CHAPTER 3

FLUID FLOW THEORY

Many raw materials for foods and many finished foods are in the form of fluids. These fluids have to be transported and processed in the factory. Food technologists must be familiar with the principles that govern the flow of fluids, and with the machinery and equipment that is used to handle fluids. In addition, there is an increasing tendency to handle powdered and granular materials in a form in which they behave as fluids. Fluidization, as this is called, has been developed because of the relative simplicity of fluid handling compared with the handling of solids. The engineering concept of a fluid is a wider one than that in general use, and it covers gases as well as liquids and fluidized solids. This is because liquids and gases obey many of the same laws so that it is convenient to group them together under the general heading of fluids. The study of fluids can be divided into the study of fluids at rest - fluid statics, and the study of fluids in motion - fluid dynamics. For some purposes, further subdivision into compressible fluids such as gases, and incompressible fluids such as liquids, is necessary. Fluids in the food industry vary considerably in their properties. They include such materials as Thin liquids - mil!, water, fruit "uices, Thic! liquids - syrups, honey, oil, "am, #ases - air, nitrogen, carbon dio$ide, Fluidized solids - grains, flour, peas.

F%&I' (T)TI*( ) very important property of a fluid at rest is the pressure e$erted by that fluid on its surroundings, that is the fluid pressure +ressure is defined as force e$erted on an area. &nder the influence of gravity, a mass of any material e$erts a force on whatever supports it. The magnitude of this force is equal to the mass of the material multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity. The mass of a fluid can be calculated by multiplying its volume by its density, which is defined as its mass per unit volume. Thus the equation can be written F = mg = Vg where F is the force e$erted, m is the mass, g the acceleration due to gravity, V the volume and ,the #ree! letter rho- the density. The units of force are .ewtons, or !g m s -/. and of pressure +ascals, one +ascal being one .ewton m-/, and so one +ascal is also one !g m-0 s-/. For a mass to remain in equilibrium, the force it e$erts due to gravity must be resisted by some supporting medium. For a weight resting on a table, the table provides the supporting reaction1 for a multi-storey building, the upper floors must be supported by the lower ones so that as you descend the building the burden on the floors increases until the foundations support the whole building. In a fluid, the same situation applies. %ower levels of the fluid must provide the support for the fluid that lies above them. The fluid at any point must support the fluid above. )lso, since fluids at rest are not able to sustain shearing forces, which are forces tending to move ad"acent layers in the fluid relative to one another, it can be shown that the forces at any point

in a fluid at rest are equal in all directions. The force per unit area in a fluid is called the fluid pressure. It is e$erted equally in all directions. *onsider a horizontal plane in a fluid at a depth Z below the surface, as illustrated in Fig. 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Pressure in a fluid If the density of the fluid is , then the volume of fluid lying above an area A on the plane is ZA and the weight of this volume of fluid, which creates a force e$erted by it on the area A which supports it, is ZAg. 2ut the total force on the area A must also include any additional force on the surface of the liquid. If the force on the surface is Ps per unit area, F = APs + ZAg ,3.0-

where F is the total force e$erted on the area A and Ps is the pressure above the surface of the fluid ,e.g. it might be atmospheric pressure-. Further, since total pressure P is the total force per unit area, P = F/A = Ps + Zg ,3./-

In general, we are interested in pressures above or below atmospheric. If referred to zero pressure as datum, the pressure of the atmosphere must be ta!en into account. 4therwise the atmospheric pressure represents a datum or reference level from which pressures are measured. In these circumstances we can write P = Z g ,3.3-

This may be considered as the fundamental equation of fluid pressure. It states that the product of the density of the fluid, acceleration due to gravity and the depth gives the pressure at any depth in a fluid.

E A!PLE 3.1. T"#al pressure in a #an$ "f peanu# "il *alculate the greatest pressure in a spherical tan!, of / m diameter, filled with peanut oil of specific gravity 5.6/, if the pressure measured at the highest point in the tan! is 75 !+a.

'ensity of water 8 0555 !g m-3 'ensity of oil 8 5.6/ $ 0555 !g m-3 8 6/5 !g m-3 Z 8greatest depth 8 / m and g 8 6.90 m s-/ .ow P = Zg 8 / $ 6/5 $ 6.90 !g m-0 s-/ 8 09,5:5 +a 8 09.0 !+a. To this must be added the pressure at the surface of 75 !+a. Total pressure 8 75 ; 09.0 8 99.0 !+a.

.ote in E%a&ple 3.1, the pressure depends upon the pressure at the top of the tan! added to the pressure due to the depth of the liquid1 the fact that the tan! is spherical ,or any other shape- ma!es no difference to the pressure at the bottom of the tan!. In the previous paragraph, we established that the pressure at a point in a liquid of a given density is solely dependent on the density of the liquid and on the height of the liquid above the point, plus any pressure which may e$ist at the surface of the liquid. <hen the depths of the fluid are substantial, fluid pressures can be considerable. For e$ample, the pressure on a plate 0 m/ lying at a depth of 35 m will be the weight of 0 m3 of water multiplied by the depth of 35 m and this will amount to 35 $ 0555 $ 6.90 8 /6=.3 !+a. )s 0 tonne e$erts a force on 0 m/ of 0555 $ 6.90 8 6905 +a 8 6.90 !+a the pressure on the plate is equal to that of a weight of /6=.3 > 6.90 8 35 tonnes of water. +ressures are sometimes quoted as a's"lu#e pressures and this means the total pressure including atmospheric pressure. More usually, pressures are given as gauge pressures, which implies the pressure above atmospheric pressure as datum. For e$ample, if the absolute pressure is given as 3:5 !+a, the gauge pressure is ,3:5 - 055- 8 /:5 !+a assuming that the atmospheric pressure is 055 !+a. These pressure conversions are illustrated in Fig. 3.(.

Figure 3.( Pressure )"n*ersi"ns

(tandard atmospheric pressure is actually 050.3 !+a but for our practical purposes 055 !+a is sufficiently close and most convenient to use. )ny necessary ad"ustment can easily be made. )nother commonly used method of e$pressing pressures is in terms of ? +ead? of a particular fluid. From eqn. ,3.3- it can be seen that there is a definite relationship between pressure and depth in a fluid of given density. Thus pressures can be e$pressed in terms of depths, or heads as they are usually called, of a given fluid. The two fluids most commonly used, when e$pressing pressures in this way, are water and mercury. The main reason for this method of e$pressing pressures is that the pressures themselves are often measured by observing the height of the column of liquid that the pressure can support. It is straightforward to convert pressures e$pressed in terms of liquid heads to equivalent values in !+a by the use of eqn. ,3.3.-.

E A!PLE 3.(. Head "f Wa#er *alculate the head of water equivalent to standard atmospheric pressure of 055 !+a. 'ensity of water 8 0555 !g m-3, g 8 6.90 m s-/ and pressure 8 055 !+a 8 055 $ 053 +a 8 055 $ 053 !g m-0s-/. but from eqn. ,3.3Z = P/g 8 ,055 $ 053-> ,0555 $ 6.908 05./ m

E A!PLE 3.3. Head "f &er)ur, *alculate the head of mercury equivalent to a pressure of two atmospheres. 'ensity of mercury 8 03,@55 !g m-3 A 8 ,/ $ 055 $ 053-> ,03,@55 $ 6.908 0.:m

F%&I' 'B.)MI*( Mass balance Cnergy balance +otential energy Dinetic energy +ressure energy Friction loss Mechanical energy 4ther effects 2ernouilliEs equation In most processes fluids have to be moved so that the study of fluids in motion is important. +roblems on the flow of fluids are solved by applying the principles of conservation of mass and energy. In any system, or in any part of any system, it must always be possible to write a mass balance and an energy balance. The motion of fluids can be described by writing appropriate mass and energy balances and these are the bases for the design of fluid handling equipment.

!ass -alan)e *onsider part of a flow system, such for e$ample as that shown in Fig. 3.3.

This consists of a continuous pipe that changes its diameter, passing into and out of a unit of processing plant, which is represented by a tan!. The processing equipment might be, for e$ample, a pasteurizing heat e$changer. )lso in the system is a pump to provide the energy to move the fluid.

Fiigure 3.3. !ass and energ, 'alan)e in fluid fl". In the flow system of Fig. 3.3 we can apply the law of conservation of mass to obtain a mass balance. 4nce the system is wor!ing steadily, and if there is no accumulation of fluid in any part the system, the quantity of fluid that goes in at section 0 must come out at section /. If the area of the pipe at section 0 is A0 , the velocity at this section, v0 and the fluid density 0, and if the corresponding values at section / are A/, v/,

/, the mass balance can be e$pressed as 0A0v0 = /A/v/

,3.=-

If the fluid is incompressible 0 8 / so in this case A0v0 = A/v/ ,3.:-

Cquation ,3.:- is !nown as the )"n#inui#, e/ua#i"n for liquids and is frequently used in solving flow problems. It can also be used in many cases of gas flow in which the change in pressure is very small compared with the system pressure, such as in many air-ducting systems, without any serious error.

E A!PLE 3.0. 1el")i#ies "f fl". <hole mil! is flowing into a centrifuge through a full : cm diameter pipe at a velocity of 5.// m s -0, and in the centrifuge it is separated into cream of specific gravity 0.50 and s!im mil! of specific gravity 0.5=. *alculate the velocities of flow of mil! and of the cream if they are discharged through / cm diameter pipes. The specific gravity of whole mil! of 0.53:. From eqn. ,3.=-

0A0v0 = /A/v/ + 3A3v3

where suffi$es 0, /, 3 denote respectively raw mil!, s!im mil! and cream. )lso, since volumes will be conserved, the total leaving volumes will equal the total entering volume and so

A0v0 = A/v/ + A3v3 and from this equation v/ = (A0v0 - A3v3)/A/ This e$pression can be substituted for v2 in the mass balance equation to give ,a-

0A0v0 = /A/(A0v0 A3v3)/A/ + 3A3v3 1A0v0 = /A0v0 - /A3v3 + 3A3v3.

So A0v0(0 - /) = A3v3(3 - /) From the !nown facts of the problem we have A0 8 ,>=- $ ,5.5:-/ 8 0.6@ $ 05-3 m/ A/ = A3 8 ,>=- $ ,5.5/-/ 8 3.0= $ 05-= m/ v0 8 5.// m s-0 0 8 0.53: $ w, / 8 0.5= $ w , 3 8 0.50 $ w where w is the density of water. (ubstituting these values in eqn. ,b- above we obtain -0.6@ $ 05-3 $ 5.// ,5.55:- 8 -3.0= $ 05-= $ v3 $ ,5.53so v3 8 5./3 m s-0 ,b-

)lso from eqn. ,a- we then have, substituting 5./3 m s -0 for v3, v/ 8 F,0.6@ $ 05-3 $ 5.//- - ,3.0= $ 05-= $ 5./3-G > 3.0= $ 05-= 8 0.0m s-0

Energ, -alan)e In addition to the mass balance, the other important quantity we must consider in the analysis of fluid flow, is the energy balance. Heferring again to Fig. 3.3, we shall consider the changes in the total energy of unit mass of fluid, one !ilogram, between (ection 0 and (ection /. Firstly, there are the changes in the intrinsic energy of the fluid itself which include changes in ,0- +otential energy. ,/- Dinetic energy. ,3- +ressure energy. (econdly, there may be energy interchange with the surroundings including ,=- Cnergy lost to the surroundings due to friction. ,:- Mechanical energy added by pumps. ,@- Ieat energy in heating or cooling the fluid.

In the analysis of the energy balance, it must be remembered that energies are normally measured from a datum or reference level. 'atum levels may be selected arbitrarily, but in most cases the choice of a convenient datum can be made readily with regard to the circumstances.

P"#en#ial energ, Fluid maintained above the datum level can perform wor! in returning to the datum level. The quantity of wor! it can perform is calculated from the product of the distance moved and the force resisting movement1 in this case the force of gravity. This quantity of wor! is called the potential energy of the fluid. Thus the potential energy of one !ilogram of fluid at a height of Z ,m- above its datum is given by Ep, where Ep = Zg ,J-

2ine#i) energ, Fluid that is in motion can perform wor! in coming to rest. This is equal to the wor! required to bring a body from rest up to the same velocity, which can be calculated from the basic equation v/ = /as, therefore s = v///a, where v ,m s-0- is the final velocity of the body, a ,m s-/- is the acceleration and s ,m- is the distance the body has moved. )lso wor! done 8 W = F $ s, and from .ewtonEs (econd %aw, for m !g of fluid F = ma and so Ek = W = mas = mav///a = mv/// The energy of motion, or !inetic energy, for 0 !g of fluid is therefore given by Ek where Ek = v/// ,J-.

Pressure energ, Fluids e$ert a pressure on their surroundings. If the volume of a fluid is decreased, the pressure e$erts a force that must be overcome and so wor! must be done in compressing the fluid. *onversely, fluids under pressure can do wor! as the pressure is released. If the fluid is considered as being in a cylinder of cross-sectional area A ,m/- and a piston is moved a distance L ,m- by the fluid against the pressure P ,+a- the wor! done is PAL "oules. The quantity of the fluid performing this wor! is AL ,!g-. Therefore the pressure energy that can be obtained from one !g of fluid ,that is the wor! that can be done by this !g of fluid- is given by Er where Er = PAL / AL = P/ (J)

Fri)#i"n l"ss <hen a fluid moves through a pipe or through fittings, it encounters frictional resistance and energy can only come from energy contained in the fluid and so frictional losses provide a drain on the energy resources of the fluid. The actual magnitude of the losses depends upon the nature of the flow and of the system through which the flow ta!es place. In the system of Fig. 3.3, let the energy lost by 0 !g fluid between section 0 and section /, due to friction, be equal to E ,J-.

!e)+ani)al energ, If there is a machine putting energy into the fluid stream, such as a pump as in the system of Fig. 3.3, the mechanical energy added by the pump per !g of fluid must be ta!en into account. %et the pump energy added to 0 !g fluid be E ,J-. In some cases a machine may e$tract energy from the fluid, such as in the case of a water turbine.

O#+er effe)#s Ieat might be added or subtracted in heating or cooling processes, in which case the mechanical equivalent of this heat would require to be included in the balance. *ompressibility terms might also occur, particularly with gases, but when dealing with low pressures only they can usually be ignored. For the present let us assume that the only energy terms to be considered are Ep, Ek, Er, E!, E .

-ern"uilli3s E/ua#i"n <e are now in a position to write the energy balance for the fluid between section 0 and section / of Fig. 3.3. The total energy of one !g of fluid entering at section 0 is equal to the total energy of one !g of fluid leaving at section /, less the energy added by the pump, plus friction energy lost in travelling between the two sections. &sing the subscripts 0 and / to denote conditions at section 0 or section /, respectively, we can write Ep0 + Ek0 + Er0 = Ep/ + Ek/ + Er/ + Ef - E . Therefore Z0g + v0/// + P1/0 = Z/g + v//// + P/// + Ef - Ec. ,3.@.,3.7-

In the special case where no mechanical energy is added and for a frictionless fluid, C 8 C! 8 5, and we have Z0g + v0/// + P0/0 = Z/g + v//// + P/// ,3.9-

and since this is true for any sections of the pipe the equation can also be written Zg + v/// + P/ = k where k is a constant. ,3.6-

Cquation ,3.6- is !nown as -ern"uilli3s e/ua#i"n. First discovered by the (wiss mathematician 2ernouilli in 0739, it is one of the foundations of fluid mechanics. It is a mathematical e$pression, for fluid flow, of the

principle of conservation of energy and it covers many situations of practical importance. )pplication of the equations of continuity, eqn. ,3.=- or eqn. ,3.:-, which represent the mass balance, and eqn. ,3.7- or eqn. ,3.6-, which represent the energy balance, are the basis for the solution of many flow problems for fluids. In fact much of the remainder of this chapter will be concerned with applying one or another aspect of these equations. The 2ernouilli equation is of sufficient importance to deserve some further discussion. In the form in which it has been written in eqn. ,3.6- it will be noticed that the various quantities are in terms of energies per unit mass of the fluid flowing. If the density of the fluid flowing multiplies both sides of the equation, then we have pressure terms and the equation becomes

Zg + v/// + P = k"

,3.05-

and the respective terms are !nown as the potential head pressure, the velocity pressure and the static pressure. 4n the other hand, if the equation is divided by the acceleration due to gravity, g, then we have an e$pression in terms of the head of the fluid flowing and the equation becomes Z + v///g + P/g = k"" ,3.00-

and the respective terms are !nown as the potential head, the velocity head and the pressure head. The most convenient form for the equation is chosen for each particular case, but it is important to be consistent having made a choice. If there is a constriction in a pipe and the static pressures are measured upstream or downstream of the constriction and in the constriction itself, then the 2ernouilli equation can be used to calculate the rate of flow of the fluid in the pipe. This assumes that the flow areas of the pipe and in the constriction are !nown. *onsider the case in which a fluid is flowing through a horizontal pipe of cross-sectional area A0 and then it passes to a section of the pipe in which the area is reduced to A/. From the continuity equation Feqn. ,3.:-G assuming that the fluid is incompressible A0v0 = A/v/ and so v/ = v0A0 /A/ (ince the pipe is horizontal Z0 = Z/ (ubstituting in eqn. ,3.9v0//2 + P0 /0 = v0/ A0/ /(/ A//) + P/ // and since 0 8 / as it is the same fluid throughout and it is incompressible, P0 - P/ = 0 v0/((A0/ /A//- - 0)//. ,3.0/-

From eqn. ,3.0/-, !nowing P0, P/, A0, A/, 0, the un!nown velocity in the pipe, v0, can be calculated. )nother application of the 2ernouilli equation is to calculate the rate of flow from a n"44le with a !nown pressure differential. *onsider a nozzle placed in the side of a tan! in which the surface of the fluid in the tan! is A ft above the centre line of the nozzle as illustrated in Fig. 3.0

FI5. 3.0. Fl". fr"& a n"44le. Ta!e the datum as the centre of the nozzle. The velocity of the fluid entering the nozzle is appro$imately zero, as the tan! is large compared with the nozzle. The pressure of the fluid entering the nozzle is + 0 and the density of the fluid 0. The velocity of the fluid flowing from the nozzle is v/ and the pressure at the nozzle e$it is 5 as the nozzle is discharging into air at the datum pressure. There is no change in potential energy as the fluid enters and leaves the nozzle at the same level. <riting the 2ernouilli equation for fluid passing through the nozzle 5 ; 5 ; P0 /0 8 5 ; v//// ; 5 v// 8 / P0 /0 whence v/ 8 ,/P0 /0 -

but P0 >0 8 gZ ,where Z is the head of fluid above the nozzle- therefore v/ 8 ,/ gZ,3.03-

E A!PLE 3.6. Pressure in a pipe <ater flows at the rate of 5.= m3 min-0 in a 7.: cm diameter pipe at a pressure of 75 !+a. If the pipe reduces to : cm diameter calculate the new pressure in the pipe. 'ensity of water is 0555 !g m-3.

Flow rate of water 8 5.= m3 min-0 8 5.=>@5 m3 s-0. )rea of 7.: cm diameter pipe 8 ,>=-#/

8 ,>=-,5.57:-/ 8 =.=/ $ 05-3 m/. (o velocity of flow in 7.: cm diameter pipe, v0 8 ,5.=>@5->,=.=/ $ 05-3- 8 0.:0 m s-0 8 ,>=-,5.5:-/ 8 0.6@ $ 05-3 m/ and so velocity of flow in : cm diameter pipe, v/ 8 ,5.=>@5->,0.6@ $ 05-3- 8 3.= m s-0 )rea of : cm diameter pipe .ow Z0g + v0/// + P0 /0 = Z/g + v//// + P/ // and so 5 ; ,0.:0-/>/ ; 75 $ 053>0555 8 5 ; ,3.=-/>/ ; P/>0555 5 ; 0.0 ; 75 8 5 ; :.9 ; +/>0555 P/>0555 8 ,70.0 - :.9- 8 @:.3 P/ 8 @:.3! +a.

E A!PLE 3.7. Fl". ra#e "f "li*e "il 4live oil of specific gravity 5.6/ is flowing in a pipe of / cm diameter. *alculate the flow rate of the olive oil, if an orifice is placed in the pipe so that the diameter of the pipe in the constriction is reduced to 0./ cm, and if the measured pressure difference between the clear pipe and the most constricted part of the pipe is 9 cm of water. 'iameter of pipe, in clear section, equals / cm and at constriction equals 0./ cm. A0>A/ 8 ,#0>#/-/ 8 ,/>0./-/ 'ifferential head 8 9 cm water. 'ifferential pressure 8 Zg 8 5.59 $ 0555 $ 6.90 8 79: +a. substituting in eqn. ,3.0/79: 8 5.6/ $ 0555 $ v/ F,/>0./-= - 0 G >/ v/ 8 79:>3560 v 8 5.: m s-0 E A!PLE 3.8. !ass fl". ra#e fr"& a #an$ The level of water in a storage tan! is =.7 m above the e$it pipe. The tan! is at atmospheric pressure and the e$it pipe discharges into the air. If the diameter of the e$it pipe is 0./ cm what is the mass rate of flow through this pipeK From eqn. ,3.03v8 ,/ gZ-

v8

,/ $ 6.90 $ =.7-

8 6.@ m s-0. .ow area of pipe, A 8 ,>=-#/ 8 ,>=- $ ,5.50/-/ 8 0.03 $ 05-= m/ Lolumetric flow rate, Av 8 0.03 $ 05-= m/ $ 6.@ m s-0 8 0.03 $ 05-= $ 6.@ m3 s-0 8 0.59 $ 05-3 m3 s-0 Mass flow rate, Av 8 0555 !g m-3 $ 0.59 $ 05-3 m3 s-0 8 0.59 !g s-0 E A!PLE 3.9. Pu&p +"rsep".er <ater is raised from a reservoir up 3: m to a storage tan! through a 7.: cm diameter pipe. If it is required to raise 0.@ cubic metres of water per minute, calculate the horsepower input to a pump assuming that the pump is 055M efficient and that there is no friction loss in the pipe. 0 Iorsepower 8 5.7=@ !<. Lolume of flow, V 8 0.@ m3 min-0 8 0.@>@5 m3 s-0 8 /.7 $ 05-/ m3 s-0 )rea of pipe, A 8 ,>=- $ ,5.57:-/ 8 =.=/ $ 05-3 m/, Lelocity in pipe, v 8 /.7 $ 05-/>,=.=/ $ 05-3- 8 @ m s-0, )nd so applying eqn. ,3.7E = Zg ; v/>/ Ec 8 3: $ 6.90 ; @/>/ 8 3=3.= ; 09 8 3@0.= J Therefore total power required 8 Ec $ mass rate of flow

8 EcV 8 3@0.= $ /.7 $ 05-/ $ 0555 J s-0

8 67:9 J s-0

and, since

0 h.p. 8 7.=@ $ 05/ J s-0,

required power 8 03 h.p.

LI(*4(ITB .ewtonian and .on-.ewtonian Fluids Liscosity is that property of a fluid that gives rise to forces that resist the relative movement of ad"acent layers in the fluid. 1is)"us f"r)es are of the same character as s+ear f"r)es in solids and they arise from forces that e$ist between the molecules. If two parallel plane elements in a fluid are moving relative to one another, it is found that a steady force must be applied to maintain a constant relative speed. This force is called the viscous drag because it arises from the action of viscous forces. *onsider the system shown in Fig. 3.6.

Figure 3.6. 1is)"us f"r)es in a fluid. If the plane elements are at a distance Z apart, and if their relative velocity is v, then the force F required to maintain the motion has been found, e$perimentally, to be proportional to v and inversely proportional to A for many fluids. The coefficient of proportionality is called the viscosity of the fluid, and it is denoted by the symbol ,mu-. From the definition of viscosity we can write

F/A = v/Z

,3.0=-

where F is the force applied, A is the area over which force is applied, Z is the distance between planes, v is the velocity of the planes relative to one another, and is the viscosity. 2y rearranging the eqn. ,3.0=-, the dimensions of viscosity can be found. FG 8 FZ Av 8 FFGF%GFtG F%/GF%G 8 FFGFtG F%G/

= FMGF%G-0FtG-0
There is some ambivalence about the writing and the naming of the unit of viscosity1 there is no doubt about the unit itself which is the . s m-/, which is also the +ascal second, +a s, and it can be converted to mass units using the basic mass>force equation. The older units, the poise and its sub-unit the centipoise, seem to be obsolete, although the conversion is simple with 05 poises or 0555 centipoises being equal to 0 . s m -/, and to 0 +a s. The new unit is rather large for many liquids, the viscosity of water at room temperature being around 0 $ 05 -3 . s m-/ and for comparison, at the same temperature, the appro$imate viscosities of other liquids are acetone, 5.3 $ 05-3 . s m-/1 a tomato pulp, 3 $ 05-31 olive oil, 055 $ 05-31 and molasses 7555 . s m-/. Liscosity is very dependent on temperature decreasing sharply as the temperature rises. For e$ample, the viscosity of golden syrup is about 055 . s m-/ at 0@N*, =5 at //N* and /5 at /:N*. *are should be ta!en not to confuse viscosity as defined in eqn. ,3.0=- which strictly is called the dynamic or absolute viscosity, with > which is called the !inematic viscosity and given another symbol. In technical literature, viscosities are often given in terms of units that are derived from the equipment used to measure the viscosities e$perimentally. The fluid is passed through some form of capillary tube or constriction and the time for a given quantity to pass through is ta!en and can be related to the viscosity of the fluid. Tables are available to convert these arbitrary units, such as ?(aybolt (econds? or ?Hedwood (econds?, to poises. The viscous properties of many of the fluids and plastic materials that must be handled in food processing operations are more comple$ than can be e$pressed in terms of one simple number such as a coefficient of viscosity.

:e.#"nian and :"n;:e.#"nian Fluids From the fundamental definition of viscosity in eqn. ,3.0=- we can write F/A = v /Z 8 ,dv>d$- 8 where ,tau- is called the shear stress in the fluid. This is an equation originally proposed by .ewton and which is obeyed by fluids such as water. Iowever, for many of the actual fluids encountered in the food industry, measurements show deviations from this simple relationship, and lead towards a more general equation

8 k,dv>d$-%

,3.0:-

which can be called the p".er;la. e/ua#i"n, and where k is a constant of proportionality.

<here % 8 0 the fluids are called .ewtonian because they conform to .ewtonEs equation ,3.0=- and k 8 1 and all other fluids may therefore be called non-.ewtonian. .on-.ewtonian fluids are varied and are studied under the heading of rheology, which is a substantial sub"ect in itself and the sub"ect of many boo!s. 2roadly, the non-.ewtonian fluids can be divided into ,0- Those in which % O 0. )s shown in Fig. 3.7 these produce a concave downward curve and for them the viscosity is apparently high under low shear forces decreasing as the shear force increases. (uch fluids are called pseudoplastic, an e$ample being tomato puree. In more e$treme cases where the shear forces are low there may be no flow at all until a yield stress is reached after which flow occurs, and these fluids are called thi$otropic. ,/- Those in which % P 0. <ith a low apparent viscosity under low shear stresses, they become more viscous as the shear rate rises. This is called dilatancy and e$amples are gritty slurries such as crystallized sugar solutions. )gain there is a more e$treme condition with a zero apparent viscosity under low shear and such materials are called rheopectic. 2ingham fluids have to e$ceed a particular shear stress level ,a yield stressbefore they start to move.

Figure 3.7. <+ear s#ress=s+ear ra#e rela#i"ns+ips in li/uids. In many instances in practice non-.ewtonian characteristics are important, and they become obvious when materials that it is thought ought to pump quite easily "ust do not. They get stuc! in the pipes, or overload the pumps, or need specially designed fittings before they can be moved. (ometimes it is sufficient "ust to be aware of the general classes of behaviour of such materials. In other cases it may be necessary to determine e$perimentally the rheological properties of the material so that equipment and processes can be adequately designed.

(THC)M%I.C ).' T&H2&%C.T F%4< <hen a liquid flowing in a pipe is observed carefully, it will be seen that the pattern of flow becomes more disturbed as the velocity of flow increases. +erhaps this phenomenon is more commonly seen in a river or stream. <hen the flow is slow the pattern is smooth, but when the flow is more rapid, eddies develop and swirl in all directions and at all angles to the general line of flow. )t the low velocities, flow is calm. In a series of e$periments, Heynolds showed this by in"ecting a thin stream of dye into the fluid and finding that it ran in a smooth stream in the direction of the flow. )s the velocity of flow increased, he found that the smooth line of dye was bro!en up until finally, at high velocities, the dye was rapidly mi$ed into the disturbed flow of the surrounding fluid. From analysis, which was based on these observations, Heynolds concluded that this instability of flow could be predicted in terms of the relative magnitudes of the velocity and the viscous forces that act on the fluid. In fact the instability which leads to disturbed, or what is called ?turbulent? flow, is determined by the ratio of the !inetic and the viscous forces in the fluid stream. The !inetic ,inertial- forces tend to maintain the flow in its general direction, whereas the viscous forces tend to retard this motion and introduce eddies.

The inertial force is proportional to the velocity pressure of the fluid v2 and the viscous drag is proportional to v/# where # is the diameter of the pipe. The ratio of these forces is

v/#/v 8 #v>
This ratio is very important in the study of fluid flow. )s it is a ratio, it is di&ensi"nless and so it is numerically independent of the units of measurement so long as these are consistent. It is called the Re,n"lds nu&'er and is denoted by the symbol ,He-. From a host of e$perimental measurements on fluid flow in pipes, it has been found that the flow remains calm or ?streamline? for values of the Heynolds number up to about /055. For values above =555 the flow has been found to be turbulent. 2etween above /055 and about =555 the flow pattern is unstable1 any slight disturbance tends to upset the pattern but if there is no disturbance, streamline flow can be maintained in this region. To summarise for flow in pipes For ,He- O /055 streamline flow, For /055 O ,He- O =555 transition, For ,He- P =555 turbulent flow.

E A!PLE 3.>. Fl". "f &il$ in a pipe Mil! is flowing at 5.0/ m3 min-0 in a /.:-cm diameter pipe. If the temperature of the mil! is /0N*, is the flow turbulent or streamlineK Liscosity of mil! at /0N* 8 /.0 c+ 8 /.05 $ 05-3 . s m-/ 'ensity of mil! at /0N* 8 05/6 !g m-3. 'iameter of pipe 8 5.5/: m. *ross-sectional area of pipe 8 ,>=-#/ 8 >= $ ,5.5/:-/ 8 =.6 $ 05-= m/

Hate of flow (o velocity of flow

8 5.0/ m3 min-0

8 ,5.0/>@5- $ ,0>=.6 $ 05-=8 =.0 m s-0, and so ,He- 8 ,#v/8 5.5/: $ =.0 $ 05/6>/.0 $ 05-3 8 :5,/35 and this is greater than =555 so that the flow is turbulent. )s ,He- is a dimensionless ratio, its numerical value will be the same whatever consistent units are used. Iowever, it is important that consistent units be used throughout, for e$ample the (I system of units as are used in this boo!. If1 for e$ample, cm were used instead of m "ust in the diameter ,or length- term only, then the value of ,He- so calculated would be greater by a factor of 05. This would ma!e nonsense of any deductions from a particular numerical value of ,He-. 4n the other hand, if all of the length terms in ,He-, and this includes not only # but also v ,m s-0-, ,!g m- and ,. s m-/-, are in cm then the correct value of ,He- will be obtained. It is convenient, but not necessary to have one system of units such as (I. It is necessary, however, to be consistent throughout
3

C.CH#B %4((C( I. F%4< Friction in +ipes Cnergy %osses in 2ends and Fittings +ressure 'rop through Cquipment Cquivalent %engths of +ipe *ompressibility Cffects for #ases *alculation of +ressure 'rops in Flow (ystems Cnergy losses can occur through friction in pipes, bends and fittings, and in equipment.

Fri)#i"n in Pipes In 2ernouilliEs equation the symbol E was used to denote the energy loss due to friction in the pipe. This loss of energy due to friction was shown, both theoretically and e$perimentally, to be related to the Heynolds number for the flow. It has also been found to be proportional to the velocity pressure of the fluid and to a factor related to the smoothness of the surface over which the fluid is flowing. If we define the wall friction in terms of velocity pressure of the fluid flowing, we can write F/A = ! v/>/ where F is the friction force, A is the area over which the friction force acts, velocity of the fluid, and ! is a coefficient called the friction factor. ,3.0@-

is the density of the fluid, v is the

*onsider an energy balance over a differential length, dL, of a straight horizontal pipe of diameter #, as in Fig. 3.8.

Figure 3.8. Energ, 'alan)e "*er a leng#+ "f pipe. *onsider the equilibrium of the element of fluid in the length d L. The total force required to overcome friction drag must be supplied by a pressure force giving rise to a pressure drop d P along the length dL. The pressure drop force is dP $ )rea of pipe 8 dP $ #/>= The friction force is ,force>unit area- $ wall area of pipe 8 F/A $ # $ dL so from eqn. ,3.0@-, 8 ,!v/>/- $ # $ dL

Therefore equating prressure drop and friction force ,#/>=- dP 8 ,! v/>/- # $ dL, therefore dP 8 =,! v/>/- $ dL/#

Integrating between L0 and L/, in which interval P goes from P0 to P/ we have dP 8 =,!v/>/- $ dL/# P0 - P/ 8 ,=!v/>/-,L0 - L/-># i.e. or E 8 P!> 8 ,/!v/-,L/#where L = L1 - L2 8 length of pipe in which the pressure drop, E is the frictional loss of energy. ,3.09-

P! 8 ,=!v/>/- $ ,%/#-

,3.07-

P! 8 P1 - P2 is the frictional pressure drop, and

Cquation ,3.07- is an important equation1 it is !nown as the Fanning e/ua#i"n, or sometimes the 'E)rcy or the Fanning-'E)rcy equation. It is used to calculate the pressure drop that occurs when liquids flow in pipes. The factor ! in eqn.,3.07- depends upon the Heynolds number for the flow, and upon the r"ug+ness of the pipe. In Fig. 3.9 e$perimental results are plotted, showing the relationship of these factors. If the Heynolds number and the roughness factor are !nown, then ! can be read off from the graph.

Figure 3.9 Fri)#i"n fa)#"rs in pipe ?)fter Moody,06==@ It has not been found possible to find a simple e$pression that gives analytical equations for the curve of Fig. 3.9, although the curve can be appro$imated by straight lines covering portions of the range. Cquations can be written for these lines. (ome writers use values for !which differ from that defined in eqn. ,3.0@- by numerical factors of / or =. The same symbol, !, is used so that when reading off values for !, its definition in the particular conte$t should always be chec!ed. For e$ample, a new f 8 =! removes one numerical factor from eqn. ,3.07-. Inspection of Fig. 3.9 shows that for low values of ,He-, there appears to be a simple relationship between Q and ,He- independent of the roughness of the pipe. This is perhaps not surprising, as in streamline flow there is assumed to be a stationary boundary layer at the wall and if this is stationary there would be no liquid movement over any roughness that might appear at the wall. )ctually, the friction factor f in streamline flow can be predicted theoretically from the Hagen;P"iseuille e/ua#i"n, which gives ! 8 0@>,He,3.06-

and this applies in the region 5 O ,He- O /055. In a similar way, theoretical wor! has led to equations which fit other regions of the e$perimental curve, for e$ample the -lasius e/ua#i"n which applies to smooth pipes in the range 3555 O ,He- O 055,555 and in which

Q8

5.30@ =

, He--5./:

,3.06-

In the turbulent region, a number of curves are shown in Fig. 3.9. It would be e$pected that in this region, the smooth pipes would give rise to lower friction factors than rough ones. The roughness can be e$pressed in

terms of a roughness ratio that is defined as the ratio of average height of the pro"ections, which ma!e up the ?roughness? on the wall of the pipe, to the pipe diameter. Tabulated values are given showing the roughness factors for the various types of pipe, based on the results of Moody ,06==-. These factors are then divided by the pipe diameter # to give the roughness ratio to be used with the !""d, grap+. The question of relative roughness of the pipe is under some circumstances a difficult one to resolve. In most cases, reasonable accuracy can be obtained by applying Ta'le 3.1 and Fig. 3.9. T)2%C 3.0 HC%)TILC H4&#I.C(( F)*T4H( F4H +I+C( Material Hiveted steel *oncrete <ood staves *ast iron Houghness factor ,5.550- 5.50 5.5553 - 5.553 5.555/ - 5.553 5.5553 Material #alvanized iron Houghness factor ,5.555/

)sphalted cast iron 5.550 *ommercial steel 'rawn tubing 5.5555: (mooth

E A!PLE 3.1A. Pressure dr"p in a pipe *alculate the pressure drop along 075 m of : cm diameter horizontal steel pipe through which olive oil at /5N* is flowing at the rate of 5.0 m3 min-0. 'iameter of pipe 8 5.5: m, )rea of cross-section A 8 ,>=-#/ 8 >= $ ,5.5:-/ 8 0.6@ $ 05-3 m/ From )ppendi$ =, Liscosity of olive oil at /5N* 8 9= $ 05-3 .s m-/ and density 8 605 !g m-3, and velocity 8 ,5.0 $ 0>@5->,0.6@ $ 05-3- 8 5.9: m s-0, .ow ,He- 8 ,#v/8 F,5.5: $ 5.9: $ 605->,9= $ 05-3-G 8 =@5 so that the flow is streamline, and from Fig. 3.9, for ,He- 8 =@5 ! 8 5.53. )lternatively for streamline flow from ,3.09-, ! 8 0@>,He- 8 0@>=@5 8 5.53 as before. )nd so the pressure drop in 075 m, from eqn. ,3.07-

P! 8 ,=!v/>/- $ ,%/#-

8 F= $ 5.53 $ 605 $ ,5.9:-/ $ 0>/G $ F075 $ 0>5.5:G 8 0.3= $ 05: +a 8 03= !+a.

Energ, L"sses in -ends and Fi##ings <hen the direction of flow is altered or distorted, as when the fluid is flowing round bends in the pipe or through fittings of varying cross-section, energy losses occur which are not recovered. This energy is dissipated in eddies and additional turbulence and finally lost in the form of heat. Iowever, this energy must be supplied if the fluid is to be maintained in motion, in the same way, as energy must be provided to overcome friction. %osses in fittings have been found, as might be e$pected, to be proportional to the velocity head of the fluid flowing. In some cases the magnitude of the losses can be calculated but more often they are best found from tabulated values based largely on e$perimental results. The energy loss is e$pressed in the general form, E = kv/>/ ,3./5-

where k has to be found for the particular fitting. Lalues of this constant k for some fittings are given in Ta'le 3.(. T)2%C 3./ FHI*TI4. %4(( F)*T4H( I. FITTI.#( k Lalves, fully open gate globe angle Clbows 65N standard medium sweep long radius square Tee, used as elbow Tee, straight through Cntrance, large tan! to pipe sharp rounded 5.: 5.5: 5.7= 5.: 5./: 0.: 0.: 5.: 5.03 @.5 3.5

Cnergy is also lost at sudden changes in pipe cross-section. )t a sudden enlargement the loss has been shown to be equal to

E! = (v1 - v2)2>/ For a sudden contraction E! = kv22>/

,3./0-

,3.//-

where v0 is the velocity upstream of the change in section and v / is the velocity downstream of the change in pipe diameter from #0 to #/. The coefficient ! in eqn. ,3.//- depends upon the ratio of the pipe diameters , #/>#0- as given in Ta'le 3.3. T)2%C 3.3 %4(( F)*T4H( I. *4.TH)*TI4.( #/>#0 D 5.0 5.3@ 5.3 5.30 5.: 5.// 5.7 5.00 5.6 5.5/

Pressure Dr"p #+r"ug+ E/uip&en# Fluids sometimes have to be passed through beds of pac!ed solids1 for e$ample in the air drying of granular materials, hot air may be passed upward through a bed of the material. The pressure drop resulting is not easy to calculate, even if the properties of the solids in the bed are well !nown. It is generally necessary, for accurate pressure-drop information, to ma!e e$perimental measurements. ) similar difficulty arises in the calculation of pressure drops through equipment such as ban!s of tubes in heat e$changers. )n equation of the general form of eqn. ,3./5- will hold in most cases, but values for ! will have to be obtained from e$perimental results. &seful correlations for particular cases may be found in boo!s on fluid flow and from wor!s such as +erry ,0667- and Mc)dams ,06:=-.

E/ui*alen# Leng#+s "f Pipe In some applications it is convenient to clculate pressure drops in fittings from added equivalent lengths of straight pipe, rather than directly in terms of velocity heads or velocity pressures when ma!ing pipe-flow calculations. This means that a fictitious length of straight pipe is added to the actual length, such that friction due to the fictitious pipe gives rise to the same loss as that which would arise from the fitting under consideration. In this way various fittings, for e$ample bends and elbows, are simply equated to equivalent lengths of pipe and the total friction losses computed from the total pipe length, actual plus fictitious. )s E in eqn. ,3./5- is equal to E in eqn. ,3.07-, k can therefore be replaced by =QL/# where L is the length of pipe ,of diameter #- equivalent to the fitting.

C"&pressi'ili#, Effe)#s f"r 5ases The equations so far have all been applied on the assumption that the fluid flowing was incompressible, that is its density remained unchanged through the flow process. This is true for liquids under normal circumstances and it is also frequently true for gases. <here gases are passed through equipment such as dryers, ducting, etc., the pressures and the pressure drops are generally only of the order of a few centimetres of water and under these conditions compressibility effects can normally be ignored.

Cal)ula#i"n "f Pressure Dr"ps in Fl". <,s#e&s From the previous discussion, it can be seen that in many practical cases of flow through equipment, the calculation of pressure drops and of power requirements is not simple, nor is it amenable to analytical solutions. Cstimates can, however, be made and useful generalizations are ,0- +ressure drops through equipment are in general proportional to velocity heads, or pressures1 in other words, they are proportional to the square of the velocity. ,/- +ower requirements are proportional to the product of the pressure drop and the mass rate of flow, which is to the cube of the velocity, v2 & Av = Av'. (&MM)HB 0. The static pressure in a fluid, at a depth A, is given by P =Zg ta!ing the pressure at the fluid surface as datum. /. Fluid flow problems can often be solved by application of mass and energy balances. 3. The continuity equation, which e$presses the mass balance for flow of incompressible fluids, is A0v0 = A2v/. =. The 2ernouilli equation e$presses the energy balance for fluid flow gZ0 + v0/// + P0/0 = gZ/ + v//// + P/// Friction and other energy terms can be inserted where necessary. :. The dimensionless Heynolds number ,He- characterizes fluid flow, where ,He- 8 (#v/-

For ,He- O /055, flow is streamline, for ,He- P =555 flow is turbulent, and between /055 and =555 the flow is transitional. @. Friction energy loss in pipes is e$pressed by the equation E 8 ,=Qv2>/- $ ,L/#and pressure drop in pipes

P 8 ,=Qv/>/- $ ,L/#-.

+H42%CM( 0. In an evaporator, the internal pressure is read by means of a &-tube containing a liquid hydrocarbon of specific gravity 5.7=. If on such a manometer the pressure is found to be below atmospheric by 93 cm, calculate ,a- the vacuum in the evaporator and estimate ,b- the boiling temperature of water in the evaporator by using the steam tables in )ppendi$ 9. F,a- @.5/: !+a ,absolute pressure 6: !+a1 ,b- 69.0 N*G /. Cstimate the power required to pump mil! at /5N* at /.7 m s -0 through a = cm diameter steel tube that is 035 m long, including the !inetic energy and the friction energy. F /67.5: J s-0 8 5.= I+G 3. ) //M sodium chloride solution is to be pumped up from a feed tan! into a header tan! at the top of a building. If the feed tan! is =5 m lower than the header and the pipe is 0.: cm in diameter, find ,a- the velocity head of the solution flowing in the pipe, and ,b- the power required to pump the solution at a rate of 9.0 cubic metres per hour. )ssume that the solution is at 05N*, pipeline losses can be ignored, the pump is @9M efficient, and that the density of the sodium chloride solution is 00@5 !g m -3. F,a- 9./ m , ,b- /.=/ I+G =. It is desired to design a cooler in which the tubes are = cm diameter, to cool 05,555 !g of mil! per hour from /5N* to 3N*. *alculate how many tubes would be needed in parallel to give a Heynolds number of =555. F 00 tubes G :. (oyabean oil is to be pumped from a storage tan! to a processing vessel. The distance is 0=9 m and included in the pipeline are si$ right-angle bends, two gate valves and one globe valve. If the processing vessel is 3 m lower than the storage tan!, estimate the power required to pump the oil at /5N*, at the rate of /5 tonnes per hour through the : cm diameter pipe assuming the pump is 75M efficient. F =0 I+ G @. In the design of an air dryer to operate at 95N*, the fan is required to deliver 055 cubic metres per minute in a ring duct of constant rectangular cross-section 5.@ m by 0.= m. The fan characteristic is such that this delivery will be achieved so long as the pressure drop round the circuit is not greater than / cm of water. 'etermine whether the fan will be suitable if the circuit consists essentially of four right-angle bends of long radius, a pressure drop equivalent to four velocity heads in the bed of material and one equivalent to 0./ velocity heads in the coil heater. )ssume density of water os 0555 !g m -3. F A water 8 5.0/= cm, O / cm water G