Psychomotor === approach in children affected by impurities shit nonretentive ( FNRFS ) : the purpose of the new recovery

Things have altmetric score 2 original Research ( 528 ) Total Views Article Authors: Esposito M , Gimigliano F , Ruberto M , Marotta R , Gallai B , Parisi L , Lavano BC, Mazzotta G , Roccella M , Carotenuto M Date published September 2013 Volume 2013:9 Pages 1433-1441 DOI : http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S51257 Received: . July 9, 2013 This is the actual date of the paper was submitted to , accepted to , and published in the journal <br /> These dates are only available for papers published since January 1, 2012 Received: August 12, 2013 Published : 19 September 2013 Maria Esposito , Francesca Gimigliano 1 , 1,2 Maria Ruberto , 2 Rosa Marotta , Beatrice Gallai 3 , 4 Lucia Parisi , Marianna Serena Lavano 5 , 3 Giovanni Mazzotta , 6 Michele Roccella , 5 Marco Carotenuto1 1Center for Children Headache Clinic of Child and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry , Department of Mental Health , Physical Medicine and Prevention, Second University of Naples , Naples , Italy ; 2Department of Odontostomathologic Discipline, General Pathology , Orthopedic Sciences , Second University of Naples , Italy ; 3Department of Psychiatry, University of Catanzaro Magna Graecia , Catanzaro, Italy ; 4Unit Childhood and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry , University of Perugia , Perugia , Italy ; 5Child Neuropsychiatry , Department of Psychology, University of Palermo , Palermo, Italy ; 6Unit Childhood and Adolescent Neuropsychiatry , AUSL Umbria , Terni , Italy

Background: According to the Rome III criteria , encopresis without constipation is defined as fecal impurities nonretentive ( FNRFS ) the etiology has not been well understood. Treatment approaches reported in the literature with varying results include biofeedback , hypnosis , reflexology , and Internet -based education program . In an era of development , another behavioral treatment can be identified in psychomotor approach , called psychomotricity in European countries , or also known as play therapy . The purpose of this study was to confirm the safety and efficacy of play therapy plus potty training in a small sample of children affected by prepubertal FNRFS . Materials and methods : Twenty- six patients (group 1 , 16 male , mean age 5.92 0.84 years) underwent a program of psychomotor therapy approach in association with potty training for 6 months, and 26 subjects ( group 2 : 17 men , mean age 5.76 0.69) single toilet training program for 6 months. During the observation period ( T0 ) and after 6 months ( T1 ) both treatments , patients were evaluated for frequency FNRFS and for behavioral assessment . Results: At T0 , the FNRFS mean frequency per month for group 1 is 20,115 episodes / month ( standard deviation [ SD ] 3.024 ) and for group 2 was 20.423 (SD 1.879 ) ( P = 0.661 ) . At T1 the mean frequency per month was 6,461 (SD 1.333 ) episodes / month and 12,038 (SD 1.341 ) , respectively ( P < 0.001 ) . Moreover , the average delta percent of frequencies between T0 and T1 was 67,121 8,527 for group 1 and 40,518 9,259 for group 2 ( P < 0.001 ) . At T1 , a significant increase in scores on a scale of behavior has been identified . Conclusion: Our preliminary results show the importance of a multidisciplinary approach , and suggest an additional positive impact psychomotor approach , as this holds the purpose of rehabilitation of new and exciting for children in toilet training , although further research is necessary .

Words: encopresis , psychomotricity , kids, potty training , rehabilitation matter

Psychomotor Adaptation in Children With Severe Chronic Asthma Bruce G. Bender , Louise Belleau , Jolene T. Fukuhara , David A. Mrazek , Robert C. Strunk + Author Affiliations From the Department of Pediatrics and Rehabilitation Services , National Jewish Center for Immunology and Respiratory Medicine , Denver , and the Department of Psychiatry and Pediatrics , University of Colorado School of Medicine, Denver

ABSTRACT Acute effects of steroid drugs or brain damage due to hypoxia has been hypothesized cause neuropsychologic impairment in children with severe asthma . Investigations include neuromotor , cognitive, psychosocial , and medical evaluation 67 asthmatic children 9-14 years of hospitalization , the risk for motor dysfunction . The mean scores from the Test Bruininks - Oseretsky Motor Skills ( BOTMP ) with test norms and show how neuromotor impairment . BOTMP scores correlated significantly ( P < .01 ) with measures of children and family psychosocial adjustment but not with measures of cognitive ability , the dose of steroids on admission , or the severity of asthma . Thirteen children have a battery composite score more than 1 SD below shows how to age but not IQ or increased use of steroids , respiratory failure , seizures , or symptoms of neurologic abnormalities compared with 55 other children decreases. These results suggest that children with asthma most , including many with a history of hypoxia and high-dose steroid use showed no psychomotor impairment showed brain damage. It concludes that the neuromotor development of asthma in children is associated with psychologic characteristics that influence adaptation to the disease and the level of activity .

Keywords : asthma psychomotor impairment adjustments IQ neuromotor Steroid

Methods : CH children were conducted: Evaluation 62.2 % of Global Works , with the acquisition of functional analysis , test 34.6 % with test Brunet - Lezine to evaluate the degree of motor skills , closely related to chronological age ; 33.8 % Level reagent right to assess the status intellectual them .

Results: 7.6 % of children with Global Functional assessment showed slow early neuro- muscular development was confirmed in 2.5 % of these children . To children who are rated by test Brunet - Lezine 2.3 % had a moderate delay and 2.3 % mild delay ; dates have been confirmed in 2.3% of children. 4.6% of children with mild delays in assessment of the intellectual level of reactive , confirmed all children. There was no difference between the sexes.

Conclusion:

Most

of

our patients

presented

psychomotor

and

intellectual

development in the normal range , only 7.8% of CH children have inadequate levels of early development ( mild or moderate ) confirmed , in a follow-up , only 3.9% of children, all moderate delays . These data represent a clear advantage conferred by early diagnosis and subsequent therapy in children with CH , which ensures complete somatic development neuropsychic - the motor of a child with this endocrine disorder .

Psychomotor assessment in child- and adolescent psychiatry care.

Mrs. Monique N. Hammink (M.Sc.)

Preface In my work as a psychomotor therapist in a clinic for child and adolescent psychiatry care, I was asked to see the children and adolescents and to give my opinion about their problems. This way I could contribute to the overall psychiatric assessment. The problem I was confronted with was that there were no specific psychomotor assessment instruments, nor directives how to do this psychomotor assessment. The only thing I had was my so called 'clinical view'. Often this gave a lot of information, but still it was not very satisfying. When I asked colleagues about it, I learned that in most places it was not very different from my situation. From this 'emptiness' I started my research. I did some literature-research and some field-research in order to give an answer to the question of how important psychomotor assessment within child and adolescent care centres is. Beside that I wanted to give an impression of the state of the art of psychomotor assessment in the Netherlands and I wanted to be able to give a well founded recommendation for systematic psychomotor assessment within these care centres.

The general development of the child and adolescent. The general development of the child already gives an indication of the importance of movement. During the first years of live, the several parts of development (biologicalphysical, cognitive and emotional-social) are strongly connected. A motor problem will have influences on the other areas. Because motor skills and movement play such an important role in the early development, they can give an indication about the way the child develops. Depending on its experiences with different stimuli, the behaviour of the child will show more differentiation when it grows older and perception and action will get more integrated. Even though young children do have the capacity to observe the environment, a lot of things have to happen before this observation can be transferred into useful knowledge about the environment and well-aimed action. The efficiency of perception is closely connected with motor development. As soon as the child is able to move itself, it will be able to gather more

information about the environment in a more effective way. In this way it can enlarge its implicit knowledge. This knowledge becomes explicit as soon as it leads to new actions when it is combined with observations about the environment. Movement plays, especially during this first years of development, a very important role in handling information from the environment. If the psychomotor development is disturbed, it will have its influences on other aspects of development as well and in this way on the whole child.

Child and adolescent psychiatry. If the development is not 'normal', the importance of movement is even more evident. Usually, during the first years of life, the development of children and adolescents with psychosocial and psychiatric problems already have been impaired. Since these are the years in which movement plays such an important role, it seems even more essential to include psychomotor therapy in the general treatment program. In order to restore the development, the accent of treatment will be different for each individual child or adolescent. Adolescent psychiatry is more diverse than child psychiatry. Beside child psychiatry disorders, which are chronic or late discovered, there are disturbances that come with the developmental stage and early adult psychiatric disorders. In this presentation treatment will not be further discussed. What is evident with children and adolescents with psychiatric problems is that it has its impact on the motor development and the way the child or adolescent moves. The motor development can give an indication about the child's experiences with different stimuli. It is possible that a child has been understimulated, but is also possible that there were enough adequate stimuli in the environment, but that the child was unable to profit from it. Children with disturbances in the sensomotor development often show problems in other areas as well and a multi-discipline treatment is necessary.

Systematical assessment. In order to get a good view at psychiatric disturbances, assessment has to take place in a systematic way. Psychomotor assessment has been incorrectly neglected in this assessment process, in spite of the fact that several psychiatric disturbances are visible early in the development in the motor skills, in the way a child moves and in the relation it has with its body. Because human development starts with movement, this children almost always have a disturbed connection between psychological and

physical functioning. Severe child psychiatry disturbances often go together with disturbances in the way the child perceives its body, with problems in control and coordination of motor skills and with lack of pleasure in movement. A systematic psychomotor assessment could contribute to the overall psychiatric assessment and would possibly aid in clarifying indications for psychomotor therapy. In addition it would possibly give an idea of which aspects should play a role in the treatment program. Psychomotor assessment could be a way to see what went wrong early in the development. At this moment, in child and adolescent care settings, movement is mostly seen as a therapeutic instrument and it is rarely used as a diagnostic instrument in a systematic way. Research of possibilities of movement as an assessment instrument within child and adolescent psychiatry is rare. The question is whether existing psychomotor assessment instruments could be used in these settings and which instruments would be best in that case. Besides motor development, psychomotor assessment could be aimed at what the movement of the child expresses and how the child experiences moving. If there is a problematic development, this will show in the way the child moves. As said before: movement plays a very important role in the development of children and if this development is not 'normal', the importance of movement is even more evident. Because of this it seems to be evident that further research in this area is necessary.

A conceptual framework. To make a systematic assessment possible, a conceptual framework is needed, which makes it possible to put the many aspects of psychomotor assessment in perspective. This framework could be based on theories about biopsychosocial development and the levels of the International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (ICIDH-2). Within psychiatric care, usually the DSM-IV and ICD-10 are used. Both are classification systems. Classification is a way to systematically order individuals in groups and is needed for scientific purposes and world-wide registration. Assessment on the other hand tries to give an idea about the individual state of problems. Systematic psychomotor assessment is aimed at this individual state of problems. Classification systems like the DSM-IV and the ICD-10 could be used in the overall assessment, but are not usefull within this research project because a descriptional system is needed. The ICIDH-2 is such a

descriptional system. The ICIDH-2 makes it possible to record diagnostic information, to plan and evaluate therapeutic actions and to exchange information with colleagues from different care fields, like rehabilitation and the mentally handicapped care. The ICIDH-2 is not an instrument, but a framework, which can be used for specific goals and needs further development in that case. In order to get a connection with the child- and adolescent psychiatric care field, the biopsychosocial development theories are connected with the ICIDH-2 in this research project. This is needed, because a way of thinking about development and pathology is missing within the ICIDH-2. The figure shows the conceptual framework. In this figure it is visible that a psychiatric disturbance has its influences on different levels. It has its impact on the structure and function-level, on activity-level and on participation level. This is the case, because a psychiatric disturbance almost always influences different aspects of the development. The structure and function level is placed in the biological centre of development. Problems at the level of activity can evolve as soon as development starts, which is at conception. Problems in participation come with the social development. The arrows between the different levels show the influence the levels have on each other. Beside that, the environment has its impact on the different levels and is influenced by the problems at the different levels as well. It depends on the setting, the child/adolescent and the time that is available, how extensive a psychomotor assessment can be. To make a short assessment possible, as well as a more extensive assessment, within the psychomotor assessment construct 2 checklists are developed. A central checklist and a supplemental checklist. In field research, this checklists are developed with the help of 13 psychomotor therapists. The checklists contain items of the ICIDH-2 and items of previous field research. This 13 psychomotor therapists could choose for each item to put it in the central checklist, the supplemental checklist or to remove the item from the construct. The idea is to complete the checklists in a few assessment-sessions. The therapist can choose which movement-arrangements are appropriate for the age and problems of the child or adolescent he or she diagnoses. After both checklists are completed, in a stafmeeting all information from different disciplines can be put together. In this way it can get clear on which level the problems are concentrated. After that, it can be decided that further psychomotor assessment is needed. To

make this possible, within this research project, several psychomotor assessment instruments are connected with the items of the checklists. If psychomotor assessment is taking place as described, all important aspects are being looked at. Besides that, transfer to colleagues is getting easier. An other advantage is that psychomotor therapists can work in a structured manner, but still in their own way as well. Even though they themselves decide how to get the information to complete the checklists, the way of doing assessment is more systematic and better transferable to others. Because of this, implementation of the construct in the daily practice of psychomotor therapists, within child- and adolescent care centres will be easier.

Assessment instruments. >From literature research of different assessment instruments it can be found that most of the psychomotor assessment-procedures are methodological not well founded. Even though recent assessment instruments are in most cases a lot better than the older instruments, still the choice of instruments is often more decided on practical than on test theoretical criteria like standardisation, reliability and validity. Beside that, most instruments have not been tested on special groups like the child and adolescent psychiatric care population. In addition the norms are often from other countries and can not be used.

The state of the art of psychomotor assessment within child and adolescent psychiatric care in the Netherlands. In order to investigate how psychomotor assessment is taking place in the Netherlands within the child and adolescent psychiatric care field, a short questionnaire has been send to 118 care centres. From this questionnaires it appears that in 53 settings psychomotor assessment is taking place. These care centres received an extensive questionnaire with 24 questions about psychomotor assessment. A qualitative analysis took place. The goal of these questionnaires was to gather extensive information about the current situation of psychomotor assessment within this care field. Based on these questionnaires 18 psychomotor therapists were selected for interviews. These interviews have been analysed with the computerprogramm 'Kwalitan'. Because it is impossible to give all the results of this field research within this

presentation, a selection will be presented: * There are many different educated psychomotor therapists in the Netherlands. There is also a great difference in the way they are educated in doing assessments. Every psychomotor therapist seems to have its own way of working. Knowledge and way of working often stay implicit and are not made explicit in the daily practice of the therapists. * The reason why psychomotor therapists are doing assessments, is mostly because the care centres ask them to. Most therapists feel a need to do assessments as well. * With psychomotor assessments, psychomotor therapists try to contribute to the overall psychiatric assessment, to clarify indications for psychomotor therapy and to get an idea of the aspects that should be involved in the treatment programs. * Most of the psychomotor assessments take place during the first weeks of treatment. Assessment later on during the treatment program or follow-up assessments at the end of the treatment program are seldom taking place. * There is a great variety in how often a child or adolescent is seen for psychomotor assessments en how long assessment sessions will last. This varies from 1 to 5 times, during 30 to 75 minutes. * Slightly more than half of the respondents are using existing assessment instruments, when at the same time all of the respondents are using their 'own' assessment instruments. If existing instruments are being used, they are often being transformed, depending on the situation. Reliability and validity do not seem to be important in choosing instruments. * The person of the psychomotor therapist, who tells the team about the results, seems to be more important than the instruments that are being used in the assessments. * The surplus value of psychomotor assessment is found, according to the respondents, in the information from movement behaviour and bodily experiences. Beside that, the playful character and the direct joining with the world of the child or adolescent during the sessions seems to be important. In addition sexuality is an item that is rarely assessed at other disciplines. An other aspect is that during staff meetings concrete examples can be given of where things go wrong. * There is a need for more clarity in psychomotor assessment strategies, in order to make transference between colleagues more easy and to make it unnecessary for each therapist to find his own way of doing assessments. There should be some

directives or guidelines. * Most psychomotor therapist do not experience any problems in combining the roles of therapist and diagnost. They experience it as an advantage, because of the fact that during the assessments the first contact is made and that they get an idea of the problems and of ways to handle them. * A new assessment construct should reply to several demands, according to the respondents: * It should be valid, reliable and standardised * It should be practical and not too extensive * It should give information about different aspects of the development * It should give information about the overall psychiatric problems * It should differentiate between several disturbances. * The way of doing assessment is nowadays dependent on the person of the psychomotor therapist, the situation of the moment and the choices of the care centres.

Randpanel. In order to verify the results of the literature and field research, a panel of experts was formed. In this panel, different disciplines were represented: 2 experts from the field of child and adolescent psychiatry (a psychiatrist and a manager), 2 experts from the ICIDH-2 collaborating centre, 2 movement scientists and 3 psychomotor therapists who had experience in working with children or adolescents with psychiatric problems. They had to judge several decisions and reasonings from the researcher in a questionnaire. After analysis of these questionnaires, a live discussion meeting was set up. Only points of discensus were discussed. Based on the results of this meeting, there were some adjustments made on the psychomotor assessment construct. These adjustments were judged by the experts again. The panel of experts was set up like a Randpanel-method, which is a derivation from the Delfimethods. The Randpanel-method can be used if scientific literature is not sufficient to verify conclusions. In that case, the clinical experience of experts can be used. In this presentation, it is not possible to discuss the results of the expert meeting. The discussion was mainly based on the question:' Which items should always be a part of psychomotor assessment and which instruments are relevant and usable?'

The interaction between the experts gave a lot of extra information, that was very useful. Because of this interaction this information had a surplus value. In questionnaires it would be impossible to gather this kind of information.

Continuation. Based on all results from the research so far, the psychomotor assessment construct will be further adjusted. In the second half of this year, an implementation will take place in several child and adolescent psychiatric care centres. After that, evaluation of the construct will be possible. The goal is to be able to give a well founded recommendation for systematic psychomotor assessment within the field of child and adolescent psychiatry.

Kaedah Bermain Berkesan: Implikasinya Terhadap Motivasi Pembelajaran Kanak-Kanak Pra-Sekolah - Satu Tinjauan Di Taska TM Dynamic Kids, Menara TM, Kuala lumpur Abstrak Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti penerapan konsep pembelajaran melalui kaedah bermain dan melihat implikasinya terhadap motivasi pembelajaran ke atas kanak-kanak pra- sekolah. Kaedah bermain yang betul dan berkesan mampu melahirkan generasi yang kreatif untuk negara dan bangsa. Banyak negara-negara maju seperti Amerika Syarikat, Jerman, Sweeden, Jepun, United Kingdom, Singapura, Australia dan Korea Selatan memberi penekanan dalam sistem pendidikan pra-sekolah untuk menyemai kreativiti kanak-kanak sebagai persediaan untuk mereka sebelum memasuki alam persekolahan secara formal. Negara-negara maju yang disebut di atas terutamanya Amerika Syarikat berusaha melahirkan sumber manusia kreatif yang mampu mengangkat martabat dan dignity bangsa itu sendiri. Ramai dikalangan pakar -pakar sains pemikiran kreatif seperti Amabile (1992), Swartz (1989), Buzan (2002), de Bono (1971), Leong (1978) dan ramai lagi menyifatkan bahawa institusi pendidikan pra-sekolah merupakan tempat yang paling sesuai untuk memupuk kreativiti melalui proses bermain secara berkesan di kalangan kanak-kanak. Selanjutnya, kajian ini mencadangkan bahawa pendidikan awal kanak-kanak pra-sekolah sangat memerlukan perkitaran dan motivasi yang amat signifikan bagi merealisasikan bakat, kemahiran dan kreativiti kanak-kanak. Oleh yang demikian, kajian yang bersifat konseptual ini mengupas kaedah dan teknik-teknik bermain yang spesifik dan berkesan ke atas kanak-kanak prasekolah serta melihat implikasinya ke atas perkembangan potensi kanak-kanak semasa proses pembelajaran yang boleh mewujudkan komponen-komponen kreativiti, kemahiran berfikir, kemahiran berkomunikasi, kemahiran bersosial, memupuk sikap positif sebelum mereka melangkah ke sekolah rendah.

Kata kunci: aktiviti bermain, pendidikan pra-sekolah, motivasi pembelajaran 1.0 Pengenalan

Menurut Nurul Huda Yusuf, beliau berpendapat bahawa pendidikan merupakan suatu perkara penting yang menjadi asas kepada penentuan jalan hidup seseorang. Cara didikan yang diterima oleh seseorang itu pastinya akan mencorakkan cara berfikir dan tingkah lakunya. Oleh itu pendidikan merupakan suatu aspek yang amat penting dan perlu diberikan perhatian khusus agar seseorang itu dapat dibentuk menjadi insan yang sebaikbaiknya. Pendidikan atau disebut tarbiyyah di dalam bahasa Arab merupakan satu elemen yang bukan sahaja melibatkan fizikal bahkan turut menekankan aspek-aspek lain seperti rohani dan akal. Ia merupakan gabung jalin setiap unsur yang terdapat pada diri manusia yang seterusnya akan memberikan kesan pada tingkah dan perlakuan seseorang. [1] Menurut Caplan dan Caplan, bermain sebagai penentu penting bagi perkembangan kekuatan sahsiah, daya cipta, kestabilan emosi, perkembangan sosial dan intelek di samping dapat memperkembangkan kekuatan fizikal, koordinasi dan ketangkasan seseorang murid. Permainan juga dapat memberi pengalaman tentang keadilan, peraturan-peraturan dan kesamaan serta memperkuatkan kebolehan berfikir dalam pelbagai cara. Sebagai contoh, aktiviti fizikal yng dilakukan di dalam kelas. Melalui permaian yang melibatkan perlumbaan misalnya. [2] Pendapat di atas turut disokong oleh Sharifah Nor Puteh dan Aliza Ali. Menurut mereka, aktiviti bermain adalah penting untuk perkembangan kanak-kanak dan kanak-kanak bermain dengan pelbagai cara. Kanak-kanak belajar kemahiran tentang dunia disekeliling mereka dengan efektif melalui bermain. Keupayaan kanak-kanak memahami dunia sekelilingnya semakin meningkat melalui bermain. Sebaik sahaja kanak-kanak memahami konsep baharu dan melakukannya secara berulang-ulang semasa bermain, mereka kemudiannya menguasai konsep pada peringkat seterusnya. [3] Daripada semua pendapat yang telah dibahaskan di atas oleh tokoh-tokoh yang relevan dengan pendidikan awal kanak-kanak, penulis berpendapat bahawa belajar melalui bermain adalah satu teknik pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang berkesan kepada kanak-kanak. Melalui teknik ini juga akan mendatangkan keseronokkan dan kepuasan kepada mereka dalam sesuatu pengajaran yang hendak disampaikan. Dengan bermain juga kanakkanak akan dapat menguasai perkembangan dan kemahiran fizikal dan penguasaan bahasa dari segi perbendaharaan dan peraturan tatabahasa.

1.1

Pernyataan Masalah Kajian

Ramai ibubapa sering mengajukan soalan, "Mengapa anak-anak di peringkat awal asyik bermain sahaja dan apabila diminta membaca buku mereka cuba menolak?" Di kalangan ibu bapa yang kurang memahami perkembangan dan sifat semulajadi kanak-kanak menganggap bermain hanya sia-sia dan membuang masa sahaja. Sebenarnya sifat naluri semula jadi kanak-kanak suka bermain. Pada peringkat ini mereka suka meneroka, ingin tahu dan masih di alam fantasi. Dengan bermain pelbagai persoalan di dalam kepala mereka akan terjawab. Sebagai guru, ibu bapa ataupun siapa sahaja perlu tahu sifat kanak-kanak peringkat prasekolah. Antaranya adalah: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. Suka bertanya Suka meniru Suka mencuba Suka bermain Suka pada ulangan Suka memerhati Suka berimaginasi Suka menunjuk-nunjuk Suka meneroka

1.2

Objektif Kajian

Antara objektif kajian ini ialah:

1.2.1 1.2.2

Mengenal pasti kaedah atau metodologi pendidikan anak dalam Islam berdasarkan kaedah bermain sambil belajar; Menjelaskan aspek-aspek penting yang perlu diterapkan di dalam proses pendidikan anak-anak prasekolah

1.2.3 Mengenalpasti kecenderungan dan kemahiran guru-guru taska dalam mengaplikaskan kaedah bermain berkesan semasa proses pendidikan terhadap kanak-kanak prasekolah

1.3

Persoalan Kajian

Persoalan kajian yang ditimbulkan adalah:

1.3.1

Apakan metodologi pendidikan yang diajarkan di taska TM Dynamic Kids?

1.3.2 Apakah aspek-aspek penting yang perlu diberikan penekanan dalam proses pendidikan bermain secara berkesan terhadap kanak-kanak prasekolah? 1.3.3 Sejauh manakah kakitangan dan guru-guru TM Dynamic Kids mengetahui metodologi pendidikan secara bermain secara berkesan terhadap kanak-kanak dan adakah mereka mengaplikasikannya?

1.4 1.4.1

Metodologi Kajian Data

Data yang digunakan dalam penelitian kajian ini meliputi data primer dan data sekunder.

a.

Data primer diperolehi dengan menggunakan cara mengadakan wawancara dengan individu yang relevan bagi kajian ini iaitu Pn Basiroh Zainol selaku Pengetua Taska TM Dynamic Kids, Menara TM, Kuala Lumpur.

b.

Data sekunder diperolehi dari penyelidikan perpustakaan. Pemerhatian dan penelitian dibuat ke atas laporanlaporan akhbar, buku-buku rujukan dan juga kajian-kajian yang telah lepas dengan menggunakan teknik dokumentasi iaitu menggunakan cara pengumpulan data dengan melakukan susunan (sorting) dengan mengkategorikan isu yang dibincangkan untuk diteliti dan diulas. Sebagaimana yang disebut di atas, data-data yang telah disusun, penulis akan membuat penelitian dan pengolahan serta analisis perbandingan terlebih dahulu sebelum penulis membuat cadangan dan kesimpulan 1.4.2 Sampling

Dalam menentukan halatuju sesebuah kajian ini, penulis menggunakan metode sampling dalam penentuan subjek penelitian yang telah dikenal pasti ialah Taska TM Dynamic Kids, di lokasi Menara TM, Kuala Lumpur. Penelitian dibuat dalam masa 5 hari yang berlasung dari 26hb November 30hb November 2012. 2.0 Perbincangan Kajian

Pendidikan di Malaysia adalah satu usaha berterusan ke arah lebih memperkembangkan potensi individu secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu untuk melahirkan insan yang seimbang dan harmonis dari segi intelek, rohani, emosi dan jasmani berdasarkan kepercayaan dan kepatuhan kepada Tuhan. Usaha ini adalah bertujuan untuk melahirkan warganegara Malaysia yang berilmu pengetahuan, berketrampilan, berakhlak mulia, bertanggungjawab dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraan diri serta memberi sumbangan terhadap keharmonian dan kemakmuran keluarga, masyarakat dan negara. Pendidikan awal kanak-kanak merupakan perkara penting untuk membentuk corak pembelajaran masa hadapan yang lebih baik dan seimbang. Justeru itu, pendidikan awal kanak-kanak mempunyai sejarah yang panjang dan perkembangannya berterusan sehingga ke hari ini. Pengetahuan berkaitan sejarah pendidikan awal kanak-kanak dapat membantu pendidikan dalam melaksanakan amalan-amalan baik dari sejarah lampau dan mengambil kira pandangan dari tokoh-tokoh kurikulum lampau untuk menghasilkan pembelajaran bermakna. Maka perubahan dalam pendidikan awal kanakkanak adalah dipengaruhi oleh perubahan dalam kurikulumnya.[4]

Pendidikan awal kanak-kanak dan juga Pra-sekolah merupakan peringkat formatif dalam perkembangan kanakkanak. Atas dasar tersebut, pelbagai inisiatif telah dilaksanakan oleh banyak pihak dengan melaksanakan pelbagai agenda dan program yang sesuai untuk kanak-kanak dari peringkat usia 0 hingga 6 tahun. Hal ini bertujuan menggerakkan pemikiran dan juga minda serta meningkatkan kreativiti berbentuk kemahiran di samping membina akhlak yang baik bagi golongan kanak-kanak. Melalui kewujudan pelbagai program khusus untuk kanak-kanak, pembangunan minda, penyuburan fizikal, pengukuhan kestabilan emosi dan persediaan untuk hidup bermasyarakat di kalangan kanak-kanak dapat diterapkan. Berikutan itu, muncul satu fenomena iaitu kehadiran berbagai pihak dan agensi sama ada kerajaan, swasta mahupun persendirian untuk mengendalikan pusat pendidikan awal kanak-kanak dan juga Pra-sekolah. Dengan kewujudan pelbagai model Prasekolah, tidak mustahil jika dikatakan akan wujud pula paradigma 'rumah satu, tiang seribu atau infiniti' disebabkan kepelbagaian ragam pendekatan dan kurikulum yang digunakan di institusi yang terlibat. Antara program asuhan dan didikan awal kanak-kanak yang paling sinonim adalah Taman Asuhan Kanak-kanak (TASKA), Taman Bimbingan/Didikan Kanak-kanak (TABIKA/TADIKA) atau prasekolah dan juga Kumpulan Kanak-kanak Kurang Bernasib-baik diwujudkan oleh pelbagai agensi yang terlibat.[5] 2.1 Apa Definisi Bermain?

Menurut George S. Morrison, bermain adalah satu aktiviti semulajadi dan keperluan bagi setiap kanak-kanak. Mereka belajar dan meneroka melalui bermain kerana imaginasi mereka yang tinggi dan sejak mereka bayi lagi mereka sudah cenderung untuk memanipulasikan anggota badan mereka sendiri. [6]

Menurut Joan Packer Isenberg dan Mary Renck R. Jalongo, bermain adalah satu aktiviti yang simbolik dan memberi makna kepada kanak-kanak, aktif serta bebas untuk meneroka dan menjelajah persekitarannya, mendapat keseronokan dan segala undang-undang permainan kanak-kanak yang tentukan sendiri dengan aktiviti mereka main.[7]

Manakala Rubin, Fein dan Vendenberg mendefinisikan takrifan bermain ialah permainan mempunyai beberapa faktor disposisi yang boleh membezakan main dengan tingkah laku atau aktiviti yang lain. Iaitu main merupakan suatu yang dimotivasikan secara mendalam, fokus aktiviti main adalah proses aktiviti itu sendiri dan bukan hasil

atau aktiviti tersebut. Permainan adalah satu aktiviti bebas dari peraturan luaran bukanlah satu tugas yang dipaksa, permainan menentukan penglibatan diri individu secara aktif, permainan selalu melibatkan kesan perasaan positif seperti gembira dan seronok yang selalu disertai dengan gelak ketawa dan main juga mempunyai ciri-ciri imaginasi, simulatif, pura-pura dan olok-olok. [8] Rubin, Fein dan Vendenberg juga turut menerangkan bahawa bermain adalah satu bentuk kesenian kanakkanak. Ia merupakan saluran untuk melahirkan perasaan dan punca untuk mendapatkan kegembiraan dan keseronokan. Mereka menyatakan kanak-kanak bermain dengan di arah oleh diri mereka sendiri tanpa mengambilkira tujuan bermain. Semasa bermain, mereka, bebas dari segala peraturan. Melalui permainan, kanak-kanak mendapat tingkah laku yang baru. Kanak-kanak melibatkan diri dalam permainan secara aktif. [9] Daripada semua definisi yang telah dihuraikan di atas, penulis berpendapat bahawa bermain adalah satu proses semula jadi dan spontan. la adalah aktiviti kanak-kanak yang dapat menghasilkan pengalaman, pembelajaran dan kemahiran. Bermain membolehkan kanak-kanak melakukan aktiviti yang kreatif. Bagi kanak-kanak yang sedang membesar, bermain adalah suatu keperluan. Melalui bermain kanak-kanak dapat belajar pelbagai perkara dan isi dikenali sebagai pembelajaran tidak formal. Melalui bermain juga akan boleh memupuk rasa kegembiraan di kalangan kanak-kanak yang juga boleh mempengaruhi kanak-kanak terbabit untuk berfikir, berkomunikasi, bergaul, bersosial, berkongsi, berfantasi dan berimaginasi di dalam pembelajaran. 2.2 Bermain Di Dalam Islam

Dahulu Nabi SAW sering bermain dan bergurau senda dengan Zainab anak Ummu Salamah. Baginda memanggilnya dengan panggilan Wahai Zuainab yang bermaksud Zainab kecil berulang -ulang. [10] Ibnu Abbas melaporkan, Abbas mengangkat puteranya yang bernama Qutsam lalu meletakkannya di atas dadanya sambil berkata, Qutsam menyerupai sang pemilik hidung mancung. Nabi adalah sang pemilik nikmat yang banyak, tanpa mengira apa kata orang.[11] Abu Bakar mengajak Hasan bermain dan bergurau mengikut apa yang dilakukan Nabi. Fatimah turut melakukan hal yang sama dengan mengajak Hasan bermain. Bapa saudara Nabi, Abbas turut tidak mahu ketinggalan. Dia mengajak Qutsam bermain dan mendendangkan lagu untuknya dengan tujuan mendapat kebaikan dan keberkatan mengikut contoh Nabi. [12] Imam Bukhari dan Muslim ada meriwayatkan sebuah hadith, pada suatu hari Rasulullah SAW telah terpandang beberapa orang wanita dan kanak-kanak sedang menyambut dan meraikan majlis perkahwinan. Baginda berkata kepada mereka: Demi Tuhan, kamu adalah orang yang paling aku kasihi. Baginda ulangi kata -kata ini sebanyak tiga kali. [13] Hadith Nabi SAW tadi sebenarnya berkisar tentang kaum wanita dan kanak-kanak yang sedang bergembira dengan sebuah majlis perkahwinan. Mereka bergurau dan bersuka ria bersama keluarga kedua belah pengantin. Perbuatan mereka ini disenangi oleh Rasulullah SAW.[14] Berdasarkan hadith-hadith di atas, penulis melihat bahawa Nabi SAW menegaskan kepada ibubapa dan pendidik akan kepetingan bermain dan bergurau dalam proses pendidikan. Para ibubapa dan pendidik tidak boleh memarahi kanak-kanak kecil yang dalam memang secara fitrahnya suka bermain, ceria, suka bertanya, suka meneroka dan berimaginasi serta berfantasi ketika mereka masih kecil. 2.3 Istilah Pendidikan Pra-Sekolah

Istilah prasekolah atau tadika (terdapat nama-nama popular lain seperti taska, taski, pasti dan sebagainya) digunakan dengan meluas di Malaysia bagi merujuk pendidikan awal kanak-kanak.[15] Pendidikan prasekolah bertujuan untuk menyuburkan potensi murid dalam semua aspek perkembangan, menguasai kemahiran asas dan memupuk sikap positif sebagai persediaan masuk ke sekolah rendah.[16] Pendidikan awal kanak-kanak yang berkesan memerlukan kurikulum yang universal, terancang dan dapat memenuhi keperluan murid semasa. Kurikulum Prasekolah Kebangsaan merangkumi aspek-aspek yang diperlukan dalam perkembangan kanak-kanak yang universal iaitu perkembangan bahasa dan komunikasi, perkembangan kognitif, kerohanian dan moral, sosioemosi, fizikal dan kreativiti dan estetika. Kurikulum Prasekolah Kebangsaan memberi penekanan kepada komponen Bahasa dan Komunikasi sebagai usaha untuk meningkatkan literasi murid dalam bahasa, kemahiran berinteraksi dan komunikasi serta membina keyakinan murid menghadapi pelbagai cabaran dalam era globalisasi dunia. [17]

2.3

Fungsi Bermain Dalam Pendidikan Awal Kanak-Kanak

Muhamad Husain menerangkan di dalam bukunya Teknik Terbaik Mendidik Anak bahawa cara bermain kanak kanak ada bermacam aspek. Ada kanak-kanak yang suka bermain permainan yang memerlukan kepintaran dan ini menunjukkan tahap kecerdasan mereka. Ada juga kanak-kanak yang suka bermain atau berkawan mengikut kesesuaian jantina mereka, iaitu lelaki lebih gemar bermain dengan rakan lelakinya dan jenis permainan mereka lebih menghala kepada sifat kelelakian itu sendiri iaitu kasar dan keras. Dan kanak-kanak perempuan lebih gemar bermain bersama-sama rakan-rakan mereka yang perempuan dan jenis permainan mereka pula sudah tentu lebih mencerminkan sifat keperempuanan mereka yang lemah lembut.[18] Sharifah Nor Puteh dan Aliza Ali di dalam kajian mereka mendapati bahawa melalui bermain, kanak-kanak berpeluang melakukan aktiviti yang bermakna yang dapat memupuk perkembangan bahasa, kognitif, sosial, dan fizikal. Kanak-kanak juga boleh mempelajari tentang diri mereka sendiri dan individu lain. Menurut mereka lagi, pakar dalam bidang perkembangan kanak-kanak percaya bahawa bermain adalah cara terbaik bagi kanak-kanak mempelajari konsep kemahiran yang kemudiannya akan digunakan untuk mempelajari perkara-perkara yang baru pada masa akan datang. [19] Menurut Surayah Zaidon, tahap perkembangan kanak-kanak berlaku dengan pesat pada lingkungan umur empat hingga 6 tahun. Beliau menyebut kajian Bloom membuktikan 80% kecerdasan seseorang individu pada usia 18 tahun terbina pada peringkat umur prasekolah. Pada usia ini kanak-kanak bertindak aktif kepada rangsangan, berinteraksi bebas dengan orang sekeliling dan peka kepada keadaan sekeliling. Sehubungan dengan itu, adalah sangat penting kanak-kanak mengalami pengalaman pembelajaran prasekolah yang berkesan, bermakna dan menggembirakan supaya kanak-kanak dibekalkan dengan kemahiran, keyakinan diri dan sikap positif sebelum memasuki alam persekolahan formal. [20] Pendapat Surayah ini penulis harmonikan dengan hasil kajian Mohd Azhar dan Othman A. Kassim. Iaitu aktiviti bermain bukan sahaja dapat mewujudkan komponen perkembangan fizikal kanak-kanak malah ianya membolehkan kanak-kanak berfikir secara kreatif. Penulis bersetuju dan menyokong hasil kajian Mohd Azhar dan Othman A. Kassim di dalam kertas kerja mereka yang mendapati bahawa sifat-sifat kreatif memang telah wujud secara semulajadi pada zaman kanak-kanak prasekolah yang mana ianya membantu membentuk pola mereka berfikir secara inovatif dan kreatif ketika dewasa. Mereka telah meringkaskan istilah kreatif dan kreativiti digunakan untuk menggambarkan produk sosial yang dihasilkan. Umumnya antara kreativiti yang boleh difahami dengan pengertian di bawah[21]: Melakukan sesuatu dengan cara yang unik Seseorang itu akan keluar daripada pola yang sama Berfikir di luar kotak Melihat sesuatu daripada perspektif yang baru Mengabungkan idea yang sedia ada kepada pembentukan idea baru Membuka minda dengan idea-idea yang baru Berfikir secara fleksibel Mencabar andaian Membuat sintesis, imaginasi dan visualisasi Mohd Azhar dan Othman A. Kassim juga turut mencadangkan agar para pendidik pada peringkat prasekolah menekankan pengetahuan dan aplikasi kreativiti dalam pelbagai aspek pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Ini akan dapat menyuburkan budaya kreativiti di dalam membina sesebuah masyarakat yang kreatif dan berinovasi. Pada pendapat penulis, kreativiti dikalangan kanak-kanak prasekolah dapat dirangsang melalui aktiviti bermain. Oleh kerana bermain merupakan fitrah kanak-kanak, maka peranan guru sebagai fasilitator di taska amat penting untuk mendidik, memandu dan memantau aktiviti bermain kanak-kanak agar ianya boleh membentuk kemahiran bersosial dan kemahiran berinovasi. 3.0 Hasil Kajian

Di dalam bab ini, penulis akan membentangkan dapatan kajian hasil daripada temubual dengan Puan Basiroh Zainol iaiti Pengetua TM Dynamic Kids, Menara TM. Hasil temubual dengan beliau adalah seperti berikut: Di taska TM Dynamic Kids ini terdapat 120 orang kanak-kanak yang terdiri daripada peringkat umur daripada 1 tahun (bayi) hingga 6 tahun dengan seramai 16 orang tenaga pengajar terlatih. Pihak pengurusan TM Dynamic Kids menyediakan modul pendidikan bermula seawal umur 2 tahun lagi sebagai asas kepada kanak-kanak mengenal bunyi, warna, bentuk dan huruf. Kanak-kanak yang berumur 2 tahun akan di dedahkan untuk menggunakan pensil warna dan kertas sebagai asas untuk menguatkan motor kecil kanak-kanak disamping untuk membiasakan kanak-kanak tersebut untuk menggunakan pensil, pensil warna kertas dan pemadam. Teknik pembelajaran yang digunakan adalah belajar sambil bermain. Namun begitu, bagi kanak-kanak yang berumur 4 hingga 6 tahun, kaedah membaca untuk mata pelajaran Bahasa Melayu, Bahasa Inggeris dan Qiraati adalah

ditekankan supaya kanak-kanak yang berumur dilingkungan umur tersebut boleh membaca sebagai persediaan sebelum mereka memasuki alam persekolahan formal. Menurut Puan Basiroh menjelaskan bahawa teknik pembelajaran melalui bermain adalah sangat penting bagi peringkat kanak-kanak prasekolah kerana bermain adalah sesuai dengan fitrah kanak-kanak terbabit. Kanakkanak tidak boleh dimarahi jika mereka bermain kerana ianya akan merencatkan emosi kanak-kanak terbabit. Sebaliknya, jika kanak-kanak membuat kesalahan, pada peringkat umur ini, mereka perlu ditegur dengan memberi hujahan (reasoning) mengapa sesuatu larangan itu dibuat. Contohnya apabila kanak-kanak mengoyakkan kertas, pihak guru akan hanya memantaunya sahaja kerana aktiviti tersebut akan dapat membantu kanak-kanak memperkuatkan motor halusnya. Namun jika kanak-kanak terbabit mengoyakkan kertas guru, sebaik-baiknya kita katakan kepada murid terbabit bahawa kertas ini tidak boleh dikoyakkan kerana ianya kepunyaan guru. Ujarnya lagi, terdapat 4 faedah daripada teknik permainan di dalam kaedah pembelajaran iaitu: a) Kognitif Kaedah ini dapat membina daya pemikiran dan kepintaran kanak-kanak Motor Dapat memperkuatkan motor halus dan motor kasar kanak-kanak terbabit Sosio-emosi Dapat membentuk dan membina keyakinan kanak-kanak dalam aspek bercerita, menyanyi, menari dan penglibatan mereka untuk bersosial dengan rakan sebaya Seni dan grafik Kanak-kanak dapat menterjemahkan perasaan dan pengalaman mereka melalui corak dan warna ketika melukis Di TM Dynamic Kids, pihak guru menggunakan modul pengajaran yang berkonsepkan cara pendidikan Rasulullah SAW. Di tanya apakan konsep tersebut, Puan Basiroh menjelaskan bahawa baginda Nabi SAW tidak pernah memarahi kanak-kanak dan sentiasa bersifat lemah lembut semasa proses pentarbiahan kanak-kanak terutama terhadap cucuanda baginda SAW. Tambah beliau lagi, pada setiap hari iaitu ketika perhimpunan pelajar, kanak-kanak akan di dedahkan dengan bacaan surah Yassin. Apabila kanak-kanak terbabit mencecah umur 6 tahun, mereka sudah boleh membaca surah Yassin malah ada dikalangan mereka yang sudah boleh menghafaz ayat 1 15 surah tersebut. Setiap kanak-kanak perlu diberi penghargaan. Penghargaan adalah penting dalam membentuk sosio-emosi kanak-kanak. Menurut beliau lagi di TM Dynamic Kids terdapat 3 jenis penghargaan yang diberi sebagai ganjaran kepada kanak-kanak prasekolah iaitu: a) b) c) Penghargaan berbentuk pujian (seperti: awak bagus, awak cemerlang, lihat seperti Ali, dll) Penghargaan berbentuk penganugerahan bintang (jika murid dapat menjawab soalan dengan baik, maka murid tersebut akan diberi 1 bintang dsb) Penghargaan berbentuk hadiah (seperti pensil, pemadam dll) Penghargaan akan dapat meningkatkan self-esteem kanak-kanak di dalam kelompok sosialnya. Namun, bagi kanak-kanak yang kurang cergas, ujar beliau lagi, pihak guru juga akan turut memberi penghargaan tetapi ianya akan dilakukan diluar aktiviti. Ini adalah untuk memastikan kanak-kanak tersebut tidak rendah moral mereka untuk turut serta aktiv di dalam aktiviti pembelajaran. Aktiviti-aktiviti luar (outdoor) juga telah dirancang umpamanya setiap hari Rabu, kanak-kanak yang berumur 5 6 tahun akan dilatih untuk mengikuti kelas renang di Bangsar. Aktiviti berenang akan mengembirakan kanak-kanak kerana kanak-kanak suka permainan yang berkaitan dengan air. Selain daripada itu, ianya adalah satu-satunya sukan yang boleh menggerakkan seluruh tubuh badan manusia. Selain daripada itu, lawatan sambil belajar ke perpustakaan juga telah diatur bagi mendedahkan kanak-kanak prasekolah dengan buku-buku, memupuk perasaan suka membaca dan cintakan buku. Ini kerana ujar beliau lagi, apabila kanak-kanak menjejakkan kaki ke bangku sekolah, mereka sudah terbiasa dengan perpustakaan yang mana perpustakaan adalah pusat sumber untuk murid-murid membaca buku dan meminjam buku.

b)

c)

d)

4.0

Cadangan

Daripada hasil kajian di bab 3.0 di atas, penulis ingin mencadangkan beberapa idea bagi membantu perkembangan pembelajaran kanak-kanak prasekolah untuk pihak TM Dynamic Kids pertimbangkan. Antaranya ialah: a) Mengadakan Portfolio Bagi Setiap Kanak-Kanak Guru adalah dicadangkan untuk mengadakan portfolio bagi setiap kanak-kanak yang belajar di taska. Setiap hasil kerja kanak-kanak seperti melukis, mewarna perlu dikumpulkan secara kronologi di mana setiap semakan yang dilakukan oleh guru perlu mempunyai tarikh. Ini akan membolehkan setiap pencapaian kanak-kanak dinilai dari satu tahap ke satu tahap yang lain. Guru juga boleh membuat perbandingan seseorang kanak-kanak dengan kanak-kanak rakan sebaya yang lain berasaskan portfolio. Kanak-kanak tidak boleh dinilai dengan membandingkan pencapaian mereka dengan kanak-kanak yang lain. b) Mengajar Peralatan Teknologi ICT Pada Peringkat Kanak-Kanak Kanak-kanak perlu didedahkan dengan penggunaan teknologi ICT seperti komputer atau iPad pada peringkat prasekolah. Pendedahan awal kepada kanak-kanak pada peringkat awal pendidikan akan membantu mereka menggunakan aplikasi komputer sebagai persediaan sebelum memasuki alam persekolahan. Contohnya, guru boleh menjadi fasilitator kepada kanak-kanak prasekolah tentang bagaimana untuk membuat kad ucapan sempena hari raya, hari ibu, hari bapa atau hari guru. Kanak-kanak boleh didedahkan menggunakan kreativiti mereka dengan menggunakan perisian komputer untuk mencipta kad-kad ucapan yang cantik dan kreatif. c) Menggalakkan Permainan Fantasi Salah satu cara paling berkesan untuk kanak-kanak belajar dan mempraktikkan kemahiran imaginasi mereka adalah melalui permainan fantasi. Guru hendaklah merancang dan memantau permainan ini agar kanak-kanak prasekolah melakukankan secara spontan. Permainan cara fantasi ini boleh menggunakan peralatan ataupun tanpa peralatan dan ianya mesti dilakukan dengan menggunakan imaginasi kanak-kanak. Semasa permainan secara fantasi ini berlangsung, kanak-kanak sebenarnya akan berupaya menggambarkan sesuatu karakter dalam sesuatu situasi. Mereka akan menggunakan memek muka, gaya, lontaran suara untuk mengambarkan imaginasi mereka. Dengan cara ini, kanak-kanak juga berupaya mentransformasikan idea imaginasi mereka menjadi kreatif. d) Menggalakkan Permainan Mengikut Peraturan Guru-guru digalakkan memperkenalkan permainan yang mempunyai peraturan. Melalui permainan begini, kanakkanak akan dapat didik untuk mematuhi peraturan, menyesuaikan diri, dan membolehkan mereka menyelesaikan masalah. Permainan seperti dam, catur, kad dan monopoli mengajar kanak-kanak bahawa setiap individu perlu mematuhi peraturan yang ditetapkan. Permainan sebegini dapat membantu kanak-kanak memahami konsepkonsep peraturan dan perlunya mematuhi undang-undang.

5.0

Kesimpulan

Bermain bagi kanak-kanak adalah merupakan satu fitrah yang tidak boleh dihalang. Dengan bermain, seseorang kanak-kanak itu boleh menggerakkan seluruh anggota tubuh badannya. Pergerakkan tubuh badan ini amat baik sekali semasa proses tumbesaran kanak-kanak kerana ianya merangsang pergerakan psiko-motor dan kognitif kanak-kanak terbabit. Apabila berlakunya pergerakan psiko-motor, peredaran darah menjadi lancar, menguatkan kekuatan kardivaskular dan menguatkan otot-otot. Dengan aktiviti bermain juga dapat melahirkan kanak-kanak yang ceria, gembira, mendapat kepuasan hasil daripada aktiviti bermain. Oleh kerana bermain merupakan fitrah kanak-kanak, maka para pendidik dan ibu bapa perlu meraikan fitrah mereka ini sebagai satu proses pembelajaran dalam aspek fizikal, mental, sahsiah dan akhlak kanak-kanak terbabit.

[1]Nurul Huda Wan Jusuh, Metodologi Pendidikan Anak Menurut Surah Luqman, UTM, 2011, hlm 1

[2] Caplan and Caplan, Children's Hero Play Of The 20th Century: Changes Resulting From Television's Influence, Child Study Journal; Jun 1991, Vol. 21 Issue 2, hlm 79 [3] Sharifah Nor Puteh dan Aliza Ali, Pendekatan Bermain Dalam Pengajaran Bahasa Dan Literasi Bagi Pendidikan Prasekolah, hlm 3 [4] Nur Syairah Ayob, Transformasi Kurikulum Dalam Pendidikan Awal Kanak-Kanak, Fakulti Pendidikan Teknikal Dan Vokasional Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, hlm 8 [5] Mohd Faiz B. Mohd Rais, Nik Mahadi B. Nik Mat, Noralina Bt Samsudin, Nor Arini Bt. Rodzi, Wong Chit Trai, Sejarah Perkembangan Asuhan Dan Pendidikan Awal Kanak Kanak Di Malaysia, Idris, [6] George S. Morrison , Early Childhood Education Today (12th Edition), hlm 86 [7] Joan Packer Isenberg dan Mary Renck R. Jalongo, Creative Expression and Play in Early Childhood, [8] Rubin, K.H & Watson, K.S, Free Play Behaviors In Preschool and Kindergarten Children, Society for Research in Child Development, hlm 49 [9] Ibid, hlm 534 - 536 [10] Lihat Hadith Riwayat Imam Ahmad, No. 6/9,391,392) [11] Lihat Hadith Riwayat Abu Dawud , No. 5105) [12] Ibid [13] Muhamad Husain, Teknik Terbaik Mendidik Anak, hlm 192

[14] Ibid [15] Mohd Azhar b Abd Hamid & Othman b. Kassim, Pemurniaan Kreativiti Dalam Pendidikan Prasekolah Sebagai Asas Pembinaan Bangsa Malasyai Kreatif: satu Kupasan Awal, Jurnal Kemanusiaan, hlm 35 [16] Kurikulum Prasekolah Kebangsaan, Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum,

Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, hlm 3 [17] Ibid [18] Muhamad Husain, Teknik Terbaik Mendidik Anak, hlm 89 [19] Sharifah Nor Puteh & Aliza Ali, Pendekatan Bermain Dalam Pengajaran Bahasa Dan Literasi Bagi Pendidikan Prasekolah, hlm 3 [20] Surayah Zaidon, Satu Tinjauan Literatur Penggunaan Portfolio Kanak-Kanak Prasekolah, hlm 163 [21] Mohd Azhar b. Abd Hamid & Othman A. Kassim, Pemurnian Kreativiti Dalam Pendidikan Prasekolah Sebagai Asas Pembinaan Bangsa Malaysia Yang Kreatif: Satu Kupasan Awal, hlm 31 - 31

Rujukan

Buku

1.

Al-Quran dan terjemahan

2.

Abdul Munim Ibrahim, Mendidik Anak Perempuan, PTS Millennia Sdn Bhd, Kuala Lumpur, 2012

3.

Muhamad Husain, Teknik Terbaik Mendidik Anak, Jasmin Enterprise, Kuala Lumpur, 2004

4.

George S. Morrison , Early Childhood Education Today (12th Edition), Pearson, New Jersey, 2011

5.

Kurikulum Prasekolah Kebangsaan, Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, 2001

6.

Muhammad Nur Abdullah Hafiz Suaid, Didik Anak Cara Rasulullah SAW, Klang Book Centre, Kuala Lumpur, 2006

7.

Rubin, K.H & Watson, K.S, Free Play Behaviors In Preschool and Kindergarten Children, Society for Research in Child Development, 1978

Jurnal/Laporan

1.

Abdul Ghani Abdullah & Tang Keow Ngang, Motivasi Guru dan Pengurusan Budaya Kolaboratif Pengurus Pendidik Wanita, Jurnak Pendidikan, 31 (2006) 97-105

2.

Ahmad Zabidi Abdul Razak, Ciri Iklim Sekolah Berkesan : Impilikasinya Terhadap Motivasi Pembelajaran, Jurnal Pendidikan, 31 (2006) 3-19

3.

Mohd Azahar b. Abd Hamid & Othman b. A. Kassim, Pemurnian Kreativiti Dalam Pendidikan Pra-Sekolah Sebagai Asas Pembinaan Bangsa Malaysia Yang Kreatif: Satu Kupasan Awal, Jabatan Pembangunan Sumber Manusia, Jurnal Kemanusian

4.

Mohd Faiz B. Mohd Rais, Nik Mahadi B. Nik Mat, Noralina Bt Samsudin, Nor Arini Bt. Rodzi, Wong Chit Trai, Sejarah Perkembangan Asuhan Dan Pendidikan Awal Kanak Kanak Di Malaysia, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 2009

5.

Sharifah Nor Puteh & Aliza Ali, Pendekatan Bermain Dalam Pengajaran Bahasa Dan Literasi Bagi Pendidikan Prasekolah, Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Melayu, Vol 2, Bil 2, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, November 2011

6.

Nur Syairah Ayob, Transformasi Kurikulum Dalam Pendidikan Awal Kanak-Kanak, Fakulti Pendidikan Teknikal Dan Vokasional Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 2010

7.

Nurul Huda Wan Jusuh, Metodologi Pendidikan Anak Menurut Surah Luqman, Fakulti Pendidikan (Pengajian Islam) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, 2011

8.

Surayah Zaidon, Satu Tinjauan Literatur Penggunaan Portfolio Kanak-Kanak Prasekolah, Jabatan Bahasa, Maktab Perguruan Islam, Bangi, Selangor 4. Kecerdasan Pelbagai Dikalangan Kanak-Kanak Prasekolah Serta Strategi Pengajaran Yang Digunakan Untuk Mengajar Kanak-Kanak Prasekolah. Suatu Kajian Kes Johari Bin Hassan & Nur Aimi Binti Mohd Idrus Fakulti Pendidikan Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Abstrak : Kecerdasan pelbagai dapat dikenalpasti seawal peringkat kanak-kanak lagi. Dengan itu, objektif kajian ini ialah untuk mengenalpasti kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak prasekolah, mengenalpasti strategi pengajaran yang digunakan bagi mengajar kanak-kanak prasekolah dan mengenalpasti perkaitan antara kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak serta strategi pengajaran yang digunakan dalam mengajar kanak-kanak prasekolah. Kajian ini mempunyai dua kumpulan responden iaitu pelajar tadika dan juga guru yang mengajar mereka. Seramai 72 orang responden yang terdiri daripada pelajar dan juga 6 orang guru yang mengajar

dipilih dari 3 buah tadika. Dua set soal selidik dengan nilai kebolehpercayaan = 0.925 bagi pelajar dan 0.971 bagi guru telah digunakan bagi menjawab persoalan kajian. Analisis data dilakukan menggunakan perisian Statistical Package for Social Science, SPSS 15.0 for Windows bagi mendapatkan hasil kajian dalam bentuk frekuensi dan peratusan. Purata taburan peratus digunakan bagi mendapatkan keputusan yang mempunyai tiga tahap iaitu tinggi, sederhana dan rendah. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanakkanak prasekolah dapat dikenalpasti dengan majoriti kanak-kanak mempunyai kecerdasan muzikal yang tinggi. Purata peratus bagi kecerdasan muzikal ini ialah 91.7%. Selain itu, strategi pengajaran yang digunakan oleh guru juga dapat dikenalpasti dimana setiap guru mengambil kira teori kecerdasan pelbagai dalam strategi pengajaran yang digunakan. Ini menunjukkan terdapat perkaitan positif antara kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak prasekolah dan juga strategi pengajaran yang digunakan oleh guru yang mengajar kanak-kanak prasekolah. Katakunci : kecerdasan pelbagai, kanak-kanak, strategi pengajaran Pendahuluan Firman Allah S.W.T mafhumnya: sesungguhnya Kami telah jadikan manusia itu dengan sebaik-baik kejadian At-tin: 4 Daripada ayat di atas, telah membuktikan bahawa manusia merupakan sebaik-baik kejadian yang dicipta. Di mana setiap manusia yang dicipta itu mempunyai keistimewaan serta keunikan yang tersendiri. Apa yang dimaksudkan dengan keistimewaan atau keunikan ini adalah

kebolehan semulajadi yang terdapat dalam diri setiap manusia. Kebolehan semulajadi ini adakalanya dapat diketahui sendiri oleh setiap individu untuk memajukan diri sendiri. Kebolehan semulajadi yang terdapat di dalam diri seseorang individu boleh dikenalpasti seawal usia kanakkanak lagi. Namun masih terdapat individu yang tidak dapat mengenalpasti kebolehan semulajadi yang terdapat dalam diri mereka walaupun sudah meningkat dewasa. Ini akan menyebabkan individu tersebut tidak mempunyai keyakinan diri yang tinggi kerana sering menganggap diri sebagai seorang yang lemah, tidak mempuyai keyakinan diri serta tidak mampu untuk bersaing dengan yang lain. Maka ini akan memberikan kesan yang negatif dalam bidang pendidikan kerana tidak dapat menghasilkan insan yang mempunyai keyakinan yang tinggi dalam melakukan pelbagai perkara. Kebolehan semulajadi yang dimaksudkan ialah kecerdasan yang terdapat dalam diri seseorang individu. Howard Gardner berpendapat setiap manusia dikurniakan potensi yang berbeza dalam fitrahnya. Potensi manusia ini mempunyai lapan jenis kecerdasan dalam diri mereka iaitu kecerdasan verbal-linguistik (mahir menggunakan perkataan), kecerdasan logikalmatematikal (berfikir secara saintifik,logik serta berfikir secara kritis untuk membuat keputusan serta menyelesaikan masalah), kecerdasan visual-ruang (mahir menguruskan ruang secara berkesan), kecerdasan muzikal (mahir mengesan dan menghasilkan bunyi yang berirama), kecerdasan kinestetik (mahir mengawal pergerakan seperti menari dan bersukan), kecerdasan interpersonal

(mahir dalam memahami perasaan orang lain) , kecerdasan intrapersonal (kebolehan memahami perasaan, kelemahan, kekuatan dan potensi diri sendiri) serta kecerdasan naturalis (mahir dalam mengenalpasti bentuk alam sekitar serta sensitif terhadap perubahannya). Friedrich Froebel ( 1782-1852) yang mengasaskan program taman asuhan kanak kanak percaya bahawa pembelajaran yang paling berkesan adalah sesuatu yang berlaku dalam keadaan yang menggembirakan. Beliau mennyatakan bahawa kanakkanak akan lebih mudah untuk belajar sekiranya mereka belajar sambil bermain dimana mereka akan merasa gembira. Melalui aktiviti bermain, secara tidak langsung kanakkanak berpeluang melatih kemahiran yang sedang berkembang. Ini membuktikan corak aktiviti bermain dikalangan kanak-kanak boleh membantu memahami dan memperolehi sesuatu kemahiran tertentu daripada persekitaran mereka. Melalui cara yang sedemikian, potensi kanak-kanak akan dapat dipupuk samaada dari aspek kognitif, psikomotor, afektif dan nilai-nilai kerohanian. (Zulkifli Mohamed Irpow, 2003 ). Kecerdasan pelbagai seharusnya bermula diperingkat kanak-kanak. Bermulanya diperingkat ini, akan terserlah kecerdasan yang terdapat dalam diri kanak-kanak. Namun, sekiranya tiada usaha untuk mengembangkan lagi kecerdasan yang mereka miliki ini, maka kecerdasan mereka tidak akan dapat berkembang dengan baik seterusnya akan menyebabkan mereka akan jadi kurang berkeyakinan dalam menghadapi dunia yang penuh dengan cabaran ini. Oleh itu, guru-guru haruslah mengenalpasti kecerdasan yang dimiliki oleh kanakkanak ini supaya dapat membantu mereka memajukan diri dalam pelbagai aspek.

Pernyataan Masalah Menurut Howard Gardner, kecerdasan pelbagai boleh dikenalpasti diperingkat kanak-kanak. Selain itu, kecerdasan juga boleh diperkembangkan diperingkat kanakkanak lagi. Maka dalam kajian ini, penulis ingin mengenalpasti kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak prasekolah serta kaitannya dengan strategi pengajaran yang digunakan untuk mengajar kanakkanak prasekolah. Ini adalah kerana penyelidik ingin mengetahui adakah guru yang mengajar kanakkanak prasekolah memahami teori kecerdasan pelbagai serta kepentingannya dalam strategi pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Adakah guru mempraktiskan teori ini dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Selain itu, adakah telah wujud kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak prasekolah. Objektif Kajian Terdapat tiga objektif utama dalam kajian ini iaitu: I. Mengenalpasti kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak prasekolah. II. Mengenalpasti strategi pengajaran yang digunakan untuk mengajar kanak-kanak prasekolah. III. Mengenalpasti perkaitan antara kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanakkanak serta strategi pengajaran yang digunakan dalam mengajar kanakkanak prasekolah. Kepentingan Kajian Penyelidik berpendapat bahawa kajian ini adalah penting kerana hasil dari kajian ini dapat memberikan maklumat bukan sahaja kepada guru-guru yang mengajar kanakkanak prasekolah, malah ia juga diharapkan dapat memberi maklumat kepada pihak pengurusan prasekolah agar

dapat mencari penyelesaian supaya teori kecerdasan pelbagai ini dapat diterapkan disetiap pengajaran yang dijalankan. Pentingnya kajian ini dilakukan ialah untuk mengetahui sejauh mana pengetahuan guru prasekolah memahami konsep kecerdasan pelbagai dan adakah ianya diterapkan disetiap pengajaran yang dilakukan. Hasil kajian ini diharapkan dapat membantu memberikan maklumbalas kepada pihak pengurusan prasekolah agar dapat meningkatkan mutu pengajaran dengan mengamalkan konsep kecerdasan pelbagai di dalam setiap pengajaran yang dijalankan. Selain itu kajian ini juga diharapkan dapat membantu guru-guru mengenalpasti jenis kecerdasan pelbagai yang terdapat di dalam diri kanak-kanak supaya keistimewaan mereka dapat dicungkil diperingkat awal seterusnya dapat melahirkan kanak-kanak yang mempunyai keyakinan diri dalam melakukan sesuatu. Rekabentuk Kajian Rekabentuk kajian berfungsi untuk membantu penyelidik mencari jawapan yang jelas terhadap masalah yang dikaji. (Oppenheim, 1966). Oleh itu, tujuan rekabentuk kajian ini adalah untuk mencari jawapan kepada persoalan-persoalan kajian ini. Kajian yang dijalankan oleh penyelidik ialah kajian kes. Menurut Sidek (2002), kajian kes merujuk kepada kajian yang dijalankan untuk mengenalpasti dan mencari secara intensif tentang latar belakang status masa kini serta interaksi persekitaran suatu unit sosial sama ada melibatkan individu, kumpulan, institusi atau komuniti. Kajian yang dijalankan dibahagi kepada tiga fasa iaitu fasa pertama, fasa kedua dan fasa

ketiga. Fasa pertama dimulakan dengan mengumpulkan maklumat yang berkaitan dengan kajian yang akan dijalankan. Maklumat dikumpul melalui pelbagai kaedah iaitu melalui internet, melalui pembacaan jurnal-jurnal atau majalah-majalah yang berkaitan dan juga melalui pembacaan kajian-kajian lepas yang mempunyai kaitan dengan kajian yang akan dijalankan. Fasa kedua dimulakan dengan membina item-item soal selidik. Kemudian perbincangan dengan penyelia sering kali dilakukan bagi memastikan item-item yang dibina dapat menjawab persoalan-persoalan kajian yang telah dibina. Selain itu, penyelidik juga telah menghantar soal selidik yang dibina untuk disemak oleh pakar. Setelah beberapa kali melakukan pengubahsuaian terhadap item-item yang dibina, akhirnya item-item yang telah siap diolah digunakan untuk menjalankan kajian rintis. Seramai 10 orang responden yang terdiri daripada pelajar tadika dan seorang responden daripada guru yang mengajar mereka dipilih bagi menjalankan kajian rintis ini. Pemilihan kanakkanak dan guru ini bukanlah sebagai responden tetapi mempunyai ciri-ciri yang sama dengan responden. Responden untuk kajian rintis dipilih secara rawak dan kaedah ini dinamakan persampelan rawak mudah. Menurut Azizi et al. (2007), persampelan ini bererti setiap unit daripada populasi mempunyai peluang yang sama dengan untit yang lain bagi dipilih. Proses membanyakkan soal selidik dilakukan dalam fasa ketiga. Kemudian soal selidik diedarkan kepada responden. Populasi dan Sampel Kajian

Populasi adalah keseluruhan kumpulan manusia, objek mahupun peristiwa yang mempunyai sedikit persamaan secara umumnya dan ia mestilah didefinisikan secara spesifik. Sampel ialah sebahagian daripada populasi tanpa mengambil kira sama ada ia dapat menjadi wakil populasi ataupun sebaliknya, (Azizi et al. 2007). Dalam kajian ini, populasi adalah keseluruhan kanak-kanak yang belajar di ketigatiga tadika yang dipilih. Penyelidik juga mengambil guru-guru yang mengajar kanakkanak di ketigatiga tadika yang dipilih ini sebagai populasi dalam kajian ini. Penyelidik menggunakan pelajar tadika yang berusia enam tahun sebagai sampel dalam kajian ini. Selain itu, sampel dalam kajian ini juga terdiri daripada guru yang mengajar kanakkanak yang berusia enam tahun ini. Hanya kanak-kanak yang berusia enam tahun dan juga guru yang mengajar mereka sahaja dipilih sebagai sampel dalam kajian ini. Jadual di bawah menunjukkan taburan sampel yang dipilih. Jadual 1: Taburan Kanak-Kanak 6 Tahun di Tiga Buah Tadika. Jadual 2: Taburan Guru yang Mengajar Kanak-Kanak 6 Tahun di Tiga Buah Tadika. Instrumen Kajian Dalam mengenalpasti dan mendapatkan hasil kajian yang terbaik, pengkaji telah menggunakan instrumen soal selidik. Oleh kerana responden dalam kajian ini terdiri daripada kanak-kanak prasekolah dan juga guru-guru yang mengajar mereka, maka penyelidik berpendapat bahawa instrumen yang dipilih adalah sangat bersesuaian bagi mendapatkan hasil kajian yang terbaik. Soal selidik merupakan satu cara yang tepat, cepat dan menjimatkan masa untuk

memperolehi maklumat secara kualitatif dan kuantitatif. (Mohd. Najib, 1999). Dalam kajian ini, dua set soal selidik telah dibina dimana satu set soal selidik adalah untuk menguji kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak prasekolah manakala satu set lagi adalah untuk mengenalpasti strategi pengajaran yang digunakan oleh guru-guru yang mengajar kanak-kanak prasekolah ini. Kedua-dua set soal selidik akan diberikan kepada guru yang mengajar kanakkanak berusia enam tahun disetiap tadika yang dipilih. Bagi soal selidik yang menguji kecerdasan pelbagai kanak-kanak, guru perlu memerhatikan setiap pelajar mereka dan menjawab item-item yang ditanya di dalam borang soal selidik. Selain itu, guru perlu menggunakan rekod yang disimpan bagi setiap pelajar sepanjang persekolahan pelajar tersebut bagi membantu guru menjawab setiap persoalan yang ditanya. Soal selidik untuk guru pula,guru perlu menjawab setiap item yang diberikan yang menepati strategi pengajaran yang mereka gunakan. Kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak prasekolah boleh dikenalpasti dengan memperolehi maklumat daripada guru yang mengajar mereka. Maklumat yang dimaksudkan ini bukanlah semata-mata melalui persepsi guru, tetapi ia turut mengambil kira pemerhatian dan rekod yang disimpan oleh guru terhadap murid-muridnya. Rekod ini bukanlah merupakan rekod baru tetapi rekod sepanjang persekolahan murid tersebut. Penyelidik mengambil risiko yang paling sedikit dalam mendapatkan kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak dengan meminta guru mengisi borang soal selidik untuk setiap pelajar. Ini adalah disebabkan oleh kesukaran untuk mendapatkan maklumat terus daripada setiap pelajar dimana kebanyakkan kanak-kanak pada usia enam tahun,masih belum boleh

membaca dan memahami maksud sesuatu ayat. Setiap borang soal selidik mengandungi dua bahagian iaitu Bahagian A dan Bahagian B. Bahagian A merangkumi soalan-soalan berkenaan latar belakang responden. Bahagian B pula merangkumi soalan-soalan yang akan menjawab persoalan dalam kajian ini. Setiap persoalan yang dibina adalah berdasarkan kepada objektif kajian dan mengandungi beberapa item. Bahagian B bagi soal selidik yang dibina untuk guru terdiri daripada 45 soalan atau pernyataan. Manakala Bahagian B yang dibina untuk kanak-kanak prasekolah terdiri daripada 32 soalan. Instrumen soal selidik dengan pembahagian bilangan item dapat diwakili dengan jadual di muka surat sebelah. Jadual 3: Spesifikasi Instrumen Soal Selidik Untuk Pelajar. Analisis Data Jadual 4 menunjukkan dapatan keseluruhan bagi kedua-dua kumpulan responden. Dapatan keseluruhan ini adalah dalam bentuk peratusan bagi setiap item yang berkaitan dengan kelapanlapan aspek dalam kecerdasan pelbagai. Dapat dilihat dalam jadual, bagi kecerdasan verballinguistik, peratusan setuju bagi responden pelajar ialah 90.2%. Manakala bagi responden guru pula ialah 90%. Peratusan responden pelajar dan responden guru yang setuju bagi kecerdasan logikal-matematikal pula ialah 86.6% dan 100%. Bagi kecerdasan muzik pula, responden pelajar yang setuju ialah 91.7% manakala bagi responden guru pula ialah 74.3%. Analisis data juga menunjukkan bahawa responden pelajar yang setuju ialah 71.2% manakala bagi responden guru

pula ialah 96.7%. Bagi kecerdasan kinestatik pula, responden pelajar setuju ialah 76.4% manakala responden guru setuju pula ialah 90%. Peratus responden pelajar setuju bagi kecerdasan naturalis pula ialah 87.2% manakala bagi responden guru pula ialah 86.7%. Bagi kecerdasan interpersonal pula, peratus pelajar setuju ialah 82.2% dan peratus guru setuju pula ialah 100%. Kecerdasan terakhir yang dianalisis ialah kecerdasan intrapersonal. Analisis data menunjukkan peratus responden pelajar setuju ialah 14.3% manakala peratus responden guru setuju pula ialah 76.7%. Jadual 4 : Dapatan Keseluruhan Perbincangan Hasil Kajian Penyelidik memerlukan 2 semester atau setahun bagi menyiapkan kajian kes ini dimana ia harus mencapai ketiga-tiga objektif yang telah dibina diawal kajian. Ketigatiga objektif ini adalah mengenalpasti kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak prasekolah,

mengenalpasti strategi pengajaran yang digunakan untuk mengajar kanakkanak prasekolah dan juga mengenalpasti perkaitan antara kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak serta strategi pengajaran yang digunakan dalam mengajar kanak-kanak prasekolah. Terdapat tiga buah sekolah tadika dipilih bagi menjalankan kajian kes ini iaitu Tadika Iman, Tadika Ansar dan Tadika Kemas. Dalam mengenalpasti kecerdasan pelbagai dikalangan kanak-kanak, penyelidik telah meminta bantuan pihak guru iaitu melalui pemerhatian dan juga rekod setiap pelajar yang disimpan oleh guru. Seterusnya, guru perlu menjawab soal selidik untuk mengenalpasti

penggunaan kecerdasan pelbagai dalam pengajaran guru. Setelah mendapat kesemua soal selidik daripada responden, penyelidik telah melakukan analisis data dengan menggunakan perisia SPSS versi 15.0. Kemudian, perbincangan hasil kajian akan dilakukan iaitu di dalam bab ini. Perbincangan hasil kajian akan dipecahkan mengikut analisis kajian yang telah dijalankan dan juga mengikut objektif kajian yang ingin dicapai oleh penyelidik. Daripada analisis yang dilakukan dapat diketahui bahawa kesemua responden yang mengajar di tadika yang dipilih adalah terdiri daripada responden perempuan. Begitu juga dengan bangsa, semua responden adalah berbangsa melayu. Dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan pengalaman mengajar bagi kesemua responden. Terdapat dua orang responden yang mempunyai pengalaman mengajar kurang dari 2 tahun. Manakala seorang responden mempunyai pengalaman mengajar antara 3 tahun hingga 4 tahun dan juga 5 tahun hingga 7 tahun. Hanya seorang responden sahaja yang mempunyai pengalaman mengajar lebih dari 8 tahun. Analisis data bagi pengalaman mengajar prasekolah juga memberikan dapatan kajian yang sama seperti pengalaman mengajar bagi setiap responden. Ini menunjukkan bahawa mengajar kanak-kanak prasekolah merupakan pengalaman pertama mereka sebagai pendidik. Selain itu, dapatan kajian juga menunjukkan daripada 6 responden yang terlibat, 4 responden telah berumah tangga manakala 2 responden lagi masih bujang. Kelulusan terendah bagi setiap responden ialah SPM. Ada pendapat mengatakan syarat minima yang diperlukan untuk menjadi tenaga pengajar di sesebuah tadika ialah SPM. Selain itu, dapatan kajian turut

menunjukkan perasaan setiap responden terhadap keseronokkan mengajar prasekolah. Dapatan menunjukkan bahawa kesemua responden merasa sangat seronok mengajar kanakkanak prasekolah. Dapatan menunjukkan purata peratus setuju bagi kecerdasan verbal-linguistik adalah sebanyak 90.2%. Ini menunjukkan kecerdasan verbal-linguistik bagi kanakkanak prasekolah berada pada tahap tinggi. Begitu juga dengan kecerdasan logikalmatematikal yang mempunyai purata peratus setuju 86.6%. Dapat dibuat kesimpulan disini bahawa kecerdasan verbal-linguistik dan juga kecerdasan logikal-matematikal telah wujud didalam diri kanak-kanak dan dapat dikenalpasti semenjak kecil lagi. Menurut Gardner, kedua-dua kecerdasan ini merupakan kecerdasan yang selalu diuji atau dinilai diperingkat sekolah. Oleh itu, memang wajarlah kecerdasan ini telah berada dalam diri kanak-kanak diperingkat prasekolah. Daripada analisis data yang dilakukan, dapat dilihat kecerdasan muzikal mempunyai purata peratus yang paling tinggi iaitu 91.7%. Ini menunjukkan bahawa kebanyakkan pelajar mempunyai kecerdasan muzikal dalam diri mereka dan merupakan kecerdasan yang paling tinggi didalam diri mereka. Ini adalah disebabkan pada peringkat ini, perkembangan minda kanak-kanak lebih cepat terangsang dengan muzik. Perkembangan minda pada peringkat ini juga dipengaruhi oleh muzik dimana muzik boleh merangsang minda dan juga emosi mereka. Selain itu, muzik juga boleh merangsang kecerdasan-kecerdasan yang lain seperti kecerdasan verballinguistik dan juga kecerdasan logikal-matematikal.

Analisis data mengenai strategi pengajaran yang digunakan oleh guru dalam mengajar kanak-kanak prasekolah menunjukkan bahawa setiap guru yang terlibat

menggunakan teori kecerdasan pelbagai dalam strategi pengajaran mereka. Ini adalah disebabkan oleh purata peratus bagi kesemua aspek yang ditanya di dalam soal selidik mempunyai tahap peratusan yang tinggi. Rujukan Azizi Yahaya, Shahrin Hashim, Jamaludin Ramli, Yusof Boon dan Abdul Rahim Hamdan. (2007). Menguasai Penyelidikan dalam Pendidikan: Teori, Analisis & Interpretasi Data. Kuala Lumpur: PTS Professional Publishing Sdn. Bhd. Bhasah Abu Bakar. (2003). Asas Pengukuran Bilik Darjah. Tanjong Malim: Quntum Books. Cattell, J.M. (1971). Abilities: Their Structure, Growth and Action. Boston: Houghton Miffin Day, B.D. (1988). What Happening in Early Childhood Programs Across the United States. In C. warger (Ed.), A Resource Guide to Public Sxhool Early Childhood Programs. Washington: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Edwards, A. J. (1994). Wechsler, David (1896-1981). In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of intelligence (Vol. 1, pp. 1134-1136). New York: Macmillan. Foster & Headleys (1966). Education in the Kindergarten. New York: American Book Co. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence. New York: Basic Books. Kamus Dewan Edisi Ketiga ( 1994 ). Kuala Lumpur : Dewan Bahas dan Pustaka. Lazear, D. (1999). Eight Ways of Knowing: Teaching For Multiple Intelligences. Illinois: Sky Light Training and Publishing Inc.

Murdosh, S.(2007). IQ: A Smart History of A Failed Idea. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Nelson, K.(1998). Developing Students Multiple Intelligences. New York: Scholastic. Oppenhium, A.N. (1966). Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement. New York: Basic Book Company. Piirto, J. (1999). Talented Children and Adults: Their Development and Education. Second Edition. New York: Macmillan. Rohaty Mohd Majzub & Abu Bakar Nordin. (1989). Pendidikan Prasekolah. Selangor: penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn.Bhd. Russell, P. (1979). The Brain Book. Great Britain: Routledge. Saayah binti Abu. (2007). Menjadi Guru Tadika. Selangor: PTS Professional Sally, B. (1999). Performance-Based Learning for the Multiple Intelligences Classroom.Illinois: Sky Light Training and Publishing Inc. Vernon, P.E. (1972). The Distinctiveness of Field Independence. Journal of Personality. Volume (40): 366-391. Wechsler, D. (1939). The Measurement of Adult Intelligence. Baltimore: Williams & Wilking

5. Article Quality of life and psychomotor profile of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Juliana Barbosa Goulardins1, Juliana Cristina Fernandes Bilhar Marques1, Erasmo Barbante Casella2 ABSTRACT The knowledge of psychomotor development of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may help in defining therapeutic approaches in order to minimize losses in their quality of life. The study objectives were to evaluate the quality of life and psychomotor profile of children with ADHD and check your correlation. Fourteen children, from seven to ten years, with ADHD combined type were evaluate using the scales PedsQL and Motor Development Scale. Results showed adverse effects of ADHD on quality of life and a deficit in motor skills. Nine participants (64.2%) were classified in motor development as Normal Medium, followed by the classification

Normal Low in four (28.5%) and Low in one subject (7.1%). We observed a positive correlation between quality of life and psychomotor development of children with ADHD, especially in areas: fine motor and spatial organization with social and psychosocial aspects, gross motor control with the emotional and temporal organization with the emotional, psychosocial and overall quality of life. Key words: quality of life, child development, ADHD. Qualidade de vida e perfil psicomotor de crianas com transtorno de dficit de ateno e hiperatividade (TDAH) RESUMO O conhecimento sobre desenvolvimento psicomotor das crianas com TDAH pode auxiliar nas propostas teraputicas, a fim de minimizar os prejuzos em sua qualidade de vida. Os objetivos do estudo foram avaliar a qualidade de vida e o perfil psicomotor de crianas com TDAH e verificar sua correlao. Quatorze crianas, de sete a dez anos, com TDAH do tipo combinado foram avaliadas pelas escalas PedsQL e Escala de Desenvolvimento Motor. Os resultados mostraram impactos negativos do TDAH na qualidade de vida e dficit nas habilidades motoras. Nove participantes (64,2%) se classificaram com desenvolvimento motor normal mdio, seguidos das classificaes normal baixo em quatro (28,5%) e inferior em um indivduo (7,1%). Observou-se correlao positiva entre qualidade de vida e o desenvolvimento psicomotor de crianas com TDAH, principalmente em: motricidade fina e organizao espacial com os aspectos social e psicossocial, motricidade global com o aspecto emocional e organizao temporal com os aspectos emocional, psicossocial e qualidade de vida total Palavras-chave: qualidade de vida, desenvolvimento infantil, TDAH. Correspondence Juliana Barbosa Goulardins Rua Fosca 50 / apto 52A 04159-040 So Paulo SP Brasil E-mail:

jugoulardins@yahoo.com.br Received 30 November 2010 Received in final form 11 April 2011 Accepted 18 April 2011 1Physiotherapist Specialist in Physiotherapy Neurofunctional by Irmandade Santa Casa de Misericrdia of So Paulo. Masters in Pediatrics by Faculty of Medicine in the University of So Paulo, So Paulo SP, Brazil; 2Physician Assistant of Unit Neuropediatrics in the Child Institute at Clinical Hospital in the University of So Paulos Faculty of Medicine, So Paulo SP, Brazil. The attention deficit hyperactivity dis-order (ADHD) is a deficit of self-control development, which displays issues as-sociated to attention, impulse control, and activity levels1. In 2007, Polanczyk et al.2 in a systematic review estimated the Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2011;69(4) 631 ADHD: quality and psychomotor profile Goulardins et al. global incidence of the disorder of 5.29% in pediatric population. These children

normally display a lack in academic performance, in social relations, as well as in emotional aspects1. They also show disadvantages regarding their relation with their parents, teachers and children of the same age, frequently proceeding to a lack of self-esteem, and a higher risk for depression, anxiety and delinquent behavior3. Klassen et al.4 observed that ADHD has a significant impact in multiple realms associated to the quality of life of children and adolescents. In this study, involving the parents and/or caretakers narratives, the children with this disorder show emotional and behavioral problems, in addition to influencing their parents causing emo-tional distress, interfering in their family activities. Quality of life is a concept defined by the World Health Organization as the individual perception of ones position in life, regarding to the cultural context, goals, in his/her social context and in the value system he/she is inserted5. Thus, it represents the effort to assign some characteristics to the human experience, being as the major factor, the subjective sense of well-being5,6. To children and teenagers, well-being could be as-sociated with the distance between their wishes and hopes, and reality as it actually is. It also reflects their prospecting, to themselves and to others, and it is prone to change, being influenced by everyday events3,4,7. The emotional aspect has strong influence over the intellectual development, being a self-regulated process which implies in making way for the individual to ac-quire proper independence, enabling him/her to choose and to make decisions8. Besides academic, social and emotional performance matters, children with ADHD were acknowledged as having distinctive and different motor quality, when compared to children that do not have the disorder. It is believed that the major reason for motor difficulty is an inability in planning and carrying out motor tasks9. Those children demonstrate that they are unable to select a task or their actions overriding object con-sciously, and not being in charge of their own body, which indicates a disharmony between feeling, thinking and acting10,11. The excessive level of activity with unnec-essary body movements, impulsiveness, answer antici-pation, and inability to wait for an event can cause dif-ficulties in learning and motor disturbance, interfering directly in their academic life, having as a result lower grades at school, and loss of self-esteem12,13. Studies indicate that an ADHD childs psychomotor ability is meaningfully lower than expected. Nearly half of those children show difficulties, but data vary from 30% to 50%14. This disorders impact in society is enormous, taking into account its high financial cost, the parental stress and academic and professional damage15. The knowledge about

psychomotor development and possible alteration in ADHD children may be of help regarding treatment goals, in order to minimize the impacts on quality of life and guide a new educational and psychosocial develop-ment of children with ADHD16. The objective of the study was to analyze quality of life and the psychomotor profiles of children with ADHD, and also to verify if there was a correlation be-tween both variables. METHOD A cross-sectional study was conducted on patients with ADHD receiving care at the Learning Disorders Ambulatory of the Child Institute at the Hospital das Clnicas of the University of So Paulo Medical School between May and October 2007. Fourteen children (13 males and one female) aged seven to ten years who met the DSM-IV criteria for ADHD combined subtype, without comorbidities ex-cept the oppositional-defiant disorder, participated in the study. All children were taking stimulant medication (methylphenidate). Parents provided written informed consent for their children. The following exclusion criteria were adopted: chil-dren with visual, hearing, heart diseases, rheumatology and orthopedic dysfunctions, as well as neurological dis-eases and neuropsychiatric disorders. PEDsQLTM Scale - Measurement Model for the Pe-diatric Quality of Life InventoryTM was chosen for this study for presents a reliable translation into Portuguese and a pediatric self-report module. It was created in order to measure the dimensions of the health core, as determined by The World Health Organization, regarding to the physical, social, emotional and academic functions17. Its made up of 23 items (physical capacity: 8 items, social aspect: 5 items, emotional aspect: 5 items, school activity: 5 items), and each item is punctuated ac-cording to the frequency in which the child presents dif-ficulties in a particular activity. The results can be inter-preted by total score or grouped according to the areas: Psychosocial Health and Physical Ability. The score is determined in absolute value ranging from 0 to 100, so that the higher the score, the better the quality of life17,18. Motor Development Scale was used to analyzed the psychomotor profile of the children of this study. It was published and validated by Poeta and Rosa Neto12, which uses a battery of tests involving fine motor skills, global motor skills, balance and body schema, spatial organiza-tion / laterality and temporal organization. The tests include specific tasks for each age group (two to 11 years) Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2011;69(4) 632 ADHD: quality and psychomotor profile Goulardins et al. on each element of the motion. The scale was compiled from other motor tests, backed by classical authors, such as Ozerestski, Brunet and Lezina, Berges and Lezine, Mira-

Stambak, Galifret-Granjon, Piaget and Head16. The complexity of the task being performed in-creases as the individual ages. The participants were evaluated taking into account the test corresponding to their chronological age (CA) on each motor element, and ended the assessment when they did not performed properly the proposed task. The age corresponding to the last test performed correctly by the child is char-acterized by motor age (MA). Comparing the CA and MA, the motor advancement or delay of the child can be determined. The scales were applied at the same location, in a single session with approximately 40 minutes. Descrip-tive results are presented by the average and confidence interval of 95% (IC95%). The ShapiroWilk Test was em-ployed to check the normality of the data. Subsequently, the test was applied for non-paired samples for variable score comparisons assessed among motor development groups. For the analysis of the data between the quality of life variables and psychomotor development, intra-class correlation coefficient (r) was employed, which ac-cording to Vincent19, is the proper one, less biased cor-relation than Pearsons for small samples, with a p<0.05 of significance. RESULTS Aspects related to quality of life are presented in a descriptive form in Table 1. In Table 2, we present psy-chomotor profile data that are divided into motor ages, relating to arithmetic means of the test results that are expressed in months and motor quotients that match the division between motor age and chronological age, multiplied by 100. Nine participants (64.2%) were classified in motor de-velopment as Normal Medium, followed by the classi-fication Normal Low in four (28.5%) and Low in one subject (7.1%). In Graph, the relationship between quality of life (total score) and motor development (general motor age) of each individual is shown. In Table 3, we can observe the intraclass correlation coefficients demonstrating the quality of life realms that have direct relation to the psychomotor aspect. DISCUSSION In agreement with other previous research, this study showed that ADHD has a significant impact on these childrens multiple quality of life realms, especially psy chosocial health, and can compromise their psycho-motor development. Table 1. Data describing the evaluation of Quality of Life (PedsQlTM). Quality of Life PedsQlTM Average SD Physical capacity 79.7 13.9 Emotional 54.3 20.5 Social 67.5 26.3 School 58.9 26.3 Psychosocial 60.2 16.7 Total 67.7 14.7 Table 2. Descriptive data assessing the Psychomotor Develop-ment (MDS). Chronological age and motor age in months and motor quotients in absolute value. Psychomotor profile Average SD Chronological age 111.4 13.6 Motor age General motor age 102.1 15.3 Fine

motor 112 18.1 Global motor 114 15.4 Balance 102 17.9 Body schema 75 17.2 Spatial organization 96 17.2 Temporal organization120 22.1 Motor quotients Fine motor 101.5 9 Global motor 104 9.9 Balance 92.1 10 Body schema 67.7 11.9 Spatial organization 87.5 12 Temporal organization99.5 14.7 Graph. Distribution of individual values for the general motor age and quality of life total. Psychomotor profile Quality of life 140 120 100 80 60 40 200 Motor development 0 20 40 60 80 100 Quality of lifeArq Neuropsiquiatr 2011;69(4) 633 ADHD: quality and psychomotor profile Goulardins et al. The study of Klassen et al.3 assessed quality of life of 131 children with ADHD aged between 6 and 17 years, through parents reports making use of the HRQL in-strument (Health-Related Quality of Life), and found that these children had the greatest faults on emotional, behavioral, mental health and selfesteem issues, be-sides the impact on parents emotional health and family dynamics. The scale PedsQLTM, same instrument used in this study, was chosen by Varni et al.20 for evaluation of quality of life in children with ADHD, comparing with kids who had cancer, cerebral palsy and healthy controls. In this study, Varni et al.20 observed that children with ADHD have lower scores in psychosocial controls, compared to healthy controls, but there was no significant difference in physical ability. The present study and the research conducted by Varni et al.20 showed similar results, mainly in the fol-lowing areas: quality of life, with total score of 67 in this study, while Varni et al.20 obtained 70 points, and psycho-social health with 60 and 63 respectively. Domains with the lowest score in our study, and, consequently, greater injury to these children were the emotional and aca-demic aspects, which determine a declining total score of the scale (Table 1). These results reaffirm discussions about the compromised self-esteem of bearers of ADHD since observational aspects not related directly with psy-chosocial health, high-impact factor for quality of life, proved less important when compared with the physical capacity of these children. In addition to the psychosocial factors, difficulties in executing motor tasks can also reflect on self esteem and quality of life of these children, interfering with school performance, in daily activities and in the formation of the personality. Even with equivalence to normal values in the motor profile, children with ADHD have achieved lower execution levels in skills related to balance body and spatial organization scheme, suggesting the involve-ment of the cerebellar pathways and/or executive func-tions in ADHD. For decades the cerebellum was considered with a key role in motor coordination and control of balance, but currently theres an

investigation about its role in cognitive functions, such as language, executive and visuo-spatial functions, and behavior. Strengthening the relationship of the cerebellum in ADHD, several studies have shown a lower cerebellar volume in the disorder bearers, compared to the normal controls and also there is reduction of cerebellar activity in tests on operating memory21-24. Currently there is no correlation between studies that determine motor compromise of children with ADHD, which can be pointed to by discrepancy in evaluation methods. Studies related to amendment more prevalent in ADHD describe motor disorder coordination, which is a type of disorder with significant impacts, but little is investigated about motor changes as an integrated symptom of ADHD. Thompson8 reports that the child with ADHD pres-ents schema and body image disorders, so he/she cant connect the location of his/her body in the environment, with the extent and direction of movement. Motion tasks that require precision, directional stability and balance are disturbed. Rosa Neto and Poeta25 studied children with indica-tors of ADHD through Motor Development Scale. Their results indicated a 23-month negative average motor age, demonstrating a Normal Low motor development. The quotients of all areas assessed showed deficits, but the biggest losses were in temporal organization, spatial or-ganization and balance. Most skill deficits in ADHD may be related to neuro-logical changes found in these individuals, whose main changes found were reductions in volumes: cerebral total of prefrontal cortex of caudate nucleus, globus pallidus, cingulate gyrus, and the cerebellum, mainly in the cereTable 3. Results of static analysis of the correlation between PedsQLTM and MDS. Intraclass correlation coefficient Physical EmotionalSocial School PsychosocialTotal r R2 r R2 r R2 r R2 r R2 r R2 Motor quotients Global Fine motor 0.39 0.04 0.05 0.09

0.150.100.010.650.42*0.360.130.520.27*0.460.21 0.0020.520.27*0.200.040.170.030.390.150.260.07 0.0030.350.120.220.050.070.0050.280.080.220.05 0.0090.140.020.140.020.030.0010.100.010.050.003 0.360.130.200.040.660.43*0.330.110.540.29*0.500.25

motor

Balance Body Spatial schema

organization Temporal *p0.05.Arq

organization0.480.230.560.31*0.490.240.360.130.610.37*0.550.30*

Neuropsiquiatr 2011;69(4) 634 ADHD: quality and psychomotor profile Goulardins et al. bellar vermis and lower posterior lobe22-26. In addition to that, Shaw et al.27 identified a delayed maturation of cor-tical thickness of children with ADHD when compared to healthy controls, especially in frontal regions linked to the ability to

inhibit unwanted thoughts and responses of attention, executive control, evaluation of rewards from actions, appropriate and precise motor control to the ex-pected action and working memory. De Nucci28 characterized the psychomotor profile of ten children with ADHD, also using the Motor Develop-ment Scale, and found that 40% of the sample presented Normal Medium, 40% Normal Low and 20% Low. Furthermore, the general motor age was less than the chronological age in 90% of the cases and the average negative age was approximately 18 months. By outlining the psychomotor profile, we presented similar data in some indicators, however, in our study the general motor age was negative in nine months, re-flecting only the impairment of balance, body and spa-tial organization schema (Table 2), unlike studies cited, showed that significant delays in all areas were assessed. Methodologies of studies can explain variations in the results. Our selection criteria were more stringent on comorbidity, so frequent in ADHD, because these can influence on motor performance in a negative way, often acting more importantly than even the disorder itself. Besides that, our age of study was limited according to the association of the scales to correlate them. These fac-tors influenced in the reduced casuistry of our research. Too many other research studies on motor perfor-mance in ADHD were carried out using different scales, such as the Movement Assessment Battery for Children that evaluates handedness mastery, skill in handling the ball and static and dynamic balance. Even though it is a different instrument, the variables assessed demonstrate impairness in general motor performance. Pitcher, Pick and Hay14 evaluated children with clinical diagnosis of ADHD, comparing performance engine in the three sub-types and control group. The researchers noted that all children with ADHD have lack of effectivity when com-pared to the control group, but by evaluating each sub-type, it was evident that the guys predominantly inat-tentive and combined showed no significant difference when compared to the control group, suggesting a rela-tionship between attention capacity and motor ability, which does not occur with the predominantly hyperac-tive-impulsive group. In our research, we noted the absence of studies that indicate the relationship between the physical factors and quality of life or self-esteem of children, for this was the reason we began this work, in which our results could indicate the impact on the quality of life relating directly with impairness in psychomotor development. Through intraclass correlation test, we see that there is a positive correlation between quality of life and psychomotor development, so that fine motility relates to social and psychosocial

aspects, global motor to the emo-tional aspect, spatial organization with social and psy-chosocial aspects, and temporal organization with psy-chosocial and emotional aspects, the effectivity of quality of life (Table 3). These results indicate that the impair-ment of any of these psychomotor aspects can determine a loss or an improvement in quality of life realms, dem-onstrating a tendency of a grievance related to the quality of life of individuals with motor impairness (Graph). Studies suggest that children with ADHD have altera-tion in psychomotor development and quality of life, sep-arately3,4,12-17,20,25,28, we assessed that with this kind of direct correlation between the scales studied, an approach to improving motor development, mainly in the aspects that had significance in this study, can interfere positively on the quality of life of this child. It is important to note that the impact on quality of life of these children will occur regardless of motor in-volvement, since the ADHD is a biopsychosocial dis-order. However, the improvement of motor performance can develop skills and act on their feelings, improving their self-concept, and actuating on their self-esteem. Currently children with ADHD have multidisciplinary follow-up with drug treatment, cognitive behav-ioral therapy, psychotherapy, speech therapies, psycho- pedagogical treatment, among others, indicating that the child watching is already comprehensive. Adding to these therapies, including psychomotor monitoring, with trained professionals for this purpose, the approach becomes integral, acting positively in their physical, mental and social well-being. In conclusion, with this study we were able to verify the negative impacts of ADHD in quality of life of chil-dren, especially in psychosocial aspects. The outlined psychomotor profile showed delay in motor skills devel-opment, primarily in the body structure consciousness, balance and spatial organization. It suggests that there is a positive correlation between the quality of life and psychomotor development of children with ADHD, although further research and other studies are necessary for the definition of an appropriate psychomotor intervention. REFERENCES 1. Barkley RA. Transtorno de dficit de ateno/hiperatividade (TDAH). Manual para diagnstico e tratamento. Porto Alegre: Artmed, 2008. 2. Polanczyk G, Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164:942-948. 3. Klassen AF, Miller A, Fine S. Health-related quality of life in children and adolescents who have a diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 2004;114:541-547.Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2011;69(4) 635 ADHD: quality and psychomotor profile Goulardins et

al. 4. Klassen AF, Miller A, Fine S. Agreement between parent and child report of quality of life in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Child Care Health Dev 2006;32:397-406. 5. World Health Organization. World Health Organization Constitution. Genebra: World Health Organization, 1947. 6. Barreire SG, Oliveira AO, Kazama W, Kimura M, Santos VLCG. Qualidade de vida de crianas ostomizadas na tica das crianas e das mes. J Pediatr 2003;79:55-62. 7. Assumpo FB, Kuczynski E, Sprovieri MH, Aranha EMG. Escala de avaliao de qualidade de vida. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2000;58:119-127. 8. Mattos CA, Thompson R, Mousinho R. A ao teraputica da psicomotric-idade na criana com TDAH. In: Thompson R (Ed). Psicomotricidade clnica. So Paulo: Lovise, 2002:95-107. 9. Pereira HS, Araujo APQ, Mattos P. Transtorno do dficit de ateno e hiper-atividade (TDAH): aspectos relacionados comorbidade com distrbios da atividade motora. Bras Saude Mater Infant 2005;5:391-402. 10. Antony S, Ribeiro JP. A criana hiperativa: uma viso da abordagem gestltica. Psic Teor Pesq 2004;20:127-134. 11. Artigas-Pallars J. Comorbilidad en el trastorno por dficit de atencin/hip-eractividad.Rev Neurol 2003;36 (Suppl):S68-S78. 12. Poeta LS, Rosa Neto F. Estudo epidemiolgico dos sintomas do transtorno do dficit de ateno/hiperatividade e transtornos de comportamento em escolares da rede pblica de Florianpolis usando a EDAH. Rev Bras Psiquiatr 2004;26:150-155. 13. Kadesjo B, Gillberg C. The comorbidity of ADHD in the general popula-tion of swedish school-age children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2001;42: 487-492. 14. Pitcher TM, Piek JP, Hay DA. Fine and gross motor ability in males with ADHD. Dev Med Child Neurol 2003;45:8:525-535. 15. Rohde LA, Biederman J, Knijnik MP, et al. Exploring DSM-IV ADHD number of symptoms criterion: preliminary findings in adolescents. Infanto 1998;6: 114-118. 16. Escobar R, Soutullo CA, Hervas A, Gastaminza X, Polavieja P, Gilaberte I. Worse quality of life for children with newly diagnosed attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, compared with asthmatic and healthy children. Pe-diatrics 2005;116:364-369. 17. Varni JW, Seid M, Kurtin PS. PedsQLTM 4.0: reliability and validity of the Pediatric Quality of Life InventoryTM Version 4.0 Generic Core Scales in healthy and patient populations. Med Care 2001;39:800-812. 18. Klatchoian DA, Len CA, Terreri MT, et al. Qualidade de vida de crianas e adolescentes de So Paulo: confiabilidade e validade da verso brasileira do questionrio genrico Pediatric Quality of Life InventoryTM verso 4.0. J Pediatr 2008;84:308-315. 19. Vincent WJ. Statistics in kinesiology. Champaign:Human Kinetics Books 1999. 20. Varni JW, Burwinkle TM. The

PedsQL as a patient-reported outcome in children and adolescents with attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder: a population-based study. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes 2006;4:26. 21. Berquin PC, Giedd JN, Jacobsen LK, et al. Cerebellum in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a morphometric MRI study. Neurology 1998;50: 1087-1093. 22. Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Molloy E, Castellanos FX. Brain imaging of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001;931:33-49. 23. Castellanos FX, Lee PP, Sharp W, et al. Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. JAMA 2002;288:1740-1748. 24. Valera EM, Faraone SV, Murrayc KE, Seidman LJ. Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in attention-

deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2007;6:1361-1369. 25. Poeta LS, Rosa Neto F. Evaluacin motora en escolares con indicadores del trastorno por dficit de atencin/hiperactividad. Rev Neurol 2007;44: 146-149. 26. Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, et al. Dorsolateral prefrontal and ante-rior cingulate cortex volumetric abnormalities in adults with attention-def-icit/hyperactivity disorder identified by magnetic resonance imaging. Biol Psychiatry 2006;60:1071-1080. 27. Shaw P, Eckstrand K, Sharp W, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity dis-order is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. PNAS 2007;104: 19649-19654. 28. De Nucci FP. Caracterizao do perfil psicomotor de crianas com o transtorno de dficit de ateno e hiperatividade. Tese de Mestrado: Puc-Campinas, 2007.

6.

51

Research in Rural Education, Volume 6, Number 1, 1989 The Effects of a Dance Movement Education Curriculum On Selected Psychomotor Skills Of

Children in Grades K-8 ANN Ross", AND STEPHEN A.

BUTTERFIELD! The effects of a dance/movement education (D/ME) program on

children's fitness and gross motor development is reported. Fifty-four girls and 66 boys received 36 weeks of D/ME in conjunction with the school's regular physical education program. The D/ME intervention used in this study was based on Laban's basic movement themes of force, space, time and flow. Pre and posttests were administered to determine the extent of changes in the children's motor behavior which may have occurred as a result of this programming. Several statistically significant

improvements were observed for boys and girls on a wide range of fitness and gross motor skills. Recent investigations have supported the long held

belief that childrens' intellectual and emotional development are enhanced through participation in the movement arts (Breckenridge,

cerebral palsywho received regular movement experiences improved their muscle tone, range of motion and joint stability as well as increased

1965;Duggan, 1978;Fisher, 1980; King, 1968; Zirulnik and Young, 1979; Riordan and Fitt, 1980; and Sharpe, 1979). Some writers have even reported relationships between movement abilities and reading readiness (King, 1973). The effective use of dance/movement education (D/ME) for the benefit of special populations has also been documented. For instance, participation in D/ME has been attributed to improved body image and self concept of children with learning disabilities(Fisher, 1980; Polk, 1979)and deafness (Polk, 1979). Polk further observed that D/MEprograms can provide appropriate outlets for childrens' aggressive behaviors. Dance/movement has been successfully employed with children who have a limited capacity for movement. Duggan (1978) found that children with

respiratory and renal functioning. On the other hand, the D/ME approach to elementary physical education has been criticized for its limited impact on physical fitness. Although some educators maintain that children who participate in a carefully structured D/ME program will become physically fit, there is little empirical evidence to substantiate this position. In fact, a recent investigation by Bishoff and Lewis (1987) found that 11 and 12 year old girls in a D/ME program had greater skin fold thickness, slower times in the mile run, and less flexibility than their peers in a control group. However, abdominal strength and endurance of 9 to 11 year old boys in their study did exceed control group levels.

Apparently, further studies

are needed to examine the effects of D/ME on motor and health-related physical fitness. 'University of Maine, Orono, Maine. Programs based on the D/ME

are

responsible

for

most

of

the

programs now in existence. Graham (1980) believes that the

inadequate training of physical educators is largely

approach are gradually becoming a reality in public schools. In fact, schools emphasizing the arts have developed curricula around dance, including training, technique and performance. Such schools include the well-known New York School for the Arts, Pittsburgh High School for the Creative and Performing Arts and Eugene Oregon's Magnet Arts School with its Project Impact (Nadel, 1985). These schools are focused towards very specific areas of arts education. The trend has been to employ professional artists as faculty. In spite of itsestablishedvalue for

responsible for this situation. He also suggests that because many boys don't like to dance, P.E. teachers may hesitate to build D/ME experiences into the curriculum. Carter (1984) concurs with Graham, and adds that dance educators should establish goals and directions for dance and conduct more research relative to overall

fitness. These views are analogous to position papers

presented at American Alliance for Health, Physical, Education Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD) annual

conventions since 1979. As early as 1977 the National Dance Association (NDA) adopted a resolution affirming dance education as a means for enhancing the quality of life for children, youth and adults (Brennan, 1986). The purpose of the research reported here was to

childrens' psychomotor development, there is little evidence indicating that D/ME is taught by many physical education teachers, it appears that movement specialists or artists-in-residence

examine the effects of a structured D/ME program on selected psychomotor skills of children in grades K-8. The program was offered by a physical educator in cooperation with two resident dance educators. This study addressed the following specific questions: 52 1. Does a D/ME program facilitate development of climbing, running, jumping, and

received

two

periods

of

physical

education instruction each week. Children in grades K-3 received 30 minutes per class while those in grades 4-8 participated in 45 minute classes. The school's physical education program is taught by a certified physical

education specialist who has had 10 years teaching experience. Testing Procedures Pre and posttests were administered in September 1986, and June 1987, respectively. Instruments were selected to evaluate gross motor skill development, muscular strength and endurance, leg power, agility and balance. Selected items of the Ohio State University Scale of Intra Gross Motor Assessment(SIGMA; Loovis& Ersing, 1976) were used to assess the

skipping skills of children in grades K-3; and 2. Does a D/ME program contribute to motor and physical fitness as manifested by the performance ofsitups, pushups, arm-hang, standing broad jump, shuttle run, and static and dynamic balance in children in grades K-8? METHOD Subjects The subjects were 54 girls and 66 boys in grades K-8 (ages 5-14) in a rural Maine

childrens' fundamental motor skilldevelopment (running, stair climbing, jumping, hopping, and skipping). The SIGMA allowsthe examiner to assess on a four-level scale

elementary school. Class enrollments were generally small (ave. 15) and all students

childrens' gross motor

development in each skill area (1, least, to IV, most mature). Due to the fact that most children are capable of achieving mature patterns on all fundamental motor skills by age seven, only those children in grades K-3 (ages 5-9) were evaluated on

The Short Form of the BruininksOseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (Bruininks, 1978) was used to assess childrens' balance. To measure

dynamic balance, each child was asked to walk the length of a balance beam in ROSS heel-to-toe fashion. The score was based on the number of successful steps up to six. Static balance was measured by the number of seconds, up to 10, by percent of that a child could maintain balance on his/her preferred leg while standing all on the end of the balance beam. Every effort was made to provide a comfortable and consistent examination environment. Pre and posttests were administered under tool measures similar conditions in terms of location, time of day and test personnel. Intervention The project involved 36 weeks of physical education instruction using a D/ME approach to augment regular physical education programming. The first 24 weeks of

fundamental motor skills. The examiner for this area has had over sixyears experience administering the SIGMA; his reliability for this scale, as determined

interobserver agreement, was .96 at the time of testing. To evaluate physical fitness,

children were administered the Amateur Athletic Union Physical Fitness Test by two trained physical education specialists. This commonly used

muscular strength and endurance (sit-ups, push-ups [boys]; flexed-arm hang [girls]; agility [shuttle-run] and power [standing broad jump] ). All children received instruction in each of the test areas and were allowed several practice sessions before pretesting.

the project were devoted to teaching specific movement education concepts while the

time children were asked to name something they had learned or remembered during class. Older students were encouraged to provide more comprehensive descriptions of what they had done. Closure also involved a

remaining eight weeks were devoted to choreographing and rehearsing the FINAL MOVE which was the project's culminating experience. The FINAL MOVE

review of behavior standards and awards for the day. A wide variety of movement

included small and large grou p student presentations for the benefit of school and community. Class routine consisted of students entering the gym and sitting in their assigned squads. The concepts for the day were then introduced and followed by flexibility and warm-up exercises. During this time, children practiced specific dance techniques such as balance, plies, and alignment. The warm-up phase was followed by movement experiences and

experiences were provided daily for the children. After

demonstrating mastery of the fundamentals of a concept, music and props were introduced to enhance enjoyment and foster creativity. Percussion instruments such as

drums, shakers, balafon, and an electronic rhythmic synthesizer were used to sustain a high level of interest and enthusiasm. Video feedback was used to augment

instruction and help children analyze their movement

improvisations designed to allow students to explore and practice the movement concepts for the day. Each class ended with a review of what had been accomplished during the lesson. At this

explorations. The use of video feedback became especially valuable towards the end of the year as the children were preparing their choreography for the FINAL MOVE.

The movement concepts taught during this project were based on Laban's (1963) basic movement themes of force, space, time and flow. These concepts were presented to each grade, with activities

= 37); and Middle (M) grades 6-8, (N = 35). Pre and post test ratings of the childrens' fundamental motor skills are presented in Table 1.

Because childrens' performances in each of the remaining seven items (situps, Periodic push-ups, standing broad jump, pullups/arm hang, shuttle run, and dynamic and static balance) are represented by interval data, t-tests were used to determine if significant improvements were

appropriate for the childrens' psychomotor skill levels.

reviews of previously learned material occurred throughout the year. Specific movement themes emphasized body awareness,locomotor skills, levels, space, shape, time and weight qualities, effort actions, qualities of movement, flow, rhythm, imagery, mimeskills, pathways, use of props, group PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS 53 Data Analysis TABLE 1 Summary of Children's Mature (M) and Immature (I) Gross Motor

realized, (see Tables 2 & 3). formation and music (Laban, 1963). All activities were : taught with the artists-in-residence

working closely with the school's physical educator in both consulting and direct teaching capacities.

Approximately one-half of all class time during the school year was devoted to D/ME activities. Students began to synthesize and integrate their choreographic ideas several weeks before rehearsals started. Each grade was assigned a movement concept to present.

Patterns, for Boys and Girls Pre and Posttests To expedite data analysis, all children were assigned to one of three groups according to grade level: primary (P) grades K-2,(N = 48); Elementary (E) grades 3-5,(N

Grades

5-8

were

required

to

Ann Hang by the P and M groups; on the Shuttle Run by the P group and on Dynamic Balance by the P grou p, (see Table 2). Fundamental motor skills DISCUSSION RESULTS Both boys and girls developed

choreograph small group and solo pieces in addition to the full group presentation. Time restrictions were placed on the choreography. Small group and solo pieces were limited to three minutes or less while full group pieces could be five to ten minutes. Each presentation had to be original and could not duplicate or copy any other dance. Significant gains were observed for boys in an three age-grade groups on Pull-ups and Situps. On the Pushup Test, only the oldest (M) group made significant gains. Other significant improvements were made by boys on the Standing BroadJump by groups E andM; on the Shuttle run by the M group; and Dynamic Balance by the P and E groups, (see Table 2).' Increased development was also

observable increases in the number of mature gross motor patterns, (see Table 1). Although the girls demonstrated greater initial proficiency in running and jumping, both boys and girls made ample progress. The boys made gains in running, jumping and hopping while the girls improved their running, jumping, hopping and skipping levels. Physical and Motor Fitness This study assessed changes in

childrens' motor behavior following a 36week intervention with a D/ME program. The children received physical

observed for girls. Significant gains were made on Sit-ups by the P and the M group; on Push-ups by the E and M groups; on the Standing Broad Jump by the P and M groups; on Flexed

education instruction twice a week by the school's regular physical educator in cooperation with two dance educators. The D/ME

approach

emphasized

Laban's

continual

posture

adjustments

principles of force, space, time and flow. Pre and posttests were administered to determine the extent of changes in motor behavior which may have occurred as a result of this programming. The results appear to support D/ME as a physical education instruction strategy. For

necessary to meet the demands of a given movement

situation. This is a complex process and involves a number of mechanical and physiological principles. The body's sensory receptors must gather information and relay it to the central nervous system for processing. Data collected by the eyes, BOYS GIRLS n = 35 n = 28 Grades K-3 Grades K-3 MIMI 34 0 26 2 35 0 28 0 4 31 9 19 11 24 19 9 7 28 11 17 22 13 16 12 16 19 15 13 human movement is 23 12 19 9 31 4 22 6 to maintain 32 3 27 1 SKILL Stair Climb Pretest in static and Posttest Run Pretest Posttest Jump

instance, abundant opportunities to practice running while under control in straight lines, curvy pathways and zigzags combined with quick stops and changes of direction no-doubt contributed to improved performance in fundamental motor skills, the standing broad jump, the shuttle run and balance. Because all

influenced by the underlying ability

equilibrium, improvements in fundamental motor skills seem to have mirrored the childrens' progress

dynamic balance. Effective balance means that an individual is able to make the

Pretest Posttest Hop Pretest Posttest Skip Pretest Posttest 54 ROSS TABLE 2 Means, Standard Deviations, and t Tests for Physical and Motor Fitness Proficiency for Boys in Groups Primary (P), Middle (M) Elementary (E), Grade and

Shuttle P 136.04 15.28 128.83 22.35 1.54 Run E 124.86 10.54 123.77 10.91 0.81 M 110.60 8.62 107.40 9.84 3.83* Dynamic P 3.54 2.60 4.79 1.81 3.31* Balance E 4.64 1.64 5.77 0.75 4.04* M 5.60 0.88 6.00 0.0 2.03 Static P 5.96 4.33 7.17 3.46 2.38 Balance E 8.05 3.56 9.55 1.60 2.37 M 9.35 1.76 10.00 0.0 1.66 p:$ .05 (one-tailed) * indicates significant level of

improvement Primary = Grades K, 1, 2 Elementary = Grades 3, 4, 5 Middle = Grades 6,7,8 proprioceptors and vestibular

Levels

(Pre/Posttest). SKILL GRADE PRETEST POSTTEST t M SD M SD Situp P (n =24) 15.25 7.61 23.21 10.84 5.63* E(n = 22) 19.36 10.01 25.55 9.92 3.18* M (n = 20) 30.50 7.30 39.70 7.41 12.52* Pushup P 5.25 5.38 5.79 4.69 0.63 E 7.36 5.92 7.59 7.48 0.18 M 23.75 12.74 29.15 11.82 6.81* Standing P 43.08 8.45 44.67 7.87 2.23 Broad E 48.45 8.54 53.73 8.88 4.60* Jump M 63.75 12.89 67.90 12.26 5.63* Pullups P 0.58 0.97 1.21 1.41 3.31* E 0.73 1.20 1.91 2.37 3.95* M 1.65 2.11 2.90 2.75 3.97*

apparatus is then used to help align the center of gravity over the base of support. This is a developmental process which tends to increase throughout childhood. Consequently, childrens' balance performance depends on the

interaction of growth and maturation with sufficient opportunity to engage in activities which challenge these

physiological systems. While it is likely that D/ME activities contributed to the childrens' improved motor skill performance, one

should consider the effectsof their growth and maturation as well. The design of the present study- it would have been difficult, if not unethical, to deny an intervention in order to establish a control group-did not permit an analysis of which factor may have contributed most to increased performance. However,

An

inservice

approach

may

be

especially useful in rural school systems where physical

education is often taught by itinerant instructors who may be professionally isolated from their colleagues. PSYCHOMOTOR SKILLS 55 TABLE 3 Means, Standard Deviations, and t Tests for Physical and Motor Fitness Proficiency for Boys in Groups Primary (P), Middle (M) Elementary (E), Grade and

notwithstanding yearly increments in growth and maturation, the gains made by the children in this study would please most physical educators. Significant improvements were made on a wide variety of fundamental motor, physical fitness and balance skills during an eight month intervention. Gains were observed across grade levels and for boys as well as girls. These findings contradict the notion that D/ME does not contribute to physical fitness. This study also supports the concept of using resident dance educators to provide inservice education to physical educators who may have lacked formal training in D/ME.

Levels

(Pre/Posttest). SKILL GRADE PRETEST POSTTEST t M SD M SD Situp P (n = 24) 10.79 7.40 17.17 9.31 4.68* E (n = 15) 21.27 8.99 23.67 9.26 1.40 M (n = 15) 26.60 6.07 32.80 4.13 4.93* Pushup P 2.88 3.18 2.58 3.39 0.37 E 5.60 6.31 9.40 8.47 5.44* M 18.06 11.04 22.73 8.00 4.32* Standing P 36.29 9.07 39.88 7.02 3.29* Broad E 49.27 6.56 51.60 8.10 2.16 Jump M 56.67 8.50 59.93 8.90 4.71* Arm Hang P 1.88 3.22 7.25 9.18 3.47* E 8.27 10.24 14.00 13.78 2.40 M 5.13 5.44 11.87 8.56 2.92* Shuttle P 146.46 19.31 139.92 13.47 2.87*

Run E 123.33 8.70 123.40 9.53 0.03 M 110.47 5.50 109.27 6.66 0.84 Dynamic P 3.50 2.02 5.13 1.36 5.65* Balance E 5.40 1.40 6.00 0.0 1.66 M 5.40 1.45 6.00 0.0 1.60 Static P 6.88 3.84 8.63 2.40 2.56 Balance E 8.27 2.4 10.00 0.0 2.79 M 10.00 0.0 10.00 0.0 0.0 P ~ .05 (one-tailed) * indicates significant level of

5. Carter, C. The state of dance in education: Past and present. Theory Into Practice. 1984,23 (4),293-299. 6. Duggan, D. Goals and methods in dance therapy with severely multiply-handicapped

children. American Journal ofDance Therapy. 1987,2,3134. 7. Fisher, P. How a creative movement education program will affect the body image and self concept of the learning disabled child. South Carolina Journal 0/ Physical Education. 1980,8,5-9,

improvement Primary = Grades K, 1, 2 Elementary = Grades 3, 4, 5 Middle = Grades 6,7,8 REFERENCES 1. Bishoff, ].A., & Lewis, K.A. A crosssectional study offitness levelsin a movement

8. Fitt, S., & Riordan, A. Dance for the Handicapped. American Association of Health,

education program. Research Quarterly fOr Exercise and Sport. 1987,58, 348-353. 2. Breckenridge, M.E., & Vincent, E.L. Chtld development. Philadelphia: Saunders. 1965. 3. Brennan, M.A. A look ahead: Dance research needed. Journal o/PhysicalEducation,

Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, Reston,

Virginia: National Dance Association monograph #243-26816. 1980. 56 9. Graham, G., Holt-Hale, S.A.,

Recreation, andDance. 1986, 57 (5),49-53. 4. Bruiriinks, R.H. Bruninks-Oseretsky test 0/ motor proficiency examiner's manual Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service. 1978.

McEwen, T., & Parker, M. Children moving:A

reflectiveapproachto teachingphysical education. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1980. 10. King, B. Movement and learning: The priority for

dance in elementary education. Dance Magazine. 1973, 10(10),67-71. 11. King, B. Creative dance:

17. Zirulnik, A., & Young,].F. Help them jump for joy. Journal ofPhysicalEducation,

Recreation, andDance. 1979, 50 (7),43.

Experiencefor leaming: New York: Bruce King Foundation, 160 West 73rd Street, New York, NY 10023. 1968. 12. Laban, R. (revised by Ullman, L.).Moderneducational dance. Plymouth, England: MacDonald & Evans, Ltd., PL67PZ. 1984. 13. Loovis, M.E. & Ersing, W.F. AssessIngand'programming ROSS gross motor development fOr children. Loudonville, OH: Mohican text book Co. 1976. 14. Nadel, M.H. Dance and the new magnet schools. Contemporary Education. 1985,57 (1), 31-35. 15. Polk, E. Wakeup! calm down through rhythm and dance. Freeport, NY: Educational

Activities, Inc., P.O. Box 392 11520. 1979. 16. Sharpe, P. The contribution of movement education to the cognitive development of school children. Physical Education Revieu: 1979,2, 29-36.