towards the national electric network
and the exhaust steam from the turbine, with less pressure and temperature, goes
into the industrial process again to be reused, and then, condensated so it can go
back to the boiler and begin the cycle again. Figure 2 illustrates the flow of the
necessary energy inputs for the co-generation of thermal and electrical energy.

Figure 2. Flow of energy in a co-generating sugar mill

Offer and Demand in the Energy Market

In practice, the amount of energy that can be produced and co-produced by each
sugar mill varies according the capacity of each one has. This has been an
incentive for growth and for investments in the future. At first, sugar mills

359
fixed their interests in the possibility of increasing their energy production
purely for self-consumption, thinking to limit their investments in order to
make their processes more efficient and to increase their in-factory electricity
availability. Nowadays, the focus is on growing as electrical energy suppliers.
Figure 3 shows how generation has grown in the co-generating sugar mills in
the last ten harvesting seasons. They have been favored by the new laws and by
the general increase in the energy demand in the country.
 

Figure 3. Generation growth of sugar mill co-generators

Bagasse is considered biomass, acording to the statistics report of the Wholesale

Market Manager of Guatemala [AMM for its acronym in Spanish]; the internal
electrical energy generation of the country at the end of 2010 was of 7,913.91
GW; around 11.8 per cent of this energy was co-produced from biomass.
Figure 4, shows the annual contribution made to the electrical energy need of
the country by the sugar mills through co-generation in the year 2010.

Figure 4. Electrical energy production in Guatemala in 2010 (% of the total of

GW)

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PROCESSES

Co-Generation Cycles

The co-generation processes or cycles that use steam turbines and are more
widely used in the sugar industry are those of condensation and counterpressure.
The first is the most conventional, the second is the most efficient and modern,
but it needs steam at higher pressure and temperature (i.e. >600 psig y 700 °F).
Besides these two processes, there is a third one currently in the demonstration
and experimentation phase: It is the combined cycle with the gasification of
bagasse. There is no documentation proving the use of this process in
Guatemala.

Counterpressure cycle: These processes get their name because of the steam
turbine that moves the generator of electrical energy. The steam that enters a
counterpressure turbine, whether it be high pressure or low pressure steam,
transforms its enthalpy into kinetic energy, transmitting it into an electrical
energy generator. The steam in the turbine slowly loses pressure and
temperature with every stage in the turbine it passes. These machines are so
efficient that steam never reaches the exhaust, that is to say, its pressure and
temperature are exhausted in the turbine; the steam is extracted by other means,
most frequently vacuum pumps. The steam then passes on to a condensator,
where it cools down and condensates; then it is driven to the beginning of the
cycle to be turned into the steam that goes into the turbine again therefore,
constituting a closed cycle. However, co-generation doesn’t exist in this
disposition; therefore steam extractions are placed at each of the stages in the
turbine so that the different pressures and temperatures of this steam can be
used in the industrial processes.

Steam in the turbine gives off enthalpy and produces work, which is used to
generate electrical energy, which in turn is used for the industrial plant’s
equipment and to be sold to the national electric network.

This type of cycle has an advantage for an industrial process not requiring
exhaust steam. If this is the case, extractions from the turbines can be closed
and all the steam can go to condensation; in this way everything is focused on
generating electrical energy, by means, the turbine can be a dual cycle turbine
co-generating both, during and and after harvest season. Figure 5 illustrates the
most commonplace co-generation cycles.

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Figure 5. Industrial plant operating with both co-generation cycles

Production of Thermal Energy

Primary thermal energy is part of the main line steam; water is heated,
evaporated, and generally taken to a superheated temperature, with pressure and
temperature surpluses; this steam is geared toward the turbines, where it gives
up enthalpy and makes its work.

Fuels Used: One of the basic conditions for co-generation is that only one type
of fuel must be present in the following processes: generation, delivery, and
utilization of energy, both thermal and electrical. In the case of the co-
generators from the Guatemalan Sugar Agroindustry, bagasse is the most often
and widely used. Bagasse constitutes the surpluss biomass from the milling of
sugarcane. Bagasse is a fibrous cellulose compound with a dry biomass heating
value of 19,868.51 KJ/kg and a wet biomass (51%) heating value of 7,887.50
KJ/kg. Table 1 shows the typical chemical composition of cane bagasse.

Table 1. Typical components of bagasse

Compuesto %
Carbon 23.52
Hydrogen 3.47
Oxigen 22.03
Ashes 1.49
Humidity (water) 49.5

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Sugarcane bagasse has three fundamental physical characteristics:

1) Humidity content: This is the most important property in terms of its

energy yield in the production of main-line steam. This depends mostly on
the type of mills and the way the juice extraction is carried out. Usually, the
humidity range of bagasse is between 49 and 52 percent. This means that
for a fuel mass unit burned in the boilers, approximately half is bagasse and
the other half is water.
2) Ash content: The percentage of ash fluctuates between 0.75 and 4 percent.
The amount of ash depends on the type of soil, age, burning, hoisting,
harvesting and washing of the sugarcane before it is milled. Components
will vary according to the type of soil, fertilizers, varieties, climate, etc.
3) Granulometry: The shape, type and arrangement of the fiber depend on the
degree of preparation that sugarcane has during the juice extraction process;
the number of blade sets, pithers, shredders and mills. Thus, the smaller the
bagasse particle, the lower its weight; and therefore, the time it takes the
particle to fall from the furnace’s entrance to the grill is longer. Hence, a
smaller size particle ensures better combustion.

Figure 6 shows the development in the use of bagasse as a fuel. Co-generating

sugar mills have gradually made technological changes in their plants,
substituting fossil fuels (such as Fuel Oil No. 6 or bunker C) for bagasse. Co-
generators have practically doubled their consumption of bagasse in the last ten
harvest seasons. This has brought about an increase in total energy generation
and they have substituted fossil fuels for a cleaner and cheaper fuel.

Figure 6. Generation of energy by co-generators exclusively from bagasse

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Main-line steam production: The fuel coming from the milling of the cane or
from the stock warehouses is fed to the boilers by conveyor belts; once there, it
is either automatically or manually fed into the boiler furnaces.

Boilers are water tube steam generators. They take the thermal energy from the
combustion of bagasse and transfer it to the water inside the tubes, through
convection and conduction on the pipe walls, until it reaches a boiling and
superheating temperature. The furnace in the boiler then continues to absorb
energy in the form of vaporization latent heat; therefore the supply of water to
the boiler must be continuous and constant during operation. The steam
produced is led to the turbine facility through the piping system.

The most important factors to take into account for an adequate and efficient
production of steam in the boilers are:

 Automatic gauging of the pressure is a factor that must be designed

correctly. The gauging circuits must be able to balance the fuel-air ratio
fed to the boilers as well as the gases produced and extracted from the
furnace, so that the operation settings remain constant.
 The humidity in the bagasse is a variable that directly affects the
combustion. If it is too high, the heat produced by the fuel will first have
to evaporate the water contained in the bagasse before burning and
gasifying the fiber. The amount of humidity will depend on the imbibition
water used during the extraction of the juice and on the operating
conditions of the mills. A balance must be found so that resources and
operations can be optimized in order to obtain the greatest possible yield in
the extraction processes and in the generation of the steam.
 Excess air. An efficient steam production process is in which, the excess
in the combustion air is strictly controlled. An excess in air will ensure the
transformation of all the carbon dioxide that will leave in the chimney
gases. On the contrary, a lack of excess air will prevent the fuel from fully
burning, producing carbon monoxide (CO), and carbonous particles. This
increases the losses due to the fuel that didn’t burn completely and
therefore the amount of ashes in the draining systems, the ashtrays and the
chimneys as well. Too much air allows the production of NOX and it
lowers gas temperatures.
 The amount of ash produced. The ashes produced during combustion are
mostly composed of sand from the fields, which doesn’t burn and
immediately passes to the “non-burned” form the boiler. The lightest ashes
and sand fly together with the combustion gases to the chimney; they cause
wear, due to abrasion wherever they pass, especially in the areas where
gases have a maximum velocity.

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 The operation. Best operating practices of a water tube boiler include an
adequate chemical control of the feedwater, an opportune cleaning of the
soot that adheres to the transference pipes, and a fast and efficient cleaning
of the furnace and grill.
 Furnance design. The furnace must have an easy to clean grill; it should
be well sealed, with adequate and well distributed air entries; it should
have bagasse feeders that measure the amount of bagasse going in, as well
as to shred it properly, and to assure an efficient combustion, nozzles
producing the right amount of turbulence.
 Monitoring: The operation variables of the boiler, such as the feedwater,
pressure, temperature, efficiency, steam flow, etcetera, should be
constantly monitored by means of an adequate gauging system; it should
have an alarm system responding to the allowed operating values.

Process steam production: Exhaust steam is not produced directly in the

boilers. This steam generally has a pressure between 15-25 psig; it is the main
line steam that has already given away most of its energy in the turbines; it
comes out of them almost exhausted of energy, and it is led towards the
industrial process, thus becoming a process steam. The amount of exhaust
steam is the same as the amount of steam produced in the boilers, except with
less pressure and temperature. This steam is precisely the number one reason
for a co-generation process. Usually, the industrial process is the one that
determines the amount of steam and the pressure needed; the production of
electricity through co-generation is intimately linked to this need. In other
words, if the industrial process decreases or comes to a stop, electricity co-
generation process must also decrease; and therefore the primary thermal
energy produced in the boilers. Otherwise, the exhaust steam would have to be
spread out into the atmosphere, losing it forever.

Generation of electricity

Electricity is produced by turbogenerators; superheated main-line steam coming

from the boilers that goes into the turbines. Here, the thermal energy is
transformed into mechanical work: The turbine rotates at high speeds while
attached to an electric generator, hence producing an electric current. This
current is transformed and driven to the equipments that use electricity for the
production of sugar and for the generation of electrical energy. The electricity
surpluses are given to the national electrical network so it can be distributed by
other companies.

Transformation of mechanical energy to electrical energy: A turbine is a

high speed rotating machine. It needs a moving force to make it rotate; the
energy needed to make it rotate is provided by the steam, produced in the

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boilers. It is led to the turbine through steel pipes and admitted in it, by means
of admission valves, that automatically control the flow of steam according to
the regulation of electrical charge required. The steam inside the turbine goes
through a nozzle plate in charge of evenly distributing the steam throughout the
first stage vane of the turbine. It does this successively throughout all the stages
of the turbine, losing part of its pressure, temperature and speed, as it goes from
stage to stage. The turbine is connected to an electrical generator, therefore the
latter spins together with the turbine. In some cases, a motorreducer will be
placed between the turbine and the generator. The work done by the steam on
the turbine is manifested as a high speed rotation mechanical energy; the
generator rotor spins inside a fixed stator around it and due to the effect of the
magnetic field produced between them, a high voltage electric current, is
established.

Use of electricity: The electric current that flows from the generator is led to
transformers that raise or low the voltage of the current, depending on the
posterior use. Low voltage energy is sent to the different industrial processes in
order to cover all the internal electricity needs of the plant, such as lighting, air
conditioning, power to move mechanical and electrical equipment, as well as all
electronic control systems.

High voltage electricity, generally between 69,000 to 230,000 Volts at 60 Hz, is

sincronized with the national network and sold as surplus. Parallel to this, the
exhaust steam discharged by the turbine is constantly flowing towards the
industrial process, that is how the co-generation cycle ends and keeps going.

Figure 7. Electricity sales and consumption of co-generating sugar mills

366
Figure 7 shows the increase in electricity produced by co-generating sugar
mills, as well as the consumption within the mills; part of the reason for the
latter, is the electrification of the milling tandems. This consumption represents
an improvement that can be monitored through efficient usage of energy
efficiency indexes.

EFFICIENCY INDEXES
The energy efficiency of a co-generating central in a sugar mill, is measured by
the steam consumption, the production (generation) surplus and the steam
production. These indexes are expressed as:

 Specific process steam consumption (Kgv) per ton of milled sugarcane

(Tc). If the consumption of process steam is decreased, the surpluses in
fuel increase and the range of operation schedules for the co-generating
plant broadens.

Steam consumption = Kgv / Tc

 Specific production index of surplus electricity, expressed in KWh of

surplus electricity (internal consumption not taken into account) per
milled sugarcane ton (Tc). The higher the surplus of electricity, the
greater the revenue due to the increase in volume sold to the national
electric network.

Production surplus = KWh/Tc

 Steam production index; it represents the kg of steam generated in the

boiler for every kg of bagasse used as fuel.

Steam genetarion with bagasse = Kgs / Kgb

It represents the yield of the co-generating process cycle; less bagasse

consumption means a higher fuel surplus and a better use of resources.

COSTS

In order to keep track of the co-generating costs, the cost of fuel-bagasse must
first be established; its cost corresponds to the energy consumed in the
extraction process. Operating costs must be added (personnel and
maintenance), as well as the costs for chemical supplies for the water treatment

367
and electricity costs pertaining to the functioning of the equipment in the co-
generating plant.

In order to determine the costs of co-generation, a differentiation and

distribution of the costs associated with each of the different processes must
first take place:

 The cost of producing electricity

 The cost of producing sugar and of all the electricity consumed during the
process
 The cost of the exhaust steam used in the industrial process.

Second, the way to assign the fuel is defined, which is attributed to each energy
consumer in the process. This allocation should be based, as much as possible,
according to the available enthalpy head, that is to say that energy should be
weighed according to its ability to produce work at the specific point of
demand.

GLOSSARY
Biomass: Mass integrated by a diversity of bio-components with
combustibility characteristics. For the present document, it refers to the mass
subject to combustion in sugar mills, based on, sugarcane bagasse.

Electric power: For a generator, power is the measure of the plant’s capacity
to produce electric energy. It is the amount of electricity available at the plant
for its clients. For a consumer, it is the measure of the amount of electricity it
needs to operate or the amount of electricity demanded by its supplier.

Electrical energy: It refers to the energy resulting from the existence of a

potential difference between two points; this difference allows establishing
current between both points.

Shredders and mills: Equipment that prepares, shreds, and extracts juice and
bagasse from sugarcane.

Harvest season: Period of the year in which sugarcane is harvested,

transported, milled, and processed to produce sugar.

Boiler: Steam generator that uses heat produced by the burning of a fuel in
order to produce steam at specific pressures and temperatures.

368
Turbine: Rotating machine in which steam is used in order to transform
thermal energy to mechanical energy. If it is coupled to a generator, electrical
energy is produced at the same time. The combination of these two machines is
called: a TURBO-GENERATOR.

Water-tube boiler: Boiler that uses a large amount of pipes in which water
circulates; heat is transferred to the circulating water through the pipe walls and
steam is thus produced.

Main-line steam: Steam produced in the water-tube boilers for later use,
exclusively by turbines.

Exhaust steam: Steam that is discharged in the last stage of the turbines, for
which energy can be used in subsequent industrial processes.

AMM: [For the acronym it represents in Spanish] Guatemalan Wholesale

Market Manager. It is the entity in charge of coordinating transactions between
the agents in the electrical energy sector in Guatemala.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Administrador del Mercado Mayorista. 2011. Informe Estadístico 2010.
Guatemala. 32 p.

2. Agüero, C.; Pisa, J.; Andina, R. 2006. Consideraciones sobre el

aprovechamiento racional del bagazo de caña como combustible. Perú. 8 p.

3. Batres, Luis. 2008. Beneficios económicos de instalar una planta

cogeneradora de energía en Guatemala. España. 89 p.

4. Castillo, Leonidas. 2010. Resultados zafra 2009-2010. Presentación de la

Asociación de cogeneradores independientes. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA.

5. Hugot, E. 1964. Manual para Ingenios Azucareros. USA.

6. Kenneth Wark, Jr. 1996. Termodinámica. Quinta Edición. Editorial

McGRAW-HILL. pp. 783-787.

369
7. Logan, Christel. 2008. Régimen jurídico aplicable a la actividad de
generación de energía eléctrica en el ordenamiento jurídico guatemalteco.
Guatemala. 134 p.

8. Spiewak, Scott A. 1987. Cogeneration & Small power production manual.

USA. The Fairmont Press, INC. 642 p.

9. Vargas, Luis; La Fuente, Fernando. 2000. Cogeneración en Chile.

Potencialidad y desafíos. Revista Chilena de Energía. Volumen 430. pp. 1-
4.

370
 PRODUCTION OF ETHANOL
Rodolfo Espinosa y Claudia Ovando

INTRODUCTION

Ethanol or ethyl alcohol is a natural hydrocarbon, with general formula

C2H5OH, which in chemical nomenclature is a derivate of ethane (C2H6). It
is industrially produced by the fermentation process of glucose, a
monomeric carbohydrate present in sucrose and other polymeric compounds,
such as starch and cellulose. The intermediate or final syrups produced in
sugar mills are rich in glucose or in sucrose. They can be converted into a
mix of glucose/fructose by means of acid hydrolysis. These, in turn, can be
transformed into ethanol by means of catalyzed glycolysis reactions with
enzymes produced by microorganisms such as the yeast Saccharomyces
cereviseae.

The industrial production process of ethanol consists of three perfectly well

defined stages: 1) Biochemical reactions which are a product of the
metabolism of the microorganisms used to the effect; they transform
fermentable sugars into ethyl alcohol, as a main product, and into other
metabolic or residual byproducts, that depend on the purity of the raw
material used, and on the environmental conditions in which the reaction
takes place. 2) The separation of the desired product (ethanol) from the rest
of the compounds present in the fermented mash and the concentration of
the product, in order to reduce its volume for its later handling. The most
widely used method to achieve this is distillation – separation of components
due to their relative volatility, its different boiling and condensation
temperatures, and other unit operations such as extraction, adsorption, etc.
3) The treatment, disposition, and best use of the byproducts separated
during distillation. This last stage has recently gained vital importance in
the better use of resources and environmental protection.


Rodolfo Espinosa, Ph.D., is a Chemical Engineer and Industrial Research Program Leader at
CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org; Claudia Ovando is Chemical Engineer, M.Sc. Head of Laboratory
Processes, Bio Etanol, S.A. (Group Pantaleon) www.pantaleon.com

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Figure 1. Production of ethanol

Ethanol, as a product of fermentation has been used for over 40 centuries,

mainly as an intoxicating drink. Other uses have been found for it in the last
200 years, such as industrial and medicinal uses. In the last 40 years yet another
use for it has been found, as motor fuel, mostly due to the high prices of
petroleum.

Uses of ethanol:

 Intoxicating drink
 Solvent for perfume industry and others
 Medicine (antiseptic at 85%)
 Industrial reactant
 Fuel
 Fuel for 4 stroke engines
 Others

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Figure 2. Alcohols and their reactions

BRIEF HISTORY
The production of ethanol in Guatemala probably began in the pre-columbian
era with the manufacturing of intoxicating drinks from corn, possibly, and fruit,
within the family home environment. During the colonial period, thanks to the
import of sugarcane, panela, was eventually used as raw material and its
production became regulated for tax purposes during the mid XIX century.
This brought about a handcrafted distillery industry with wooden fermentation

373
tanks and copper stills installed on the outskirts of the Income Revenue Service
of each of the departments of Guatemala, for better tax control.

During the mid XXth century, panela, and virgin syrups (concentrated juice at
45-60 Brix) producers, together with alchohol producers, got together to install
a production and aging central facility in Santa Lucía Cotzumalguapa, with a
more industrial than traditional infrastructure. Trapiches and sugar mills back
then were the raw material suppliers (virgin syrup for “potable” alcohol and
molasses for industrial alcohol (Circa, 1960)). The Guatemalan annual
production in those years was approximately 5 million liters of ethanol, mostly
for consumption as alcoholic beverages. Production increased during the next
two decades up to 15 million liters, then to 30 million liters per year.
Ultimately, it reached 40 million liters per year and two other distilleries
emerged, one of them annexed, for the first time, to a sugar mill.

Nowadays, sugarcane is harvested in 230,000 hectares of flatlands in the south

coast and some small regions of the east and northeast of Guatemala. The
average yield is 100 ton of cane/hectare. Twenty million tons of cane is
annually milled with an average yield of 0.1 ton of sugar / ton of milled
sugarcane. With the quantity of sugarcane actually cultivated in Guatemala, it
could be possible to produce annually, between 360 million gallons of ethanol,
if if sugar wasn’t produced; and 55 millions of gallons if only the molasses
was processed. The current installed capacity to produce ethanol from molasses
is approximately 40 million gallons a year in five distilleries adjacent to sugar
mills.

The annual consumption of gasoline in Guatemala, which is all imported, is 150

million gallons. If the necessary legislation existed, anhydrous ethanol mixed
with gasoline to a 10% proportion would be able to substitute the MTBE
(methyl-ter butyl-ether) that is incorporated into gasoline as an antiknocking
agent, without making any modification to the vehicles already in circulation.
The current production of ethanol from molasses is enough for such a
substitution without affecting the sugar production in any way. Any surplus in
the production of ethanol could be exported as a means of generating foreign
currency capital, as is already done with present sugar exports.

DISTILLERY ANNEXED TO A SUGAR MILL

With the increase of oil prices and its by-products (i.e. gasoline), the production
of steam inside a distillery became non- cost effective. Steam is used as the
main heat source in the distillation process and its production depended mostly
on Bunker C. At the same time, co-generation of electricity within the sugar

374
mills made the installation of annexed distilleries very attractive. This way, the
exhaust steam from the turbines can be used, the distance syrups have to be
transported can be minimized, the process water condensates can be used and it
counts with the sugar mill’s infrastructure to provide other services for the
distillery. The main disadvantage, though, is that the distillery’s production is
partially subject to the sugarcane harvest season (zafra) . However, with the
rise of coal-fed boilers being implemented in the main sugar mills, production
season can be considerably extended. It is important to note that such annexing
has brought with it a cultural transition in how distilleries are operated, since
some technical terms used in the production of sugar have a different meaning
for the operators in the distilleries, and viceversa; what is relevant for the
former, is not relevant for the later.

Pantaleon Group Courtesy

Figure 3. Ethanol distillery annexed to a sugar mill

Main sections of the ethanol production process

 Raw material preparation; fermentation, distillery; molasses vinasses (slop)

management and services.

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Figure 4. Diagram of a typical process in a distillery

APPLIED PROCESSES

Raw material
Sugarcane mill produce juice with 13% of sugars; it is filtered and concentrated
through evaporation to obtain syrup with 65% of sugars (saccharose, fructose,
glucose, and others). This syrup or “meladura” is subjected to an
evaporation/crystallization process , then separation of the cristals ( table
sugar ) by consecutive centrifuging of syrups A and B. The final syrup, or
syrup C, better known as molasses, has an average content of 50% of
fermentable sugars (typically 33% saccharose, 9% glucose, and 8% fructose).
The production of molasses is of 0.03 ton/ ton of milled cane, that is, 0.24 ton
of molasses/ ton of sugar produced.

376
Figure 5. Syrup production process in a sugar mill

Such molasses currently constitutes the raw material for the production of ethyl
alcohol or ethanol. However, the latter could be produced using any fraction of
the sugar production process as its raw material: juice, concentrated juice,
syrup A or syrup B, depending on the economic factors and the market of both
products. Obviously, the operation conditions and yields in production will
vary depending on the raw material used.

377
Figure 6 shows the general classification of carbohydrates, among which we can
find sugars. It is necessary to note that not all sugars can be transformed into
alcohol by means of glycolysis, which, as its name indicates, originates from the
glucose mollecule. The sugar contained in cane juice and in concentrated juices
or syrups, is mainly sucrose. It has to be converted to glucose by means of acid
hydrolysis (pH 4.5) and catalyzed artificially or naturally with hydrolase.
Hydrolase is produced by yeast (Saccharomyces sp.) and it is separated and
industrially concentrated, so it can be applied as a catalyzer in the reaction
called “sucrose inversion”, in the production of “inverted syrup” or High
Test Molasses (HTM), with a high glucose content (not crystallizable).

Figure 6. Classification of carbohydrates

The following expressions are used in the production of ethanol from the
derivatives of sugarcane:

 Fermentable sugars: Sugars that can be transformed or directly degradated

by microorganisms.
 Reducing sugars: Sugars that reduce the Fehling reactant.
 Not all reducing sugars are fermentable.
 Not all fermentable sugars are reducing.
 However, most fermentable sugars are reducing (approx. 98%).
 Sucrose is not fermentable, as such, and it isn’t reducing either, but when it
is hydrolyzed, it is turned into glucose and fructose, which are both
fermentable and reducing.

378
Figure 7. Structure of saccharose
Source: www.perafan.com

For distillery operators, glucose content is the most important thing. The
total of reducing sugars is an indicator that comes very close to the content
of fermentable sugars. Saccharose as such is not fermentable, but when it
becomes hydrolyzed the glucose-fructose complex is equivalent to two
available molecules of glucose for its conversion to ethanol and carbon
dioxide.

The brix value in fermentation, even though, it is an easily and quick

indicator that can be obtained, it is a measure of total solids, not of the
fementable sugars in the molasses mixture. Futhermore, such content of
solids and fermentable sugars varies constantly, from day to day and even
from hour to hour; depending on a series of factors, such as the origin and
variety of sugarcane used, how far along the harvest season is, the sugar
mill’s efficiency rate, the storage conditions of the mixture, etc. Therefore,
the use of brix as a parameter to characterize and predict fermentation
results is inaccurate, as well as, the determination of the reducing sugars;
and both methods are now unused, since high precision liquid
chromatography (HPLC) is available. It offers fast, precise results of
saccharose, glucose, fructose, organic acids and ethanol, as separate
fractions.

Figure 8 shows the variations in the sugar content with respect to Brix in some
molasses samples.

379
Figure 8. Relationship in sugar concentration and Brix degrees

Microbiology

The production of alcohol is a multidisciplinary process based on chemistry,

biochemistry, and microbiology. In the past, the production of alcohol was
considered an artform, and it wasn’t until 150 years ago that the science of
alcohol fermentation was described. Treating the process with full knowledge on
its scientific basis it is possible to reduce the number of microbiological and
engineering problems, thus obtaining better operation results and a better use of
the raw materials (Ingledew, ATB). Having knowledge of the microbiological
aspects of alcohol fermentation is fundamental, since the main players in the
reaction are yeasts and the other competing microorganisms (bacterial
contamination).

Yeast is a type of unicellular fungus (eumycete). It is generally reproduced

through budding. Being unicellular microorganisms, they grow and reproduce
faster than filamentous fungi in proportion to their weight; they are better
equipped to carry out chemical changes since they have a greater surface area in
proportion to their volume. They are easily differentiated from most bacteria due
to their relatively large size (Pelczar, 1982). They differ in size and shape; they
can measure anywhere from 1-5 microns in diameter.

The most widely used yeast in the regular alcohol fermentation processes is the
Saccharomyces cereviseae strain (bread leavening yeast).
380
Figure 9. Saccharomyces cereviseae stock.

Alcohol is produced by the metabolization of glucose ( Glycolysis ) by the yeast.

In aerobic conditions (with the presence of air), the reproduction of yeast is
stimulated, whereas fermentation occurs in anaerobic conditions (absence of air);
both reactions start out the same way and their common branch is glycolysis
(successive reactions for the conversion of glucose into energy by enzyme
reactions). During this conversion of glucose, byproducts like ethyl acohol, carbon
dioxide and in a lesser degree, glycerol and some organic acids, are produced.

Some of the enzymes that participate in fermentation are diastase, invertase or

hydrolase, and zimase; this last one is responsible for directing the biochemical
reaction that converts glucose into ethanol.

Figure 10. Saccharomyces cereviseae metabolism in the production of ETOH

381
Fermentation

Fermentation fundamentals: Transformation/degradation reaction of organic

matter catalyzed by enzymes, inside or outside the cell, in a controlled way or
not, to produce cell protoplasma, desired or not metabolites, microorganism
reproduction in the presence or absence of air.

The sugar contained in the dilluted syrups to the desired concentration is mainly
converted into ethyl alcohol by fermentation; as stated before, fermentation is a
series of reactions catalyzed by enzymes produced by microorganisms (yeast,
Saccharomyces sp) following the biochemical route of glycolysis. Such route
describes the reactions that would happen if the substrate were a pure glucose
solution. But when the substrate is a molasses solution or a mid-syrup solution
from sugarcane, that besides fermentable sugars, they contain an ample variety
of compounds (more than 200 have been identified) then, they can react under
the environmental conditions of the fermentation process, allowing other
byproducts; some of these subproducts are: Methanol, cetones, aldehydes,
organic acids (pyruvic, succinic, acetic) and higher alcohols with more than
three carbons in their composition (propanol, butanol, pentanol, etc.). This
group of alcohols, very closely related to each other, and with very similar
physical-chemical qualities, are collectively known as “fusel oil” due to their
oily appearance and because of their low affinity with water.

For preliminary calculation purposes and for in-plant yield estimations, the
basic reaction to be used is the following:

Figure 11. Production of ethanol (basic reaction)

382
The real yield is much lower due to the formation of other compounds, as it was
described in the previous paragraph; besides, yeast cells are also formed at the
expense of glucose. Yield optimization depends then, on the quality of the raw
material, the process adopted and the operating conditions of such process.

In general, it is important to note that:

 Yeast reproduces more in the presence of air (respiration) and when nutrients are
present (nitrogen, phosphorus, and trace elements).
 In the absence of air (fermentation) and with limited nutrients (which limit the
formation of DNA and RNA), yeast reproduces on a lesser extent, and it
produces alcohol as part of its survival metabolism, as well as other compounds.
 Exposing yeast to high concentrations of ethanol and CO2 for long periods of
time, reduce its viability.
 A massive inoculum has a higher possibility of reaching the desired efficiency in
the process in a non-aseptic culture, that is , in competition with bacterial
contamination.
 The chosen species of microorganism (S.sp.) will react according to the
environmental conditions surrounding it (i.e. pH, temperature, relative substrate
concentration, and rheology).
 Glycolysis, for the production of ethanol, is an exothermic reaction; thus, the
heat generated inside the reactor must, somehow, be removed in order to keep
the internal temperature as close as possible to the optimum temperature,
favoring the chosen yeast species (i.e. 33°C).

Figure 12. Activity in the fermentator

383
Figure 13 shows the progress of the biochemical reactions in the conversion of
sugars into ethanol and yeast cell mass. Under normal conditions, these
reactions can be completed in periods from 24 to 60 hours, depending on the
initial concentration of fermentable sugars and the size of inoculum . It is
important to note, though, that the variables that characterize fermentation vary
with respect to time at different rates (different slopes) clearly defining three
stages:

1) Adaptation or “lag” period of the yeast inoculum to the initial conditions

and auto-adjustment to the proper environment. This occurs at an
industrial level in the reactor called the “Propagator,” under aerobic and the
most aseptic conditions possible.
2) Exponential growth period. Under optimum conditions, yeast reproduces
and develops its metabolic activity at a constant rate increase . Such
activity is used in the “pre-fermentator”; this is a piece of equipment in
charge of performing the transition between the aerobic and the anaerobic
stages.
3) Stabilization and death period. It takes place in the main fermentator with
the initial inoculum in its exponential phase and with maximum substrate
volume. Metabolic activity gradually decreases; as the available substrate
concentration decreases, the metabolite concentration increases until the
source of energy and nutrients is exhausted, causing the death or inhibition
of the microorganisms.

Figure 13. Progress of the fermentation reaction

384
Figure 14 shows all three stages:

Figure 14. Fermentation sequence

Batch fermentation: It is also known as discontinuous fermentation. A

fixed volume of molasses solution is fed into a tank reactor or fermenter,
together with the necessary nutrients and the necessary yeast inoculum to start
the reaction. The inoculum is previously prepared from a pure yeast stock in a
laboratory, and then propagated in incremental fractions until it reaches
between 5 and 10 percent of the total volume. Some distilleries have opted
for buying the inoculum already reproduced in the form of fresh or dried
commercial yeast and just adding it directly into any of the final stages
previous to the fermenter. With this, contamination risks are avoided and
financial investment in the reproduction/propagation equipment is saved.
After the necessary time period for the exhaustion of all the sugar has passed
by and it has obtained the maximum ethanol concentration, the batch is taken
as finished, and the totality of the volume in the fermentator is transferred to
the distillation process.

385
Figure 15. Batch fermentation

Batch fermentation with yeast recycle: In this case, after the initial batch is
done, a fraction of the yeast present is separated by centrifugation, then
washed with clean water and submitted to a low pH treatment (2.5-3.5), in
order to force the cells to naturally protect themselves by strenghtening their
cell wall and making themselves more resistant and supposedly healthier.
The yeast cream, treated like that, constitutes the inoculum for the next batch,
meaning that, less sugar would be use in the formation of yeast protoplasm,
leaving the rest available for the formation of ethanol, and thus increasing the
fermentation yield. The supernatant after centrifugation, which contains the
alcohol of the entire batch, is transferred to the distillation process. This
process is repeated successively until the yeast cream is no longer in optimum
conditions, and a new cycle begins. This variant in the fermentation process
is no longer used in Guatemala because it requires more energy, more input
and materials, more control and it did not show significant savings or gain.

386
Figure 16. Batch fermentation with yeast reusage (Melle-Boinot)

Continuous fermentation: In this kind of process, a continuous flow of the

molasses solution is fed into the reactor, while a similar flow of fermented must
is removed from it in a continuous fashion; this establishes a steady state inside
the reactor where the cell mass, ethanol and sugar concentration are constant
and in equilibrium. Since the concentration of sugars cannot be allowed to
decrease to its minimum for the yeast’s sake, the fermented mash is sent to a
second stage of sugar depletion and maximum ethanol production; after this, the
must is sent to the distillation process. When observing the kinetic curves of the
production of ethanol, it becomes apparent that there are two well defined
stages that suggest the adequate design of the volume of the reactors for both
stages. Continuous fementation requires even more control, and the bacterial
contamination risks are higher since it is not economically viable to sterilize the
molasses solution previous to its inoculation. When this type of fermentation is
used, it must be understood that the fermentation is meant to be continuous
but not perpetual.

387
Figure 17. Continuous fermentation

Discontinuous fermentation with continuous pre-fermentation: This is a

variant of the previous process where the kinetics of alcohol fermentation is
used at a maximum level.

Yeast is propagated once and fed into the pre-fermentator, so it can develop its
logarithmic cell growth and production rate of ethanol. Feeding the syrup or
molasses solution is done in a continuous manner. When the volume is
complete and the culture has been kept in its optimum exponential conditions,
part of it (80%) is transferred to the final fermentator as inoculum , at the same
time that this is being filled up. The 20% that remains in the pre-fermentator is
used as inoculum for the fermentable culture medium that is continuously fed
into it, in preparation for the subsequent fermentator, and so on. This allows the
fermentation curves to be kept optimized; it also shortens the total fermentation
cycle since fermentation also occurs during the filling and emptying of the
fermenters.

388
Figure 18. Batch fermentation with continuous pre-fermentation

Other important general considerations are:

 The lower the initial concentration of fermentable sugars, the higher the
reaction velocity and the greater the yield: R= ΔP / ΔS, but the lower the
volume of product obtained.

 The higher the concentration of fermentable sugars and total solids, the
slower the reaction and the lower the yield, but the higher the concentration
of product P in the final must and the higher the productivity: P = R / Δt,
up to a certain limit for each species, as can be appreciated in Figure 19.

389
 Even though values of up to 16 percent alcohol in the final must have been
reported (obtained at bench scale after 120 hours), for practical purposes at
an industrial level, 11 percent of the volume can be obtained in a 48 hour
cycle, with an efficiency of up to 88 percent (Eff = R real x 100 / R
stoichiometrical).

Figure 19. Fermentation curves

Distillation

Distillation fundamentals: Distillation is a physical process for the separation

of two or more compounds with different molecular weight from the solution by
virtue of, their relative volatility and the difference in their boiling points. All
compounds have, among their physical properties, a corresponding boiling and
condensation point under different pressure conditions and that are specific to
each compound. When a heat is applied to a solution or mixture of compounds,
the boiling point of each is reached, one at a time and each one volatilizes,
thus separating it in the form of gas or vapor from the other or others still in
their liquid phase. This is done at industrial scale using pieces of equipment
called distillation columns, designed to contain both phases.

390
Figure 20. Separation of two components through distillation

In a continuous column, the heat is applied at the bottom and the solution to
be distilled is fed through the top or middle of the column. In this way, the
vapors at the bottom have to go up and while they do so, they are enriched
with the compound that is to be separated when they come in contact with
the liquid being fed. The vertical column has horizontal trays that provide
surface contact between the vapor and liquid to promote mass transfer. The
liquid that comes down, transfer the content of the product being separated
into the rising vapors, without reaching its own boiling point.

The more volatile fractions that reach the higher part of the column have to
turn back to the liquid phase in order to be adequately recovered and
managed. This is achieved by cooling the product down in heat exchangers
called condensers. In distilling two or more components, as it is the case of
ethanol from sugarcane by-products, akin fractions of the solution can be
separated by parcial condensers. The desired product, free of its similar
undesired components, is recirculated to the highest tray to enrich the liquid
phase and henceforth become extracted from the column as a final product.

Not all the individual fractions can be separated in a single distillation

column, first, because for large production volumes, a single column would
be difficult and impractical to be built , for structural reasons; and also

391
because all the products resulting from fermentation are very similar and
akin to each other; therefore the liquid and gaseous portions that are in
equilibrium in each tray are really a mix of various components; hence,
other thermodynamic conditions are necessary in order to separate them, and
in some cases, even other and different unit operations are necessary, such
as extraction, adsorption, decanting, etc.

Figure 21. Multi-component distillation column

Figure 22 illustrates a typical contemporary distillation arrangement. In it,

the heat source, low pressure steam, no longer comes into direct contact with
the fermented mash being distilled. Instead, it transfers its heat to the liquid
at the bottom of the column in a re-boiler. The vapors that are formed in
this exchange are the ones that rise throughout the column, so they can be
enriched with ethanol. The volume of the vinasse (distilling slops or
stillage) at the bottom of the column is in this manner reduced, and the clean
condensed steam can return to the boiler, and so contribute to the energy
and water savings of the sugar mill. This arrangement also shows the use of
cooling water in a cascade arrangement so as to attain the necessary
minimum temperature gradients for the condensation of the volatile
fractions. On the other hand, the primary vapors that are to be condensed,
can be used as a heat source for a re-boiler, part of another distillation
column set up next to it.

392
Figure 22. General distillation diagram

Figure 23. Combination of refluxes and reboilers

Distillation of the fermented must: The fermented must, with analcoholic

content between 8 and 11 percent, passes through a distillation process, in order
to separate ethanol from cogeneric compounds, thanks to its relative volatility.
The necessary heat is provided by the residual steam coming from the sugar
mill. Azeotropic distillation allows an alcohol concentration of 95.5 percent.

393
Figure 24. Multicomponent fractions in the distillation of alcohol

Azeotrope is the chemical term used for two liquids at a specific concentration
that vaporize together, and at the same time, because they boil at the same
temperature. Ethanol and water cannot separate from each other, when the
mixture reaches 95.5 G.L (that is , 95.5 % Ethanol and 4.5 % water, by
volume), since they form an azeotrope at that concentration, and therefore
vaporize together. The 4.5 percent of water remaining must be removed
through some dehydration process, such as adsorption, by means of a molecular
sieve if the final product is to be used as a fuel (MFG, motor fuel grade). The
residue left behind by distillation is known as vinasse (stillage); depending on
the alcohol percent in the fermented mash and how much it can be recirculated
into the process, anywhere between 2.5 and 10 L of vinasse per liter of ethanol,
is produced. A commonplace practice is to dispose of the vinasse in the
sugarcane fields through irrigation to return the nutrients back to the soil.

Depending upon the desired product(s) quality, the arrangements of the

columns vary from one distillery to another. Some modern distilleries are able
to produce a variety of products, even simultaneously, though this implies a
greater financial investment for a higher number of columns, and a much more
complicated operation.

Some typical arrangements are illustrated in the following paragraphs:

394
Barbet Distillation: It is the most widely used column combination for the
production of heavy rums and spirits. The first column (beer or stripper
column) separates everything that isn’t water, glycerol and solids into vapor; the
former elements go to the bottom of the column as vinasse (stillage). The light
components mixture goes on to the top of this column and then into the second
column (purifying or “heads” column), where the compounds more volatile than
ethanol (methanol, adehydes, ketones and volatile acids), evaporate; ethanol
remains in a mixture with water and heavy alcohols (fusel oil) in liquid form;
this mixture is removed from the bottom of the column so as to feed the third
column (concentrating or rectifying column). In this last column, the fusel oil is
extracted by the first third of the column; the water (flegm) is extracted from the
bottom and the ethanol and its remaining cogenerics are recovered as the final
distilled product from.

Figure 25. Barbet distillation

Extractive distillation: This is a variation of the previous arrangement. In it,

the purifying column is substituted by an extractive distillation column. That is,
a column in which the operations of distilling and extraction are combined and
take place simultaneously. Thanks to a phenomenon discovered in the middle
of the XXth century, both the light cogenerates as well as the heavy ones, when
combined, have a relative volatility higher than the ethanol solution – water,
when it is close to 14 percent of the volume. The water at the bottom of the
third column is used to dilute the recovered solution from the first column,
favoring the necessary conditions to extract alcohol from the mixture; then take

395
it to the bottom of the column so it can be fed into the rectification column,
where it is easily separated as binary distillation.

Figure 26. Extractive distillation

Purification and ethanol recovery: In order to obtain alcohol with the least
possible amount of cogenerates (names for this vary from region to region,
they are colloquial and are not official: high grade, neutral, extra-neutral,
super-fine, etc.), additional columns are added to the basic arrangement of
extractive distillation; in order to: a) recover alcohol from the volatile
fractions, and b) to eliminate any trace of cogenerics that could still be in the
rectified alcohol; the latter is usually achieved through the optimization of
the temperature profiles in the rectifying column.

Figure 27. High grade alcohol

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Dehydration: Under positive pressure conditions, there is a maximum value
for the alcohol concentration in water (between 95.5 and 96.5%) in ethanol-
water distillation, depending on the atmospheric pressure of the site. So the
product of azeotropic distillation is “hydrated” ethanol. Alcohol with water
cannot be used as a fuel for obvious reasons. However, it is possible to
“dehydrate” alcohol by other industrially used procedures, such as:

 Use of vacuum pressure in the column so as to lower the boiling point of

ethanol, and thus displacing the azeotrope to a concentration of 99.5 percent v/v.

 Add a third component which when mixed with water has a different
boiling point than the original mix, therefore displacing the azeotrope also.
Additionally, the third component has more affinity to water than ethanol,
and it extracts the water from the original mix, forming a new mixture of
water/solvent that is later distilled to recover the third component for further
use.

 Make the mix go through resins with high affinity with water and with
enough contact area so as to adsorb it. When the gaps in the resin
(molecular sieve) become saturated with water, the latter becomes desorbed
by means of steam heat forced into the column containing the resin.

 Nanomembranes with a very small pore (at a molecular level) that they
function as sieves, which only allows the water molecules to pass them
through, since it is significantly smaller than the ethanol molecule.

The first two methods have both fallen into disuse, and the fourth is not
commercially available yet.

Figure 28. Dehydrated alcohol

397
Products and Quality

The final product of the alcohol production process through sugar fermentation
and distillation of the fermented mash is ethyl alcohol (ethanol). The
classification of the types of alcohol obtained from distillation processes, is based
on the composition and concentration of the alcohol and byproducts produced and
on plant design.

Some plants are designed exclusively to produce hydrated alcohol, characterized

by having the maximum obtainable water concentration due to the azeotrope.
Others have additional processes so as to eliminate the water not removed during
azeotropic distillation, and thus producing dehydrated alcohol. Then, according
to the degree of purifying or rectification applied, different product qualities or
compositions can be obtained.

Hydrated alcohol: There is a wide range of specifications for hydrated alcohol,

and they usually vary from client to client. It can be characterized according to its
final purpose (i.e. potable alcohol) and some minimum requirements, such as the
alcohol content, the oxidation period, the amount of methanol and higher
alcohols allowed, esters, ketones, and other cogeneric products. It is important to
make a sensory evaluation of the product, such as a taste, aroma and visual
inspection analysis when evaluating a product, not just chromatography and
physical-chemical analysis.

It can be observed that quality requirements for hydrated alcohol are more
demanding than one used for fuel; the reason is that hydrated alcohol is usually
used in drinks, perfumes or pharmaceuticals, where it is a requirement that other
components do not interfere with the properties of the desired product.

Common types of hydrated alcohol

Raw alcohol: A non-rectified alcohol, usually between 92 and 95 percent v/v of

alcohol; also called crude alcohol. Its smell, taste and cogeneric products depend
on the raw material it came from. It is usually sold as raw material for later
rectification and refining.

Industrial alcohol: It contains at least 95 percent v/v of ethanol; it may have

some degree of rectification, however, its characteristics are not enough to
consider it as potable. It is mainly destined for the chemical (dye solvent, paints,
and resins) and pharmaceutical industries. It has a high aldehyde, ester and fusel
alcohol (higher alcohols) content, a strong and unpleasant smell. It is also called
semi-rectified alcohol, second degree alcohol or REN type alcohol.

398
Extra-neutral alcohol: Alcohol with at least 96-96.2 percent v/v, destined for
the production of light liquours, such as vodka and gin; on a lesser scale, it is also
used in fine perfume production and in some pharmaceuticals. It is soft and
odorless; it passes rigorous organoleptic tests, usually carried out by expert
tasters. It contains almost no adehydes, dry residues or fusel alcohols.

Neutral and extra-neutral alcohols are rectified; the amount of times it is rectified
depends on the amount of impurities present in the wines and fermented mashes
they come from or on the process design. They are also called extra-fine
alcohols. When dehydrated, it becomes an absolute alcohol (99.9%).

Table 1 shows an example of how the quality and the reaction time to
permanganate of the product increases as the amount of cogenerics decreases;
these same specifications vary depending on the sales region (Europe, United
States of America, Japan, etc.) and the client’s requirements. The main
properties were included; however, depending of its final destination or the
desired purity, more parameters may be needed for evaluation; in some cases,
even the color might need evaluation through specific wave lengths or the aroma,
according to expert tasters.

Table 1. Types of alcohol according to their properties

Neutral Extra-
Industrial
Properties Units Raw (potable or neutral
(REN)
fine) (extra-fine)
Degree of
alcohol % v/v 94-95.2 95-96 96 min 96-96.2 min
@20°C
Acidity as acetic
mg/100 mL 3 max 2 max 1.5 max 0.5 max
acid
Volatile material mg/100 mL 4 max 4 max 1 max 1 max
Methanol mg/100 mL 35 max 5 max 1.5 max 1 max
Ésters mg/100 mL 10 max 6 max 2.1-4 0.2 – 1 max
Aldehydes mg/100 mL 3 max 5 max 1.1 - 6 0.2- 1 max
ISO propanol mg/100 mL 1 max 1 max 0.5 max 0.5 max
Higher alcohols
mg/100 mL 20 max 10 max 0.5 max 0.5 max
( fusel oil)
Permanganate
minutes 1 min 5 min 25 mínimum 36-50
time at 15°C
Without Without Without
Without particles
Aspect particles in particles in particles in
in suspensión
suspension suspension suspensión
Clear Clear Clear Clear
Color
transparent Transparent transparent Transparent
Neutral Neutral
without trace without trace
Odor Characteristic Characteristic
of other of other
materials materials

399
Dehydrated alcohol: It is the alcohol on which the remaining water after
rectification has been removed. This is usually done by means of molecular
sieving or with extractive distillation (benzene /hexane), although the latter
is almost no longer used.

Its main use of the dehydrated alcohol is on fuel ignited engines and for its
compatibility when mixed with gasoline. It is commonly known as motor
fuel grade ( MFG) ethanol, anhydrous ethanol, and anhydrous ethyl-
alcohol. When it is prepared with a denaturalizer it is called denatured fuel
ethanol. A denaturalizer is a substance added to fuel and industrial ethanol
which makes it unsuitable for human intake but suitable for automobile or
industrial use. Denatured alcohol has different specifications to those of
plain fuel alcohol since the proportions of its components change.

The international standards that govern the quality of fuel alcohol are
mainly concentrated in three regions: Brazil, USA, and the European Union.
Brazilian standards (NBR) are given by the Brazilian Association of
Thechnical Standards [ABNT for its acronym in Portuguese], the American
standards by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and
the European standards by the European Committee for Standardization
[CEN for its acronym in French], although some standards exist for specific
clients with exclusive uses. Despite the differences in each of the standards,
the quality requirements are similar; this has brought actions since 2006
between the governments of Brazil and the USA, as well as a committee
representing the European Union, to unify the quality standards in order to
significantly increase the market viability of the product. On December
2007, members of this team published the first results of the pertaining
discussions, negotiations, and recommendations for the different
standardizing bodies (TTF, 2007). However, as long as there isn’t a unified
standardization document, producers will seek to comply with the
requirements of their main clients and local regulations. That is why, it is
important to know the standards and, above all, its meaning for each quality
requirement. Even though Guatemala still hasn’t commercialized fuel
alcohol or gasoline, and fuel alcohol mixtures within the country, there is an
important alcohol production that exported to other countries. For that
reason, it is imperative to know the importance of each requirement
application for its consequent effect on the motors equipment. Table 2 shows
the most commonly utilized specifications for fuel alcohol.

400
Table 2. Fuel alcohol specifications (Silva, 2007)

Requirement Unit Brazil ASTM Europe Method or norm

Density (20°C) kg/m3 max 791.5 NBR 5992/
Alcoholic % m/m min/min 99.3* / ASTM D 4052
degree at %v/v 99.6
20°C
Ethanol content % m/m min/min 98.7** ASTM D 5001/
at 20°C %v/v 92.1** EC*2870/200 METHOD
B/ASTM D 4052
Water % m/m max/max 0.7 0.3 ASTM E 203/ PR EN
%v/v 0.1 15489
Total acidity as mg/l max/max 30 56 56 NBR 9866/ASTM D
acetic acid %m/m 0.007 0.007 1613-06/PREN 15488
Electric mS/m max 500 NBR 10547
conductivity
pH 6.5-9.0 ASTM D 6423
Copper mg/kg max 0.07 0.1 0.1 NBR 10893/ASTM D
1688ª/PREN 15492
Chlorides mg/kg max/max 40 ASTM D 7319-7/ASTM
Mg/l 32 20 7328-07E1/PREN
5484/15492
Washed gums mg/100 max 5 ASTM D 381
ml
Aspect clear clear clear ASTM D 4176-07/
VISUAL
Methanol %v/v max 0.5 ASTM D
%m/m 1 5501/EC/2870/2000/EN
1601/EN 13132
Higher alcohols %m/m max 2 EC/2870/2000 EN
(C3-C5) 1601/EN 13132
Sulphur mg/kg max 30 10 ASTM D 2622/D3120
ASTM D
5453/D6468/PREN
15485/15486
Non-volatile mg/l max 100 ASTM D 1353-
materials 03/EC/2870/2000,
METHOD II
*Densimetry, **Gas chromatography. ASTM- American Society of Testing Materials, NBR-Associação
Brasileira de Normas Técnicas, EC-European Community, EN-European Norms, prEN-Draft method

Note: all specifications include these requirements; in fact, there are some that include other
characteristics such as the phosphorous, nitrogen, benzene, cyclohexane, lead, sulfate and sodium
content, among others. It also depends on the client and the specific use for the product.

Byproducts

Vinasse: As it was previously said, the residue from distillation is known as

vinasse or stillage, and depending on how much of it can be returned and
recycled into the process, 3 to 14 L of vinasse is produced for every liter of

401
ethanol. Common practice tries to dispose of the vinasse in the irrigation of the
sugarcane fields, so as to return nutrients into the soil.

Vinasse is no longer considered a waste but a valuable byproduct. It carries

with it usable heat, minerals, organic compounds, protein and vitamines
contained in the yeast. It can be recovered and used as animal feed, as a
fertilizer full of mineral and organic salts for the sugarcane fields, as a substrate
for the production of methane due to the residual carbohydrates, and other
biodegradable compounds by means of anaerobic fermentation for fuel used in
the sugar mill or in the distillery. Likewise, the water in it can be recovered
through evaporation or filtration, and the residual solids can be managed as
compost and even as solid fuel.

Depending on the specific conditions of each company and their technical-

economical analysis, any combination of the above mentioned processes can be
applied, so as to obtain the best benefit out of the ethanol byproduct, both
economically and for the environment.

Figure 29. Vinasse treatment and disposition options

Carbon Dioxide: During fermentation, a quantity of carbon dioxide, CO2,

approximately equal to the mass of ethanol generated by the metabolism of
yeast, is produced. The evolution of CO2 within the fermentator causes
turbulence, producing natural stirring as a benefit, since mechanical stirring is
therefore, no longer needed.

The main use given to carbon dioxide, industrially, is as a preservant in

carbonated drinks and for the production of dry ice. It is profitable only when

402
these industries are located close to the distilleries. It is also an inhibitor for
undesired fermentations that occur during the storing of molasses or syrups; in
such cases, molasses are sometimes kept under a CO2 atmosphere, on the top of
the content in the storage tank.

It is important to consider that it is also a greenhouse gas, and because of this,

the research is being done on its recovery and uses so as to decrease its effect on
the atmosphere.

Cogenerics

Fusel oils or Higher alcohols: Sugar products also contain aminoacids; yeasts
assimilate the radical nitrogen in the synthesis of new aminoacid compounds,
such as proteins and enzymes.

Among these aminoacids present in the juices and syrups, leucine, isoleucine,
valine, etc, can be mentioned. Which when deprived of the radical containing
nitrogen, they give alcohols as a product of the reaction, causing the formation
of aliphatic higher alcohols with the general formula CnH2n+1OH (n from 3 to
8). They have high molecular weight, and it is due to their viscuous
appearance, that their mixture is called fusel oil. The name fusel oil comes from
the German word fousel which means “evil spirits”.

Among the main higher alcohols found in fuel alcohol are: propanol,
isopropanol, butanol, isobutanol, amyl and isoamyl alcohol, these last two,
generally in a higher proportion than the others.

As an example of the conversion reactions from aminoacids in alcohols, the

following global reactions are presented:

 leucine + water -----------------------> isoamyl alcohol

(CH3)2.CH.CH2.CH(NH2).COOH + H2O----> (CH3)2.CH.CH2.CH2OH + NH3 + CO2

 isoleucine + water --------------------> amyl alcohol

CH3 (CH2)3.CH (NH2).COOH + H2O --->CH3. (CH2)3. CH2OH + NH3 + CO2

 valine + water ------------------------> n-butyl alcohol

(CH3) 2.CH.CH(NH2).COOH + H2O ----> (CH3)2.CH.CH2OH + NH3 + CO2

 alfa-amino butyl alcohol + water -----> n-propyl alcohol

CH3.CH2.CH (NH2).COOH + H2O ------> CH3.CH2.CH2OH + NH3 + CO2

403
The production of the higher alcohol mixture or fusel oil reaches average values
between 0.4 and 0.6 percent of the total alcohol production.

The amount of fusel oil obtained in a distillery will depend mainly on the
conditions of fermentation and on the fusel extraction tray selection system, for
the rectifying column and concentrating of heads.

Composition of the fusel oil: The typical composition of the fusel oil obtained
in distilleries that process sugarcane juices or syrups, is shown in the following
table.

Table 3. Typical composition of fusel oils

Compound Chemical formula Concentration (%v/v)

Acetaldehyde C2H4O 0.003
Propanol CH3CH2CH2OH 0.060
Ethyl acetate C4H8O2 0.008
Iso-butanol C4H10O 0.076
n-butanol CH3(CH2)2CH2OH 0.025
3-pentanol C5H12O 0.002
Isoamyl Alcohol (CH3)2CHCH2CH2OH 63.53
n- amyl C5H12O 0.186
2,4 dimetyl 3 pentanol C7H16O 0.001
Furfural C5H4O2 0.008
n-amyl acetate C7H14O2 0.583

Uses of fusel oil: Due to the low production of fusel oil in distilleries, it is
economically unviable to use it by ways of separating the cogenerates it
contains. This is the reason why it is usually disposed of as waste or used as
fuel in the distillery or sugar mill boilers. However, it can serve as raw material
for the production of acetates using esterification reactions.

Other materials
Besides molasses, ethanol production requires other materials, such as nutrients,
chemicals, process water, cooling water, electricity and steam. Some of these
materials can be obtained at a nominal price as byproducts from the sugar mill,
while others must be specifically obtain for the distillery. These materials will
depend on the equipment, technology, and process available.

404
Table 4. Energy and other materials required in distilleries

DIST 1 DIST 2 DIST 3 DIST 4 DIST 5 KATZEN LITERATURE **

Steam, Kg / 3 4.2 3.5 5.5 4.8 2.28- 5.21 4.8
Liter of
Alcohol *
EE KW / 0.033 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.03 0.03
Liter of
Alcohol
L Alcohol / 252 262 260 264 261 267
t molasses
49FS
H2SO4 lb / 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.0038
L Alcohol
UREA, lb / 0.004 0.008 0.0015
L Alcohol
H3PO4 lb 0.0025 0.0015
/ L Alcohol
Yeast lb / L 0.0015 0.02 0.005 0.008 0.0025
Alcohol
* Depending on the arrangement of the columns and on the final product design
** Peters & Timmerhaus.
IRAS Statement of Capabilities.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Aiba, S.; Humphrey, A.; Millis, N. 1975. Biochemical Engineering. 2nd
Edition, Academic press, London , UK.

2. Borzani, W.; Almeida e Lima, V.; Aquarone, E. 1975. Biotecnología –

Enghaniaria Bioquímica. Edgard Blucker Ltda.

3. Espinosa, R. 1984. The alcoholic Fermentation of molasses- practical

aspects. Doctoral dissertation, Century University, New Mexico.

4. Duarte, P.; Vânya, Marcia. 2006. Especificaciones de la calidad del etanol

carburante y del gasohol (mezcla de dasolina y etanol) y normas técnicas
para la infrastructura. Naciones Unidas, Comisión Económica para América
Latina y El Caribe-CEPAL. LC/MEX/L.71/Rev.1. pp. 3-7.

5. Ingledew, W. M. 2009. The Alcohol Textbook, 5th Edition. Ethanol

Technology Institute. Nothingham,University press.

6. Normas: ASTM D 891-95, 2004; ASTM D 4052-96, 1996; ASTM D 4806-

6 c, 2006; ASTM D 5798-06, 2006; ASTM D 5501, 2004; ASTM D 1613,
2006; ASTM D 6423-99, 2004; ASTM D 4176, 2004.

405
7. Paturau, J. M. 1982. Byproducts of the Cane Sugar Industry. Elsevier
Scientific Publishing Co. New York.

8. Prescott, S.; Dunn, C. 1967. Industrial Microbiology, McGraw- Hill, co.

9. Peters, M.; Timmerhaus, K. 1980. Plant Design and Economics for

Chemical Engineers, McGraw –Hill, N.Y.

10. Reynolds, R. 2002. Fuel Specification and Fuel Property Issues and Their
Potential Impact on the Use of Ethanol as a Transportation Fuel.
Downstream Alternatives Inc. Phase III Project Deliverable Report. Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, Ethanol Project. pp. 2-2/2.

11. Silva Junior, J. F. 2007. Market specification and Methods for Fuel Ethanol.
Simposium on BioFuels: Measurements and Standars to Facilitate the
Transition to a Global Commodity. US National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), Brazil's National Institute of Metrology (INMETRO).
UNICA/IETHA. June 26-29, 2007. Pp.

406
 COPRODUCER PERSPECTIVES
ON SUGARCANE
Mario Muñoz

INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, the Sugar Industry bases its production on three main products:
Sugar, electricity, and alcohol. The markets for these three products show
demands with a certain variation, which at specific times may show uncertainty
and less revenue than the one foreseen by the producers. Among the most
important factors affecting production, generation, demand, and consumption of
these products are: Government policies such as subsidies or taxes, both of the
producing countries as well as of the buying companies; local climate effects
and environmental conservation regulations; the entrance of countries with
emerging economies into the market; the need to substitute non-renewable
materials, such as petroleoum and its byproducts; the rise and search for
biofuels and biodegradable raw materials; and in general, the growth in
economies in an evermore globalized world.

All of this forces the sugar producers to find alternatives for new co-products
that can be developed either as by-products of the products still in progress
within the process or from their waste and residual sub-products. The range of
possibilities is great; however, its commercial success will depend on the degree
of development of the technologies applied and on the added value of said
products. That is, if products with high added values can be produced, even
though this implies that high priced products will be sold in low volumes, or, if
on the contrary, they are sold at lower prices but in higher volumes; either way,
producing these co-products is full of challenges not only technological but in
marketing as well.

Throughout the sugar production process, there are several stages where
“products still in progress” can be extracted; they would constitute the raw
material for other co-products and by-products, sometimes, with well
differentiated fabrication methods, and in some others with adjoining chemical
processes; the integration of these processes is known as a bio-refinery.

The first product usually not used is the harvest residue; this is due to the
burning that takes place in the sugarcane fields. When the sugarcane is
harvested “in green” (without burning the fields prior to cutting the cane), a
large amount of biomass is left behind in the fileds; it could be used as animal


  Industrial-Mechanical engineer, Professional in the Energy Efficiency Industrial Research Program of
CENGICAÑA. www.cengicana.org  

407
feed, as fuel for the boilers, as fertilizer, as a medium for growing mushrooms,
as a paper pulp generator, etc. Another important by-product is the bagasse that
comes out from the milled sugarcane; because of its high heat value, it is
usually used as fuel for boilers; however, it could also be used for the
production of a variety of products such as concrete aggregates, construction
boards, animal feed, pulps and papers and it can even be used as absorbent
material during on-land oil spills. The syrups and juices not used for sugar
production are fundamentally the raw material for the production of alcohol;
alcohol, in turn, is used in fine chemical applications to make other compounds
and a number of chemical substances in the pharmaceutical and food industries.
Bio-refineries can process sugary products to produce sweeteners and the likes
to make chemical products with a variety of applications in all kinds of
industries. Finally, residues from the sugar process, such as vinasse, mud cakes
left from the filters, and the ashes leftover from the boilers also have a possible
participation in the markets of important industries, such as the production of
biogas, fodders and puzzolanic aggregates.

The technologies used to produce all of these products go from elementary and
conventional all the way to experimental; again, it will be the market the one
that marks the plausibility and development of these technologies at a given
moment. What is for sure, in a rapidly changing and demanding world where
the demands are many and the raw materials are limited, sugar mills will be
forced to develop technologies and alternative co-products to face the
everchanging future. There is an ample range of processes and products, and
this allows a modern sugar producing factory some flexibility. However, it will
all depend on its size, its potential and its persperctives on the market in which
these co-products will develop. Figure 1 illustrates some of the pathways in
which some of the co-product in the sugar industry can develop.

Coproducts

A co-product is derived form the main materials in a production process (raw

material, labor, and indirect costs) where two or more products are obtained
simultaneously; they are considered of equal importance with respect to the total
production, whether it be for the needs they cover or for their commercial value.

Subproduct (byproduct) or derivative

A byproduct is derived from the materials in a production process (raw material,

labor and indirect costs) where two or more different products are obtained
simultaneously or successively, and according to their commercial value, they
are considered of lesser importance with respect to the main products.

408
A large number of products and byproducts can be derived from sugar; their
production depends on the final value of the main coproducts and the size of the
market to which they belong. Table 1 shows, in a general manner, a
miscellaneous variety of final co-products obtained from sugarcane, their
characteristics and common markets.

Figure 1. Possible products and co-products in a bio-refinery based on sugarcane

Table 1. Miscellaneous products from sugarcane (Cabello, 2002)

Product Characteristics Use and market
Bagasse Alternative fuel Fire logs
Pleurotus mushroom Culinary delicacy Restaurants
Maple type syrup Sweets and baking Industrial
Sugar and “panela” Minidose, cubes, etc. Airlines
Caramel color Food and drinks Drinks and canned goods
Hydrocoloids Food and pharmaceuticals Medicine
Candy Different types General use
Camic flavoring Autolyzed yeasts Cold meats and soups
Veterinary products Probiotics Cattle, pork
Typical drinks Local folk products Tourism
Alcohol specifics Cleaning gel Household and others
Dry ice Alternative refrigeration Fishing, milk, ice cream

APPLICATIONS FOR CO-PRODUCTS

A co-product has more or less added value depending on whether it can be sold
in bulk (at a lower price), than when it is sold in retail at higher prices; when the
latter happens, sugar products go on to being fine chemistry substances. Table
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2 shows the products that are commercialized in bulk and are carbohydrates;
saccharose occupies second place after cellulose, and it easily exceeds the
combined production of all the other carbohydrates.

Table 2. Annual production of carbohydrate products

Carbohydrate products Annual production (millons of tons)

Cellulose < 130
Saccharose ~ 124
Starch ~ 25
Glucose ~6
Cellulose ~5
Gums <1

It is estimated that only 1.7 percent of the annual saccharose production is

destined for “non” food uses. Sugarcane and its co-products are open to
possibilities in the following areas:

 Fine chemistry products

 Pharmaceutical products
 Polymers (biodegradable plastics)
 Construction and structural materials
 Fermentation or enzyme substrate for the production of chemical products
 New food products and sweeteners
 Co-generation of energy
 Fuels such as bio-diesel and ethanol

DIVERSIFICATION OF THE COPRODUCTS

The coproducts and derivatives of sugarcane can participate in different
markets, according to the technology used in their production, from the raw
material and other materials used throughout all the stages of the sugar
production process. It is said that they are used in an elementary way when
their application is direct and without added value due to process; they can also
be processed with conventional industrial procedures, where the products have
very distinct and known technologies and markets. A third and fourth markets
are represented by complex and latest technologies, where the processing of raw
materials is complex, of high added value but sometimes limited use, and in
some cases still in the developing or experimental phase.

In Table 3, the different raw materials coming from the different phases of sugar
production can be appreciated; to the right, the technologies and frequent uses
of derivative co-products are shown.

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Table 3. Sugarcane coproduct diversification according to technology (ICIDCA, 2000)
Technology (Products/Processes)
Raw Material Uses
Elemental Conventional Complex Updated

Leaves and tips Direct use Edible mushrooms Food, feed

Densification Soil additives
Silage with clarifier muds
Animal feed
Bagasse Mixed with molasses Increased digestibility Paper and pulp Paper and cardboards Animal feed, Industry
Compacted Molded panel Macrocrystaline cellulose Fuels, Industry, farmaceuticals
products
Furfural Lignin compounds Industrial, veterinary use
Xylitol Furanic compounds Industrial, farmaceutical
Marrow* Mixed with molasses Increased digestibility Animal feed
Low grade juices and Alcohol Glucose, fructose Yeast by-products Potable, Industrial, farmaceutical
syrups
Recovered yeast Citric, lactic acids Hormones, enzymes Animal feed, Industrial, agricultural
Rum, liquor Fodder yeast Pest control Human consumption, Food, agriculture
Carbon gas, dry ice Lysine Reactive alcohol Industry, Food, laboratories
Deshydration Dextrane, Xantane Drinks Industry, Human consumption
Alcohol Alcohol Phytosterols Potable, Industrial, cosmétics
Molasses Mixed with bagasse or Recovered yeast Glucose, fructose Animal feed
marrow
Nutritional blocks Rum, liquor Cítrico, láctico Anima feedl, human consumption
Carbon gas, dry ice Fodder yeast Industrial, Food
Dehydration Lysine Industrial
Dextrane, Xantane Industrial
Alcohol Industrial
Clarifier muds Direct use Composting Waxes, oil Heavy weight alcohols Fertilizer, Industrial, farmaceutical
Sundried Fertilizer
Ash Mixed with clarifier Fertilizer
muds
Residuals Lagoon treatment Fertilizer
Vinasse Field irrigation Lagoon treatment Fodder yeast Fertilizer, irrigation
Biogas Environmental protection
Concentration / Incineration Environmental protection
 Marrow: Sugarcane pith, cane core after the fiber has been taken away

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CO-PRODUCT AND BY-PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
The by-products of sugarcane can be analyzed according to the raw material
they are produced from. The manufacturing process of cane sugar is divided
into several steps, where transforming the cane into sugar gives way to
“products in progress” and from which other co-products and by-products can
be extracted. Depending on the manufacturing stage, the most commonplace
products in progress in the sugar industry are:

 Residue from the harvest

 Bagasse
 Syrups, juices, and molasses
 Clarifier muds from the filters
 Vinasse

Figure 2 illustrates different scenarios for which a sugarcane by-product can

become industrialized; this will depend on its manufacturing costs and its
market value (price).

Figure 2. Economic indexes for the selection of a co-product deriving from

sugarcane (Almazán, 1998)

Co-products derived from the harvest residue

These are the products deriving from the biomass left behind in the cane fields
after the sugarcane has been cut and lifted; they are basically made up of leaves,

412
tips, hearts, and straw. The amount and the quality will depend on the way the
harvest is done (by burning or in green, by hand or mechanized) and the
physical and chemical characteristics will vary according to the sugarcane
variety, the soil and how the plant is treated before harvest. Figure 3 shows the
commercial and technological possibilities residues left in the field after
harvest.

Figure 3. Alternatives for the use of agricultural residue of sugarcane

The following is a summary of some of the specific, alternative and non-

conventional applications of the harvest residue.

Forage: They (hearts, tips, leaves, and straw) can be used as cattle feed,
although it is generally necessary to previously mix them with molasses, urea
and mineral salts to complete the feed.

Lactic acid production: Results from studies prove that harvest residue
(leaves and tips) can be used as cheap raw material for the production (by
fermentation) of lactic acid. The harvest residue when cane is cut in green has a
water content of approximately 75 percent and a total nutritional content with
sugars, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium and magnesium. These
nutrients are necessary for microorganism growth, which suggests that both
harvest residue and sub-products can be employed as cheap substrates for
fermentation (Serna, 2007).

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Biogas: The production of biogas using biodigestors to treat crushed sugarcane
stems and the residual biomass left behind in the cane fields after harvest has
proven to be feasible. These products increase the quantity and quality of the
biogas production coming from the mixture of cow manure (Pound, 1981).

Bagasse co-products (ICIDCA, 2000)

Bagasse, according to the previous concepts, is a co-product whose high heat

value is used to produce thermal and electrical energy in sugar mills;
commercially, it also represents an important source of income for the factories.
However, as biomass, bagasse can be transformed into a series of co-products
and by-products through different technologies, representing alternatives to the
current method of electrical power generation. Bagasse, a lignocellulosic
residue from the cane stalks obtained at the outlet of the last mill, constitutes a
heterogeneous set of particles of different size. From a physical point of view,
bagasse is made up of: Bagasse fiber, soluble solids, insoluble solids and water.
Chemically, it is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, as main natural
polymers. Refer to Table 4.

Table 4. Physical composition of bagasse

Fraction Range %
Fiber 55-60
Heart (core) 30-35
Fine particles, soils and solubles 10-15

In the following paragraphs you some specific applications for the use of
bagasse to produce alternative non-conventional products, are described.

Concentrate for animal feed: Protein concentrates have been produced with
the Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida utilis yeasts as protein sources
for bovine and caprine herds; this is done by the biotechnological use of
bagasse. The bagasse is submitted to hydrolysis with diluted sulphuric
acid (6% v/v) in a liquid/solid relation of 30/70, and subjected to 4 hours
of reflux boiling; from the sugarcane bagacillo, soluble reducing sugars are
obtained; they serve as a culture medium for the yeasts, which are non-
toxic to animals. The C. utilis surpassed the S. cerevisiae in the
production of biomass (single cell protein) by 48%, for the same reducing
sugar concentration from the concentrated hydrolyzed acid from the
bagacillo. Statistical analysis showed that the C. utilis is the best yeast for
this bioprocess. The high lysine and treonine content, as well as a

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balanced aminoacid content, suggests a potential use for these protein
concentrates as complements to cereal diets, since the latter is deficient in
aminoacids. (Ferrer, 2004)

Pulp and paper: The ever decreasing availability of fibrous materials for
the paper industry and its by-products, and the renewable nature of bagasse
(sugarcane), has stimulated its use in the pulp and conglomerate products
industry during the last decades. Bagasse pulps present a combination of
properties and resistance that allow them to incorporate into paper paste.
They can be used to make newspaper and printing paper, as well as a
variety of high quality cardboards; if the process of the pulps is alkaline, it
can also be used to produce finer type of paper, such as bond (white)
paper, card, and tissue paper. If the pulps have elevated chemical purities
(alpha pastes), then, they are used for the production of the fibre and
threads used in rayon. Absorbent pulps are a special type of pulp designed
for the quick absorption of liquids, making them the ideal raw material for
the diaper and sanitary napkin industry. The use of bagasse in the paper
industry will depend on the cost and characteristics of the bagasse itself; to
that, it is important to acknowledge the costs added by transportation,
processing and storage of the bagasse (ICIDCA, 2000).

Figure 4 shows one of the commonplace processes used in the production

of paper from bagasse.

Figure 4. Manufacturing process of newspaper from sugarcane bagasse

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Celluloses: Carboxymethylcellulose and microcrystaline cellulose can also be
produced from sugarcane bagasse. Carboxymethylcellulose is used as
detergent, thickener and glue in the tobacco and rayon industries; it is also used
to glue threads in the textile industry. Microcrystaline cellulose, due to its
chemical purity, posseses properties that make it suitable for the manufacture of
creams, cosmetics, detergents and as an excipient in the pharmaceutical
industry.

Filter aids and filter media: Bagasse has proven to be feasible, in

combination with other wooden fibers, in the production of filter aids. These
have several uses: Filters for rum and beer, for sugary syrups, for vinegars,
wines, pharmaceutical products, papers for laboratories, and for paints and
varnishes.

Pharmaceuticals: Pharmaceuticals for gastrointestinal disorders are developed

from lignin (due to its absorbing capacity). It has been proven to be capable of
bonding nitrates, cancerogenous substances, bile salts, nitrosamines and mineral
salts in the gastrointestinal tract.

Panel products: These are panel sheets and boards made with bagasse
particles aglomerated with organic glue under specific temperature and pressure
conditions. The furniture business is the largest consumer of these sheets,
especially in the form of mdf and the likes. If the glue is in the form of cement,
then the bagasse sheets can be used for the building of houses and schools.
Additionally, if the conglomerates include plaster, then they can be used as
sheetrock for ceilings.

Furfural: This is an aldehyde by-product from the pentosans found together

with cellulose in many of the plant tissues. It constitutes the main element of
furans. Their chemical properties make it a very versatile product with a high
reactivity for organic compound synthesis. Its main applications are industrial
products such as polymers and pesticides. They derive from the following
chemical reaction:

C5H8O4 + H2O ----------C5H10O5----------C5H4O2 + 3H2O

Xylan Xylose Furfural

In practice, clos to 25 tons of bagasse are necessary to produce one ton of

furfural. Figure 5 shows a diagram description of the products that can be
derived from it.

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Figure 5. Applications for furfural (Gravitis, 1999)

Activated carbon: Bagasse can be treated through pyrolysis (chemical

decomposition of organic material and all types of material, except metals and
glass, by heating in the absence of oxygen) in order to obtain activated carbon.
The final product is used as an adsorbent in decoloration, chemical protection,
residual water treatment and chemical product purification processes.

Hydrolysis of bagasse: Hydrolysized bagacillo (unfolding of the molecule of

certain organic compounds in bagasse through the action of water) is a product
obtained by its treatment with steam; the goal is to increase its digestibility so it
can be employed as animal feed, especially for cattle and poultry.

Source of silica: Depending of the type of soil and the time when the
sugarcane is cut, the ashes from bagasse taken from the boilers can be a rich
source of silica. Some studies reveal silica gel has applications as an adsorbent,
as material for ceramics, cement, concrete additive, catalizer, cosmetics, paints
and coatings. The treatment consists in drying, filtering and heating the ashes
of bagasse in a furnace with oxygen; later, it is treated with hydrochloric acid.
Table 5 shows, in the right hand column, the components in bagasse ash after
this treatment. (Worathanakul, 2009)

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Table 5. Production of silica (SiO2) from the ashes of bagasse

Mass %
Component Heating Treatment with
Raw Material
3h acid
SiO2 19.417 29.849 89.037
K2O 35.036 23.99 2.134
P2O5 12.428 12.043 1.687
SO3 10.969 13.242 0.33
CaO 14.482 13.307 2.549
Mn2O3 1.236 1.303 0.153
Fe2O3 1.884 1.812 1.969
Al2O3 0.973 1.262 0.791
Otros 0.809 0.594 0.791

Hydrocarbon removal: Bagasse and clarifier muds as soil bio-remedies have

been used as texturizers and rectifiers when petroleum, diesel and gasoline spills
occur. Clarifier muds, besides working as rectifiers, present the advantage of
being able to contribute microorganisms to the soil with the capacity to bio-
transform toxic waste. (García, 2011)

Puzzolanic aggregates: The introduction of substitute materials for Portland

cement, such as puzzolans, allows for the possibility of productively using a
waste material, of which there are generally large amounts in sugar mills, such
as bagasse. Certain criteria have been applied for the packaging of particles in
the manufacturing of binary, ternary and multicomponent mixtures for the
tailoring of pastes, mortars, and concrete. When formulating a mixture of
particles where a binder will hold them together, it is important to pack them as
densely as possible to achieve the best aglomerate possible. This will minimize
the amount of binder (glue) necessary since the spaces between the aggregates
will be reduced to a minimum. There is an economic benefit to this, as well as
an improvement in the final product (concrete, mortar or paste) for less
contraction, and therefore more strength will be obtained. (Martínez, 2003)

Co-products from juices, syrups and molasses (ICIDCA, 2000)

Sugar products from sugarcane are the ones that are exhausted in the sugar
factories and where sugar is extracted from. Yet there are good amounts of
sweetening agents and by-products that can be extracted from syrups, or from
molasses that are best left for other purposes besides sugar, generally, for the
production of alcohols (rums and ethanol). However, as an alternative to sugar,
there are other co-products that can be extracted or derived from the cane

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syrups. The following is a list of products and applications of those juices and
syrups.

Amylase: Enzyme product of bacterial origin. It participates in the degradation

of starch. The final result is a mixture of glucose, maltose and low molecular
weight dextrins. Amylase provides a valuable solution to the problems
involving the improvement of products such as starch, paper, alcohols, beers,
textiles, and detergents.

Dextranase: It is an endoenzyme used to degrade the high weight dextrans,

with the purpose of reducing the sugar losses and the deformation of sugar
crystals, resulting in the increase of viscosity in the massecuites.

Cellulose: The fundamental use of these enzymes is the degradation of

cellulose. It is frequently used in the processing of cereals, beer, fruit extracts,
and treatment of residuals.

Xylanase: The fundamental use of this complex enzyme is the degradation of

Xylane. Its main application is in the production of Xylytol, a substitute of
sugar for diabetics.

Yeasts: Yeasts are unicellular microorganisms used for industrial and

commercial purposes. They are used as a food suplement for human
consumption and for animal feed. Yeasts have the advantage of being able to
metabolyze a large quantity of substrates; they grow at great speeds and their
biomass is easily separated. The Saccharomyces yeast is used in the alcohol,
bread, and beer industries. Torula yeast is a valuable fodder due to its high
protein content. Invertase is the yeast produced enzyme used in the inversion
of syrups because it hydrolizes saccharose.

Dehydrated syrup: This is a hygroscopic powder with a brown-redish color

and pleasant flavor. It is designed to feed pigs and birds in their first growing
baby stage, substituting the use of cereals.

Direct use: Syrups are obtained from the concentration and exhaustion of
saccharose in sugarcane juice. Depending on the stage of the process, they can
be high syrups, virgin syrups, inverted syrups, syrup A, syrup B, and final
molasses. These syrups are good alternatives for cattle feed, especially when
combined with bagasse and urea. Figure 6 shows a comparison of the calorie
yield per hectare between several co-products and some grains used as animal
feed. The greatest yield corresponds to sugarcane.

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Figure 6. Annual calorie yield per hectare in mega-calories

Lysine: It is an aminoacid that cannot be synthesized by animals. Therefore, it

must be incorporated externally. A lack of lysine in the diet obstructs the sexual
system and causes muscular exhaustion and other pathological phaenomena.
This product is utilized for the enrichment of cereals for human consumption
and in the pharmaceutical industry.

Citric acid: It is a chemical product obtained from final syrups by

fermentation. Most of the citric acid is used in the food industry as anacidulate,
emulsifier, fat, and oil stabilizer to enhance flavor. It is also used in the
pharmaceutical industry.

Co-products of alcohol

Alcohol is a by-product of sugarcane. It also constitutes the raw material for

other sub-products through the many ways there are for its transformation.
Among them, the production of ethylene or acetaldehyde and its by-products,
permitting the growth of the industry called alco-chemistry. Alcohol (C2H5OH)
is a colorless, transparent, volatile, ether smelling and pungent tasting liquid.
It is used in the distilling industry with different grades of purity. It is
commercialized in both hydrated and dehydrated form. It is obtained by the
bio-chemical synthesis of fermenting juices, syrups and sugarcane molasses.
Alcohol can be used as an alternative fuel, as an antiseptic, solvent, and
preserving agent in the manufacturing of: gums, resinol, soaps, escence oils,
perfumes, pharmaceuticals, waxes, and alcoholic beverages.

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The chemistry of alcohol combines two successful technologies: Alcoholic
fermentation and alcohol catalytic processes. Many of the biology based
products can be obtained from ethanol by the chemical pathway of alcohol.
The production of ethylene opens a door for the production of bio-plastics.
Ethylene is a forerunner to certain plastics, for example PE, PVC, PVA and
polyestyrene; it is sold worldwide by millions of metric tons.
The rise in oil (petroleum) prices and the environmental protection laws
have given rise to a considerable increase in the demand of alcohol, both as
a fuel and as an antiknock alternative to metyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE). Due
to Brazil’s decisive role as an exporter of both sugar and alcohol, any
change in its strategy for the use of sugarcane, has direct consequences on
the availability of both products (sugar, alcohol) in the market. Hence, two
aspects in the Central American region require attention. On the one hand,
the main market for this type of alcohol is the United States of America;
thus, the future of possible exports to that market will depend largely on the
subsidies to the national production of alcohol made from corn and other
local (US) raw materials. On the other hand, small countries with immediate
access to the sea have considerable limitations when it comes to the
treatment of residue, since the direct irrigation of the cane fields mainly used
in Brazil is not really viable when there are area limitations; and industrial
treatment of the residue has a very high investment cost.
The following are applications and co-products extracted from alcohol.
Rum and eau-de-vie(“aguardiente”): Eau-de-vie, also called firewater is
defined as non-rectified alcohol, embiagating beverage obtained from the
distilling of sugarcane by-products after fermentation and used for human
consumption. The production of distilled beverages from sugarcane
(aguardiente, rum, vodka, etc.) is one of the most lucrative alternatives,
despite the high taxes commonly applied to this type of product, as long as
the marketing regulations in such a competitive market. The right design
related to quality, presentation and price is essential for the success of a
product in this sort of activity.

Tires: Tires can also be made from sugarcane. Synthetic rubber for tires
can be made from butadiene; it can be obtained by the catalytic conversion
of alcohol. Its process was developed in Russia in the XX century. There is
currently a high demand for biomaterials in the automotive industry.
The process begins with the oxidation of ethanol; acetaldehyde is produced.
It is an important intermediate chemical product for the production of other
products, such as acetic acid, peroxyacetic acid, anhydride acetic, butanol,
crotonaldehyde, pentaerithritol, cloral, pyridine, and acetic acid esters. This
way, ethanol can reach, through chemistry, different markets such as:
agricultural, food, packaging, construction, coatings, inks, cosmetics, and

421
pharmaceutical products. Ethyl esters are another type of products deriving
from ethanol. Ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE) is an oxygenating additive for
gasoline that can susbstitute methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE). On the other
hand, diethylether can also be obtained from ethanol. Here the deal is with
an important solvent for the chemical industry, used in the production of
cellulose plastics, as for example, cellulose acetate. Figure 7 shows how
several chemical co-products can be extracted from ethanol acetaldehyde .
Biobutanol: It is an alcohol that offers several advantages. It can be
transported in already existing gasoducts; it is less corrosive; it can be
mixed with gasoline or used by itself only in internal combustion engines;
and it gives off more energy per gallon than ethanol. Until the mid XXth
century, it was produced form fermented sugars such as corn glucose.
However, low yields, high recovery costs and an increase in the availability
or petroleum after World War II gave margin to the fermentation and the
production systems of Biobutanol. This process used the Clostridium
bacteria to carry out the critical task of fermentation. Such processes
usually involve four separate and consecutive preparation stages: Pre-
treatment, hydrolysis, fermentation and recovery. Biobutanol is a colorless
and tasteless liquid with a slight odor. Other names for it are buthyl-alcohol
and wood alcohol. It is produced from natural gas, but it can also be derived
from raw biomatter sources.

Figure 7. Acetaldehyde ethanol and its by-products (ICIDCA, 2000)

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Methanol: It is a raw material for many of the by-products in the chemical
industry. It is used to produce folmaldehyde, acetic acid and a variety of
intermediate chemical products. These by-products are used in the
manufacturing of innumerable products used in our daily lives, such as: Resins,
adhesives, paints, inks, foams, silicones, plastic bottles, polyester, dissolvents
and liquid windshield cleaner. Methanol is also widely considered as a
potential hydrogen carrier for many of the future applications of fuel cells.
Methanol is among the four chemical products most widely used in the world.
(Mohan, 2007)

Other by-products (ICIDCA, 2000)

Dextrane: It is a polymer of glucose. Its use is limited to toothpaste,

pharmaceutical products, paints and adhesives.

Xanthan gum: It is a polysaccharide viscosifying agent. It has applications in

many industries, such as the food and petroleum industries.

Sorbitol: It is a hexacyclic alcohol obtained form the hydrogenation of

dextrose. Due to its energy value and since it is less sweet than sugar; it is used
in the manufacturing of food with low calories content for diabetics.

Glycerol: Used in the synthesis of resins and gums in the manufacturing of

explosives, cellophanes, toothpastes, cosmetics, pharmaceutical products and
food preservants.

Hydrogen: It is considered the fuel of the future, especially since it has water
as its residue after its energy release reaction with oxygen. There are different
ways of producing it; the reformulation of hydrocarbons and the separation of
the water molecule through electrolysis is the industrial method most widely
used; the reformulation of ethanol and the use of microorganisms are still being
studied. The possibility of reformulating ethanol for the production of
hydrogen is an alternative in sugarcane and corn producing countries, making
its direct use or the use of fuel cells possible. A recent study on the energy
released by hydrogen fuel cells produced the reformulation of ethanol, besides
using the solid residue for the production of biogas; the latter supplies the
necessary fuel for the distillation and ethanol reformulation processes. The
production of microbiological hydrogen directly from solar energy by anaerobic
bacteria, green bacteria and cianobacteria or blue algae, is currently under
research.

Co-products from sugar (GODSHALL, 2011)

In the sugar factory of the future (bio-refinery), strategic alliances between

production, commercialization and other associates, the use of new technologies
and the development of new chemical products, will be enough to produce an
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ample range of low, medium and high value products. The sugar factory of the
future integrates the production of sugar, ethanol, electrical power (through
bagasse and harvest residue), bioplastics and chemical products. Australia,
Brazil, and India are well on their way to produce energy through the
gasification of bagasse. An efficient bio-refinery integrates and recycles mass
and energy flow with the purpose of supplying the maximum efficiency at the
lowest cost; integration in agriculture, as well allows the residue to be reused
in the sugar plantations so the CO2 produced can be recycled through
photosynthesis. Figure 8 shows a diagram of an efficient bio-refinery.

Figure 8. Diagram of an efficient bio-refinery

Sucralose: It was discovered in 1976 by Tate & Lyle researchers when three
chlorine atoms were added to the saccharose molecule; they noticed they had
created a substance 600 times sweeter than saccharose, with the same taste as
saccharose, but it would not decompose in the human body. Evidence showed
the compound is safe for human comsumption. In 1991, Canada became the
first country to approve its use in food. In 1998, sucralose was approved by the
FDA for its use in the United States; it is now used in at least 28 countries. The
McNeil Specialty Products Company in New Brunswick, New Jersey, sells
sucralose under the Splenda brand.

Olestra: It is a substitute for saccharose based fat. It was developed by Procter

& Gamble in the 1970’s. It was approved for human consumption by the FDA
in January 1996 after three years of research and evidence. To make it,
saccharose is made to react with fatty acids to produce a polyester of liquid
saccharose. Olestra is sold by P&G under the Olean brand. Olestra has similar

424
properties to liquid vegetable oil, but without the calories. It is currently being
used to prepare salty appetizers, in particular for French fries, in a merger
between Frito-Lay and P&G.

Fructo-oligosaccharides: They represent an interesting study case in the

development of a new product; it falls some place between the category of food
additives and neutraceutics. They are also known as FOS, and commercially
they are known as Neosugar and Meijioligo. FOS is a new healthy food
developed through the fermentation or enzymatic transformation of saccharose.
It is extremely popular in Japan, although it has also raised interest in Europe
and North America. It is said that FOS is good for “abdominal health” in the
sense that it promotes the growth of bifidobacteria in the intestine, and they
supposedly give many other benefits to the body. Its sweetness ranges between
30 and 80 percent than that of saccharose, depending on its composition. It is
sold in the form of syrup or in a powder; it generally contains a certain
proportion of saccharose and fructose, together with another three
oligosaccharides: Kestose, nitrose, and fructofuransonil nistose. Some of their
most promising uses include the protection of pork from E. coli infenction and
porcine odor control.

Sucralphate: It is a complex aluminum hydroxide, saccharose sulphate used as

medicine for ulcers in humans and animals. It is not absorbed by the body and
it has its own characteristics in the fight agains ulcers; it acts as an “ulcer
bandage”, actively aiding in healing.

Polysucrose: It is a copolymer of saccharose and epiclorohydrine. It is used to

make density gradients for cellular separation and as a diagnostics agent. It also
has some potential as a nutraceutic or as a food additive. Patents in the United
States have promoted it as ingredient in sports’ drinks, and in India, as an iron
supplement.

Sucrose esters: These can take many forms because they have eight available
hydroxyl to react with numerous fatty acid groups. This flexibility means that
many products and functionalities can be adapted depending on the fraction of
the fatty acid used. Saccharose esters have many applications in food and non-
food products, especially as surfactants and emulsifiers; they have evergrowing
uses in pharmaceutical products, cosmetics, detergents, and food products.
They are easily biodegradable, non toxic and soft for the skin.

Isobutyrate acetate: This (SAIB) is the one with the highest volume of use,
both in food and industrially. It is used in automotive paints, as a clouding and
stabilizing agent in beverages, in nail polish and in hair spray, among other
uses.

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Detergents with a saccharose base: Biodegradable non-ionic detergents with
antibacterial properties can be made from saccharose esters; it is a small but
emerging market. Derisa Corp., in Argentina, commercializes a saccharose
based detergent called Sucrotex; some are also manufactured in the Philipines.
Europe has shown a significant interest in these types of products.

Thermal sucrose-oligosaccharide caramel: Researches from the University

of Montana developed sucrose thermal-oligosaccharide (STOC) by means of
the controlled pyrolysis of saccharose. Amorphous saccharose is heated with
citric acid to produce fructoglucan. This functions as a dietary supplement to
increase the growth in poultry and it can be applied as a possible non-calorie
agent in foods. These researchers have also experimented with the reaction of
other carbohydrates from saccharose to manufacture other products. For
example, a controlled thermal reaction between sucrose and ciclodextrine
produces fructose cyclodextrin compounds with the ability to improve the
solubility of inclusion complexes, and as flavor and vitamin carriers in
processed foods, these can have applications as flavor and vitamin carriers in
food.

Epoxies: Doctor Nozar Sachinvala, a scientific researcher form the South

Regional Research Center for the FDA in New Orleans, has discovered a series
of sucrose epoxies that are neither mutagenic nor cytotoxic, they can adhere
metal to metal, metal to glass, and fiber to fiber. The big sucrose based
adhesive producers are trying to introduce them into the textile, housing
insulation, and other construction materials industries.

Hydrogels (sucrogels): Compounds made in a two stage processs. Their

properties can be manipulated on a wide scale by adjusting the reticulation
relation and initial monomer concentration. These products are super-porous
and they have a potential use in the controlled release of pharmaceuticals. They
can be made in any size, shape and form, with the required properties. They
have many industrial applications.

Biodegradable plastic (bioplastic): An area that creates a lot of enthusiasm

for environmental preservation using “green chemistry” is the production of
natural biodegradable plastics using microorganisms. Several species of
bacteria produce biodegradable plastics by storing polymers within their cells.
Between 50 and 60 percent of the microorganism’s body weight can be
bioplastics, and in some cases even up to 90 percent. Bioplastics are expensive,
but they have the advantage of being able to be processed in the same
equipment used to manufacture conventional plastics. Research is being done
to design bacteria capable of producing polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) and
other polymers. Fermentation has benefited from the recent events in

426
biotechnology. These results allow for new developments with
microorganisms. As a consequence, the performance of the process can be
significantly improved. Some examples of fermentative production chemical
substances are biodegradable plastics such as Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), a
completely renewable biopolymer obtained from sugarcane. Sugar is the
substrate for fermentation, a process that allows the microorganism to
accumulate the polymer. Cells are harvested at the end of the fermentation and
the polymer is recovered from the biomass. Production of copolymers is also
possible. Their biodegradability allows for special applications, such as special
containers for plant growing that degrade, after the seed has been planted.
Research is still ongoing to genetically modify plants that will be able to
produce bioplastics instead of these microorganisms. Thus, we can assume that
in the future sugarcane will be used to produce a wide range of products:
Sweetners, biofuels, bioenergy, bioplastics, and other chemical products. Table
6 shows the perspectives from these points of view.

Table 6. Development perspectives of co-products. (Langeveld, 2010)

Market Market Sharing Production Impact for Application Development

Product Raw Material
Size Price Potential Size Producers Potential Perspectives

Very Very Very

Pharmaceutical Select crops Very low Very low Very poor
small high large
Starch,
General sugar, Very Poor to
Low Modest Very low Very low
Chemistry crops, large modest
proteins
Oils,
Straws, From
Very Very Modest to
Fine Chemistry Sugar, average Low Low Modest
small limited good
Proteins, to good
crops
Oils,
Straws,
Very Very
Solvents Sugar, Small Low Very low Very low Very poor
Low limited
Proteins,
crops
Very
Surfactants Various Small Low Modest Low Low Poor
limited

Very Modest Modest to

Lubricants Oils Low Low Low good
small to high good

Starch and Very Very Very Very

Polymers Low Modest Very Low
sugar large Low limited limited

Lignocellulose, Modest to
Fibers Modest Low Low Modest Low Good
fats, crops good

427
Co-products and By-products of Clarifier Muds

Wax: Wax, oil, and resine make up the three fractions of the raw wax found in
clarifier muds. Refined wax is used in shoe and floor waxes, cosmetics, dyes,
emulsions for fruit, etc.

Phytosterols: Oil from the clarifier muds is a product obtained from the
refining of waxes and it represents a source of phytosterols. The mixture of
phytosterols has a wide usage in the pharmaceutical industry to obtain
hormones such as progesterone, pregnenolone, testosterone and their derivates.

Hydrocarbon removers: In the event of an oil-spill with hydrocarbons such as

petroleum, diesel or gasoline, bagasse and clarifier muds can be used as as soil
bioremedy for they are able to texturize and absorb the spill. Clarifier muds not
only work as rectifiers but they also gives microorganisms to the soil,
biotransforming toxic materials. (García, 2011)

Co-products and By-products of Vinasse

Vinasse for fertirrigation: Vinasse is the residue left over by the alcohol
industry. It is applied to the sugarcane fields mainly because it constitutes a
source of potassium and other nutrients, besides providing carbohydrates that
are easily assimilated and benefit microbial growth. Decomposition of the
straw depends mainly on the activity of microorganisms, which are mainly
responsible for the mineralization and recycling of nutrients to the soil. An
increase in the production of CO2 can be considered as a result of the
mineralization of straw, due to an increase in microbial activity. The addition
of vinasse stimulates the production of CO2 and the activity of cellulose in the
straw (Sanomiya, 2006). A more feasible and immediate alternative would be
fertirrigation, where vinasse would be mixed in, with the residual liquids from
the sugar mill during harvest season, and then it can be applied after no more
than five days, of the retention time.

Biogas: Vinasse is fundamental for the production of energy; it constitutes the

raw material for the production of biogas. Among its main characteristics, it
has low pH, high temperature, high biological oxygen demand (BOD), high
chemical oxygen demand (QOD), and it also possess an important nutrient
content. In order to take advantage of the potential of its physical-chemical
characteristics, vinasse is subjected to an anaerobic digestion process through
which methane gas is produced and captured. Then, in specially equipped
chambers in the biodigestors, the methane gas is piped up towards the

428
industrial plant, where it is used as a fuel for the boilers that produce the steam
necessary for the plant’s operation. Needless to say, it is a source of renewable
energy or bioenergy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Almazán, O.; González, Gálvez, L. 1998. The Sugar Cane, its byproducts
and coproducts. Asociación de Técnicos Azucareros de Cuba. 12 p.

2. Alriksson, B. et al. 2009. Cellulase production from spent lignocellulose

hydrolysates by recombinant aspergillus niger. 10 p.

3. Broderick, G. A.; Radlo, W. J. 2004. Effect of molasses supplementation on

the production of lactating dairy cows fed diets based on alfalfa and corn
silage. 13 p.
4. Brossard, L. E.; Penedo, M. Pirolisis al vacío del bagazo de la caña de
azúcar. 10 p.

5. Cabello, A. 2002. La producción de derivados de la caña de azúcar en Cuba,

situación actual y perspectiva. pp. 12

6. Craig, K.; Overend R. 1995. Biomass power systems, where are we, where
are we going, and how do we get there? 19 p.

7. Ferrer, J.; Davalillo, Y.; Chandler, C.; Páez, G.; Mármol, Z.; Ramones, E.
2004. Producción de proteína microbiana a partir de los desechos del
procesamiento de la caña de azúcar (bagacillo). 59 p.

8. García, C.; Bueno, V. Estudio toxicológico de un producto derivado de la

caña de azúcar. 11 p.

9. García, R. 2011. Uso de cachaza y bagazo de caña de azúcar en la remoción

de hidrocarburos en suelo contaminado.

10. Godshall, M. A. Future directions for the sugar industry. 8 p.

11. Gravitis, J.; Suzuki, M. 1993. Biomass refinery a way to produce value
added products and base for agricultural zero emissions system. 14 p.

429
12. ICIDCA. 2000. Manual de los derivados de la caña de azúcar. MINAZ, La
Habana, Cuba, tercera edición. 458 p.

13. Jeffries, T. W.; Schartman, R. Bioconversion of secondary fiber fines

ethanol using counter current enzymatic saccharification and
cofermentation.

14. Kodera, K. 2007. Analysis of allocation methods of bioethanol LCA. 55 p.

15. Langeveld, J. W.; Dixon, A. J.; Jaworski, J. F. 2010. Development

perspectives of the biobased economy: A review. pp. 141-151.

16. Martínez, L.; Quintana, R.; Martirena, J. F. Aglomerante puzolánico

formado por cal y ceniza de paja de caña de azúcar: la influencia
granulométrica de sus componentes en la actividad aglomerante. 15 p.

17. Médoc, J.; Guerrin, F.; Courdier, R. Paillat, J. A multi modelling approach
to help agricultural stakeholders design animal wastes management
strategies in the reunion island. 6 p.
18. Meneses B. 2008. www.Sugarjournal.com. La Producción de Biogás con
Vinaza una Alternativa Factible para Contribuir al Desarrollo de la
Bioenergía. pp. 17-18.

19. Mohan, P. 2006. Liquid energy from cane in India. India. 6 p.

20. Murillo, F.; Araujo, C.; Bonfá, A.; Porto, W. 2011. Chemistry based on
renewable rawmaterials: Perspectives for a sugar cane based biorrefinery. 8
p.

21. Paturau, J. M. Usos Alternativos de la caña de azúcar y sus derivados en las

agroindustrias. 22 p.

22. Perdigón, S. M. La vinaza de jugos de caña energética y su aplicación en los

suelos cañeros. 11 p.

23. Pound, B.; Preston, T.R. 1981. Biogas production from mixtures of cattle
slurry and pressed sugar cane stalk, with and without urea. pp 11.

24. Sanomiya, L.; Assis, L.; De Oliveira, J. Nahas, E. Mineralización de la paja

de caña de azúcar en suelo adicionado con vinaza, subproducto de la
industria del alcohol de caña de azúcar y fertilizante. 8 p.

430
25. Serna, L. S.; Rodríguez, A. 2007. Lactic acid fermentative production using
waste from the harvest of green sugar cane as a substrate. 6 p.

26. Worathanakul, P.; Payubnop, W.; Muangpet, A. 2009. Characterization for

posttreatment effect of bagasse ash for silica extraction. 3 p.

431
432
XV. METEOROLOGY IN
SUGARCANE

433
 METEOROLOGY IN SUGARCANE
Otto Castro and Alfredo Suárez

INTRODUCTION
A network of well-distributed meteorological stations in each altitudinal stratum
is needed in order to assess meterorological effects that influence sugarcane
production. They must measure data on: rainfall, global radiation or solar
brightness, temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and its direction.
Analysis of these variables facilitates the understanding climate positive or
negative effects in sugarcane production at each altitudinal stratum and between
years of production. This comprehension will help to develop management
alternatives to minimize adverse climate effects.

Nowadays, the Guatemalan Sugar Agroindustry has an automatized

meteorological information system which is an option that allows visualization
of meteorological variables in real time and displays climatic information of
several years and sites. Real time information contributes to manage with
greater efficiency tasks where meteorological variables are important, like the
application of chemical products or irrigation. Climatic information analysis
allows the study of the effects on meteorological variables due to phenomena
impact such as ENSO and/or climate change, moreover, the study of relations
between meteorological variables in the balances behavior: energy and hydric.

METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

Background

In 1997, the Guatemalan Sugar Agroindustry (AIA for its acronym in Spanish)
started the automatic meterorological stations network. Its main purpose was to
have real time meteorological information that would help in the decision-
making process for sugarcane management, mainly in the crop burning subject.


  Otto Castro is Agr. Eng., M.Sc. Specialist in Irrigation and Agrometeorology at CENGICAÑA
www.cengicana.org and Alfredo Suárez is Agr. Eng., M.Sc. Climate and Hydrology Research Programme
Coordinator at ICC. www.icc.org.gt

434
The first automatic meteorological station was set up in the Guatemalan
Sugarcane Research and Training Center (CENGICAÑA for its acronym in
Spanish) in that year. ASAZGUA delegated the stations network administration,
operation and maintenance to the Center. It carried out that activity until March
2011, when the network became an administrative and operational
responsibility of the Private Institute for Climate Change Research (ICC for its
acronym in Spanish1).

Since its creation, the stations network has expanded according to the needs of
the Guatemalan Sugar Agroindustry. Up to this, there are 16 automatic
meteorological stations that operate in a rough area of 230,000 hectares of
sugarcane (see Figure 1). An influence area (approximately 14,375 hectares on
average for 2011) has been determined for each station. It is expected to have at
least 1 station for every 10,000 hectares of sown sugarcane for 2015. They will
be proportionally distributed within the altitudinal strata of the Guatemalan
Southern sugarcane area.

The automatic meteorological stations network

As mentioned before, the Guatemalan Sugar Agroindustry stations’ network has

16 automatic meteorological stations allocated in the Guatemalan Southern
coast region, in the departments of Escuintla, Suchitepéquez, and Retalhuleu,
from 10 to 300 meters above sea level (masl). Information on geographic
localization, altitude and altitudinal stratum for every station is shown in Table
1. Meteorological stations are located in areas belonging to sugarcane mills in
the region which are in charge of the security and maintenance in the area,
besides they are the main users of the information.

Distribution of the number of stations per altitudinal stratum is proportional to

cultivated sugarcane area in every stratum (Table 1). In that sense, stations in
the high, medium, low, and coastal strata, respectively represent 7, 24, 22, and
47% percent of cultivated area.

The stations’ network is a useful tool for the Guatemalan Sugar Agroindustry,
because it provides real time information with high precision, unlike
conventional stations. This fact removes human error in data gathering and
interpretation.

1
 Institution created by ASAZGUA in 2010. Its main objective is the development of research programmes
that will contribute to the design of strategies on vulnerability reduction and adaptation to climate change in
communities, productive processes and infrastructure within the region. 

435
 Location and influence area of the network stations
of the Sugarcane Agroindustry in Guatemala

Pacific Ocean

Stations

Kilometers
Uncovered area
Source: Basis map land use: 1:50,000. Updated CENGICAÑA 2008

Figure 1. AIA’s automatic meteorological stations network. Year 2011

Table 1. Automatic stations of the network. Year 2011

Operation Longitude Latitude Altitude Altitudinal

Station Code
starting date (°) (°) (masl) stratum
CENGICAÑA CEN-CEN 18/11/1997 -91.055468 14.330962 300 High
Lorena PAG-LOR 14/09/2009 -91.419603 14.520233 340 High
El Bálsamo PAN-BAL 13/02/2002 -91.003744 14.281468 280 Medium
Costa Brava SDT-CBR 16/10/2008 -90.920738 14.237773 144 Medium
Tululá TUL-TLA 22/02/2007 -91.586101 14.506967 253 Medium
Tehuantepec LU-TEH 04/03/1998 -91.103443 14.168625 60 Low
Puyumate PAN-PUY 14/02/2002 -91.259910 14.261557 86 Low
Trinidad SDT-TRI 01/06/2003 -90.844006 14.153762 68 Low
Bouganvilia MAG-BOU 14/03/2004 -90.933352 14.117690 60 Low
Petén Oficina MAT-PEO 09/10/2008 -91.411898 14.260987 51 Low
Naranjales PAG-NJR 30/10/2007 -91.476996 14.365688 91 Low
San Antonio el
MAG-SAV 27/02/2002 -91.200961 13.995364 10 Coastal
Valle
Amazonas SAA-AMA 01/06/2003 -90.769984 14.066614 28 Coastal
Irlanda CEN-IRL 06/06/2003 -91.426867 14.145889 20 Coastal
Bonanza LU-BON 23/10/2003 -91.187235 14.078341 29 Coastal
San Rafael PAN-SAR 16/02/2010 -90.634491 14.023491 10 Coastal
Note: CEN – CENGICAÑA; LU – La Unión; MAG – Magdalena; MAT – Madre Tierra; PAG – Palo
Gordo; PAN – Pantaleon; SAA – Santa Ana; SDT – San Diego/Trinidad; TUL – Tululá.

436
Figure 2 shows the structure and design of an automatic meteorological station
that operates within the network.

Figure 2. Automatic meteorological station located in Tululá sugar mill

Information generation

Automatic stations collect information from seven meteorological variables

related to the sugarcane crop (except for the station at CENGICAÑA that
measures atmospheric pressure as well): rainfall, global solar radiation (direct +
diffused), temperature, relative humidity, leaf wetness, wind speed, and wind
direction. Each station generates information records every 15 minutes. There
are 96 daily records for each variable in every station. Besides the atmospheric
pressure sensor, the station at CENGICAÑA has a heliograph for solar
brightness daily measurement.

Meteorological data is transmitted to a central server located at CENGICAÑA,

where it is at the Sugar Agroindustry users’ disposal through the Center website
(www.cengicana.org). The ICC has a data quality control procedure that is
carried out weekly, so information is checked up and updated every 7 days. This
is one of the added values that the ICC Agrometeorology area gives to the
meteorological data. Besides, data checking and processing, it is stored in a
historical database available to the Agroindustry users and CENGICAÑA
researchers for climatological analysis related to the crop.
437
METEOROLOGY USE IN SUGARCANE
The most important climate variables that directly influence sugarcane are
diagrammed in Figure 3. The main variable is the energy received from the sun
in time and space, both in quantity and duration. Latitude defines the number of
light hours or photoperiod, which varies throughout the year and is decisive in
the energy balance. Sun energy and atmospheric phenomena behavior (further
analyzed) have a great influence in rainfall, temperature, wind, and
environmental humidity behavior; and it will also determine evapotranspiration
(ETo) and solar energy quantity for sugarcane photosynthesis in its complete
cycle. Relations among rainfall, crop hydric demand and soil capacity for water
retention, are important in the hydric balance in every phenological stage of
sugarcane. The result from energy and hydric balances can be positive or
negative. With respect to sugar accumulation, atmospheric weather and climate
variables that explain sugar accumulation behavior in the ripening stage, are
said to give the heaviest weight to hydric balance and temperature behavior.

Biomass and saccharose accumulation in sugarcane has varied greatly in time

and space; and between years in the Guatemalan sugarcane area. The
intervention of agrometeorology as a science has become a subject of interest
because its analysis, orientate a better decision-making process in terms of
selecting most adapted technology.

Bright
energy in  
latitude Light hours
14°

Rainfall T °C Wind Humidity

Energy balance

ETo

Very
Biomass and sugar variable 
Hydric in time 
accumulation and 
balance
space

Thermal
oscillation
T°C minimum TSH
Figure 3. Most important climate variables that directly influence sugarcane
Source: Castro, 2010

438
Solar energy balance
The solar energy that is received in a georeferentiated spot in the planet is
constant every year, but different in other locations. This is due to the Earth
rotation axis placed at 23° 27’, in relation with the movement axis and the sun
apparent movement, which define different energy quantity and duration in
eachlatitude.

Solar radiation to the atmosphere limit at latitude 14°: Solar radiation

behavior in latitude 14° during the year is defined and constant across the years.
In that sense, from April 18th to August 20th, between 38.16 and 37.86
MJ/m2/energy day, are respectively received to the atmosphere limit. It
corresponds to the maximum energy period (FAO, 2008). In December this
energy is reduced 24 percent. Maximum energy duration is recorded June 21st
of every year, with 12.84227 hours. In December, there is a reduction of 1 hour
39 minutes and 57.89 seconds.

Solar radiation in terrestrial surface at latitude 14°: In clear sky days where
n=N, in which n is the real duration of insolation or solar brightness, and N
possible maximum duration of insolation; solar radiation could reach maximum
energy quantities between April 18th and August 20th. According to a FAO
model, they are equivalent to about 28.85 MJ/m2/day, mainly in places close to
sea level, i.e. 75.6 percent of received energy to the atmosphere limit. In the
history of global radiation records with the pyranometer SP-lite, the maximum
reached record has been 27.39 MJ/m2/day in the meteorological station located
in finca Irlanda from the coastal stratum, on October 2nd 2009. It was equivalent
to 78 percent of the total. Maximum potential radiation in latitude 14° that could
be recorded in places near to sea level would be between 72-78 percent of the
received total to the atmosphere limit.

In the conditions of the Guatemalan sugarcane area, energy quantities that reach
terrestrial surface, fluctuate every year. Figure 4 presents different scenarios of
solar radiation, solar energy quantity that reaches the atmosphere limit in
latitude 14° (Ra), solar energy quantity if n=N (Rdd), and solar energy quantity
that reaches terrestrial surface measured with a pyranometer (Rg), recorded for
the last four years. Fluctuation of solar energy recorded as global radiation
(direct solar radiation or short wave radiation + diffused radiation) is mainly
due to cloud incidence. Maximum energy quantity to the atmosphere limit is
received from April 18th to August 20th.

439
 40
April 18 August 20
38
36
34 Radiation to the atmosphere limit (Ra)
32
Energy amount  (MJ/m2/day) 30
Rg‐2007
28
Rg‐2008
26 Solar radiation clear sky day (Rdd)
Rg‐2009
24
Rg‐2010
22
Rg‐2011
20
Ra
18
Rdd
16
14
Global radiation in terrestrial surface (Rg)
12
10
jan
ene feb mar
mar   apr
abr may jun jul ago
aug sep oct nov dec
dic

Figure 4. Radiation to the atmosphere limit (Ra), radiation of a clear sky day
(Rdd) and global radiation (Rg) from the harvest seasons 2007/2008 to
2010/2011 in latitude 14° (CENGICAÑA, 2010)

Hydric balance

Deciding periods of water shortage: In the Guatemalan sugarcane area, there

is a variable dry period in every altitudinal stratum that expands in its extremes,
from early November to May 30th. It rains the rest of the year. Variability of the
hydric balance within years between dry and humid periods, is mainly due to
the establishment of the start and the end of the rainfall season from an
agrometeorological point of view (stable beginning and ending of rainfall
season), likewise, to the beginning of Dog Days period. (See concepts of start
and end of the rainfall season and Dog Days in the annex).

Rainy season beginning (start of rainfall): Research results (climatic

information from meteorological stations with 30 years records of the rainfall
variable, “Camantulul” located at 300 masl, and “San José” at 10 masl, property
of INSIVUMEH, was used), show and confirm that the beginning of the rainy
season varies each year and in every altitudinal stratum of the Guatemalan
sugarcane area. Figure 5 shows a historical analysis from rainy seasons entries
from Camantulul locality, which represents between medium and high strata
(300 masl) and San José locality which represents the Pacific coastal stratum

440
(10 masl). In Camantulul, rainy season starts on April 22nd on average and in
San José, it starts on May 10th. Historically, in Camantulul, there is a 71 day
variation (between March 15th and May 25th) and in the Pacific coast, a 45 day
variation (between April 20th and June 5th). The latest beginning of the rainy
season was in 1997 and 1998, when El Niño phenomenon was the strongest of
all times.
Rainy season beginning ‐CAMANTULUL, 300 masl
145 MAY 25
maximum

71 days
_
X = 112 days
APRIL 22
J
U 90
minimum
L MARCH 31
I
A 1980 1998 2008
N
Rainy season beginning‐SAN JOSÉ, 10 masl
D 155 JUNE 05
A maximum
_

45 days
Y X = 133 days
S MAY 10
110
minimum
APRIL20

1980 1995 2009

SOURCE OF INFORMATION: INSIVUMEH

Figure 5. Historical analysis of rainfall beginning in two altitudinal strata of the

Guatemalan sugarcane area

Dog Days period (reduction of rainfaill between July and August): Just like
the rainy season beginning, Dog Days period varies every year and in every
altitudinal stratum of the Guatemalan sugarcane area. Its duration fluctuates too.
In the high stratum, the decrease of rainy days in July and August (according to
records in the meteorological station Camantulul since 1980 to this date) has not
lasted above 10 days, which means that there are no significant effects on
productivity from the point of view of irrigation. The contrary occurs in the
coastal stratum of the Pacific (0 – 40 masl) where effects are greater, mainly in
soils with sandy predominance and with no capillary input. Table 2 presents
rainfall decrease in July and August, due to Dog Days season in the Guatemalan
Pacific coast. 1982 and 1989 are considered as dry years for a long period of
time; 1988 had a short Dog Days season; and in 1997, Dog Days season entered
later (from August 20th-30th).

441
Table 2. Dog Days behavior in the Guatemalan Pacific coast, according to
measured rainfall records in the meteorological station San José,
property of INSIVUMEH
#
Y JULY AUGUST 5 day
E period Continued
05 10 15 20 25 30 05 10 15 20 25 30 with 5 day
A rainfall period
R 5 day period accumulated rainfall in mm less than
25 mm

1982 1 11 12.5 4.3 34.5 14.1 32.2 0 12 4.5 0 37 9 4

1988 87.8 15.7 39.7 24.8 6.3 2.4 55 64.2 257.9 17.7 91.7 130.4 4 2

1989 10.2 8.9 1.9 18.2 11.3 319.4 8.3 12.5 85.2 8.5 21.8 70.5 9 5

1997 168.2 0 3 26.6 35.2 52.8 13 37.5 61.6 13.7 0 11 6 3

Source: INSIVUMEH

Rainy season ending (end of the rainfall season): Figure 6 shows that, on
average, rainy season ending in Camantulul is November 25th, and in San José,
November 7th. Differences between these two strata are in annual variabilities.
Historically, there is a 61 day variation in Camantulul (between October 25th
and December 25th) and in the Pacific coast, a 56 day variation (between
October 10th and November 25th). 1981 was the year with the latest rainy season
ending for Camantulul, and 1997 was for San José. On the other hand, 1983 was
the year with the earliest rainy season ending for Camantulul, and 1980 was for
San José.
359 Rainy season ending ‐CAMANTULUL, 300 masl DECEMBER 25
61 days

X = 329 days
J NOVEMBER 25
U 298
L
OCTOBER 25
I
A 1 1 1 2
9 9 9 0
N 8 8 8 0
0 1 3 8

D Rainy season ending‐SAN JOSÉ, 10 masl

A NOVEMBER 25
339
Y
56 days

S X = 311 days
NOVEMBER 07
283
OCTOBER 10
1 1 2
9 9 0
8 9 0
0 7 8

INFORMATION SOURCE: INSIVUMEH
Figure 6. Historical analysis of the rainy season ending in two altitudinal strata
of the Guatemalan sugarcane area

442
Meteorological variables in the sugar accumulation during the ripening
stage

In the last 45 days of the sugarcane cycle (ripening stage), greater saccharose
quantity increases. The saccharose producing capacity mainly depends on the
variety, management, and climatic conditions that influence in this stage, such
as: temperature, solar brightness, atmospheric rainfall, and wind.

Temperature behavior in the Guatemalan sugarcane area varies during every

month of the year2, and between years as well. Thermal amplitude (difference
in degrees Centigrades between highest and lowest temperature) and lowest
temperature are among the most important effects of temperature in sugar
accumulation.

Figure 7 shows a graphical analysis of the overall relation between thermal

amplitude and sugar productivity for harvesting period. During the periods from
1999/2000 to 2005/2006, sugar productivity and thermal amplitudes were high,
unlike the period from 2006/2007 to 2010/2011, where sugar productivities and
thermal amplitudes were lower.

General relation between sugar productivity and thermal amplitude

Pounds of sugar/CT
lbs azúcar/TC TA
AT Lineal (pounds of  sugar/CT
Lineal (lbs azúcar/TC)
231

229
226
226
226
226

225

220
219

214
212

208
207

207

205

205
203

Thermal amplitude
202

202
200
199
197

196
194

17.7 16.5 15.4

192

192
190

17.5 16.5 15.2

186

184

Thermal amplitude
Average= 16.5 15.1 13.0 14.9

15.0 15.6 14.0

Average= 14.6
82/83
83/84
84/85
85/86
86/87
87/88
88/89
89/90
90/91
91/92
92/93
93/94
94/95
95/96
96/97
97/98
98/99
99/00
00/01
01/02
02/03
03/04
04/05
05/06
06/07
07/08
08/09
09/10
10/11

Harvesting periods
Figure 7. Historical overall relation between sugar productivity and thermal
amplitude behavior. Guatemalan sugarcane area

2
TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS: Received solar energy quantity, in any region of the planet, varies with
the day hour, the season of the year and the latitude. These differences in radiation, originate temperature
variations. On the other hand, temperature can vary due to distribution of different surfaces types and
according to altitude. 

443
When overall behavior of sugar yield and thermal amplitude during the
harvesting period are analyzed, months with higher thermal amplitude (from
December to March) presented sugar yields greater than 215 pounds of
sugar/TS. November, April and May have historically been months with lowest
yields: this is related to thermal amplitudes lower than 15°C, as observed in
Figure 8.

General relation between sugar productivity and thermal amplitude

Pounds of sugar/CT
lbs azúcar/TC TA
AT Lineal (pounds of  sugar/CT
Lineal (lbs azúcar/TC)

231

229
226
226
226
226

225

220
219

214
212

208
207

207

205

205
203
202 Thermal amplitude

202
200
199
197

196
194

17.7 16.5 15.4

192

192
190

17.5 16.5 15.2

186

184

Thermal amplitude
Average= 16.5 15.1 13.0 14.9

15.0 15.6 14.0

Average= 14.6
82/83
83/84
84/85
85/86
86/87
87/88
88/89
89/90
90/91
91/92
92/93
93/94
94/95
95/96
96/97
97/98
98/99
99/00
00/01
01/02
02/03
03/04
04/05
05/06
06/07
07/08
08/09
09/10
10/11
Harvesting periods
Figure 8. Historical overall relation between sugar productivity and thermal
amplitude behavior for every month of the harvesting period.
Guatemalan sugarcane area. CENGICAÑA, 2009

With historical information on sugar yield at a plot level close to the

meteorological station Belén (La Unión – Los Tarros), the association degree
between temperature (accumulated minimal average temperature of 30 and 45
days before harvest) and commercial sugar yield, was determined to be -0.74
and -0.73 through a Pearson correlation. Regression coefficient indicates that
for each degree the minimal temperature rises, sugar yield decreases 10.541
pounds per sugarcane tonne (Figure 9). It was confirmed that minimum
temperatures below 18 ° C (average 30 days before harvest) provide better
sugar accumulation in a natural way. Added to thermal amplitude behavior,
rainfalls above 20 mm (accumulated 30 days before harvest) were analyzed to
reduce sugar yield.

444
 270

99/00
04/05

250 16.43, 255
17.77, 252
03/04
00/01 08/09

17.43, 237
230 17.93, 233 02/03
16.73, 232 01/02
05/06

Pounds of sugar /TS
18.77, 223 19.37, 224
18.03, 219 07/08
210
19.43, 211
y = ‐10.541x + 421.32 × =18
190 R² = 0.5587

170
> SUGAR INCREASING < SUGAR INCREASING

150
16.00 16.50 17.00 17.50 18.00 18.50 19.00 19.50 20.00
Average Tmin from 30 days earlier

Figure 9. Regression analysis with variables: Average minimum temperature 30

days prior to harvest (X) and sugar yield, pounds of sugar for tonne of
sugarcane (Y), plot 3.060 case from La Unión sugar mill

PHENOMENA EFFECT IN BEHAVIOR OF

METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLES IN LATITUDE 14°
The meteorological phenomenon that influences the most climate behavior in
our latitude is El Niño or La Niña. Its scientific name is ENSO (El Niño-
Southern Oscillation) and it consists in a change in the movement patterns of
ocean currents in the intertropical zone. As a consequence, it produces a
superposition of warm waters coming from the Northern hemisphere zone,
inmediately to the North of the Equator over very cold emersion waters that
characterize the Humboldt Current. Among the main effects in our latitude are
the behavior of global radiation, rainfall, relative humidity, and temperature.

ENSO effects in the energy balance

ENSO is the main cause of fluctuation of global radiation quantity that reaches
terrestrial surface in our latitude. In years with influence of ENSO-Cold episode
(La Niña), low pressure systems that generate periods with more clouds than
usual increase. Solar energy quantity that reaches terrestrial surface is reduced
and photosynthetic process in sugarcane is affected. The opposite happens in
years with influence of ENSO-Warm episode (El Niño): high pressure systems

445
increase during rainy season, causing longer Dog Days periods and there is a
greater quantity of clear sky days.

In the sugarcane, ENSO negative or positive effects occur during the rainy
season, mainly, from April 18th to August 20th (period in which greater energy
quantity is received in our latitude). For instance, in a low production year like
the harvest season 2010/2011 (ENSO-Cold episode), solar energy during the
rainy season (May-September) decreasead 47 percent. While in a high
production year like the harvest season 2009/2010 (ENSO-Warm episode),
maximum reduction was 36 percent. In the harvest season 2009/2010, the
decrease of global radiation quantity in August, deciding month for sugarcane
physiology, is lower than in other specified years (see Figure 10).

Period of > solar energy
50 reduction
Year of > cloud incidence
47
45 44 (ENSO‐Cold episode)
41
40 Year of < cloud incidence
39
40 (ENSO‐Warm episode)
Reduction percentages

35 36
Rg‐2007
30 33
31 31 Rg‐2008
28 Rg‐2009
25
Rg‐2010
20
Dry season Rainy season Dry season
15

10
ene
jan feb mar abr may
mar  apr may jun
jun jul aug
ago sep oct nov
nov dic
dec

Source: global radiation average (Rg) from 13 automatized meteorological stations, ICC. 

ANALYSIS: O. Castro, CENGICAÑA.

Figure 10. Percentages of solar radiation decrease that reaches terrestrial

surface in the last four years in latitude 14°

ENSO effects in the hydric balance

The most significant ENSO effect in our latitude is the alteration of rainfall
behavior during the dry period. Effects on the rainy season beginning for the
high stratum are well differentiated when ENSO effects are separated according
to its episodes. In an ENSO-Cold episode (La Niña), there is more rainfall in
the dry period. There are intense and most of the time isolated showers, which

446
from an agrometeorological point of view represent an early rainy season
beginning. This period is characterized by many cloudy days. Rainy season
beginning can be established between Julian Day 90 (March 31st) and Julian
Day 130 (May 10th). In an ENSO-Warm episode (El Niño), there are more
droughts, mainly when ONI (Oceanic Niño Index) indexes are high. Rainy
season starts later and there are fewer clouds. When ONI indexes records are
greater than 1.8 (Niño with a high qualification), rainy season can begin until
Julian Day 145 (May 25th) just the way it happened in 1998, a year with no
intense isolated showers during the dry period in this stratum.

Effects of the rainy season beginning in the coastal stratum (the other extreme)
differ in relation with the high stratum and ENSO, according to its episodes. In
this stratum, ENSO-Cold episode (La Niña) and ENSO-Warm episode (El
Niño) effects are similar with records of ONI indexes between -1.5 and +1.5.
The difference in effects is that in an ENSO-Warm episode year, the beginning
of the rainy season is later when ONI index is greater than 1.5 (Niño with a high
qualification). In this case, rainy season beginning can happen even during the
first days of June. This happened in 1983, 1992, 1998, and 2009.

ENSO effects in sugarcane production (TSH)

ENSO in the sugarcane productive history: When productive history of the

Guatemalan sugarcane area is analyzed (see Figure 11), during ENSO-Warm
episodes years, there have been higher productivities. This mainly occured since
the 2000 decade when even 103 tonnes of sugarcane per hectare have been
reached, just like in the harvest season 2009/2010. The slope indicates that
every year this episode has occured; there is an increase of 1.17 TSH. While in
ENSO-Cold episodes years, 91TSH has been the maximum and it was reached
in 2008 (year with an ENSO-Cold episode qualified as weak). The slope
indicates that every year this episode has occurred; there is an increase of 0.82
TSH, 0.35 TSH less if compared with the ENSO-Warm episode. Positive trends
in the three ENSO scenarios reflects that technological development reached in
the 2000 decade has been important to minimize negative effects of ENSO. In
the last years, there have been well differentiated contrasts: 2009 (ENSO-Warm
episodes, strong) with a harvest season record of 103 TSH and 2010 (ENSO-
Cold episodes, strong) with a production of 89 TSH. There was a reduction of
14 percent compared to the one obtained in the harvest season 2009/10. Global
radiation quantity received in August is decisive in flowering behavior. In warm
episodes, average global radiation is greater than 20 MJ/m2/day (greater than 55
percent of solar brightness), while in cold episodes it is lower than 18
MJ/m2/day (lower than 50 percent of solar brightness).

447
 ENSO‐
Warm
episode

Rg > 20 
MJ/m2/day

ENSO‐
Cold
episode

TSH
Rg <18 
MJ/m2/day

ENSO‐
Neutral or
normal 
episode
Rg:  18 ‐ 20 
MJ/m2/day

Production years

Figure 11. Analysis of production years of the Guatemalan sugarcane area under
different ENSO scenarios

Another way to analize meteorological effects provoked by ENSO is through

the Mc Quigg methodology (1975), with which meteorological effects
variability can be analyzed. For such purpose, in Figure 12, high positive values
where ENSO-Warm episode effects stand out (years 1997, 2006, and 2009) are
observed. These episodes were classified as high. On the other hand, negative
values in which ENSO Cold episode effects are classified as strong (1988,
2007, and 2010). Positive effects are the most relevant because they have
contributed to TSH increase, just like in 1997.
15 13 (72)

NIÑO
10 8 (62)

4 4 NIÑO
5 4 4 4
3
2 2
1 0
TSH

0
NIÑA NIÑA NIÑA
‐1
‐2 ‐3
‐2 ‐3 ‐2 ‐3
‐5 ‐4 ‐4 ‐4

‐7 ‐6
(45) ‐7
‐10 (34) (40)

‐15
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010

Note: Number between ( ) correspond to solar brightness percentages

Figure 12. Meteorological effects caused by ENSO through the Mc Quigg (1975)
methodology

448
Relation: ENSO – solar brightness – TSH: Figure 13 presents a graphical
analysis of the relation: percentages of August solar brightness, ENSO years
with its cold (Niña), warm (Niño), neutral (normal) episodes and historical TSH
data of the sugarcane agroindustry. TSH drops are related to low percentages of
solar brightness (duration of the direct solar radiation) recorded in August.
These low percentages are produced at the same time in years of ENSO-Cold
episodes. On the contrary, a TSH increase happens when August solar
brightness is high. That condition occurs in ENSO-Warm episode (Niño).

Effects of ENSO on sugar accumulation

In years where ENSO-Warm episode and ENSO-Cold episode phenomena

occur, thermal amplitudes have a different behavior from the regular condition.
This was the case of the harvest season period 1999/2000 where thermal
amplitudes were 19.3 and 18.8°C for January and February, respectively.
Whereas during the harvest season 2007/2008, thermal amplitudes were 15.88
and 13.62°C for the same months (Belén station at 150 masl, La Unión-Los
Tarros). Sugar yields at the industry were 230 and 217.5 pounds of sugar/TS for
1999/2000 and 2007/2008, respectively (CENGICAÑA, 2009).

It is important to consider that when there are clear sky days during the harvest season
period, thermal amplitudes reach values of 18°C, while in rainy periods or cloudy days,
thermal amplitudes are reduced to 5°C. Due to this behavior, thermal amplitude is
related to solar brightness: the greater the thermal amplitude the greater the solar
brightness or global radiation, in which greater saccharose accumulation is obtained.
Relation: August solar brightness –niño years‐ TSH % SB to
August
31st
80 110
N=NEUTRAL YEAR 
ÑO=NIÑO YEAR 105
70 103
ÑA=NIÑA YEAR
100 100
60 98
96 55
95
% August solar brightness

92 92 91
50 91
89 89
90
88 88
87 87
86
TSH

40 85 85
83 83
80 80 80
30 78 78
79

75
20 73 73
70 70
10 Ñ Ñ Ñ Ñ Ñ NÑ Ñ Ñ ÑÑ Ñ Ñ Ñ Ñ Ñ Ñ Ñ NÑ 65
N N N N N N
O O A O O O A O A A A O NO O A O A O
0 60
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013

Note: %SB=n/N, where: n=number of hours of solar brightness and N=maximum possible duration of insolation. Data 

correspond to the meteorological station, Mangalito, Pantaleón Corporation.
SOURCE:O.CASTRO L, AGROMETEOROLOGY CENGICAÑA.

Figure 13. Historic graphical analysis of the relation August light hours (bars)
with TSH productivity (lines) for the Guatemalan sugarcane area

449
POTENTIAL USE AND INTERPRETATION OF
METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLES IN TECHNICAL
DECISIONS
Measuring meteorological variables represents a valuable tool to generate an
important analytical process in the technical decision-making process for
sugarcane. Figure 14 outlines the usefulness that every value of a
meteorological variable generated in a meteorological station can represent.
Energy and hydric balances are emphasized, which are decisive in sugarcane
biomass and saccharose accumulation.
Variable 
SIM 
Productivity estimates: Maximumm and 
del SIM
variable
Maximun and minimum minimum.
productivity estimates varieties Energy
Balance  Balance 
Hydric Varieties selection: TSH/water stress (mm) 
selection: TSH/MJ/m2/day Energético
balance rainfall hídrico
balance or TSH/excess water
Humidty stress or excess alarms
Global  Rg
Sugar accumulation ripening radiation
stage Thermal amplitude Irrigation period
Minimum teperature
1. Rainy season ending and harvesting
TTemperature
T°C
beginning. Flowering stage
Warnings on diseases 2. Period of  magnitude and 
Maximum ETo
canicula. irrigation
appearance
relative Relative HR Irrigation period
3. Rainy season
humidity ending. beginning and 
Warnings on pests appearance 4. Water stress. harvesting period
Wind speed Irrigation decision
between 11  Wind VV 5. Excess water
making
Warnings on irrigation spacing a 15 hours speed Drainage decision
reduction Climatic making
D Wind zoning or
Hourly speed DV
Decision making on agricultural direction stratification
and direction
fires Sugarcane daily
consumption
Leaf Hidric
Decision making of aerial wetness
MJ demand=Eto*Kc
according to
applications phenological stage

Note: SIM= Meteorological information system for its acronym in Spanish, ETo= Climatic

demand obtained Penman‐Monteith method.

Source: O. Castro, CENGICAÑA
Figure 14. Potential use of meteorological information for technological decision-
making process in sugarcane

Interpretation of meteorological variables for important technical decisions

In irrigation: One of the meteorological variables that affect the most water
distribution efficiency for sprinklers is wind speed. Wind speeds greater than
10 km/hour begin to significantly reduce the distribution efficiency to 75
percent (usual efficiency for canon type sprinklers), mainly in the period close
to noon. Figure 15 shows wind direction and speed behavior for the harvest
season period in the Guatemalan sugarcane area.
Wind can also cause effects in two ways, when wind is hot and dry and when it
is warm and humid. Hot and dry winds cause greater effect mainly in ETo
(Figure 16).

450
 Most frequent wind during harvesting period and  sprinklers
maximum separation
PERIOD HOUR NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR N
MORNING 6 NNW NNW NNE NNE NNW N
MORNING 7 NNW NNW NNE NNE NNW N
MORNING 8 NNW NNW NNE NNE NNW N
MORNING 9 SE NNW NNE E NE E
MORNING 10 SE SSW E E S E
MORNING 11 S SSW SSE S S S
Study of wind speed
MORNING 12 S SSW SSE S S S and direction with
MORNING 13 SSW SSW SSW S SSW SSW recorded information
from 11 years from
AFTERNO 14 SSW SSW SSW SSE SSW SSW
INSIVUMEH.
AFTERNO 15 SSW SSW SSW SSE SSW SSW
AFTERNO 16 SSW SSW SSW SSE SSW SSW
AFTERNO 17 W SSW SSW SSE SSW SSW Wind
Wet diameter
AFTERNO 18 W WSW SSW SSE SSW SSW speed
EVENING 19 NNW N NW WNW NW WNW 0-5 kph 0.65 * WetD
EVENING 20 NNW N N N NW WNW 0-11 kph 0.60 * WetD
EVENING 21 NNW N N N NW WNW 0-19 kph 0.50* WetD
EVENING 22 NNW N N N N WNW 6-19 kph 0.30 * WetD
EVENING 23 NNW N N N N WNW 6-29 kph 0.25 * WetD
EVENING 0 NNW N N NNE N N
EVENING 1 NNW N N NNE N N
EVENING 2 NNW N N NNE N N Effects on water
EVENING 3 NNW N N NNE N N distribution by
EVENING 4 NNW N N NNE N N sprinklers > than 10 
EVENING 5 NNW N N NNE N N km/hour or 2.78 
NOTE: Research results thesis Víctor Vásquez, tutor Ing. O. Castro (CENGICAÑA)  and M.  m/sec
Bautista (INSIVUMEH)

Figure 15. Wind direction and speed behavior matrix for the harvest season
period of the Guatemalan sugarcane area

Illustration of wind speed effect on evapotranspiration under dry and hot  atmospheric 
conditions compared to  humid and warm conditions
Effects on ETo > than 10 
ETo (mm) km/hour or 2.78 m/sec
Evapotranspiration as reference

Evapotranspiration
demand is high, under dry
warm and humid and warm weather
conditions due to air
dryness and available
energy amount like direct
solar radiation and latent
heat
Wind speed (m/s)

There are effects on sugar rollover or lodging from wind gusts > than 15 
km/hour or 4 m/sec according to sugar age and variety
Evapotranspiration demand is low,  under humid atmospheric conditions, 
high air humidity and cloud presence cause a lower evapotranspiration rate
Source: FAO figure, series 56. Analysis O.R. Castro, CENGICAÑA 

Figure 16. Wind effects on ETo and sugarcane rollover. Guatemala sugarcane
area

451
During the harvest season period (from November to May), thermal amplitude
(difference between maximum and minimum temperatures) behavior is very
variable. On clear sky days, minimum temperatures are below 19°C and
maximum temperatures reach values of 35°C. On clear sky days, thermal
amplitude exceeds 15°C, which favors sugar accumulation and photosynthesis
intensity when ETo (climatic demand) increases. On cloudy days, maximum
temperature decreases and minimum temperature rises; thermal amplitude can
reach values close to 5°C. This condition affects sugar accumulation and ETo
decreases (Figure 17).

Temperature

TA

Cloudy days
Clear sky days
Rainfall

Air temperature Thermal amplitude (AT) > 

than 15°C indicates that
In a sunny and hot day ,  there is more 
water loss due to evapotranspiration during
evapotranspiration will harvesting season.  Values
< than 15°C of TA 
be greater than on a 
correspond to cloudy
cloudy and fresh day. days.

Figure 17. Thermal amplitude en clear sky and cloudy days, their effect on ETo

Air humidity is very important in the ETo behavior and for diseases
development. Figure 18 shows an explanation on air humidity effect in the
process of climatic demand and critical values.

RH  than 40% during the

Air humidity day means that there is
Difference between pressure of greater evapotranspiration
water vapor in the during irrigation period. 
evapotranspiration surface and Values  than 40% during
the surrounding air is deciding the day correspond to
factor for vapor removal cloudy days propitious to
diseases development.

Well irrigated areas in hot and dry arid region consume great water quantities due
to a great energy availability and extraction power of the atmosphere vapor. On the
other hand, in tropical humid regions, in spite of a high energy income, high air
humidity will reduce evapotranspiration demand. In this last case, since the air is
close to saturation levels, it can absorb less additional water, and therefore,
evapotranspiration rate is lower than in arid regions.

Figure 18. Effects of air humidity in ETo

452
Winds: Real time meteorological information system (SIM-TR for its acronym
in Spanish) can be used to detect anomalies in wind direction and speed. On
regular days in which harvest season is carried out (from November 15th to May
15th), winds come from the South during the day, and from the North during the
night (Figure 19). This makes possible planning tasks.

CENGICAÑA STATION JAN 18 2010
DIRECTION  
HOUR DIRECTION (°)
(WINDROSE) N
0 85.2 E NNW NNE
1 86.4 E
2 9.25 N NW
3 31.35 NNE NE
4 38.325 NE
5 102.375 ESE
6 93.55 E
WNW ENE
7 98.05 E
8 79.4 E
9 168.9 SSE
10 185.675 S
11 130.85 SE W E
12 143.35 SE
13 129.3 SE
14 143.325 SE
15 146.325 SE
WSW
16 144.7 SE ESE
17 150.125 SSE
18 126.875 SE
19 30.2 NNE
20 24.2 NNE SW
SE
21 18.675 NNE
22 24.15 NNE
23 87.025 E SSW SSE
S

WIND ORIGIN

Figure 19. Wind behavior on an hour basis for a regular day in the Guatemalan
sugarcane area

The problem arises when, in our latitude, meteorological phenomena influence,

such as cold fronts coming from the North, which drastically change wind
direction and speed behavior, as shown in Figure 20. Under these
circumstances, Meteorological Information System in real time (SIM-TR)
graphical display can be used to monitor wind direction and speed behavior.

453
 SPEED 
HOUR  DEGREES  DIRECTION 
(Km/h) 
0 64.175 ENE  7.6 COLD FRONTS AND EASTERLY WAVES EFFECTS
1 91.15 E  12.7
2 70.35 ENE  15.625
3 57.025 ENE  17.075
N
4 73.975 ENE  16.55 NNW NNE

5 44.4 NE  31.075

NW
6 89.75 E  27.375 NE

7 73.65 ENE  27.475

8 60.125 ENE  16.65
WNW ENE
9 71.75 ENE  29.6
10 63.975 ENE  63.775
11 68.675 ENE  44.35
W E
12 64.65 ENE  61.025
13 73.575 ENE  62.225
14 68.7 ENE  49.225 WSW
ESE
15 66.65 ENE  36.85
16 67.875 ENE  38.9
17 69.325 ENE  30.775 SW
SE
18 78.175 E  40.675
19 74.55 ENE  45.425 SSW SSE

20 95 E  65.825 S
21 103.175 ESE  68.4
22 90.65 E  65.625
23 100.475 E  63.4

Figure 20. Wind direction and speed behavior when there is a cold front during
the harvest season period

Figure 21 shows an example of how the SIM-TR graphical display can be used,
i.e., the last visualized measurement is in the normal wind direction (from 90 to
270°). When the wind direction is outside the normal range, it should be
considered and analyzed, whether for the change in direction or for the increase
in wind speed.

Under these circumstances, it is recommended:

 To consult national or international agencies notices on the meteorological

phenomena. They can be useful for taking necessary measures.

It is important to consider that there are greater impacts of cold fronts when “La
Niña” influences, especially, from November to January. Therefore it is
important to monitor the presence of those phenomena.

454
Figure 21. Example of SIM-TR graphical display of January 21st 2010 where
wind speed and direction are shown every 15 min.

Indexes and follow-up of the expectations of ENSO development

ENSO indexes: ENSO with its warm or cold episodes is, without a doubt,
the phenomenon that influences the most in balances: both energy and
hydric. Its behavior in time must be monitored, therefore, it is important to
choose meteorological and oceanographic indexes that allow interpretation,
development quantification, and medium-term prospects forecast in order to
establish contingency plans to minimize effects.

One of the variables that allow establishing the development and behavior
degree of this phenomenon is superficial sea temperature (SST) from the
Equatorial Pacific Ocean (EQ). In the Equator, scientists from NOAA and
other agencies use a variety of tools and techniques to control and forecast
changes in the Pacific Ocean, likewise, the impact of thoses changes in
global weather patterns. In the Equatorial zone, ENSO is detected by
different methods, including satellites, fixed buoys, buoys adrift, sea level
analysis, and other special buoys. Many of theses oceans observation
systems were part of the Tropical Oceans Global Atmosphere (TOGA), and
now they are becoming operations inside of El Niño / Southern Oscillation

455
(ENSO) observation system. There is a research boat in NOAA too, the
KA'IMIMOANA, devoted to the service of the Tropical Atmosphere Ocean
(TAO), a part of the buoy network of the observation system. Oceanographic
information resulting from these tools and techniques is used in important
informatic agencies of the ocean and the atmosphere worldwide, like this
phenomenon National Forecast NOAA Centers. They are also used by
NOAA’s geophysicists, in the Fluids Dynamic Laboratory and other non
governmental research institutions.

Expectations development for harvest estimations: ENSO behavior

provides clear technical elements on sugarcane production; for a year with
presence of an ENSO-Warm episode, between May and December, positive
expectations on production would be generated; especially when there is a
quantity of energy greater than 20 MJ/m2/day in August. On the contrary,
with an ENSO-Cold episode, in the period of May to December, negative
expectations on production should be considered. In both cases, appropriate
technology application will allow minimizing effects, as an example, the
use of hydric balance in the irrigation technology (Niño years) and the use of
drainage technology in periods of water excesses (Niña years). With an
ENSO-Neutral episode, no extreme conditions are expected in terms of solar
brightness behavior and, consequently, in production.

With this base, the forecast follow-up since May on the development of
ENSO will allow improving the expectations for estimation of productions.
This is an activity that usually begins in May. For instance, the International
Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) in his periodic bulletins,
analyzes dynamic (around 14) and SST statistical (around 8) models in the
region Niño 3.4. Forecasts made for some seasons of the year are better
when they are done between June and December than when they are
produced between February and May. It is necessary for each IRI emitted
expectation to be assessed on a monthly basis for better results.

Figure 22 shows an analysis on ENSO behavior and meteorological and

physiological effects on sugarcane for the last 7 years. Real indexes known
as ONI emitted by CPC of NCEP (NOAA) and the expectations
development from average results of dynamic and statistical models
analyzed by IRI (http://iri.columbia.edu/), are also observed.

456
 Phenomena incidence
ONI
2 YEARS OF LESSER CLOUD 
INCIDENCE, LONGER 
DOG DAYS PERIODS 
BETWEEN JULY AND 
1.5 REAL 
AUGUST> Solar 
INDEX*
Radiation > biomass
NIÑO
1
< %  
FLOWERING 

0.5
Prospect up to
May 2012**
0 NEUTRAL

‐0.5
> %  
FLOWERING
‐1 YEARS OF GREATER  NIÑA
CLOUD INCIDENCE 
MAINLY JULY AND 
‐1.5 AUGUST
< Solar radiation <  GREATER 
biomass INCIDENCE OF 
HURRICANES
‐2
ASO

ASO

ASO

ASO

ASO

ASO

ASO
FMA

NDJ

FMA

NDJ

FMA

NDJ

FMA

NDJ

FMA

NDJ

FMA

NDJ

FMA

NDJ
JFM

AMJ

SON

JFM

AMJ

SON

JFM

AMJ

SON

JFM

AMJ

SON

JFM

AMJ

SON

JFM

AMJ

SON

JFM

AMJ

SON
MJJ

OND

MJJ

OND

MJJ

OND

MJJ

OND

MJJ

OND

MJJ

OND

MJJ

OND
JAS

JAS

JAS

JAS

JAS

JAS

JAS
DJF

JJA

DJF

JJA

DJF

JJA

DJF

JJA

DJF

JJA

DJF

JJA

DJF

JJA
MAM

MAM

MAM

MAM

MAM

MAM

MAM
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
•*ONI, Oceanic Niño Index,  issued by cpc.ncep.noaa,  EE UU
•**forecasts “The International  Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI)”
Figure 22. Development of climatic expectations from the IRI analysis on ENSO
behavior

ANNEXES

Important concepts

Agrometeorology or agricultural meteorology: It is an applied science that

studies atmospheric weather and climate influence on agricultural productivity,
livestock, and silviculture. This science deals with mutual actions that are
exerted between meteorological and hydrological factors, on one hand; and
agriculture in its widest sense, on the other. It establishes the crops and
livestocks demands to climatic conditions through the application of special
statistical methods. From these demands that are expressed in mathematical
models, it develops forecast agrometeorological methods of fundamental phases
crops development and of their yields; and furthermore, it carries out
agroclimatic zoning of a territory, taking into account space-time distribution of
climate factors that limit agricultural production. The reach of agricultural
meteorology expands from the soil layer, where the deepest roots of plants and
trees are found, going through the air layer next to the soil in which crops, trees,
and animals live, until reaching the highest levels of the atmosphere which are
of interest to aerobiology. This last layer is of great interest to the seeds, spores,
pollen, and insects transport. Besides natural climate and its local variations,
agricultural meteorology deals with environmental modifications, such as the

457
ones produced by windbreaking barriers and irrigation, climatic conditions
during storage, in both the interior and the field, environmental conditions in
cattle shelters and in agricultural buildings; and finally, inside vehicles during
the transportation of agricultural products (www.ecured.cu/).

Solar brightness: It refers to direct solar radiation in one day (n), it is measured
with a heliograph. When it is expressed as the duration of the relative direct
solar radiation, it is equal (%BS) = n/N, where N is equal to the maximum
possible duration of solar radiation.

Rainy season beginning: It is defined as the period in which effective rainfall

quantity from the beginning of April to the beginning of June is enough to
satisfy hydric needs of sugarcane. Its effect is variable according to atitudinal
stratum, sugarcane age and soil type, in which the cultivar is located.

Dog days: Period between July and August in which effective rainfall decreases
and causes water shortage to sugarcane. “Dog days” is a characteristic climatic
phenomenon that happens in our latitude every year. Its effect is variable
according to altitudinal stratum, sugarcane age, and soil type, in which the
cultivar is located.

Rainy season ending: Period between October and November in which

effective rainfall quantities are no longer sufficient to satisfy sugarcane hydric
needs and cause water shortage. This period is variable according to altitudinal
stratum, sugarcane age, and soil type on which the cultivar is located. To
determine beginning and ending of the periods of rainy season, as well as the
Dog Days season, the graphical analysis is used. Variables rainfall (bars) and
estimated potential evapotranspiration (ETo) with Penman-Monteith (line) are
also graphed. Rainfall values are accumulated in pentads (five-day rainfall) and
should be greater than ETo; if not, they will cause water shortage. Interpretation
according to texture is as follows:, a period of two pentads with rainfall lower
than ETP means a deficit for a sandy soil. For a loamy soil, a period between
three and four pentads and for silt-loamy soil with capillar input, a period
between four and five pentads.

Usual wind direction in latitude 14°

During the day: As the sun comes up, it warms up the earth faster than the sea
water. The earth warms up the air close to it, which ascends when it becomes
lighter; its place is taken by sea air that is cooler. A thermal gradient is
originated, which at the same time, originates a pressure gradient that causes the
air displacement of the higher pressure zone –sea surface – to the lower pressure
one –earth surface -, generating a wind coming from the sea to the earth that is

458
called sea breeze or virazon. During the night: When solar radiation
disappears, sea surface maintains for a longer period the heat caught during the
day more than the earth, which cools off more quickly. A thermal and inversely
pressure gradient to daily case is produced: the sea hotter air goes up and its
place is taken by cooler air coming from the earth. That is the origin of
terrestrial breeze or terral.

The cold front. It is a band of bad weather that happens when a mass of cool air
gets close to a mass of warm air. Cool dense air, generates an edge and gets
under warm and less dense air. Cold fronts move quickly, they are strong and
can cause atmospheric disturbances such as as storms, showers, tornadoes, and
strong winds. Its activity in our latitude increases especially in ENSO-Cold
episodes years.

What is El Niño?

The term El Niño refers to the big-scale ocean-atmosphere climatic

phenomenon related to periodic warming of sea superficial temperatures in the
central zone and center-eastern zone of the Equatorial Pacific (around date line
and 120 o W). El Niño represents the cycle warm phase of the El Niño/ Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon and sometimes if it referes to as a warm
episode of the Pacific. El Niño originally referred to an annual warming of the
sea superficial temperature across the western coast of South America. The
Climate Forecast NOAA Center, which is part of the National Meteorological
Service, states the beginning of an El Niño episode, when for three months the
sea superficial temperature exceeds 0.5 o C in the central- eastern Equatorial
Pacific between 5 o N-5 o S and 170 o W-120 oW.

What is La Niña?

La Niña refers to a periodic cooling of ocean superficial temperatures in the

central and central-eastern zones of the Equatorial Pacific, which happens every
three to five years or less. La Niña represents the cycle cold phase of El Niño /
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon, and it is sometimes referred to as a
cold episode of the Pacific. La Niña originally referes to an annual cooling of
oceanic waters in the East coast of Perú and Ecuador.

ENSO-neutral

It refers to periods with no presence of El Niño or La Niña. These periods often

coincide with transition between El Niño and La Niña. It is ENSO-neutral
during periods when ocean temperature, tropical rainfall patterns, and

459
atmospheric winds over the Equatorial Pacific Ocean are close to average on the
long term.

Important conversions

Conversion of solar brightness duration to energy quantity or viceversa

Rg =( 0.26 + 0.48 (n/N))*Ra                    n = (‐0.32+ 1.61 (Rg/Ra))*N  
R2=0.77 R2=0.77

Where:
n=Solar brightness in hours and tenths
Rg=Global radiation in MJ/m2/day
Ra=Solar radiation to the atmosphere limit in latitude 14° (See Table 3) in
MJ/m2/day.
N=Possible maximum duration of solar radiation, latitude 14° (See Table 3) in
hours and tenths
Source: CENGICAÑA, 2009.

460
Table 3. Daily information on possible maximum duration of solar radiation, N (hours and tenths) and solar radiation to the
atmosphere limit, Ra (MJ/m2/day). Latitude 14°N
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
DAY N Ra N Ra N Ra N Ra N Ra N Ra N Ra N Ra N Ra N Ra N Ra N Ra
1 11.176 28.990 11.390 31.372 11.721 34.588 12.140 37.390 12.519 38.396 12.787 38.273 12.828 38.105 12.621 38.122 12.255 37.426 11.850 35.222 11.462 31.851 11.210 29.273

2 11.180 29.030 11.400 31.480 11.734 34.700 12.153 37.452 12.530 38.405 12.793 38.264 12.825 38.105 12.611 38.118 12.242 37.379 11.837 35.124 11.452 31.743 11.205 29.219

3 11.183 29.072 11.411 31.589 11.747 34.811 12.166 37.511 12.541 38.411 12.798 38.254 12.822 38.105 12.601 38.112 12.229 37.329 11.824 35.024 11.441 31.636 11.200 29.169

4 11.187 29.117 11.421 31.699 11.760 34.921 12.180 37.568 12.552 38.417 12.802 38.245 12.819 38.106 12.590 38.106 12.216 37.279 11.810 34.922 11.430 31.529 11.195 29.121

5 11.191 29.165 11.432 31.810 11.773 35.030 12.193 37.623 12.563 38.421 12.807 38.236 12.815 38.106 12.580 38.099 12.202 37.226 11.797 34.820 11.419 31.424 11.191 29.076

6 11.195 29.216 11.442 31.922 11.787 35.138 12.207 37.676 12.574 38.425 12.811 38.227 12.811 38.107 12.569 38.091 12.189 37.171 11.784 34.717 11.409 31.320 11.187 29.034

7 11.200 29.269 11.453 32.035 11.800 35.244 12.220 37.727 12.584 38.427 12.815 38.218 12.807 38.109 12.559 38.081 12.176 37.115 11.770 34.612 11.399 31.217 11.183 28.995

8 11.205 29.325 11.464 32.149 11.813 35.350 12.233 37.776 12.595 38.428 12.819 38.209 12.802 38.110 12.548 38.071 12.162 37.056 11.757 34.507 11.389 31.115 11.179 28.958

9 11.210 29.384 11.476 32.264 11.827 35.454 12.246 37.823 12.605 38.428 12.822 38.201 12.797 38.112 12.537 38.060 12.149 36.996 11.744 34.400 11.379 31.015 11.176 28.925

10 11.216 29.446 11.487 32.379 11.840 35.557 12.260 37.868 12.615 38.428 12.825 38.193 12.792 38.113 12.526 38.048 12.135 36.934 11.731 34.293 11.369 30.915 11.173 28.894

11 11.221 29.510 11.498 32.495 11.854 35.658 12.273 37.911 12.625 38.426 12.828 38.185 12.787 38.115 12.514 38.035 12.122 36.870 11.718 34.185 11.359 30.831 11.170 28.867

12 11.227 29.577 11.510 32.611 11.867 35.758 12.286 37.953 12.634 38.424 12.831 38.178 12.782 38.117 12.503 38.020 12.108 36.804 11.705 34.076 11.350 30.734 11.168 28.842

13 11.233 29.646 11.521 32.728 11.881 35.857 12.299 37.992 12.644 38.421 12.833 38.171 12.776 38.119 12.492 38.004 12.095 36.736 11.692 33.967 11.341 30.639 11.165 28.820

14 11.240 29.718 11.533 32.845 11.894 35.953 12.312 38.029 12.653 38.417 12.835 38.164 12.770 38.122 12.480 37.987 12.081 36.667 11.679 33.857 11.332 30.546 11.164 28.802

15 11.246 29.793 11.545 32.962 11.908 36.049 12.325 38.064 12.663 38.412 12.837 38.157 12.764 38.124 12.468 37.969 12.068 36.596 11.666 33.746 11.323 30.454 11.162 28.786

16 11.253 29.869 11.557 33.080 11.922 36.142 12.337 38.098 12.672 38.407 12.839 38.151 12.757 38.126 12.456 37.950 12.054 36.522 11.653 33.635 11.314 30.364 11.161 28.774

17 11.260 29.948 11.569 33.197 11.935 36.234 12.350 38.129 12.680 38.401 12.840 38.145 12.750 38.128 12.445 37.929 12.040 36.447 11.641 33.523 11.306 30.276 11.159 28.764

18 11.267 30.030 11.581 33.315 11.949 36.325 12.363 38.159 12.689 38.395 12.841 38.140 12.744 38.130 12.433 37.906 12.027 36.371 11.628 33.412 11.298 30.190 11.159 28.758

19 11.275 30.113 11.594 33.432 11.962 36.413 12.375 38.187 12.697 38.388 12.842 38.135 12.736 38.131 12.420 37.882 12.013 36.292 11.616 33.299 11.289 30.106 11.158 28.754

20 11.282 30.199 11.606 33.550 11.976 36.500 12.388 38.214 12.706 38.381 12.842 38.130 12.729 38.133 12.408 37.857 12.000 36.212 11.603 33.187 11.282 30.024 11.158 28.754

21 11.290 30.287 11.618 33.667 11.990 36.585 12.400 38.238 12.714 38.373 12.842 38.126 12.721 38.134 12.396 37.830 11.986 36.130 11.591 33.075 11.274 29.944 11.158 28.757

22 11.299 30.376 11.631 33.784 12.003 36.668 12.413 38.261 12.721 38.365 12.842 38.122 12.714 38.136 12.383 37.802 11.972 36.046 11.579 32.962 11.266 29.866 11.158 28.763

23 11.307 30.468 11.644 33.900 12.017 36.749 12.425 38.282 12.729 38.357 12.842 38.119 12.706 38.136 12.371 37.772 11.959 35.961 11.567 32.850 11.259 29.791 11.159 28.772

24 11.315 30.562 11.656 34.016 12.031 36.828 12.437 38.302 12.736 38.348 12.841 38.116 12.697 38.137 12.358 37.740 11.945 35.874 11.555 32.737 11.252 29.717 11.159 28.784

25 11.324 30.657 11.669 34.132 12.044 36.905 12.449 38.320 12.744 38.339 12.840 38.113 12.689 38.137 12.346 37.707 11.932 35.785 11.543 32.625 11.245 29.647 11.161 28.799

26 11.333 30.755 11.682 34.247 12.058 36.980 12.461 38.336 12.751 38.330 12.839 38.111 12.680 38.137 12.333 37.672 11.918 35.695 11.531 32.513 11.239 29.578 11.162 28.818

27 11.342 30.854 11.695 34.361 12.072 37.054 12.473 38.351 12.757 38.321 12.837 38.109 12.671 38.136 12.320 37.635 11.904 35.603 11.519 32.401 11.233 29.512 11.164 28.839

28 11.351 30.955 11.708 34.475 12.085 37.125 12.485 38.364 12.764 38.311 12.835 38.108 12.662 38.135 12.307 37.597 11.891 35.510 11.508 32.290 11.226 29.448 11.166 28.863

29 11.361 31.057 11.714 34.531 12.099 37.194 12.496 38.377 12.770 38.302 12.833 38.106 12.653 38.133 12.294 37.557 11.877 35.416 11.496 32.179 11.221 29.387 11.168 28.891

30 11.370 31.161 12.112 37.262 12.508 38.387 12.776 38.292 12.831 38.106 12.644 38.131 12.281 37.515 11.864 35.320 11.485 32.069 11.215 29.329 11.170 28.921

31 11.380 31.266 12.126 37.327 12.782 38.283 12.634 38.128 12.268 37.471 11.474 31.960 11.173 28.954
Total 
349.12 928.81 334.90 956.03 369.58 1118.35 369.85 1140.36 392.58 1189.87 384.83 1145.01 395.18 1181.80 386.01 1174.74 361.81 1094.76 361.35 1042.19 339.77 914.14 346.31 895.74
general

461
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Castro, O. 2010. La variabilidad de la radiación solar en la superficie
terrestre y sus efectos en la producción de caña de azúcar en Guatemala. In:
Memoria. Presentación de resultados de investigación. Zafra 2009-2010.
Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 281-287.

2. Castro, O.; Suárez, A.; Ramírez, C. 2010. Estudio de las relaciones entre
duración de radiación solar y radiación global para la latitud 14°N de la
zona cañera guatemalteca. In: Memoria. Presentación de resultados de
investigación. Zafra 2009-2010. Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. pp. 288-293.

3. Climate Prediction Center of The National Centers for Environmental

Prediction. Cold & Warm Episodes by Season, ONI, Oceanic Niño Index.
http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/

4. FAO, 2006. Evapotranspiración del cultivo. Guía para la determinación de

los requerimientos de agua de los cultivos. Estudio serie Riego y drenaje
No. 56. 298 p.

5. ICC, 2011. Base de datos de variables meteorológicas de las estaciones

meteorológicas ubicadas en la zona cañera de Guatemala, años 2007-mayo
2011. ICC. Archivo electrónico.

6. International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI).

Probabilidades de comportamiento ONI (Oceanic Niño Index).
http://iri.columbia.edu/

7. LA UNIÓN-LOS TARROS, 2009. Base de datos de temperatura y lluvia,

estación meteorológica “Belén” ubicada en la finca Belén.

8. Meneses, A.; Melgar, M. 2009. Series históricas de producción, exportación

y consumo de azúcar en Guatemala. Boletín estadístico, año 10, No. 1.
Guatemala, CENGICAÑA. 8p.

9. Ortiz, Carlos. 1987. Elementos de agrometeorología cuantitativa. 3ª edición.

Departamento de suelos. Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, México.
Páginas consultadas 18-53 y 306-321.

10. PANTALEON, LA UNIÓN-LOS TARROS, MAGDALENA. 2009. Base

de datos de brillo solar años 2007, 2008 y 2009.

11. PANTALEON. 2011. Base de datos de variables meteorológicas de 1986 a

la fecha. Departamento de Investigación. Archivo electrónico.

462
XVI. CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE
SUGARCANE CROP

463
 CLIMATE CHANGE AND
THE SUGARCANE CROP

Alex Guerra and Alejandra Hernández

INTRODUCTION
Climate change appears to be among the greatest challenges to mankind at
present. There is scientific evidence about changes that are obvious, and also
the relation between these changes and human activities which have caused
them (IPCC, 2007). International discussions and debates focus on how to stop
(or at least decelerate) future climate change and, every time with greater
importance, how to attain populations to adapt to changes that appear. It is
important to recognize that climate change does not only represent an additional
problem for humanity, but that it lends greater degree of difficulty to the
challenges that already exist. This chapter aims to briefly set out the climate
change topic and its relation with the sugarcane crop. Although CENGICAÑA’s
research and training have not dealt deliberately with the subject, much of its
work does have a relation, as it will be further exposed. Aside from the general
relevance of the subject, a special chapter is included because the Guatemalan
Sugar Agroindustry has funded a climate change specialized institution: the
Private Institute for Climate Change Research (ICC, for its acronym in
Spanish). It was created not only aiming to support the Sugarcane Agroindustry
to tackle climate change, but it constitutes a contribution to the country, since its
work will include other sectors, communities, and national infrastructure.

Besides the introduction, the chapter contains three main parts. The first one
outlines the general relation between climate and the sugarcane crop. Within the
same part, knowledge on climate change in Guatemala is presented, and it
concludes with possible effects on sugar production. The second part raises
climate change mitigation and the sugarcane crop. In the beginning, it presents
the context of the greenhouse gases (GHG) emission in Guatemala, and then,
points out action opportunities. The third part deals with adaptation to climate
change. It starts with a general introduction to adaptation, and then, focuses on
the sugarcane crop case. To finalize, the ICC and its main research and action
areas are presented; focusing on the existent opportunity to achieve benefits for


  Alex Guerra is a Forestry Engineer, Ph.D. General Director of the Private Institute for Climate Change
Research, ICC for its acronym in Spanish; Alejandra Hernández is a Forestry Engineer M.Sc., Coordinator of
the Ecosystems Research Programme of the ICC. www.icc.org.gt  

464
the Sugar Agroindustry, the communities, and the country, contributing in this
way, with global efforts.

CLIMATE CHANGE
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
defines climate change as “a change of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity, that alters the composition of the global
atmosphere, and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over
comparable time periods” (IPCC, 2007). The objective of the convention
consists in stabilizing concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the
atmosphere to a level that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interferences with
the global climate system, and that should be achieved in a period that allows
the ecosystems natural adaptation to climate change, ensuring food production
and sustainable economic development.

At the beginning of the XIX century, research on the atmosphere composing

gases and their ability to retain heat had already begun. At the time of the First
Global Conference on Climate in Geneva, in 1979, the topic reaches its peak. In
1989, the World Meterorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) created the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), which was established to analyze in a thorough,
objective, open and transparent way all relevant scientific, technical and
socioeconomic information to understand the climate change phenomenon. Up
to the date, the IPCC has generated four general reports (1990, 1995, 2001, and
2007), which have been decisive to keep moving forward in the climate change
international negotiations. The last of them, presented in 2007, allowed drawing
a roadmap to review international agreements on required actions to carry them
out after 2012.

One of the achievements of internacional negotiations is the existence of

binding commitments, adopted through the Kyoto Protocol, tool that was
created in 1997. Intentions of reduction of GHG emissions and the creation of
market mechanisms to facilitate their fulfillment are captured in that document.
In the same way, individual goals (by country) on GHG emissions reduction or
control are fixed. Another relevant aspect was the production of emissions
scenarios that represent a likely future and at the same time, is the foundation
of the climatic projections.

Model and scenario based simulated results describe possible climate change effects
at a global level and by sector, in the case that no adaptation measures are
considered. Some effects for the agricultural sector in general (Table 1), especially
those that could affect sugarcane crop in Guatemala, are described below.

465
Table 1. Phenomena and trends and their effects in agriculture, silviculture, and
ecosystems

Phenomena and trends orientation Effects in

Less days and nights more temperate,
and more warmer days and nights, and
increase of warmer periods frequency
Frequency increase of intense rainfalls
Increase of drought-affected areas
Increase of intense tropical cyclonic
activity
Greater incidence of extremely high sea
levels (excluding tsunamis)
(CEPAL, 2009)
agriculture, silviculture, ecosystems
Productivity decrease in warmer
environments (thermal stress) and insect
pests increase, as well as uncontrolled
forest fires
Crop damages, soil erosion, impossibility
of land sowing due to soil hydric saturation
Soil degradation, yields decrease, crop
damages and disqualification, greater risk
of uncontrolled forest fires
Crops damages
Irrigation water, estuaries and fresh water
systems salinization

The following effects were observed in Latin America (Table 2):

Table 2. Phenomena effects in Latin America

Increase of extreme meteorological phenomena in the last 40 years across the region
(ENSO episodes 1982-1983 and 1997-1998)
Temperature increase (South America and the Caribbean)
Increase of degradation process due to land use change (every country)
Increase of desertification percentage (deforestation in Central America)
(CEPAL, 2009)

LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARRIBEAN: HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL 
PHENOMENA FREQUENCY 1970‐2007

Forest fires
Extreme 
temperatures
Droughts
Landslides
Storms

Floods

Source: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), 

based on “EM‐DAT: Emergency Events Database” [online 
database]http://www.em‐dat.net 
Figure 1. Hydrometeorological phenomena frequency in Latin America and the
Caribbean (1970-2007)
(Source: CEPAL, 2009)

466
Figure 1 shows the frequency of hydrometeorological phenomena that have
occured in Latin America and the Caribbean since the 1970’s to 2007. For 37
years, all types of phenomena that generally occur in Latinamerican lands
have increased. In 1970, less than 150 phenomena which included forest fires,
droughts, landslides, storms and floods, were accounted for. In 2007, those
incidents have almost tripled.

RELATION BETWEEN CLIMATE AND THE

SUGARCANE CROP
Climatic conditions for the sugarcane crop

Sugarcane, as much as every other crop, develops under specific climatic

conditions, and only under some of them, its growth turns out to be optimal.
Optimal temperature for its development must be between 27°C and 33°C.
Subirós (2000) mentions that growth clearly decreases at values of 20°C. If
temperature drops even more, growth practically paralyzes. According to
Gawander (2007), cold nights and early mornings in which the temperature
does not exceed 14°C in the dry season, or 20°C in the rainy one, greatly
affects the photosynthetic process the next day. When temperature is higher
than 35°C, respiration increases and as a consequence, reduces the
photosynthetic rate, which leads to a reduction in growth and dry matter
accumulation. Whereas wilting signs become evident when temperature
increases above 36°C (Subirós, 2000). If temperature is higher, growth rate
increases more than photosynthesis, which adversely affects saccharose
accumulation (Gawander, 2007).

At present, the network of 16 meteorological stations located in the four

sugarcane strata (high, medium, low, and coastal) records environmental
temperature measurements. The network allows possessing the range of
mimimum and maximum daily temperatures, and to determine if they are
within optimal values for the crop development. During January 2010, for
example, the minimum recorded temperature was 14.1°C in Puyumate station,
whereas the maximum one was 36.5°C in Trinidad station.

As important as air temperature is soil temperature that must be around 27°C

to fulfill its role in root development, nutrient absorption, and biological
activity. Below 21°C, it becomes a limiting factor in the crop development
and a temperature of 24°C is considered as an appropriate average (Subirós,
2000). With respect to that variable, there are no measurements carried out

467
regularly yet. It could be recommended to measure it in order to obtain a
wider data range that will allow characterizing crop development based on
climatic conditions.

It is also known that during the ripening stage (4 to 6 weeks prior to harvest),
amplitude variation between day and night temperatures tends to considerably
favor sugarcane ripening. The variation should be above 8°C (Díaz and
Portocarrero, 2002). Thermal amplitude average during September 2010 for
13 stations in different sugarcane strata can be observed in Table 3. Thermal
amplitude remained above 8°C in 11 of them. In the coastal stratum, two
stations recorded temperatures lower than that.

Table 3. Thermal amplitude (September 2010) in the sugarcane area from the
southern coast

Stratum1 Station Thermal amplitude (in °C)

High CENGICAÑA 9.6
Medium Costa Brava 9.2
El Bálsamo 8.4
Low Bouganvilia 8.4
Petén Oficina 9.3
Puyumate 8.8
Tehuantepec 8.2
Trinidad 8.4
Coastal Amazonas 10.8
Bonanza 7.7
Irlanda 9.5
San Antonio del Valle 7.7
San Rafael 8.7

Literature shows that, in average, 1200 to 1500 mm of rainfall is required

during the whole vegetative period (Subirós, 2000). Water demand increases
with plant growth since transpiration also increases. Likewise, if temperature is
high, water demand will increase (Ibid). As presented in Table 4, collected
precipitation data from 12 stations point out that the crop requirement is
fulfilled. Trinidad station located in the low stratum, recorded 1610 mm, while
stations of the medium stratum exceeded 4000 mm. Despite the fact that
precipitation is greater than 1500 mm in all strata, there is a dry season (mid-
October to mid-April) where there is little rain, and there is a need to irrigate the
crop, especially in the coastal and low strata.

1
 See climatic characteristics of the sugarcane crop strata in the southern coast that are described in Table 1 of
Chapter 2. 

468
Table 4. Rainfall (2009-2010) in the sugarcane area from the southern coast

Total rainfall
Stratum Station
(in mm)
High CENGICAÑA 4569
Medium Costa Brava 4087.3
El Bálsamo 4633.6
Low Bouganvilia 2585.6
Petén Oficina 2768.8
Puyumate 2304.6
Tehuantepec 2576.2
Trinidad 1610.4
Coastal Amazonas 3141.5
Bonanza 3021.8
Irlanda 3741.2
San Antonio del Valle 2811.3

During the period prior to harvest, humidity decrease is considered ideal in

order to reduce growth and to favor sugar fomation and concentration.
Rainfall excesses as well as droughts are detrimental to sugarcane (Subirós,
2000). There are some varieties that are tolerant to humidity excesses, but
the great majority is affected by floods. A study that was carried out with
two Canal Point varieties in Belle Glade, Florida, concluded that floods
resulted in the reduction of 38% of the leaf weight and a greater
development of adventitious roots (between 4 and 15 times more) in
detriment of primary roots (Gilbert et al., 2007).

Another factor that can limit sugarcane crop is wind, which can damage
foliage, increase evapotranspiration, reduce growth, cause stalk breaking,
and even base breaking. If wind speed is under 40 Km/hour, it will not cause
harm; however, if it exceeds that limit, it reduces sugarcane yield (Subirós,
2000). Wind measurements from June, July, and August 2010, for instance,
indicated that in 52 days, maximun wind speed exceeded 40 km/hour. These
data were mainly recorded in the low (52%) and coastal (27%) strata. In
presence of hurricanes, stalks fresh weight could be reduced until 54 percent
and their saccharose content decrease around 34 percent in broken stalks
(Subirós, 2000).

469
Extreme events effect in production

An extreme rainfall event can be climatologically defined as being the one

that occurs in one of the extremes of the climatological frequency
distribution, and the choice of a limit value can be arbitrary and even
subjective (Marengo et al., 2004). According to the IPCC glossary (2001a),
an event that is rare in a certain place and station, is called an extreme event
(Ex. an extreme event can come out of the 10 or 90 percentile). Extremes
vary from one place to another; therefore, what can be defined as extreme in
a specific area, in another can be usual. Extreme events cannot be solely
claimed to climate change, for they can happen naturally, however, climate
change is expected to increase their ocurrence.

Conducted studies in Australia have shown that anomalous heavy rainfalls in

a certain season of the year, are followed by sugarcane yields below normal
in the next harvest (Kuhnel, 1993). In Viti Levu island, changes in rainfall
regimes could entail agricultural losses valued in 14 million dollars. The
former is due to an 8 percent reduction of rainfall that would affect most
crops on that island and especially sugarcane, which is very sensitive to
droughts. Taking into account the above-mentioned information, an
approximately 9% drop in sugarcane production could be expected by 2050;
and, until 50 percent of production could be lost every four years (World
Bank, 2000), caused by “El Niño” phenomena. Madre Tierra sugar mill
provided data revealing that heavy precipitations during the rainy season
which include those provoked by Agatha, Alex, and Matthew storms, in the
2010-2011 harvest season, greatly affected the sugarcane crop production.
For five production areas, rainfall of almost 2000 mm caused yield reduction
of 10 to 28 percent compared to 2009-2010 harvest season. In other
locations rainfall exceeded 3000 mm (Madre Tierra sugar mill, 2011).

In 2005, tropical storm Stan caused damages and losses in agricultural and
livestock areas of 15 departments, amongst them Retalhuleu and Escuintla.
Besides economic losses, natural phenomena damages are derived into
environmental actives like soil, vegetation, and water. The first effects result
from changes in environmental services. Subsequently, effects lie in natural
capital restoration or recovery so that it can return to its original state (or to
a similar one). Among the ones that could affect surgacane crop directly or
indirectly, are: loss of agricultural soils due to hydric erosion, sediment
dragging, and alteration in natural drainage systems. Soil loss by erosion due
to Stan equaled 12.7 percent from annual erosion (CEPAL and Segeplan,
2005).

470
Future climate and the sugarcane crop

Worldwide, one of the unknowns of greater concern is the way climate

change will demonstrate itself. On the one hand, there is global warming,
which concerns change in mean temperature of the whole planet and is
known to be different everywhere (IPCC, 2007). Until this moment, a
greater increment temperature in polar areas (high latitudes) and on top of
mountains (high altitudes) has been observed. It is very likely that the trend
will continue in the future (ibid.). On the other hand, climate change
manifests itsef through other variables such as rainfall, wind, solar radiation,
and electrical activity. The greatest concern lies on precipitation due to
changes that can happen in annual quantities, intensity and temporality,
among other variables.

Study of future climate is eminently based on simulation models.

Comprehension and information on the global climatic system have been
used to create computer based models. These show changes in the system, in
different scenarios of greenhouse gases concentrations, which depend on
used energy sources, created technological options, land management and, in
general, development model that humanity pursues. This is why usually
results from different future scenarios are presented simultaneously.
Regarding models, the trend has started from the global (Global Circulation
Models) to regional and local ones. These last ones are the hardest to
achieve and are the ones where efforts are being put on. There are 22 most
used global circulation models.

At a country level the Primera Comunicación Nacional sobre Cambio

Climático (First National Communication on Climate Change), was
published. The study began in 1998 and included an analysis on climatic,
socioeconomic, and environmental future scenarios which allowed assessing
vulnerability of several important sectors of the country to climate change
(Castellanos and Guerra, 2009). This was a result of the commitment that the
country acquired after signing the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), when it was created in 1992 and that was
ratified in 1995. For the historic climatic analysis, the study was based on
records from 1960 to 1990 from the stations network of the National
Institute of Seismology, Vulcanology, Meteorology and Hydrology
(INSIVUMEH for its acronym in Spanish).

To describe future climate behavior in Guatemala, three GHG emissions

scenarios produced by the IPCC were used (IS92a, IS92c y IS92e). The
three scenarios were chosen because they take into account medium, low

471
and high climatic sensibilities, respectively, and a wide range of global
warming forecasts based on GHG increase (MARN, 2001). To assess
impacts that may happen due to weather changes, five scenarios were
identified. They covered the range of possible future situations: a humid
scenario of little change; a humid scenario of great change; a dry scenario of
little change; a dry scenario of great change, and a scenario of no change.2

According to the study, all scenarios are consistent when indicating an

increase in temperature between 0.5 and 4 degrees for 2050. It is foreseen
that temperature increase will be reflected in all months and not in some
months more than others. For rainfall, scenarios show that there could be a
decrease in the trimester from July to September, which entails an
intensification of the Dog Days period (MARN, 2001).

There have been other attempts of future climate projections in Guatemala,

especially in terms of temperature and rainfall. The weakness is however
that they are based on information which resolution does not capture detail
level that requires the climatic variability of the country resulting from its
rough orography. Despite the above-mentioned, they represent departure
points in which improvements can be looked for. Figures 2 to 5 show one of
these exercises and they are based in 15 climatic models of the 22 that
composed the assemblage used by the Intergovernmental Panel of Experts
on Climate Change for the Fourth Assessment (McSweeney et al., 2009).
Values are expressed as abnomalies from the mean climate of the period
1970-1999.

Regarding to annual rainfall, the trend slightly decreases until the 2060
decade, and it would only diminish around 20 percent until the end of the
century, especially in the northeast part of the country (see Figure 2). These
results are similar to executed projections by Sáenz-Romero et al. (2010).
Trimester focus assessment contributes to more specific information. In
Figure 3 in the March-May trimester, which is a keystone because it is the
season with higher irrigation water demand, rainfall decrease emphasizes.
The figure indicates that decreases around 40 percent could be expected in
the northeast and east region of Guatemala. Extreme events, given as an
example in Figure 4, show little and non significant increase when compared
to magnitude of rainfall maximum events in one day.

2
  Consult the document on the Primera Comunicación Nacional sobre Cambio Climático (First National
Communication on Climate Change) (MARN, 2001) to learn about the scenarios making process and the
assumptions on which they are based. 

472
Figure 2. Percentage changes of annual rainfall
(Source: McSweeney, 2010 in Guerra-Noriega, 2010).

Figure 3. Rainfall percentage changes in March-May trimester (Source: McSweeney,

2010 in Guerra-Noriega, 2010).

Figure 4. Increase in maximum annual rainfall in 24 hours

(Source: McSweeney, 2010 in Guerra-Noriega, 2010).

473
 Climate change severity index
Low severitty
Close to significant changes
Variation to significant changes during the year
Pressure on the comfort zone limits
Outside the comfort zone
Far outside of the comfort zone

Figure 5. Climate change severity indexes until the decade 2020 (Source: Anderson et
al., 2008 quoted in Ligorría, 2009).

The Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MARN for its acronym in
Spanish) conducted a series of studies related to vulnerability and adaptation to
climate change in Guatemala. Temperature and rainfall behaviors focused on
2050 were investigated, considering the scenarios A2 (medium to high
emissions) and B2 (low to medium emissions) (MARN, 2007). Studies focused
in the Naranjo river watershed in San Marcos and in the subwatershed of San
José river, in Chiquimula and Jutiapa. Among the most relevant findings are: 1)
In the intermediate and high parts of the Naranjo river watershed, under both
scenarios, rainfall tends to decrease in the first months of the rainy season and
in October it becomes more rainy: 2) There is no defined trend in the low part of
the Naranjo river watershed, because it rises in some months and decreases in
others: 3) Temperature increases in general, but between 0.3 and 0.8 degrees for
both minimum and maximum temperature. In the sub-watershed of San José
river, main findings are: 1) Under both scenarios, rainfall tends to increase from
May to July and to decrease from July to September in the medium part of the
sub-watershed: 2) In the high part of the sub-watershed, rainfall increases in all
months in one location (La Ceibita) while in other (Asunción Mita), it is
expected to increase from May to October under B2 scenario (MARN, 2007a).
These study cases could show that it is possible for temperature change to be a
little greater in dry areas of the country.

474
In the information that was presented, the need to carry out studies on changes
in terms of temperature and rainfall to a regional and local level is evident.
Another necessity is to improve existing models to have a clearer idea of
changes that could occured. Studies suggest that temperature will increase
throughout the century; however, the magnitude of that increase is unknown.
Rainfall could increase or decrease depending on local conditions. The most
important thing will be to know about changes throughout the year because
possible impacts could depend on that.

Implications of changes in climatic variables for the sugarcane crop

Although climate change studies usually take into account temperature and
rainfall as main variables, related variables to them are numerous. Climate
change could be represented in every variable, although probably only some of
them could constitute threats to ecosystems, human populations, and goods.
Table 5 shows a list of climatic variables and in Table 6, threats that could result
from changes in these variables. It should be noted that some threats can result
from a change or the combination of changes of two or more variables.
Unfortunately, there is no knowledge on the trajectory of most variables,
because they haven’t been measured, so foretelling future conditions is
extremely hard.

Table 5. Potential changes in climatic variables

Increase or decrease in rainfall annual quantity

Early or belated beginning of rainy season
More intense or longer Dog Days period
Extreme rainfall (more intensity or greater frequency)
Intense rainfall in dry season
Increase in the average of annual temperature
Increase in daily maximum temperature
Increase in daily minimum temperature
Increase in extreme temperature events: greater number of days with very high
maximum temperatures or very low minimum temperatures
Increase in daily or weekly temperature variation
More intense or more frequent electric shocks (rays)
Increase in strong wind events or very high speed winds
Stronger or more frequent cyclonic storms and hurricanes
Change in the starting and/or ending of strong wind season
Greater hail or in places where is not common
Increase in evaporation and evapotranspiration
Sea level increase
Increase in swell intensity on beaches

475
Table 6. Potential climatic threats

Floods
River overflows
Droughts
Water scarcity for different uses
Landslides and collapses
Proliferation of pests and diseases that affect crops
Proliferation of vectors that transmit diseases for humans
Change in vector distribution and diseases propagation
Frosts
Forest fires
Storms tides

The first implication of climate changes on sugarcane is the distribution of

suitable areas for the crop. Required temperature and humidity conditions
aforementioned can be found in several locations in the country, even much more
than the approximately 230,000 hectares that were occupied by sugarcane crop
between 2010 and 2011 (CENGICAÑA, 2011). As presented in other chapters of
this book, the crop has historically been concentrated in the south-central part of
the country, below 700 meters above sea level (masl). A higher temperature (on
daily minimum and maximum temperature) would make possible for the crop to
favorably grow in locations with higher altitude, even up to 800 masl. Other
conditions should be present for this to happen. If changes in maximum
temperature would be very intense (over 36°C), it would start limiting suitable
crop development in the coastal and low strata, where temperature is higher.

Temperature augmentation will increase irrigation requeriments due to

evapotranspiration increase. If they are combined with very dry seasons, water
demand will rise even more. In the case of Swaziland, in Africa, an increment
between 11 and 14 percent of water requirement for the sugarcane crop will
happen; when combined with summer rainfall reduction will provoke an average
increase in irrigation need between 20 to 22 percent (Knox et al., 2010).

Changes in rainfall are much more uncertain. Taking into account that current
rainfall is much more than the one needed by the sugarcane crop, a 20 percent
decrease (which for now is the estimated change datum for the end of the
century), would have no significant effect in most areas where current cultivars
are located. Due to existing rainfall gradient (about 1000 mm in the coast to more
than 4000 mm in the crop high stratum - CENGICAÑA, 2007), areas, where
water could be scarce for its development, are the coastal and low strata.

476
Longitudinally, there is also a gradient in which rainfall increases from southeast
to southwest; so the southeast could be potentially affected due to the general
decrease in annual rainfall. How changes present themselves on a monthly basis
will be more relevant. Although the panorama is still uncertain, in some places
that have been evaluated, as seen in studies of MARN (2007), decrease in rainfall
could be stronger for the March-May trimester, while in the September-
November trimester, there could be even an increase.

Some estimations on production impact with regards to possible changes in

rainfall have been made for sugarcane in Belize. Sugarcane crop in Belize is
located in the northern part of the country (Santos and García, 2008), where
rainfall regime is similar to low and coastal rainfall strata regimes of sugarcane in
Guatemala. A reduction of 12 percent in rainfall would not influence yield during
the first three growth stages. However, for the fourth stage a reduction of 55
percent has been calculated, this would cause a decrease in total harvest of 11.9
percent (ibid.). On the other hand, an increase of 12 percent in annual rainfall
would influence in a reduction of 4.5 percent in harvest. With rainfall decrease of
20 percent projected for 2050, sugarcane production would be reduced in 17.4
percent (ibid.).

Related to precipitation, rainfall extreme events are a concern subject. They can
cause serious damage to sugar cultivars, transportation, processing, and
marketing. For instance, Fiji Islands, a country that greatly depends on sugar, has
been considerably affected by climatic events. Droughts and tropical cyclones
have caused losses of over 50 percent of the production in years like 1997, 1998,
and 2003 (Gawander, 2007). Although there is uncertainty in the scenarios, it has
been mentioned that rainfall extreme events will increase (IPCC, 2000); (Jiménez
and Girot, 2002) and for Central America and the north of South America,
increases have already been recorded (Aguilar et al., 2005). Existing projections,
as already shown, say little about extreme events and, for now, they point out at
minimum increases.

There are combined effects from climatic and atmospheric future conditions for
sugarcane. Yields can increase because of higher temperatures, greater solar
radiation, and also greater CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. In the case of
Swaziland, the first two are minimal (less than 5%), while the increase due to a
greater CO2 concentration (in A2 scenario) has been calculated in 15 percent of
sucrose production (Knox et al., 2010). According to Downing et al. (1997) when
CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is doubled, an increase in water use
efficiency can reach even 50 percent, with greater effects in C3 metabolic
pathway plants. On sugarcane, it is expected that such effect be lower because it
is a C4 metabolic pathway plant, which is less efficient in water use (Knox et al.,

477
2010). Wind is another variable that can have adverse effects in the sugarcane
crop, as previously explained.

SUGARCANE AND GREENHOUSE GASES

Greenhouse gases (GHG) are atmospheric gases that capture heat in the low
atmosphere and contribute to global warming (IPCC, 2007). Some of them exist
in a natural way, others are solely produced by human activity; and others are
produced both ways: naturally and anthropogenically. Kyoto Protocol aims to
regulate emissions of six GHG: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFC), and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) (Bayon et al., 2009).

Greenhouse effect results from the fact that some gases of the terrestrial
atmosphere absorb an important part of solar radiation that is reflected by the
planet’s surface. Greenhouse effect is a natural thing that has made possible for
the Earth to be inhabitable and to possess everything that is known. However,
through human actions, this effect increases with additional gas accumulation in
the atmosphere and is further translated into global warming (MARN et al.,
2009). Climate change mitigation consists of GHG emissions reduction or
extraction from the atmosphere to avoid global warming and climate change
(IPCC, 2007).

The study Inventario de gases de efecto invernadero Año 2000 (Greenhouse

Gases Inventory Year 2000) reports that GHG total emissions for Guatemala were
21,320.82 Gg for CO2, of which 50.4 percent corresponded to land use change
and silviculture (Figure 6).

Total national CO2 emissions

Energy

Industrial 
processes

Land use and 
land use change

Figure 6. Total national CO2 emissions

(Own source with data from MARN, 2007)

478
CH4 total emissions were 230.29 Gg, of which 56.7 percent corresponded to
the agricultural sector and particularly to enteric fermentation by livestock
(98.72, or 42.9% of the total in a national level) (Figure 7).

Total national CH4 emissions

Energy

Agriculture

Land use and 
land use change

Residues

Figure 7. Total national CH4 emissions

(Own source with data from MARN, 2007)

Nitrous oxide emissions rose to 55.33 Gg, and 97.5 percent is ascribed to
agriculture (emissions by agricultural soils and manure management). Those
emissions corresponding to nitrogen oxide amounted to 89.72 Gg, and the
agricultural sector, mainly prescribed burnings and field burning of
agricultural residues, contributes to 17.5 percent. Regarding to carbon
monoxide emissions, there are 1,651.45 Gg, and 29.7 percent correspond to
the agricultural sector (prescribed burnings and field burning of agricultural
residues).

Absorptions were accounted for as well: 37,460.17 Gg. Data in this

document show several increases in comparison with data from the first
national communication before the UNFCCC (1990). On the contrary,
absorptions datum recorded a decrease of 5,443.56 Gg with regard to 1990.

According to Boshell’s study (2011), nitrous oxide emissions of the sugar

subsector represent approximately 2.6 percent of total emissions of the
agricultural national sector, whereas emissions from methane are equivalent
only to 1 percent of the emissions of the whole agricultural sector in the
country. Soil emission (which includes direct emission, indirect emission by
leaching/runoff and indirect emission by atmospheric deposition of

479
volatilized N), exceeds emission due to burning for all sugar mills. Values of
total emissions for each sugar mill vary proportionally with cultivated and
harvested area, harvest form (mechanized) and fertilization programme:
approximately 400 t CO2eq/year to almost 50,000 t CO2eq/year. Total
emissions for the Guatemalan sugar subsector are less than 1 Gg for nitrogen
dioxide and approximately 4 Gg for methane, which are equivalent to less
than 300,000 t CO2eq/year.

The Colombian Sugarcane Growers Association, ASOCAÑA (for its

acronym in Spanish), uses the following information: every hectare of
sugarcane sown land produces and releases 40 tonnes of oxygen to the
atmosphere, and removes 60 of carbon dioxide. In 230,000 ha cultivated
with sugarcane in Guatemala, the sugar subsector would be releasing nearly
9.2 million tonnes of oxygen, removing at the same time 13.8 million tonnes
of carbon dioxide for a net capture of 4.6 million tonnes. This information
requires deeper investigation through specific measurements of field and
factory CO2 emissions; however, it provides a foundation on which to
perfect exact quantities.

Climate change mitigation opportunities

Among the proposed measures for greenhouse effect gases mitigation

actions, are the ones described in Table 7. These measures could be
considered to access different financing mechanisms in the international
carbon market; especially the voluntary one, which is characterized for
being an alternative for voluntary buyers, others than the regulated market
buyers (under the UNFCCC regulations).

Among the actions for the sugar industry, are fossil fuels substitution by
biofuels (biodiesel and bioethanol) considering its use as much as its
production; reduction of mineral fertilizers use for a more efficient one
and/or replacement by biofertilizers (also produced internally); gasification
of bagasse and sugarcane residues and greater bioelectricity generation
(cogeneration) (Olivério et al., 2010; Thomas and Davies, 2010). Carbon
capture can also be accomplished through lignine and its corresponding
mineral lignite (Thomas and Davies, 2010). Many of the measures have
already been adopted by the Sugarcane Agroindustry worldwide, and also in
Guatemala.

480
Table 7. GHG mitigation measures and their effects

Mitigation effects
Measure Example
CO2 CH4 N2O
Agronomy Emissions Uncertain
reduction
Nutrient management Emissions Emissions
reduction reduction
Residue management Emissions Uncertain
Cropland
reduction
management
Hydric resources Uncertain Emissions
management (irrigation reduction
and drainage)
Agrosilviculture Emissions Emissions
reduction reduction
Land Nutrient management Emissions Emissions
management reduction reduction
(pasture, grazing Forest fires management Emissions Emissions Emissions
land, others) reduction reduction reduction
Degraded soils Erosion control, organic Emissions Uncertain
restoration and nutrients amendments reduction
More efficient nutrient Emissions Emissions
use reduction reduction
Biosolids Improvement on Emissions Uncertain
management management and storage reduction
Anaerobic digestion Emissions Uncertain
reduction
Energy crops, solids, Emissions Uncertain Uncertain
Bioenergy liquids, biogas and reduction
residues
(Modified from CEPAL, 2009)

Among actions that the national Agroindustry is carrying out is the vinasse
(resulting residue from the fermentation and distillation of molasses
originated from sugarcane, with concentrations of approximately 13 percent
of total solids) use as fertilizer by some sugar mills. At the end of the
1990’s, Santa Ana sugar mill began to use it. Subsequently, in 2005,
Pantaleon sugar mill started to establish areas for fertilization with this
product. In 2011 they had planned approximately 5,000 ha. Tululá sugar mill
experiments with such technique since 2008, while Magdalena sugar mill
started in 2010 (pers. com. O. Pérez, 2011). Vinasse use does not respond to
a mitigation measure alone, it is also an important economic factor due to
positive results in the cane production increase (Korndörfer et al., 2010;
Pérez et al., 2009). Its application greatly provides nutritional requirements
for the crop. Besides, since 1994, studies have been carried out to determine

481
fertilization recommendations with different nutrients, among them nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium. Research results and analysis have allowed to
recommend the needed dosage of nutrients and, consequently, of fertilizers
for the different phases of the sugarcane crop. This has influenced in the
decrease of used fertilizers quantities (Pérez, 2002).

Many executed field tests have allowed, among other aspects, validation of
irrigation programmes under specific soil conditions in the sugarcane area of
the southern coast (Castro et al., 2009). Methodologies to measure energy
efficiency under diverse irrigation methods, have also been assessed. This
has concluded with the determination of a series of recommendations for
field implementation (Castro and Sandoval, 2009). Likewise, results from
other studies have revealed that irrigation programmes are a tool for this
activity planning because they vary depending on texture class, phenological
stage, and the used irrigation system type (Castro et al., 2010).

Research results in Cuba have informed that burning 1 ha of sugarcane

releases 24.3 Mg of CO2 annually to the atmosphere and, if this is compared
with the crop sequestration capacity (defined in 60 Mg or tonnes of CO2 by
ASOCAÑA), it turns out to be non significant (Cabrera and Zuaznábar,
2010). It has been demonstrated that carbon emission to the atmosphere by
means of burning of a part of aerial biomass is lower to carbon capture, so
the balance favors capture (ibid.). In spite of the previous thing, mechanized
harvest (non-burnt) is considered as another option to reduce CO2 emissions.
This technique mainly adapts in slopes lower than 12 percent. Also the
return of crop residues into the soil surface has been verified to indirectly
favor organic matter accumulation and gases emission reduction when it is
compared to burnings (Cerri et al., 2007). Nowadays, most sugar mills have
experimented with this technique in a range of 5 to 17 percent of cultivated
area surface. During harvest season 2006-2007, Palo Gordo sugar mill used
combined harvesters to work 16 percent of the area; whereas Tululá sugar
mill harvested 17 percent. Santa Ana, La Unión-Los Tarros, and Magdalena
sugar mills harvested 2099, 4000, and 8932 ha, respectively (CENGICAÑA,
2008). Most recent data indicate that mechanized harvest is between 10 and
15 percent of cultivated area.

Since 1994, the cogeneration project using sugarcane bagasse by means of

the subscription of an energy and power provision contract, which included
six sugar mills, has started. In order to permanently satisfy the
interconnected national system demand, bagasse is combined with fossil
fuels (bunker) to produce energy (Vila, 2003). Thanks to this, sugarcane
bagasse dumping to river banks or its open-sky disposition has been
avoided, and at the same time it has represented a decrease on fossil fuels

482
usage. During harvest seasons 2007/2008 and 2008/2009, 97 percent of the
energy has been produced through bagasse. Bunker consumption went from
almost 18,900 gallons in harvest season 1997/1998 to nearly 3,700 gallons
in harvest season 2008/2009. Sugar mills cogeneration has increased in
almost 6 percent of the energy production for the National Electrical
System, going from 14.54 percent in 2003/2004 to 20.59 percent in
2008/2009 (CENGICAÑA, 2009). Now he interest in investigating energy
sugarcane varieties arises: however they should preserve necessary sugar
properties such as fiber, to keep or even increase cultivated areas with such
variety as in other countries like Australia, Barbados, and the United States
(Falla and Melgar, 2010).

To the date, the agroindustry has contributed with over 9,800 reforested
hectares with different forest species (pines, teak, eucalypts, rubber,
mahogany, cedar, fruit trees, and native species, among others) with several
objectives: energy, timber, latex production, as natural reserve, watershed
protection as well as other research trials (Pers. com. Environmental
Management ASAZGUA, 2011). These forest plantations have also
contributed to carbon sequestration.

One of the opportunitites can emerge from the change in the agricultural
soils management, since it is possible to reduce and/or eliminate carbon
release from fertility loss, as well as to sequestrate carbon through
increasing organic matter levels and promoting a rational use of fertilizers.
Change to conservation agriculture systems, as well as the adequate
fertilization management, will bring mitigation and adaptation opportunities
because, in both cases, inputs use is optimized, an additional income is
generated, and medium to long term benefits are obtained. For example,
related to land degradation and crop adaptability facing current changes
(PNUD, 2009). The use of fertilizers with lower potential of greenhouse
gases emission should be further investigated. Up to the moment, it is known
that urease and nitrification inhibitors have shown potential to increase soil
retention and to improve applied N recovery by plants, but little is known on
the impact in the reduction of N2O total emissions. It has been demonstrated
that slow, controlled and stabilized release fertilizers, reduce losses due to
drainage and by atmospheric emissions. This could suggest that they could
be effective in reducing short-term emissions. However, lack of
simultaneous measurements on the three greenhouse gases over extensive
time periods in agricultural and environmental studies is a critical challenge.
An adequate fertilization can contribute with soil organic matter (SOM)
increase or to reduce SOM loss rate. Factors such as the implementation of
strategies of crop residues management, minimize net global warming
potential (Snyder et al., 2008).

483
Other opportunity lies on phytoliths, epidermal cellular structures with silica
on leaves and stalks that occlude carbon (Parr et al., 2009). Organic carbon
content can be considerable: 5 to 5.8 percent of carbon content has been
extracted from oat flakes (Parr and Sullivan, 2005). Measuring occluded
carbon fraction in these structures could allow quantification of this element
before it is added to the soil. True grasses phytoliths are particularly
efficient in occluding carbon, and some studies have demonstrated that
sugarcane is particularly efficient in that sense (Parr et al., 2009). Another
advantage that has been verified is that occluded carbon in phytoliths is very
resistant to oxidation (Parr and Sullivan, 2005). A range between 0.12 and
0.36 t e-CO2 (ha-year)-1 of occluded carbon by phytoliths has been observed
in sugarcane under specific environmental conditions (Parr et al., 2009).
This carbon can be a key component of soil organic carbon and its
accumulation would represent an important process in terrestrial
sequestration of soil carbon (Parr and Sullivan, 2005). Based on previous
findings, the possibility of including the content of occluded carbon in
phytoliths in sugarcane variety combinations, should be considered as a
desirable feature too (Parr et al., 2009).

SUGARCANE ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Adaptation to climate change

The term adaptation can be understood as the arrangements in a system’s

behavior and characteristics that increase its aptitude to bear external
pressures (Brooks, 2003). For climate change, adaptation has been defined
as “an adjustment in ecological, social or economic systems in response to
expected or observed changes on weather and its effects to ease adverse
impact of such change or to take advantage of new opportunities” (Adger et
al., 2005); (IPCC, 2001b). Towards the end of the 20Xth century, adaptation
didn’t have much relevance because it was thought that pulling attention and
resources to the subject, would mean setting aside the reduction of emissions
from gases that cause climate change (Pielke et al., 2007). However,
adaptation has gained importance and it is considered as an alternative or
complementary strategy for mitigating this change (Pielke et al., 2007; Smit
et al., 2000).

Different adaptation definitions have in common that they mention changes

in a system in response to climatic stimuli; however, they also present
variations. These are related to application and context. Some, as for its
application, refer to climate change while others do to climatic variability;
adaptation could be the response to adverse effects, vulnerabilities or

484
opportunities. There are variations too, regarding to whom or what has to
adapt, as they could be social and economic sectors, ecological systems with
or without management, or practices, processes or structure systems.
Adaptation can also be passive, reactive or preventive (Smit et al., 2000).

Many societies, institutions and individuals, have modified their behavior in

response to past climate changes and others are considering adapting to
future climatic alterations. Part of this adaptation is reactive, since it
responds to past or current events, but it is also preventive because it is
based on future conditions assessments. Adaptation is composed of
individual, group, and governmental actions. Among the factors that can
drive adaptation are: economic well-being protection and improvement of
both, individual and community security (Adger et al., 2005).

It is commonly thought, that population in developing countries is not

passive victimes, but in the past they have shown stronger resilience3 to
droughts, floods, and other catastrophes (Adger et al., 2003). One way to
look for adaptation options, is taking the analogous approach, which consists
in considering case studies of past responses to variability and climatic
extremes (temporary analogies), or present behavior in regions with climatic
conditions similar to those that might take place in the region of interest
(spatial analogies) (Adger et al., 2003). Most adaptation in developing
countries will depend on past experiences on how to cope with climate
related risks. Like that, a great part of the adaptation of farmers, fishermen,
coast inhabitants, and residents of great metropolis, will be autonomous and
facilitated by its own resources and social capital (Adger et al., 2003).

Sugarcane adaptation to climate change

Many adaptation options can be considered for the sugar industry, both in
the field and in the factory. However, most climate impacts could happen in
the field and they would influence in a lower productivity, so the greatest
adaptation potential is in that area (SRDC, 2007). Table 8 shows different
recommended measures for climate change adaptation. Most of them have
been realized, or are in process inside the Guatemalan Sugar Agroindustry;
although not necessarily with the objective to tackle climate change, but
without a doubt they increase its resilience.

3
  Resilience: Ability of ecosystems to absorb disturbances without significantly affecting characteristics of
structure and ways of functioning. Another definition is the aptitude that ecosystems have to return to their
former state after it has been disturbed. 

485
Table 8. Adaptation options for the sugarcane crop

Production area Adaptation options

 To move forward sowing season to fit in changes in
minimum temperatures
 To implement a longer harvest season to capitalize
minimum temperatures increases
 To consider sugarcane sowing in other seasons of the year
 Increase irrigation water existence through:
• Investment in irrigation infrastructure
• Increase of supplementary water use through
irrigation
• Installation of water storage infrastructure inside the
cultivars
• Use and development of sugarcane varieties that will
be more efficient in water use and that will better
resist droughts
Field • Greater efficiency in irrigation technologies
• Greater use of other irrigation technologies (Ex.central
pivots)
 Sugarcane varieties adapted to local conditions
 To consider pests management strategies in areas with
climatic conditions similar to those in the future
 Search of greater efficiency in cutting operations
 To increase efficiency in transportation operations
 Improvement on soil drainage in heavy rainy seasons
 Staff continuous training to implement changes in crop
management according to new requirements
 Soil conservation
 Crop diversification
 Agricultural insurances
 Improvement of information and climate forecasts
 To continue with improvement of milling efficiency
 Energy efficiency
 Several or alternative energy sources
 Decrease in water use
Factory  Water re-use
 Assessment of disaster risk in the mill and measures to
reduce it
 Contingency plans for sugarcane transportation towards the
mill and then of the produced sugar (including alternative
roads)
Source: Own production that includes inputs from SRDC (2007), Santos and García (2008),
CATHALAC/PNUD/GEF (2008) and Gbetibouo and Hassan (2005).

486
THE PRIVATE INSTITUTE FOR CLIMATE CHANGE
RESEARCH (ICC): facing climate change through science
This is the institution founded by the Guatemalan sugar sector to face
challenges that climate represents, both in the present and in the future. Its
purpose is the development of research programmes and projects promotion that
contribute to vulnerability reduction, climate change mitigation and
adaptation in communities, productive systems, infrastructure, and services. Its
foundation responds as well, to an identified need of the country to have an
institution that collaborates with generation of essential information for
mitigation and adaptation to climate change activities. The geographical action
area of the Institute is initially the Guatemalan southern coast and related
watersheds; although afterwards it will be able to work in other areas of
Guatemala and Central America according to the arisen needs and
opportunities.

The ICC seeks to work in alliance with other institutions from the public and
private sector to join efforts that help the country. This is visualized for research
development and for implementation of actions that contribute to mitigate and
adapt to climate change. An essential element that the Institute aims to invest in
is capacity building from the professional level to the community one. A great
part of the impact that will be achieved will depend on the internalization
degree of people knowledge and skills inside companies, institutions or
communities.

In spite of occupying only 2.1 percent of the country’s territory, the actions of
the Guatemalan sugar sector as regards to climate change, can generate an
important impact at the national level. The Institute seeks to identify actions that
have already been set in place; and that directly contribute to climate change
mitigation and adaptation in order to promote them both inside and outside the
Sugar Agroindustry. Besides that, it has the mission to create and to drive new
actions that are based in technical and scientific guidelines. An example of
actions that have influenced on climate change mitigation, is the reduction of
fossil fuels use to produce electricity, that is now widely produced from
sugarcane bagasse, which meet not only the energy needs of the sugar mills, but
also contributes to the national network with the surplus. Most of
CENGICAÑA’s work has contributed to having indirectly worked on climate
change mitigation and adaptation; and this represents an investment example
that provides to the long-term sustainability of the Agroindustry.

487
Research and action lines: valuable opportunities

After checking the existing conditions on climate change in Guatemala and its
relation with the sugarcane crop, the need to develop research is evident
according to national and local conditions. Information and basic knowledge
is required on the country’s climatic systems, in order to understand in a better
way, how they work nowadays and, as a departure point, to know possible
effects of future climate change. That is why the Climate and Hydrology
Research Programme has been created for, which is in charge of information
generation above all, carrying out analysis that will provide inputs for
planning and setting in motion actions, especially for climate change
adaptation.

One research challenge is modelling development that simulate influence of

climatic conditions in growth, development and productivity of the sugarcane
crop. Studies have already been conducted with the agroecological areas
model, which have proved to have a good precision to estimate potential
productivity.

The Ecosystems Research Programme tackles climate change mitigation and

adaptation in forests and agricultural crops. In mitigation, the Programme has
the purpose of studying actions and technology for the GHG emissions
reduction, as well as assessing and creating strategies to preserve existing
vegetal coverage and to recover it in strategic places. In this context, the
estimation of CO2 emissions from agricultural lands will be tackled. The
investigation will begin with soil organic carbon reserves, using the following
variables: carbon concentration, bulk density, autochthonous vegetation, and
soil type. These studies will facilitate improving sugarcane crop GHG
inventories. On the mid-term there will be an emissions inventory of all
industry related to sugarcane, including its culture and also electric energy
production (cogeneration with biomass), ethanol production, sugar
transportation, and other activities that are not only reducing local
contamination, but are greatly contributing to climate change mitigation.

Some aforementioned researches will be carried out jointly with staff of the
different programmes of CENGICAÑA. One of the potential projects is to
observe behavior of different pests and diseases that attack sugarcane crop
face to climate change effects. A pilot programme on soil health could also
begin in order to determine humidity and water availability and to continue
like that with precision agriculture, as well as with other improvements for the
efficiency of the hydric resource use and irrigation technology.

488
The ICC has two programmes addressed to the promotion or implementation
of actions that contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation. One of
them is the Integrated Watershed Management Programme, and the other is
the Disaster Risk Management Programme. They both seek to influence
within the sugar sector as well as other priority actors in the working area,
such as municipalities and communities. The Institute fifth programme is
rather transversal to the other four, for it focuses in building capacity and
dissemination. These activities are essential for actions promoted by the
Institute to be set in place and for its impact to be significant.

Specifically for the sugar crop and climate change case, working in research
and development of the following topics, will be essential (based in SRDC,
2007). It could be carried out by the Institute, CENGICAÑA or the sugar
mills themselves, although ideally it should be a joint work:

• Soil health (soil humidity retention, reduced erosivity, nutrient retention)

• Precision agriculture
• Water availability (superficial and underground)
• Improvement of the irrigation technology and the water use efficiency
• Opportunities for greater water availability (collecting, storage, supply
and reuse)
• Implications of the sea level increase (for the coastal area)
• Seasonal and risk forecasts
• Biofuels opportunities along the value chain
• Industry footprint (to account Sugar Agroindustry contributions on GHG
emissions)

A part of the work of the ICC will be to optimize climate change related
actions that are already in motion and to promote them in all sugar mills.
These actions can become a national role model, while promoting that other
industries and sectors will follow the same steps. There is great improvement
potential that will benefit the sugar sector, nearby communities and
authorities, as the sum of global efforts in order to avoid that climate changes
reach dangerous levels and harm population. There is a valuable opportunity
in getting on with it and that the Guatemalan Sugar Agroindustry is an
example at a regional and worldwide level.

489
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CENGICAÑA
Alcance del Sistema de Gestión de la Calidad ISO 9001:2008

“Investigación y Desarrollo de Variedades de Caña de Azúcar y Tecnologías en

Manejo Integrado de Plagas, Fertilización, Riegos y Capacitación para la
Agroindustria Azucarera”.

OTROS PROGRAMAS Y ÁREAS:

 Transferencia de Tecnología
 Análisis de Productividad (campo y fábrica)
 Programa de Investigación Industrial
 Malezas y Madurantes
 Biotecnología
 Detección de Patógenos en Semilleros
 Servicios Analíticos de Laboratorio
 Sistema de Información para Agricultura de Precisión
 Servicio de Información y Documentación de la Caña de Azúcar