COMPUTER NETWORK

Definition:
Inter-connection between two or more computers via a
transmission media for faster and easier communication and
resource sharing

Objectives, Uses & Benefits:

• Faster and easier communication –
i. No need for removable devices (floppies & pen drives)
ii. No need for multiple printers
• Resource sharing –

Sharing hard drive

• A department of 10 users, each requiring 25 GB of hard disk

space, can share a single hard disk of 250 GB centrally
located instead of allocating each user with dedicated 25 GB
hard disk
• Significant reduction in the per unit cost of storage
 Sharing data

• Sharing a document or an image file or a corporate database

system
• Multiple users can access the same data at the same time

Sharing peripherals

• Sharing devices like – printer, scanner, CD-ROM

Sharing Applications (softwares)

Electronic Mails
• It consists of a mail program that allows the user to send and
receive messages
• It provides a messaging system to support store-and-forward
functions.
• The system contains a dedicates computer called mail
server that acts as the central repository for incoming &
outgoing messages
 • The central repository stores the messages submitted by a
user and waits until the other user logs on and then sends
him the messages.
• The users can send and read messages by using client-
messaging software provided by the messaging software.
• Some of the commonly used network messaging software is
Microsoft Exchange and Mail, Lotus CCMail and Notes and
Novell GroupWise.

• Fault tolerance (resilience) –

i. Effective system of backing up data (centralized data backup
system)
ii. RAID Technology (HD Mirroring)
iii. Replicating data using backup servers
iv. Cluster Technology (multiple backup servers)

• Administration – managing security

i. User authentication method (username & password)
ii. IP address validation method (access-list technique)
iii. Virus security policy (downloading & updating anti-
virus softwares)

NETWORKING COMPONENTS:

1. Resource – Anything related to data and communication is a

Resource

Computer Resources:
• Printers
• Scanners
• Storage devices (e.g. HDD, FDD, CD-ROM, etc)
• Fax devices
• Electronic mails
• Modems
• Files, folders & documents
Types of Resources:
• Local Resources
• Remote Resources
•
Resource Accessibility:
• Locally accessible resource
• Remotely accessible resource
2. Transmission Media – Any medium to exchange data or
information

Types of Media:
• Wired Media / Bounded Media
• Wireless Media / Unbounded Media

3. Server – A server is a remote computer that serves information

on request. It receives the queries, processes them and then replies to
the queries. It has the capability to handle multiple connections from
different sources. When a request is sent to the server, it either answers
to the request and updates the information, or it sends the request to the
right destination.
Some popular types of servers are:
• Print server
• File server
• Database server
• Mail server
• FTP server
• Web server

A print server allows the users on a network to share printers

A file server allows the users on a network to share remote files, folders
and storage devices

A database server contains a single common database that the users

can query and edit from remote locations

A mail server processes and delivers e-mails in an organization having

intranet

A FTP (File Transfer Protocol) server manages file transfers

A web server hosts web pages to be accessed from anywhere in the

world

Classification of server:
• Dedicated server: A server in which local resources are not
accessible once the server program is invoked on it

• Non-dedicated server: A server in which local resources are

accessible while the server application keeps running in the
background. Such servers may hang up due to faulty program
handling or execution by the user, causing the whole network to
crash.
Note: A network computer can be termed as a server only when a server
application is running on it that listens for requests and delivers services
for those requests

4. Client – A client is a computer on the network on which a client

application is running that requests for and receives some services from
the server

5. Node – Any computer or any network resource is called a NODE

6. Workstation – A network computer that is fine-tuned to run

one particular application. A workstation may be a node, but all nodes
may not be workstations

7. Host – It is a TCP/IP terminology to define any network device

that allows a client to access its resources

8. Peer – A computer on the network acting both as a client as well

as a server

9. Segment – When a large network is broken down into a

number of smaller networks and linked by connecting devices like hubs
and switches, we call it a network segment

10. Backbone – The link between a numbers of smaller network

segments to create a large network is the network backbone
NETWORKING MODELS:

• Centralized
• Distributed

Centralized: Data is stored, organized and processed by a centralized

server that is fed from remote and dumb terminals (having no hard disk
and processing capability) acting only as I/O devices and share no
resource.

Distributed: Data is entered and processed at the remote terminals

but stored into a server. The remote terminals share resources among
themselves and also with the server. 95% of the data processing is done
at the terminals. The server acts as the BACKEND and the terminals act
as FRONTENDS.

Types of Distributed Networks:

• Peer-to-Peer Networking
• Client/Server Networking
Peer-to-Peer Networking:
• Two or more computers share their individual resources, such as,
hard drives, CD-ROM drives, printers, etc.
• Each computer acts both as a client and a server
• Each workstation has equal capabilities and responsibilities

Advantages:
• Network is faster and cheaper
• Easiest way to build a network
• No network administrator is required
• User-level security
Disadvantages:
• No central administration
• Less security

Client/Server Networking:
• A computer is dedicated as a server that provides services to
multiple computers acting as clients or workstations over the
network
• An administrator is assigned to control the overall network and its
security
• Implementation of server application and client application is
mandatory
• All PCs depend on the central server that does the majority of
work
• A request from the client to the server contains the following
information –
• The server address
• The request
• The return address
 Advantages:
• Strong central security
• Central file repository provides easy data backup
• Ability of servers to pool available hardware and software,
lowering overall costs
• Ability to share expensive equipments, such as laser printers
• Optimized dedicated servers that provide faster sharing of
network resources

Disadvantages:
• Implementation is costly and complicated
• Dedicated Network Administrator is required, which is again
a costly affair
• When the server is down, all the network services are
unavailable

NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS:

Client Operating Systems:

• DOS
• OS/2
• Windows 3.x
• Windows 9x, Me
• Windows NT Workstations (3.x, 4.x)
• Windows 2000 Professional
• Windows XP Professional
• Novell Clients
• UNIX Workstations
• Linux Workstations
Server Operating Systems:
• Novell Netware 2.x, 3.x, 4.x, 5.x
• Windows NT Server 3.x, 4.x
• Windows Server 2000
• Windows Server 2003
• SCO UNIX Server
• Linux Server

NETWORK CLASSIFICATIONS:

Categorized on the basis of distance and structure –

• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Campus Area Network (CAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Internet

LAN:
• A network of computers –
 Within a room
 Between rooms within a floor
 Between floors within a building
 Between buildings within a campus

• Can cover a distance of maximum 10 Kilometers

• Much easier and cheaper for implementation
• Data transmission speed is relatively high
• Practically no error in data transmission
• Mostly uses simple cabling methods for connecting computers
 • Uses networking devices like hubs, bridges, switches, Ethernet,
token ring, FDDI, etc.
• LAN Types:
 Ethernet
 Token Ring
 Token Bus
 FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

MAN:
• A network of multiple LANs (a LAN of LANs)

• Usually expands throughout a city (intra-city) – connects different

offices in the same city
• Can cover a distance of maximum 100 Kilometers
• Relatively expensive for implementation than LAN
• Slower data transmission than LAN
• Connects diverse devices using optical services like SONET, SDH
and ATM
SONET = Synchronous Optical Network Standard
SDH = Synchronous Digital Hierarchy Standard; ATM = Asynchronous
Transfer Mode

WAN:
• A network of computers that expands throughout the world

• Connections are made over lease lines, satellite links or

microwave transceivers
• Most expensive communicating devices are used
• Implementation and configuration are very complicated
INTRANET
• Network that is limited to a single organization or company
• It is normally implemented as a LAN or WAN network

INTERNETWORK
• When a number of smaller network segments are interconnected
using some networking devices such as ROUTERS to form a large
network, we call it Internetwork
• Internet is the perfect example of Internetwork
Case Study – I

MoneyMaker is a bank having its registered office at

Delhi. It has branches at Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad
and Bangalore. The operating departments in the bank
are Finance, Insurance, Loan, IT, Marketing, Customer
Service and HR. MoneyMaker bank uses LAN as their
computer network for each department. All the branches
of the bank from different cities are connected through
WAN. The bank is expanding and decided to open its
branches at different locations in the city.

Problem

Determine which type of network to be used within a city

Suggested Solution

Use LAN computer network for each department in the

new branch. MAN can be used for connecting the
different branches of the bank within the city
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES:

• Geographical orientation and arrangement of networking nodes

• Two type of Physical Topologies are available – point-to-point
and multipoint

Point-to-Point
• A one to one or back to back
communication where only two devices share a connection
• A specific level of bandwidth is assured to
the user as there are only two devices that share the
connection

Multipoint
• Three or more computers share the connection
• The bandwidth available for each user depends upon
the number of computers on the network
• Bandwidth changes drastically depending on the
network load
Types of Multipoint Physical Topology –
a. Bus
b. Star
c. Ring
d. Mesh
e. Hybrid
i. Star-Bus
ii. Bus-Ring
iii. Star-Ring
iv. Bus-Star-Ring
 Bus Topology Ring Topology

Star Topology Mesh topology

Bus Topology – Features:

• Consists of a continuous length of backbone cable called Trunk or
Bus
• The trunk used is usually of Coaxial cable type
• The cable has a 50 Ohms terminating resistor called BNC
Terminator attached at each end
• The nodes are attached to the trunk either directly in a linear
method or by using a drop cable
• The trunk or the drop cables are attached to the nodes at their
Network Adapter Cards / Network Interface Cards / LAN cards
• All nodes on the bus topology have equal access to the trunk
 • Only one device can transmit data at a time over a bus topology
• The data travels along the bus in both directions until a node picks
it up
• If the message is not recognized and collected by any of the
nodes, it reaches the end of the bus and dissipates at the
terminator
• Without termination, when the signal reaches the end of the wire, it
bounces back and travels up the entire length of the bus
• When a signal echoes back and forth along an open-ended bus, it
is called ringing
• Continuous ringing would cause other nodes to stop transmission
and the total network would collapse in no time

Bus Topology – Advantages:

• Simplest, cheapest and easiest to implement and to maintain
• Reliable in a very small network
• Requires least amount of cables to connect the computers
• Easy to extend a bus by joining two cables using BNC Barrel
connector or by using a repeater

Bus Topology – Disadvantages:

• Relatively difficult to re-configure and trouble-shoot
• The signal quality deteriorates with increase in the cable length as
well as the number of nodes
• Since one device can transmit at a time, network media access is
very slow

Ring Topology – Features:

• A circular loop of point-to-point links
• Each device is connected either directly to the ring or indirectly
through an interface device or drop cable
• The ring may consists of either Coaxial or Fiber-Optic cable
• Message travels around the ring from node to node in a very
organized manner and in a definite direction
• Each node checks the message for a matching destination
address
• If the address doesn’t match, the node simply regenerates the
message and sends it on its way
• If the address matches, the node accepts the message and sends
a reply to the originating sender
• The unidirectional ring topology may break down due to cable
failure at any point
• Sometimes dual counter rotating rings are used to avoid the
breakage in a single ring and subsequent failure in networking
 • Dual counter loops use two physically separated rings operating in
opposite directions

Ring Topology – Advantages:

• Initial installation procedure is very simple
• Least amount of cable is required after Bus Topology
• No terminator is required as the cables are laid in ring fashion

Ring Topology – Disadvantages:

• Difficult to expand and re-configure
• Adding or removing a device requires re-configuration of the entire
network
• Any break in the loop affects all devices on the network

Star Topology – Features:

• Consists of a central controlling unit with dedicated point-to-point
links with the networking devices
• This layout keeps the line of communication open and free of
traffic
• All the nodes have equal access to the network and can
communicate at the same time
• When message is sent from any node, the central device receives
the signal
• The central device resends the signal either to all the computers or
only to the destination computer, depending on the addressing
scheme and the central device used
Star Topology – Advantages:
• Easy to remove and add new devices on the network
• Easy to diagnose network faults
• Problematic media and devices are automatically detected and
isolated
Star Topology – Disadvantages:
• Somewhat difficult to install and needs expertise to some extent
• Requires a great deal of media and cables
• Costly affair than Bus or Ring topology
Mesh Topology – Features:
• The only true point-to-point design that uses dedicated link
between every device on the network
• Most commonly used topology in WAN links
• More practical approach is hybrid topology

Mesh Topology – Advantages:

• Easy to troubleshoot as each link is independent of all
others
 • Faults are easily identifiable and isolated

Mesh Topology – Disadvantages:

• Excessive wastage of transmission media due to dedicated point-
to-point links between every device
• Very difficult to install and reconfigure
• Each communicating device requires multiple LAN cards and
hence costly affair

Hybrid Topology:

Most practical hierarchical topology used in modern day networking

 ISO – OSI REFERENCE MODEL
ISO – International Standards Organization / Organization for
International Standardization

OSI – Open Systems Interconnect / Interconnection

• Primary architectural model for networks
• A conceptual blueprint of how communications should take place
• Depicts the guidelines for network data transmission between
computers that have different hardware vendors, software,
operating systems and protocols
• A set of guidelines providing a framework for creating and
implementing network standards, devices and networking
schemes
• Refers to the common points for networking between dissimilar
systems
• Divides the processes required for effective communication into
logical grouping called layers
• Breaks the communication into 7 logical layers:
7. Application Layer
6. Presentation Layer
5. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
3. Networ Layer
2. Data Link Layer
1. Physical Layer

•
(All People Seem To Need Data Processing / Please Do Not Throw
Sausage Pizza Away)
• Each layer performs its role independently but in coordination with
the overall goal of communication
Peer Entities:
Layers at the same level in two different machines on the network are
called Peer Entities. For example, the Application Layer on one machine
is the Peer Entity of the Application Layer on the other machine.
Peer Communication

Protocol:
Well-defined set of rules and conventions governing the format of
messages required for the peer entities on the network to communicate
with each other is called the PROTOCOL.

• Peer entities talk to each other using the same protocol

• Each layer on the network has its own unique protocol

Data Flow:
• Encapsulation
• Decapsulation

Encapsulation & Decapsulation:

Communications flow within the OSI Model vertically – meaning
that each layer communicate to the layers just above and below it. The
user data is intercepted at the topmost layer – the Application Layer and
travels down the model layer to layer. At each of the layers the user data
is formatted with specific headers unique to the layer. A header’s
primary job is to carry out the function of its layer. The combination of
data and header at a specific layer acts as the data for the layer just
below it. The header is being added at each layer until the user data
reaches the lower most layers – the Physical Layer. This process of
adding headers to the actual data, one by one, by all the layers in
succession, is called Encapsulation.

Once the data is received by the Physical layer on the receiving

side, it starts traveling vertically upwards along the seven layers. But this
time each layer strips off the header information which had been added
by its peer at the sending side. The header is being stripped off at each
layer until the user data reaches the upper most layers – the Application
Layer, and the actual data is made available to the user. This process of
stripping off headers, one by one, by all the layers in succession, is
called Decapsulation.

OSI Model at a Glance:

OSI Hierarch Data Functions

Layers y Format
Application Upper layer Message Services – interfaces user
applications
Presentation Upper layer Message Services – negotiates data
exchange
Session Upper layer Message Services – establishes
connections
Transport Middle layer Segment Networking – end-to-end
connection
Network Middle layer Packet Networking – routes data
Data Link Lower layer Frame Communication – accesses
n/w media
Physical Lower layer Bits Communication – transmits
data
Application Layer
• Provides a user interface
• Provides file, printer, message, database & application services
• Defines how interaction occurs between network services
(applications) and the network
• Keeps data in the form of messages
• Services – file transfer services (TELNET, FTP), messaging
services (SNMP, NNTP), web browsers (HTTP), e-mails (SMTP,
POP3, IMAP4), word processing, etc.

Presentation Layer
• Provides appropriate data presentation
• Provides data encryption, compression and translation services
• Keeps data in the form of messages
• Services – ASCII, JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TIFF, RTF, BMP, MIDI, etc.

Session Layer
• Provides end-to-end connection
• Establishes, synchronizes, maintains & terminates a connection
(session)
• Practical functions such as security authentication, connection ID
establishment, data transfer, acknowledgements and connection
release take place
• Provides dialog control – keeps different application data separate
• Keeps data in the form of messages
• Services – Remote Procedure calls (RPC) & Network File System
(NFS)

Transport Layer
• Provides reliable and unreliable delivery (flow control)
• Performs error correction before transmission
• Keeps data in the form of segments
• Multiplexing connections
• Protocols – TCP, UDP, SPX

Network Layer
• Provides routing for packets
• Provides logical addressing
• Keeps data in the form of packets
• Protocols – IP, IPX, DECnet, AppleTalk, GRP, IGRP, EIGRP,
OSPF, etc.
Data Link Layer
• Provides access to media using MAC address
• Performs error detection but no error correction
• Combines packets into bytes and bytes into frames
• Keeps data in the form of frames

Physical Layer
• Moves bits between devices
• Specifies the type of cable, pin-out of cables, type of connectors,
type of interfaces
• Defines the physical topology
• Keeps data in the form of bits
 LAYER – 1: THE PHYSICAL LAYER
FUNCTIONS:
• Bottom-most layer of the OSI Model
• Deals with physical and measurable entities that follow the low
level protocols for transmitting data
• Encodes data into bits and decodes bits into data (converts the
outgoing data bits into electrical signals & incoming signals into
binary data)
• Communicates directly with various types of actual communication
media
• Specifies the electrical, mechanical, procedural and functional
requirements for activating, maintaining and de-activating a
physical link between end systems
• Specifies the type of cable, pin-out of details, type of connectors
and the type of interfaces
• Defines the physical topology

PHYSICAL FEATURES:
1. Electrical Properties
2. Data Signaling and Encoding
3. Physical Topology
4. Transmission Media
5. Transmission Devices
6. Data Synchronization
7. Data Bandwidth

Electrical Properties:
1. Resistance – Electrical resistance is the result of friction offered
by the material of the cable that carries the signal. Thicker wires
have low resistance than the thinner wires. Resistance results in
the drop of voltage and the subsequent loss of data. So the cables
used must not be thin enough for the electrical signals to dissipate
due to high resistance.

2. Capacitance – The networking cables may charge up to high

capacitance when the signal is at a very high voltage and get
discharged when the signal is at a very low voltage. This causes a
very slow change in the state of signal (from high to low and from
low to high), resulting in signal distortion and data errors. LAN
components must be designed to have as little capacitance as
possible.
 3. Impedance – Since high frequency AC signals travels on the
wire’s surface, drastic changes in the size of the cabling wires
must be avoided that would cause impedance to the flow of
signals.

4. Noise – Noise is another electrical property that can cause the

square waves of communication to become fuzzy which alters the
signal strength to create data errors. There are 2 types of noise
disturbances:
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI), and
Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI)
Fluorescent Lights, Arc Welders, Transformers, Lightning, etc. can
create significant electrical field causing noise problems.

5. Attenuation – It is the reduction in signal strength as electrons

pass through the cables. It is the result of resistance, capacitance,
impedance and other characteristics of the wire. It is measured in
decibels per thousand feet (dB/KFt). Attenuation is one of the
major factors that determine the maximum cable distance for most
topologies. The signal must be strong enough for the receiver to
separate true data from any noise picked up along the way.

6. Cross Talk – Whenever current is sent through a wire, it creates a

magnetic field. Other wires nearby will absorb some of that
magnetic field that creates reverse current. This phenomenon is
found in telephone conversation. Current that leaks from one pair
of wires to another, also drains data along with it. Cross talk is the
advanced form of noise and must be properly guarded by good
insulation.

7. Propagation – Speed of data through a cable is measured in

Nominal Velocity of Propagation (NVP) which is between 0.78 and
0.95. This means that data travels through the cable at 78% to
95% of the speed of light in vacuum (light travels in vacuum at a
speed of 186,000 miles/sec).

Data Signaling and Encoding:

There are 2 types of data signaling – Digital & Analog

1. Digital Signaling –
• Represents information as a discrete flow of voltage with
respect to time
• Uses the full capacity of the transmission media
• Cannot travel long distances as the signal strength becomes
weak
• A high voltage represents the bit value as 1
 • A low voltage represents the bit value as 0
• Hence, a digital signal has one of two states – either high/1
or low/o
• As the signal jumps from one level to another, it is measured
during a time slot called Bit Interval
• The presence or absence of a pulse determines the bit value
at each interval
• There are 2 types of Digital Encoding methods – Current
State & State Transition

i. Current State –
 Measures the presence or absence of a voltage
level during a bit interval
 The sending and the receiving devices must be
synchronized to use the same bit interval

ii. State Transition –

 Measures the transition between two states during a
bit interval
 No transition represents a zero, and any –ve or +ve
transition represents a one
 More reliable method of data encoding as the
transition allows the sender and the receiver to stay
in sync all the time

2. Analog Signaling –
• Represents information as a continuous and
variable flow of voltage with respect to time
• Does not use the full capacity of the
transmission media; hence multiple signals can be
transmitted over a single transmission media
• Can travel a long distance without
deteriorating the quality of the signal
• Signals are smooth and rhythmic, hence an
ideal platform for data communication
• Analog waves are measured according to its
features - Amplitude, Frequency and Phase
• There are 3 types of Analog Encoding
methods –

iii. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

iv. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
v. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Physical Topologies:
• Point-to-Point
• Multipoint – Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh, Hybrid
 Transmission Media:
• Media is anything that carries a message
• Transmission media are the elements that establish the physical
link over which signals are exchanged between the transmitting
and the receiving stations

Types of Transmission Media:

A. Bounded (Wired) Media
1. Coaxial Cable
a) Thick Coaxial
b) Thin Coaxial
2. Twisted Pair Cable
a) Shielded Twisted Pair
b) Unshielded Twisted Pair
3. Fiber Optic Cable
a) Mono Mode
b) Multi Mode
B. Unbounded (Wireless) Media
1. Micro Wave
a) Terrestrial
b) Satellite
2. Infrared
a) Unidirectional (Point-to-Point)
b) Omni directional (Broadcast)
c) Reflective
3. Radio Wave
a) Low-power Single Frequency
b) High-power Single Frequency
c) Spread Spectrum

Transmission Devices:
Provides basic data communication functions –
a) Translation (frames into bits & vice-versa)
b) Transformation (digital signal into analog
signal & vice-versa)
c) Transmission (one networking device to
another)

Types of Data Transmission Devices –

A. Communication Devices
1. Modems
• Transforms digital signal into analog signal –
MODULATION
• Transforms analog signal into digital signal -
DEMODULATION
 2. Multiplexers
• Multiple input signals are converged (funneled) and
transmitted over a single transmission media –
MULTIPLEXING
• The converged signals are separated and received as
multiple channels as output – DEMULTIPLEXING

Multiplexing is a technique in communication that allows

multiple messages or signals to share a transmission channel.
A device that performs multiplexing is called a multiplexer. The
input channels are normally low-speed, while the output
channel is high-speed, with enough bandwidth to accommodate
the multiple slow channels.

3. CSU/DSU
Such devices are used if the transmission media is also digital
(leased line & T-1 circuit)
Consists of 2 parts –
a) CSU – Channel Service Unit
Line management (grounding & loop-back testing)

b) DSU – Data Service Unit

B. Networking Devices
1. Network Interface Cards (NICs)
a) Ethernet
b) Token Ring
c) Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
2. Media Connectors
a) BNC
b) RJ-45 / RJ-11
c) ST / SC
3. Repeaters
a) Amplifiers
b) Signal Regenerator
4. Hubs
a) Passive Hubs
b) Active Hubs
c) Intelligent Hubs
d) Stackable Hubs
5. Multi-Station Access Units (MSAU)

Data Synchronization:
Data synchronization is the process of establishing consistency
among data on remote sources and the continuous harmonization of the
data over time.
Data Bandwidth:
 LAYER – 2: THE DATA LINK LAYER

FUNCTIONS:
• Receives raw data bits from the Physical Layer
• Transforms the data bits into organized structure called frames
• Adds control information to the data frame (Preamble – 7bytes, Start Frame Delimiter/Synch
– 1byte, DA – 6bytes, SA – 6bytes, Network Layer Protocol Identifier – 2bytes, Data Length –
variable, Frame Check Sequence/CRC – variable) – [SHOW DIAGRAM]
• Uses MAC address
• Performs error detection but no error correction

SUB-LAYERS: [SHOW DIAGRAM]

2 Sub-layers by IEEE –
• Media Access Control (MAC) Sub-layer
• Logical Link Control (LLC) Sub-layer

MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL (MAC) SUB-LAYER:

Defines the way in which multiple NICs share a single transmission medium

MAC Functions:
• Physical Addressing
• Media Access Method
• Logical Topology

Physical Addressing:
• A protocol independent hardware address
• Also called the MAC Address
• A unique 12-digit hexadecimal (48 bit) identifier of a particular PC on a network
• Regulated by IEEE Standards Organization
• Hard-coded within the EEPROM of the NIC
• No 2 NICs can exit with the same MAC Address
• A MAC Address is divided into 2 parts –
a) 1st six Hex. Digits identify the vendor of the NIC (Organizationally Unique Identifier –
OUI)
b) 2nd six Hex. Digits uniquely represents the NIC
Each data frame contains 2 MAC Addresses –
A source MAC address
A destination MAC address
• Again, destination MAC address can be of 3 types – [SHOW 3 DIAGRAMS]
a) Unicast MAC Address
b) Multicast MAC Address (creating groups)
c) Broadcast MAC Address (turning all bits to 1)

Media Access Methods:

• Provides guidance to data signal to reach destination
• Promotes harmonious connectivity between multiple network devices
• 3 methods (protocols) of Media Access are –
a) Contention
b) Token Passing
c) Demand Priority

Contention:
A protocol that works on physical bus topology with standard
Ethernet networks
All transmitting devices have equal access to the network media
Data may be lost or damaged due to possible collisions
Collisions occur when 2 devices try to transmit at the same
time
Collisions result in disrupting each other’s data signaling

[SHOW DIAGRAM]
 Modern method to reduce the chances of possible collisions – CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access)

Carrier Sense – Sensing the transmitting media for any existing signal
If no signal is sensed, sending station assumes the media to be free and starts transmitting
In the event of any existing signal, sending station backs off and waits until the media becomes free

Multiple Access – multiple stations can access the media at the same time

2 types of CSMA:
• CSMA/CD – CSMA with Collision Detection
• CSMA/CA – CSMA with Collision Avoidance
Procedure for CSMA/CD:
1. NIC of the sending station first senses for any exiting transmission within the media
2. If the media is free it starts transmitting data; if not, it backs off and waits for the
media to be free
3. After transmitting data, NIC listens to the media to detect any collision
4. If a collision is detected, a collision signal is sent and other NICs stops transmitting
5. All NICs will wait far a random delay of time before retransmitting
6. If collision occurs for the 2nd time, transmitting stations repeat the above steps but
doubles up the random time-out before they again retransmit
7. Once the transmissions are successfully done, other machines are allowed to
transmit

Procedure for CSMA/CA:

Uses time-slicing method of media access
Collision is altogether eliminated
A protocol used by AppleTalk networks
The transmitting device sends a Request to Send (RTS) message
The network server sends a Clear to Send (CTS) message
Abort signal is send after the transmission is over

Logical Topology:
• Defines the way data is moved through a network
• Types are same as the physical topology
• Information flow specifies the type of topology to use

Token Passing: (page – 81/82)

Demand Priority: (page – 83)

LOGICAL LINK CONTROL (LLC) SUB-LAYER:

Establishes and maintains link between communicating devices

LLC Functions:
• Flow Control
• Error Checking
• Provides both Connection-less & Connection-oriented Services

Data Link Flow Control:

• Network devices have different transmission speeds, storage capacity & processing
capabilities
• Flow control regulates the transmission of data between different devices
• 2 types of flow control –
a) Sliding Window Flow Control
b) Guaranteed Rate Flow Control (Stop & Wait)
Sliding Window Flow Control:
A special buffer called Window is created
 Window allows a certain amount of data frames to flow thru in a given period
of time
2 types of Window Flow Control –
a) Static Window Flow Control
b) Dynamic Window Flow Control

Static Window Flow Control:

• Buffer is fixed in size
• Sender must fill up the buffer to its full capacity
• Data frames are sequenced and then transmitted
• Receiver sends back an acknowledgement & requests for the next buffer
• This procedure is inflexible and inefficient

Dynamic Window Flow Control:

• Buffer size is variable as per the receiver’s capacity
• This procedure is very flexible and efficient

Guaranteed Rate Flow Control:

• Data is transmitted at a fixed rate
• Also called Stop & Wait method of Transmission
• The sender and the receiver agree upon an acceptable transmission rate
• No buffer is used
• When the receiver’s memory is full, it suspends transmission
• A signal to resume transmission is sent when the memory is free again

Data Link Error Checking:

• Uses a complex calculation called Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
• CRC ensures integrity of data frames
• Before transmission, data frames are passed thru an algorithm
• Algorithm is a complex mathematical calculation to solve a problem step-by-step
• Algorithm generates a 16 or 32 bit unique number called Checksum
• With a change in the frame contents, the CRC value (Checksum) also changes
• Checksum is places in the CRC Data Link Field
• The receiver performs the same computation at its end and generates a Checksum
• If the CRC values match, the data is sent error-free & an acknowledgement is sent
• If the CRC values don’t match, the receiver responds with a NAK

Connection Services:
• Connectionless Services – sending and receiving frames without any flow control or error
checking or sequence control
• Connection-oriented Services – provides strict rules for flow control, error checking and
sequencing with proper acknowledgement

NOTE:
Physical Topology Logical Topology

• Physical arrangement of network • Media access technology of network

• Feature of the Physical Layer • Function of the Data Link Layer

IEEE STANDARDS:

IEEE: INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERS

• A New York City – based organization
• Established in 1962
• An important standards-setting body for the IT industry
• Comprises of over 300,000 members, including engineers, students and scientists
• IEEE 802 is a set of standards that refers to the Networking Technologies

IEEE 802 Networking Standards:

• A set of Physical Layer & Data Link Layer Standards
• Published by IEEE in 1985
• Revised and reissued as 8802 protocols by ISO
• A standard is first developed, then a product is created to conform to the set standard

Standards Networking Technologies

802.1 LAN/MAN Management & Media Access Control Bridges

802.2 Logical Link Control
802.3 CSMA/CD
802.4 Token Bus
802.5 Token Ring
802.6 Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) for MAN
802.7 Broadband LAN
802.8 Fiber-Optic LAN & MAN
802.9 Integrated Services LAN Interface (ISLI)
802.10 LAN/MAN Security
802.11 Wireless LAN
802.12 Demand Priority Access Method

IEEE 802.2 Standards:

• An LLC sub-layer standard
• Uses 802 protocols such as 802.3 & 802.5
• Provides error control & flow control
• A standard Network Layer service interface
• Adds headers to the data frame
• Specifies upper layer protocols used for multiple protocol support

IEEE 802.3 (802.3u) Standards:

• Specifies a network that uses bus topology, baseband signaling & CSMA/CD
• Originally developed to match DIX (Digital, Intel, Xerox) Ethernet Networking technology
• DIX Ethernet used 10 mbps baseband signaling
• 802.3u standard was developed to support 100 mbps Ethernet (Fast Ethernet)
IEEE 802.5 Standards:
• Refers to IBM Token Ring technology
• Uses physical star & logical ring thru MAUs with token-passing media access
• Can use STP, UTP or Fiber-Optic cables
• Data transmission rate is 4 mbps to 16mbps
• Mainly used in IBM Mainframes
• Uses a single token that travels in only one direction
• The network gets slower as the network traffic increases
• Data signals are read, amplified and repeated by every device on the network that reduce
degradation

IEEE 802.12 Standards:

• Developed by Hewlett-Packard (HP)
• Also known as 100VG, 100VG-AnyLAN, 100BaseVG & AnyLAN (VG = Voice Grade, 100 =
100 mbps)
• Combines the concept of Ethernet and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• Uses Demand Priority method of Media Access in physical star topology
• Uses intelligent hubs to allocate more bandwidth to high-priority data frames
 • Both Ethernet & Token Ring frame types are supported by 100VG-AnyLAN
Ethernet:
• Network architecture (LAN Technology) that shares transmission media
• Operates at Physical & Data Link layers of the OSI Model
• Signal type – baseband
• Physical Topology – Bus or Star
• Logical Topology – Bus
• Media Access – CSMA/CD
• Cables used – Coax, TP or Fiber-Optic
• Bandwidth – 10 mbps
• Maximum frame size – 1518 bytes

IEEE Ethernet Standards: A special 3-part naming conventions –

• Data transmission rate = mbps
• Signal mode = baseband / broadband
• Maximum media distance (meters / yards / feet) or media type

Comparison Chart for Ethernet Types:

Ethernet Types 10BaseT 10Base2 10Base5 10BaseFL 100BaseT
Physical Topology Star Bus Bus Star Star
Media Access Method CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD
Cable type Cat 3 - 5 50-Ohms, 50-Ohms, Fiber Optic UTP
UTP RG-58 Coax Thick Coax
Transmission speed 10 mbps 10 mbps 10 mbps 10 mbps 100 mbps
Max. segment length 100 meters 185 meters 500 meters 2000meters 100 meters
Min. segment length 0.5 meters 0.5 meters 2.5 meters NA 2.5 meters
Max. no. of segments 1024 5 5 1024 1024
Max. segments with
nodes 1024 3 3 1024 1024
Max. nodes per
segment 2 30 100 2 2
Max. nodes per
network 1024 90 300 1024 1024
Max. hubs/repeaters
between nodes 4 4 4 4 4
Max. drop cable
distance NA 50 meters 50 meters NA NA

Comparison Chart for Ethernet Types: (Contd….)

Ethernet Types 100BaseTX 100BaseT 100BaseFX 100VG-AnyLAN
4
Physical Topology Star Star Star Star
Media Access Method CSMA/CD CSMA/CD CSMA/CD Demand Priority
Cable type Cat 5 UTP Cat 3 – 5 Fiber Optic Fiber Optic, Cat 3-5 UTP,
UTP STP
Transmission speed 100 mbps 100 mbps 100 mbps 100 mbps
Max. segment length 100 meters 100 meters 2000 meters Cat 3 UTP: 100 meters
Cat 5 UTP: 150 meters
STP: 100 meters
Fiber Optic: 2000 meters
Min. segment length 2.5 meters 2.5 meters 2.5 meters 2.5 meters
Max. no. of segments 1024 1024 1024 1024
Max. segments with
nodes 1024 1024 1024 1024
Max. nodes per
segment 2 2 2 2
Max. nodes per
network 1024 1024 1024 1024
Max. hubs/repeaters
between nodes 4 4 4 4
 Comparison Chart for Ethernet Types: (Contd….)
Ethernet Types Token Ring FDDI
Physical Topology Star Ring
Media Access Method Token Passing Token passing
Cable type STP, UTP, Fiber Optic Fiber Optic
Transmission speed 4 or 16 mbps 100 mbps
Max. segment length STP = 45 meters 100,000 meters
UTP = 101 meters
Min. segment length 2.5 meters 2.5 meters
Max. no. of segments 33 No Limit
Max. segments with
nodes 33 NA
Max. nodes per
segment Variable NA
Max. nodes per STP = 260
network UTP = 72 500
Max. hubs/repeaters
between nodes 4 4

TOKEN RING (IEEE 802.5):

FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA IINTERFACE (FDDI – IEEE 802.8):

VOICE GRADE (VG) ANYLAN (IEEE 802.12):

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM):

APPLETALK:

LOCALTALK:

ETHERTALK:

TOKENTALK:

ARCNET:
• Full form – Attached Resource Computer Network
• Developed by Datapoint Corporation in 1970s
• Provides automatic reconfiguration to overcome various faults in a small network
• Economical, simple and robust technology
• Can support 2047 nodes per network
• Data transmission speed – 20 to 100 Mbps
• Uses token passing method of media access over logical bus topology
• Physical topology – star or bus
• Computers must possess token before transmission of data
• Data packet contains up to 508 bytes of data
• ARCnet Addressing:
i. Every ARCnet NIC has 8-bit number as a unique address
ii. Range of 1 – 255 is used for node addressing, 0 is used for broadcasts
iii. Token passing starts with the machine having the lowest node address
ARCnet with Coaxial Configuration:
i. Coaxial Cables used – RG-62 (93 Ohm) with BNC connector
ii. Maximum number of nodes – 255
iii. Maximum network distance – 6000 m
iv. Maximum segment distance – 300 m (using active hub)
v. Maximum segment distance – 30 m (using passive hub)
• ARCnet with Twisted Pair Configuration:
i. UTP with RJ-11 or RJ-45 Connectors
ii. Maximum number of cascaded hubs – 8
iii. Maximum number of nodes – 255
iv. Maximum network length – 6000 m
v. Maximum segment length – 120 m
 DATA LINK LAYER DEVICES:
• Switches
• Bridges

Switches:
Operate at the Data Link Layer
More intelligent than hubs –
• Inspect the data packets as they are received
• Determine the source and the destination address of that packet
Appropriate delivery of the packet – conserve network bandwidth
Ethernet networks rely on contention-based technology (more collision with more devices)
To avoid Ethernet collision switched Ethernet is used (hubs are replaced by switches)
• HUBS – Single Collision Domain, Single Broadcast Domain, Division of Bandwidth
• SWITCHES – Multiple Collision Domain, Single Broadcast Domain, Equal Bandwidth Access

Function of a Layer 2 Switch:

• Address Learning
• Forward/Filter Decisions

Address Learning:
• Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC) Chip is used to build and maintain filter table
(MAC Table)
• When a switch is powered on MAC Table is empty
• When a device transmits, the connected interface (port) receives the frame
 • The frame’s source address is placed in the MAC Table against the corresponding interface
• The frame is then flooded out to every port except the source port as the destination port is
unknown
• If a device responds against this broadcasted (flooded) frame, the ASIC chip promptly
records the source address of the responded frame along with the corresponding port
number into the MAC Table
• The two devices can now make a point-to-point connection and none other attached devices
will receive the frame
• If the two point-to-point devices don’t communicate again within a certain amount of time, the
switch will flush their entries from the MAC database

Forward/Filter Decisions:
• When a frame arrives at switch port, the destination MAC Address is compared to the MAC
database
• If the MAC Address matches, the frame is only sent out to the correct exit interface
• If the destination MAC Address is not matched, the frame is flooded out (broadcasted) to all
active interfaces except the source interface
 LAYER – 3: THE NETWORK LAYER

FUNCTIONS:
• Logical addressing
• Switching
• Routing
• Network flow control (congestion control)
• Network sequencing

The Network layer transports traffic between devices that are not locally attached by –
• Managing device addressing
• Tracking device locations on the network
• Determining the best path to move data

DEVICES:
• Routers
• Brouters
• Layer 3 Switches

LOGICAL ADDRESSING (IP ADDRESSING)

Most networks communicate using protocols that must have their own addressing schemes –
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
• IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange)

IP Terminology
1. Bit – a binary digit, either 1 or 0
2. Byte – a group of 8 bits arranged in a sequence. A byte may also consists of 7 bits
depending on whether parity is used
3. Octet – an arrangement of 8 bits. Byte & Octet are completely interchangeable terms

IP Address
 This is a numeric identifier assigned to each machine on an IP network
 It designates the specific location of a device on the network
 It is a software address
 An IP Address allows a host on one network to communicate with a host on a different
network, regardless of the type of LANs
 Currently we are using version 4 of IP addressing that consists of 32 bits of information
 These 32 bits are divided into 4 sections of 8 bits (called octets), each separated by a period
called a DOT
 An IP address can be depicted into one of the 3 methods:
• Dotted-decimal: 172.16.30.56
• Binary: 10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000
• Hexadecimal: AC.10.1E.38
Note: IP address in Hex form is stored in Windows Registry
 The IP addressing scheme is structured in a three-level hierarchical order: (Class A & B)
• Network part –> network address
• Subnet part –> subnet address
• Host part –> host address
 In some cases, two-level hierarchical structure is also used: (Class C)
• Network part
• Host part

Network Address (or Network Number)

• It is the numeric identifier that uniquely identifies each network
• This is the designation used in routing to send packets to a remote network
• Every machine on a same network shares that network address as part of its IP address

Node Address (or Host Address)

• It is assigned to uniquely identify each machine on a network

Broadcast Address
 • It is the numeric identifier used to send information to all nodes over a network, or to all
nodes of all networks

Example
IP address : 10.16.2.4 172.16.30.56 192.168.10.20
Network address : 10.0.0.0 172.16.0.0 192.168.10.0
Host address : 0.16.2.4 0.0.30.56 0.0.0.20
Broadcast address : 10.255.255.255 172.16.255.255 192.168.10.255

Classification of IP Address
Based on the rules defined by InterNIC IP addresses can be classified into following 5 network
classes:

8 bits 8 bits 8 bits 8 bits

Class A: N/W Host Host Host
Class B: N/W N/W Host Host
Class C: N/W N/W N/W Host
Class D: Reserved for Multicasting
Class E: Reserved for scientific R&D

To ensure efficient routing, internet designers defined a mandate for the leading-bits section (left-
most octet or 1st octet) of the IP address for each different network class

InterNIC defines that the left-most bits (also called the Most Significant bits) of the 1st octet must be in
the following order:
Class A = 0
Class B = 10
Class C = 110
Class D = 1110 (multicasting)
Class E = 11110 (scientific R&D)

The decimal value of any octet is based on the number of bits that are turned on or off
For example: when all the bits are turned off, we get –
00000000 = 0x27+0x26+0x25+0x24+0x23+0x22+0x21+0x20
= 0+0+0+0+0+0+0+0 = 0

Again, when all bits are turned on, we get –

11111111 = 1x27+1x26+1x25+1x24+1x23+1x22+1x21+1x20
128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1 = 255

But it is very important to note that all bits of the network part and all bits of the host part cannot be
turned all 0s or all 1s, as all 0s means nothing and all 1s means the broadcast.

Network Address Range: Class A

Network part = 8 bits
1st bit = 0 (turned off)
All 0s all 1s excluded
So, number of network addresses = 27 - 2 = 126
Again, network address range = 00000001 to 01111111 = 1 to 127
But, 127 is reserved for loop-back testing
Hence, Class A network address ranges from 1 to 126

Host Address Range: Class A

Host part = 24 bits
All 0s all 1s excluded
So, number of host addresses = 224 - 2 = 16777216 – 2 = 16777214
Again, host address range = 00000000.00000000.00000001 to 11111111.11111111.11111110 =
0.0.1 to 255.255.254

Network Address Range: Class B

Network part = 16 bits
1st bit = 1 (turned on) & 2nd bit = 0 (turned off)
All 0s all 1s excluded
So, number of network addresses = 214 = 16384
Again, network address range = 10000000.00000000 to 10111111.11111111 = 128.0 to 191.255
Hence, Class B network address ranges from 128 to 191
Host Address Range: Class B
Host part = 16 bits
All 0s all 1s excluded
So, number of host addresses = 216 - 2 = 65536 – 2 = 65534
Again, host address range = 00000000.00000001 to 11111111.11111110 = 0.1 to 255.254

Network Address Range: Class C

Network part = 24 bits
1st bit = 1 (turned on), 2nd bit = 1 (turned on) & 3rd bit = 0 (turned off)
All 0s all 1s excluded
So, number of network addresses = 221 = 2097152
Again, network address range = 11000000.00000000.00000000 to 11011111.11111111.11111111 =
192.0.0 to 223.255.255
Hence, Class C network address ranges from 192 to 223

Host Address Range: Class C

Host part = 8 bits
All 0s all 1s excluded
So, number of host addresses = 28 - 2 = 256 – 2 = 254
Again, host address range = 00000001 to 11111110 = 1 to 254

SUBNETTING IP ADDRESSES

Subnetting – logical division of physical IP addresses; a method to break down a larger network into
a bunch of smaller ones

Benefits:
• Reduced network traffic
• Optimized network performance
• Simplified network management
• Efficient connection of large geographical distances

Steps for Creating Subnets:

• Determining the Class of Network Address from the given IP Address
• Determining the no. of Subnets required
• Determining the no. of Host bits to be borrowed for Subnetting
• Determining the no. of Hosts per Subnet
• Determining the Subnet Mask
• Determining the valid Subnets
• Determining the Host Range and Broadcast Addresses for each Subnet

Determining Host (Borrowed) Bits:

• Some bits can be borrowed from the host part of the Network ID to create Subnet bits
• Borrowed bits are called MASKED BITS (or SUBNET BITS)
• Balance Host bits are called UNMASKED BITS

Network Bits + Host Bits = 32

Network Bits + (Masked Bits + Unmasked Bits) = 32

If, Network Bits =a

Masked Bits =b
Host Bits =c
Subnet =s
Hosts/Subnet =h

We have, a + b + c = 32

Again, 2b – 2 >= s and 2c – 2 >= h

Determining Valid Subnets:

• Valid Subnets = 256 – Subnetted Subnet Mask
MORE IS THE NUMBER OF SUBNETS, LESS IS THE NUMBER OFHOSTS PER SUBNET AND
VICE VERSA

Determining Host Range and Broadcast ID:

• Host range starts by turning ON Unmasked bits from the right to the left
• 1st Host ID of a valid subnet = very next value of the valid subnet
• Last Host ID = subnet ID + no. of Hosts per subnet
• Broadcast ID = very next value of the last Host ID

SWITCHING

ROUTING
 LAYER – 4: THE TRANSPORT LAYER

FUNCTIONS:
• Provides reliable and unreliable delivery (flow control)
• Performs error correction before transmission
• Keeps data in the form of segments
• Multiplexing connections
• Protocols – TCP, UDP, SPX
 LAYER – 5: THE SESSION LAYER

FUNCTIONS:
• Provides end-to-end connection between communicating application programs
• Allows two networked resources to hold ongoing communication across a network
• Applications on each end of the session are able to exchange data for the duration of the
session
• This layer establishes, synchronizes, maintains & terminates a connection (session)
• Practical functions such as security authentication, connection ID establishment, data
transfer, acknowledgements and connection release take place
• Provides dialog control – keeps different application data separate
• Keeps data in the form of messages
• Services such as Remote Procedure calls (RPC) & Network File System (NFS) and API
such as NetBIOS are typically used on the Session Layer

In a nutshell, functions of Session Layer can be classified under 3 broad heads –

1. Connection Establishment
2. Data Transfer
3. Connection Release

Connection Establishment:
i. The sender tries to communicate to the receiver
ii. The receiver asks for connection authentication from the sender
iii. The sender provides with the user login name and password for
authentication
iv. Once the sender is recognized, they both agree to communicate
v. A connection ID number is established using the Transport Layer Service
Address
vi. They then agree upon the type of service required and the duration of service
vii. Then the entity that is going to begin the conversation is determined
viii. Both the end stations coordinate upon message sequencing,
acknowledgement and retransmission procedures, represented as Session Layer Error
Checking
ix. This layer maintains the line of communication and ensures reliable
conversations

Once the above tasks have been accomplished and the connection has been opened, data transfer
begins

Data Transfer:
i. Session layer messages are controlled and ensures productive conversations
ii. Data transfer occurs through a specific Dialogue Control between the two networked entities
iii. Dialogues can occur in one of the three ways –
• Simplex
• Half-Duplex
• Full-Duplex
iv. During data transfer, the session layer is responsible for ACK or NACK
v. This reliability feature ensures that lower-layer protocols keep track of which messages
belong to which upper-layer services
vi. This layer provides error-checking algorithm that calls for the resumption of interrupted
communication
vii. Data transfer continues throughout the life of the conversation

Simplex Communication:
• It is only a one-way communication
• Only one device is allowed to transmit, while all other devices can only receive
• The transmitting device cannot receive and the receiving devices cannot transmit
• Full bandwidth of the channel is utilized for transmitting the signal

Half-Duplex Communication:
• Each device can transmit and receive, but not at the same time
• The transmitting device cannot receive while transmitting and the receiving device cannot
transmit while receiving
• Full bandwidth of the channel is available to the transmitting device
 • Only one channel is required for both transmission and reception and support bi-directional
communication

Full-Duplex Communication:
• Every device is allowed to transmit and receive at the same time
• Two channels are required – one for transmission and the other for reception

Once the communication have ended, the connection must be released

Connection Release:
• Connection must be released to make room for future conversations
• The process can be accomplished by either of the two –
a) Planned Connection Release
b) Accidental Connection Release

Planned Connection Release:

• It is accomplished by mutual agreement between the two systems

Accidental Connection Release:

• It is caused by physical anomaly – an obvious loss of connection
• Lower-layer protocols recognize a loss of connection when they receive a
NACK
• The lower-layer protocols inform the Session Layer that the connection has
been lost
• The error-checking algorithm at the Session Layer resumes the interrupted
dialogue using a new conversation and resolves the accidental connection release

Once the networking connection has been established and data transfer begun, focus shifts to the
Presentation Layer, where the data is translated into a mutually agreed-upon format
 LAYER – 6: THE PRESENTATION LAYER

FUNCTIONS:
• Provides appropriate data presentation
• Provides data encryption, compression and translation services
• Keeps data in the form of messages
• Services – ASCII, JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TIFF, RTF, BMP, MIDI, etc.
 LAYER – 7: THE APPLICATION LAYER

FUNCTIONS:
• Provides a user interface
• Provides file, printer, message, database & application services
• Defines how interaction occurs between network services (applications) and the network
• Keeps data in the form of messages
• Services – telnet, ftp, web browsers, e-mails, word processing, etc.
 NET WORK CARD DRIVERS

• Driver: Software used by a hardware device to communicate with the Operating System

• NIC Driver: Software used by the NIC to communicate with the Operating System. Also
called MAC Driver

Sources of Drivers:
• Operating System in-built drivers
• Model-specific drivers supplied by the NIC manufacturers (support different Operating
Systems)
• Newer and upgraded version available from the vendors’ web sites

o Note: latest version on drivers provide –

 Least number of bugs
 Optimized performance
 Reduced problems

Hardware Driver Installation:

Manual Installation
Start -> Settings -> Control Panel -> ‘Add New Hardware’

Automatic Installation
‘New Hardware Found’ -> Insert Driver Disk

As per of OS Installation

Resources Required:
• NIC drivers use certain computer resources –
• RAM
• DMA Channel
• I/O Port
• IRQ

Driver Interfaces:
• Open Driver Interface (ODI)
• Network Driver Interface Specifications (NDIS)

Open Driver Interface (ODI):

• Also called Multiple Link Interface Driver (MLID)
• Developed by Novell
• Bound to only one protocol stack

Network Driver Interface Specifications (NDIS):

• Developed by Microsoft Corporation
• Allows multiple protocol stacks to be bound to multiple NICs

Note: ODI & NDIS are incompatible to each other

TRANSPORT PROTOCOLS

Protocol:
• Agreed-upon format of messages at each layer
• Rules and conventions for transmitting data between two devices
• Determines the type of error checking process
• Determines the data compression method
• Determines the method of acknowledgement
Protocol Stack / Protocol Suite:
• Collection of protocols and the order in which they work together
• Communicating machines must use a common protocol stack for flawless communication
• Most common protocol suites are –
 TCP/IP
  IPX/SPX
 NetBEUI
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL / INTERNET PROTOCOL (TCP / IP):

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) –

• Main Transport layer protocol
• Provides Service Addresses (Port numbers)
• Provides reliable, full-duplex, connection-oriented transport service to upper-layer protocols
• Works in conjunction with IP to move packets to move packets through the Internetwork
• Assigns connection ID (port number) to each virtual circuit
• Provides message fragmentation & reassembly using sequence numbering
• Error checking is enhanced through TCP acknowledgement

Internet Protocol (IP) –

• A connectionless datagram protocol that works at the Network layer
• Uses logical network address
• Uses packet-switching method
• Uses dynamic routing table for route selection that are referenced at each hop
• If a connection goes down or become congested, packets could take different route using IP
address
• Provides error control for connection services

Information required for Configuring TCP/IP:

• IP Address –
 Provides node address
 Provides network address

Subnet Mask –
Determines local or remote network

Default Gateway –
IP address of the attached router interface
Limits the device to communicate only within the local
network

Domain Name System (DNS) –

 A distributed database system that works at the Transport layer
 Provides name-to-address mapping for client applications
Note:
DNS servers maintain databases that consist of hierarchical name structures of the variable domains
in order to use logical names for device identification. This type of address/name resolution is called
service-provider initiated. The largest use of DNS is in the Internet. Name Servers (DNS servers) are
used to translate site names to actual network addresses.

• Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS) –

 Microsoft NT Network version of DNS
 Functions similar to the DNS

• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) –

 A protocol that works on a TCP/IP network
 DHCP Server maintains a pool of valid IP addresses & other settings
 IP addresses are assigned automatically
 These IP addresses are allocated to computers to access remote networks
 IP addresses are allocated for a predetermined period of time (lease period)
 Allows network administrators to supervise and distribute IP addresses from
a central point
• DHCP Operation:
 An IP address is requested thru TCP/IP operation in the form of a broadcast
 DHCP server receives the request
 A new address is assigned for a leased period along with other information
 Receipt is acknowledged and configuration being set
 During the lease period –
o DCHP server will not reallocate the address
 o Returns the same address every time a new address is requested
 Lease period can be extended by giving subsequent requests
 IP address may be released before the expiry of the lease period
by –
o Telling the DHCP server that it is no longer required
 The released IP address can be used by other
client on the network
DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL

For the internet to function properly some protocols are used

These protocols are defined by a volunteer organization called Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF)
A division of IETF called Dynamic Host Configuration Working Group created DHCP
DHCP is given the status as an Internet Standard by Internet Activities Board (IAB)