ENG 002 INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Course Notes
by Prof. Dr. Akn NALP

FOREWORD Most of the students starting a civil engineering program usually have an incomplete idea about their future vocation, or none at all. This course is intended to give you a brief but thorough study of the history, development and the branches of this profession not only to inform the students of its wide coverage, but also to enable them to make a sound decision as they embark on a long process of training and study in this branch of engineering. Civil Engineering is one of the oldest, and certainly the most established, professions. Its official history goes back to 25 B.C. when the first book on its practice was published during the days of the Roman Empire. It has been taught in technical schools since the eighteenth century. This initial information shows that our profession has all the features that will make it an attractive branch to study and it promises a wide field for finding jobs or create business for the graduates worldwide. The civil engineers in Turkey have always had a special place in the society since the founding of the Republic. The civil engineer has been active in all walks of the society and he/she has served in many offices up to the presidency. Several civil engineering companies were placed in the top 50 for many years. Today, there are many Turkish civil engineering companies doing brisk business in foreign countries. I hope that the topics we are going to cover during this course will convince you that you have made a good choice for a profession and that you will be an enthusiastic student of civil engineering. You will notice that the text is almost devoid of illustrations. This is due to the fact that there will be many slides shown during the lecture and you are urged to take notes across the appropriate pages as the slides and transparencies are shown , to make your text complete. Several colleagues have contributed to the development of this course at Karadeniz Technical University and Kltr University and I would like to thank all of them because they are the actual authors. I have merely collected and edited their writings. Welcome to the Department. Candan basar dilekleri ...

CONTENTS

I.

Introduction and Scope ......................................................................................................3

II. The Story of Civil Engineering in Historical Perspective ....................................................7 III. The History of Civil Engineering Education and Training .................................................14 IV. Structural Engineering ......................................................................................................16 V. The Story of Bridges ........................................................................................................20 VI. Geotechnical Engineering ................................................................................................22 VII. Tunnelling ........................................................................................................................24 VIII. Hydraulic Engineering ......................................................................................................27 IX. Transportation Engineering ..............................................................................................30 X. Water Supply and Sewerage ...........................................................................................32 XI. Construction Management ...............................................................................................36 XII. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................40

CHAPTER I I. INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE This course has three aims: 1. To acquaint the student with the historical developments in the construction industry ; 2. To provide information on the profession of civil enginering in order that the student will be able to have an overview of his/her future vocation before they embark on a four year journey towards a degree in civil engineering; 3. To stimulate them towards choosing a "pet" subject among the five branches of civil engineering in order that he/she will decide on a field of specialisation and perhaps even look forward to a graduate degree.

The name civil engineering originates from the purpose of distinguishing its civilian activities from those of military engineering in the XVIInd century. Military engineering developed long before civil engineering in ancient Rome and engineers subsequently, in the eighteenth century, wanted to show that they were a different group doing different jobs like building villas, sewer lines or roads rather than building military camps, fortifications, assault bridges or tunnels (lamc). It will perhaps be appropriate to briefly discuss the "keywords" relating to the subject of this work. 1.1 Fundamental Definitions We all talk about science, engineering and similar terms in daily life without thinking of details. Below are some of these definitions with introductory comments. a) Art All methods involved in the expression of a feeling, design or beauty directed towards achievement of perfection.

b) Science Science is defined as any system of knowledge that is concerned with the physical world and its phenomena that entails unbiased observations and systematic experimentation. In general, a science involves a pursuit of knowledge covering truths or the operation of fundamental laws.On the simplest level, science is knowledge of the world of nature. Thus sciences range from theology to physics or psychology. Science does not necessarily aim to obtain a certain result; it can observe and investigate and may or may not eventually draw conclusions. Science is accepted to have started in the ancient world with the development of philosophy in the Hellenic communities. Although preceding civilisations like the Egyptian and the Mesopotamian civilisations reached advanced levels of engineering, religion and law, it is accepted that these were developed before science was "discovered. Thales in the fourth century B.C. stated philosophically that " ..all is water ..thus the world is full of deities .." . This can be considered as some sort of scientific opinion. Although incorrect, we may perhaps accept Thales as one of the earliest scientists because philosophy turned to science in his time. Pythagorean School through the use of mathematics and philosophy attempted to solve the mystery of the universe. Geometry evolved within this period, with Plato in the IV.th Century B.C. stating that studying geometry prepared one's mind for the solution of all problems. Aristotle (400B.C.) is considered one of the first scientific researchers although he was basically a philosopher. Archimedes and Euclid were among the first mathematicians that emerged from the school of thought originating from Socrates. All these historical events show that science is closely related to, and emanated from philosophy. The torch of learning passed from the Hellenic world to the Arabs by the emergence of the Islamic Empire in the Vllth century. They studied theology through the Quran (fikih, hadis, kelam, tefsir...) but also adopted the classical knowledge on mathematics, philosophy, astronomy and astrology. The science of algebra (al-jabr) was initiated in the Arab world. The science of optics developed by ibn-i Heysem is a gift from the Arabs to the modern world (Kitab-ul Menazir). The Koran praises medicine as an art close to God. One of the important Islamic philosophers is Ibn-i Rd, best known to the western world as Averroes who claimed that science is essential for religion.

Man has always tried to discover the secrets of the universe and the world in particular. His conclusions have not been correct all the time, but he never stops investigating. What is the role of the divine forces in science? Einstein has stated that the wonder is not that mankind comprehends the world, but that the world is comprehensible. Science can therefore be considered as the knowledge of natural regularities that is subjected to some degree of skeptical rigour and explained by rational causes. c) Technique Another important word that is used liberally in daily life is technique. Perhaps another simple term connected to it is "method". The word technique is closely related to science, art and engineering and we can define it as the mode of execution in different activities such as for example music, welding, painting, manufacturing of goods. d) Engineering The word engineer originates from the Latin term ingenerare, meaning to invent, to create or to regulate. It is the professional art of applying scientific principles to the optimum conversion of the resources of nature for the use of the humankind. Unlike the scientist, the engineer is not free to select the problem that interests him. He must solve the problems as they arise and his solution must satisfy conflicting requirements. Usually efficiency costs money. Safety adds to complexity and improved performance increases weight. The engineering solution is the optimum solution and in many engineering problems the social costs are significant. Civilian engineering was separated from the military engineering in the XVIIIth century especially with the onset of the industrial revolution. In addition to its functions like the application of scientific principles to the manufacturing industry, design of machines and structures and prediction of performance, economy and safety have eventually become its integral parts.

There are many branches of Engineering. The most important in order of the dates of their establishment can be listed as 1. Architecture 2. Civil engineering 3. Mechanical engineering 4. Mining 5. Metallurgical engineering 6. Naval architecture 7. Electrical engineering 8. Aeronautical&space engineering 9. Chemical engineering 10. Electronic engineering 11. Nuclear engineering 12. Biomedical engineering 13. Industrial engineering 14. Genetic engineering 15. Environmental engineering e) Technology It is a term originating from industry where tools, equipment, methodology are considered. Techne in Greek means art and craft, while logos is word and speech. More simply, technology is defined as obtaining results of commercial value by solving the problems through science and special techniques. Technology develops through research, and financial resources alone do not result in creating new technology. The best example to this are the oil-rich nations who are unable to develop technology, but simply have to import it at great cost while selling their oil at petroleum products at low price. In a simpler expression, countries sell technology to assert their superiority. f) Civil Engineering Civil engineering is a profession. It is the art of directing the great resources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man.

CHAPTER II THE STORY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE The latest determination of the age of the Earth has gone back to 4.86x109 years. The most likely theory is that a cloud of gases consisting predominantly of iron and nickel, condensed into what looks like a sphere. The atmosphere was formed much later, enabling organisms to come into existence. The appearance of human beings is of course only very recent in the geological timetable, approximately 3.8 xlO6 years ago. The formation of the family structure necessitated taking refuge on tree tops, caves and perhaps perching above water by some means to protect it from wild animals or marauders. One can say that there was no engineering in all that, and we know that art started much earlier. The caves of Altamira, Spain have pictures of animals, depicting a bison drawn and coloured at least 15xlO3 years ago. Similar recent findings in France carry that date further back. Civil engineering activities can be assumed to have started as soon as the humans changed from being fruit/meat gatherers/hunters to farmers, and communities began to form. Protecting the settlement by building a wall around it, is engineering of the simplest form. The concept of civil engineering therefore is as old as the first farming community . Civil engineering developed along with the changes and the advances in the society and the world to our day, and we can say that the profession has developed almost in parallel with the society itself. So, one can claim that this branch of engineering has answered the needs of the community, and really, it has not led it. Sciences like physics, chemistry and those branches of engineering more closely related to it like electrical, or nuclear engineering not to mention computer engineering on the other hand, have made discoveries that have changed the lives of people and the society, thus can be considered to be of different nature . Table-I summarises the historical developments in relation to civil engineering. The author has no intention to give an account of history, but rather a wide perspective of civil engineering. The dates and the events therefore are not in exact chronological order, but have been 'distorted' to serve the purpose of forming a basis on which we shall try to build our own course.

TABLE 1 HlSTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN RELATION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING PERIOD EVENTS - LANDMARKS -6000 -4000 -500 0 600
Family-community-agriculture-society Religion - multi deity Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations Roman Empire Jesus Christ
SCHOLASTICISM

ACTIVITY
settlement-housing temples massive structures-tombs planned construction of all kinds church architecture-Gothic Mosque, arch vault, mortar castles architecture timber construction; public water supply
MATERIALISM

Hz.Muhammed Mustafa S.A.V : Arabian Civilisation, Amawid Kingdom of Andalusia Byzantine Empire Feudal system : kingdoms, beylik Printing press : Reformation-Renaissance Discovery of new lands :
COLONIALISM

1000 1450 1453 1750 1789 1850 1910 1914 1923 1950 1970 1975 1980 1990 1995 2001

Ottoman Empire Advances in science : French revolution : Industrial revolution National socialism Great war The Turkish Republic Superpowers Space age European Union EU International companies : Fall of the Russian Empire Electronic revolution: the age of communication
GLOBALISM COMMUNISM

BOURGEOISIE :
CAPITALISM

metropolitan areas mass housing, pollution monuments, motorways Monuments,rebuilding restructuring of society; intensive rebuilding of the country pollution new materials Eurocodes circulation of engineers overseas contracts Emergence of new markets for engineers Computing civil engineer

Emergence of terrorism

ASYMMETRIC WAR

Safe structures?

There is no doubt that religion is the most important part of people's lives. It therefore has had a profound influence in the development of civil engineering. The earliest multi-deity religions have appeared in Egypt and Mesopotamia as far back as 6000 B.C. the result being the construction of religious structures such as temples and tombs, colossal even by today's standards. The first recorded civil engineer, a priest-architect by the name of Imhotep was instrumental in the planning and execution of the works to build the Djoser high stepped pyramid in 2650 B.C. Similarly, many temples for each deity were built by the Greeks in later years although not in such gigantic scale like the temples in Karnak, Egypt and in Babel,Mesopotamia.
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The construction of religious buildings has been an important field of activity for the civil engineer. The Selimiye Mosque in Edirne by Sinan (1489-1588) is an important example of achievements in this field as it was the biggest dome ever built at his time with the diameter of 31.28m exceeding that of Aghia Sophia of Istanbul at 30.88m. It is debatable whether Mimar Sinan was an architect or a civil engineer. At any rate, he is alleged to have built 84 mosques, 51 mescid, 57 medrese, 27 tombs, 17 food houses (imaret), 3 hospitals (daruifa), 5 arches, 8 bridges, 18 caravanserails, 35 palaces and 46 baths (hamam) during his long lifetime. A record seldom exceeded even in modern times. In Europe, stonemasons who dedicated themselves to building churches to the glory of God by moving from one construction site to another around this time later formed the movement of freemasonry. Roman Empire is the first 'engineer nation' in history. Similar to many other empires it has lasted about fifteen centuries, but it has an important difference from its predecessors and successors. The legal system and the order established enabled the empire to control lands on three continents. Its importance to us is the written laws and the regulations passed pertaining to civil engineering. The first 'Ten books on Architecture' written by Vitruvius in the first century B.C. can be considered as the official beginning of the civil engineering profession. Here Vitruvius describes methods and information from wind oriented design of city streets to the properties of soils. It is however worth noting at this point that the Roman Empire has produced almost no scientists. This is attributed to its authoritarianism and the absence of any kind of democratic institutions. The civil engineer has been very active in the Roman Empire era as public works ranging from temples to transit roads as well as palaces and villas have been constructed in Europe, Asia, and Africa extending all the way to what is now known as England. There are several official documents from the Vth Century China which can also be accepted as the first building codes of the emperor.

The birth of the Christian religion and the ensuing dark ages seems to have greatly reduced the activities of the civil engineer apart from the construction of religious buildings. The transportation and water supply systems in Europe mostly built by the Romans went out of use during this era and public health deteriorated resulting in frequent spread of diseases. The same cannot be said for the Islamic world which had its brightest period from VII. to the XIIth Century after which a significant decline in construction work is observed. The palaces in Cordoba and Granada are but a few

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examples of superior Islamic culture and architecture. All this perhaps should not be attributed to the extreme conservatism of the religion and its scholastic approach to life but also to declining trade, not to mention the formation of the spirit of the crusades. One fact remains however that the number of handwritten books in the libraries Cordoba and Granada were more than the total in Europe at the time. Once the printing press came into use in Europe and people were given the chance to read, the torch of science changed hands. The significant changes in the currents of thought during renaissance and reformation brought immense changes to the society. Empires and kingdoms were under pressure to make way to social changes like socialism, and communism. Construction of palaces gave way to mass housing projects. The rise of nationalism caused the fall of empires. National monuments abounded after the XVIIth century. Science is naturally the origin of modern engineering. Science in modern times followed the movements of renaissance and reformation and appears to have evolved by the formation of scientific societies primarily in France, Germany and England. Many famous names like Newton, Pascal, da Vinci are from this age. Governments supported the development of science by opening technical schools (grandes ecoles) and providing financial resources for scientific studies. The major drive behind all this was again the requirements of the army, as well as the urge and the need for discovery and colonialisation of new lands. Formation of scientific societies (e.g. The Royal Society) and development of technical school systems by the state provided a big boost to the development of science in Europe. The resulting industrial revolution at the end of the XVIIIth Century changed the order of the western world. A transformation occurred from handcrafts and manual power to mass production and resulting exports through the use of steam power. Those societies which had relied heavily on handcrafts and manpower, like India and China lost control of the trade thus lost their income and became importers. This inevitably brought the collapse of civil engineering industry in the East. Communities who built the Great Wall or the Taj Mahal fell into poverty and anarchy. Table II summarises the development of civil engineering activities throughout the world. Seldjuks, the predecessors of the The Ottoman Empire have built wonderful structures during their era including a chain of caravanserais which were placed strategically on the silk route. The Ottoman Empire relied mainly on conquest during its development stage
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and was never really involved in trade and industry. This resulted in civil engineering activities mainly funded by private and local resources. Probably as a result of this, the majority of engineers and architects especially during the decline of the empire consisted of members of the minority groups. The architectural style was accordingly influenced by western concepts. The founding of the Turkish Republic brought important changes. Several famous Turkish architects emerged in the thirties and the forties. Although heavily influenced by their German teachers, it can be said that an architectural school had been established in Turkey. TABLE II EARLY DEVELOPMENTS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING TIME < -2500 -500 0 500 650 1000 1500 1550 1750 SOCIETY Mesopotamian, Egyptian Hellenic Roman Byzantine Arab Seldjuk Gothic Ottoman Europe: Ecole Nationale ACTIVITY temples, tombs, pyramids, public works temple,bridge,water supply, amphitheater coliseum, road, port vault, dome; mortar arch, decoration tombs, caravanserail church Timber structures, eme schools

Turkish construction companies eventually ventured out of the country to achieve important projects abroad. Today, the construction industry is a major contributor to the national economy. Employment offered by this industry has been and will continue to be a major source of income for the society.

II.l Functions of the Civil Engineer The functions of the civil engineer can be divided into three categories: those performed before construction (feasibility study, site investigation, design); those performed during construction (dealing with clients, consulting engineering, contracting) and those performed after construction (maintenance and research). Table III summarises those activities in a more detailed form. Today large projects are usually tendered on turnkey basis (anahtar teslim) where it is easier for the client to

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achieve the desired purpose, be it the construction of an office block or a dam. In turnkey systems there is a single deal whereby the contractor undertakes to implement all stages described in Table-Ill.

Financial aspect of any project appears to be gaining importance in modern times because profit is now the main purpose of enterprise. Construction management therefore is gaining weight in civil engineering activities.

TABLE -III FUNCTIONS OF THE CIVIL ENGINEERING INDUSTRY 1. FEASIBILITY STUDY 2. SOIL INVESTIGATION 3. DESIGN 4. MATERIAL EVALUATION 5. CONSTRUCTION 6. CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 7. SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE 8. CONTROL AND MEASUREMENT 9. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT : R&D TURNKEY PROJECTS

II.2 Main Branches of the Civil Engineering Profession Today Everyone knows to consult a different kind of specialist if he/she has a disease. The same is true in civil engineering. The activities are so varied that there are specialist persons and companies to deal with the specific level of activities in construction. It is usual to classify these activities as they are organised in the universities.

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The main branches of civil engineering and subjects they deal with can thus be listed as: A. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED MECHANICS (engineering mechanics) Statics,dynamics,strength of materials;elasticity; plasticity; fluid mechanics, numerical analysis B. STRUCTURES Materials; Theory of structures; reinforced concrete; timber structures; metal structures (steel, aluminium), structural dynamics C. HYDRAULICS Hydraulic engineering; hydrology; water power; hydraulic structures (river-marine); irrigation-drainage D. TRANSPORTATION Highways; railways; traffic engineering; airports; ports/harbours; pipeline transport E. GEOTECHNICS Soil mechanics; soil dynamics; rock mechanics; foundation engineering; underground structures (tunnel, shaft, repository); waste management F. CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT Management, design, accounting, contracting, sale&lease, consulting G. ENVIRONMENT** Water supply; sewage works; pollution control

These branches will be dealt with in detail in the following chapters. But one can see that it is possible to create or find jobs in contracting, consulting or design companies in each of these sub-headings. Turkey is still a paradise for civil engineers, already branching out to other countries.

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CHAPTER III THE HISTORY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND TRAINING Like most professions, civil engineering started as a result of having to deal with the basic requirements of communities. It gradually developed into a major industry which participates at all levels of the society.

III.1 Training of Civil Engineers It is natural that the early civil engineers and the architects were not formally trained,but developed their skills and their 'art' by learning from their masters. One must however remember that the Hammurabi laws of Babel written in the XVIIIth B.C. stipulated that if a citizen dies because of faulty construction of his house the builder would pay it by his life. This inevitably brought the necessity to train engineers just like the medical doctors as the society developed. The earliest attempt to train civilian engineers was made in France in 1747 by the commissioning of J.R. Perronet to establish the Ecole Nationale de Ponts et Chaussees. This was followed by Ecoles des Travaux Publics in 1794 which were later called Ecole Polytechnique. The similar American institution to follow was the Rensealer Polytechnic Institute in NewYork State (1849). Schools of engineering were also founded in Britain (Polytechnics) and Germany (Technische Hochschule Karlsruhe) around the same years. In Turkey, the training of engineers dates back to the establishment of Humbarahane and Hendesehane in 1731. But these schools and Mhendishane-i Berri-i Hmayun and Mhendishane-i Bahri-i Hmayun opened during the reign of Selim III were exclusively military schools (1795). We can consider the first civilian schools in Turkey as the Hendese-i Mlkiye Mektebi (1883) and the Mhendis Mektebi (1909). The first engineering school of the Republic was called Mhendislik Mekteb-i Alisi (1926) which transformed into Yksek Mhendis Mektebi (1934). These schools are the foundations of Istanbul Teknik niversitesi which officially gained its modern status by a law passed in 1944.

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Robert College Engineering School had been established in 1912 to be followed by Yldz Teknik Okulu in 1944. This famous school was transferred to government control in 1971, thus Boazici University came into existence on its campus. The Middle East Technical University started instruction in 1959 to be followed by Karadeniz Teknik niversitesi in 1963. Today there are more than forty Departments of civil engineering in the Universities in Turkey, in addition to perhaps an equal number of vocational schools (MYO).

III.2 The Concept of University University is defined as an institution of higher education, usually comprising a liberal arts and sciences college (Fen-Edebiyat Fakltesi) and professional schools and having the authority to confer degrees in various fields of study. The modern name originates from universal (evrensel) because theoretically every scholar should be entitled to attend the university of his choice and stay there as long as he continues his learning and search (not training). The most important feature of a university is its autonomy. In its early days the king promised not to interfere with what was discussed within its campus as long as it did not infringe the authority of the ruler. Universities are supposed to be autonomous today, meaning they are free to study any subject of their choice and decide on their own affairs. The modern university evolved from the medieval schools of theology and medicine (studium generate). The earliest known school which resembled a university was the famous medical school at Salerno Italy which drew students from all over Europe. The second institution to be founded is the medrese of El-Ezher in Cairo in 988. However authorities agree that the first "true" University is the one in Bologna, Italy founded in 1150 which was famous in canon and civil law. Universities of Paris and Oxford followed suit. The first University in Turkey is Istanbul University and its formation is dated back to soon after the conquest of Istanbul by Mehmed II. Until the end of XVIIIth Century most universities offered core curricula on seven liberal arts: grammar, logic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and music. Students then proceeded to study in faculties of medicine, law or theology. Other subjects like physics, chemistry, and veterinary medicine were added on later. Through the time of their development, engineeering faculties were not a part of Universities. Because the techniques involved had to be, and could be taught in clearly defined courses in technical schools. University education for engineers was not seen to
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be essential. The first engineering department in a university was established as late as 1858 at Glasgow University. Others quickly followed. Today the majority of civil engineers are trained in the universities. Thus a civil engineer is now able to receive a doctor of philosophy" degree from an academic institution.

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