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Understanding Art 1: Western Art
ISBN 1 872147 80 1
OCA is a company limited by guarantee and registered in England under number 2125674.
Registered Office, Open College of the Arts, Michael Young Arts Centre, Unit 1B, Redbrook
Business Park, Wilthorpe Road, Barnsley, S75 1JN, United Kingdom
Cover picture: Still Life with Beer Mug, 1921. Fernand Léger, oil on canvas,
91 x 60cm. The Tate Gallery, London © DACS 1991
Back picture: The Return from Egypt III, 1993. Michael Kenny, mixed media on paper, 112 x 1153cm. After Poussin’s
Flight into Egypt. A work done during residency at Dulwich Picture Gallery, and an example of a creative variant
mentioned in Assignment 4 – Part One.
Joseph Darracott, author of this and second level art history courses for OCA, died in March 1998, aged 64.
After providing you with a wide range of materials and suggestions for visits
we could simply have asked you to write a series of essays on various aspects
of art history, ignoring what artistic skills you may already have. Instead we
have tried, wherever possible, to involve you in practical activities that do
indeed include some writing but a lot more besides to help focus your
attention on individual works of art. We shall be interested to hear from you
what you think about this approach, and indeed suggestions for additional
activities if you wish to make them.
The first half takes you through the history of Western art chronologically;
about half of A World History of Art is allocated for reading. The second half
takes a more analytic approach, discussing major themes of art; your textbook
will continue to be useful. It is desirable to work on the first half in the order
in which they come, but you may find that elements from the second half
could be dealt with in a different order if your visiting programme (see
below) cannot fit exactly into the order of the course. But make sure that the
Assignments for your tutor are submitted in the right order.
As you set out on your journey, the course can look like a huge mountain to
climb, but do not despair. There is a lot of work to do, but the best way of
tackling it could be to think of the five Assignments as five separate plateaux
to be reached.
After the reading recommendations, each section is divided into three Units.
We hope that you might be able to complete each unit in about a week (six or
seven hours’ work), although there is no compulsion to do so. We shall have
more to say about time later. But you do not have to wait until you have
completed all the activities in any one unit before you go on to the next if
there is something such as a visit or getting a particular book from the library
which is holding you up.
Each unit begins with To view and To read; these list programmes from the
video and chapters from A World History of Art. Each programme lasts just
under half an hour. There then follows a brief discussion of what you will
view and read. Do read the discussion both before and after viewing the
programmes and reading chapters of A World History of Art. Our aim is to
help you develop the habit of intensive and purposeful looking.
One visit has to be made as specified in Unit 12, because it links up with
Assignment 2. All the other visits are more flexible and there is always an
alternative plan when a visit proves impossible for you to fit in. But try and
make the visit at some time during the course, and if need be do a little
juggling of the order of the units in order to take advantage of visits. Most
important of all, seize any opportunity, at whatever stage in the course, to
make the more demanding visits. If you live in an isolated area and go to
London, say, just once a year, don't pass up a visit to a cast gallery, for
example, because you have not yet reached that stage in your course!
Annotation
Every unit has a paragraph To annotate. You will see that you need a picture
for each of the annotation exercises. The very best plan is for you to visit local
galleries to find appropriate works. You can make notes in the gallery if you
like and take home postcards. At home you can then start the annotation,
writing round the postcard or sketch; your next visit to the gallery should
include looking again at the work you choose.
If you live far from a gallery, or the gallery can't provide what you need, don't
worry. Two alternative suggestions are listed in each unit. The first
suggestion is that you use a postcard you already have, or that you buy one,
perhaps the suggestion (these choices are from national collections, where
postcards are almost always available). The second suggestion is that you use
illustrations from A World History of Art, either by photocopy or tracing.
Particular observations:
Here is a checklist of some things to consider. They are arranged under the
five headings discussed in the second part of the course, but can apply to
annotations you do from the very beginning.
Examples:
We have done a few sample annotations in the course book, not to be copied
slavishly but just to give you an idea of what you might wish to do.
Some students find during the course that they enjoy extending this exercise.
You can use a larger sheet of paper, A3 for example, or link several A4 sheets
together. A large sheet of plain paper is an asset if you are making sketches or
diagrams. Or you could experiment with a tracing overlay, through which to
demonstrate some feature of a painting.
Collecting
After the annotation you will find that each unit has a section To collect. In
addition to what you will be collecting for the annotation you should aim to
collect about half a dozen postcards for each unit to help broaden your
interests. Postcards, despite their shortcomings mentioned above, are a
flexible way of observing comparisons and contrasts; it is easier to spread out
cards than to look at illustrations in different books. But keep an open mind;
an illustrated booklet on some topic could be excellent value.
If you keep up with the suggestions you will end up with a collection of about
two hundred cards, fairly well spread out in themes and periods but short on
architecture. But the choice is yours not ours; it should reflect your particular
You will find that we give you guidance on what to send your tutor at the end
of each Assignment. Two of the Assignments might be quite extensive
comment or analysis by pictorial, rather than verbal means, so we have
supplied you with a roll in which you can put this work if required.
Your tutor
You will have been assigned to a tutor whose job it is to support you during
your course, particularly by looking at your work on occasions.
By all means indicate in a covering letter any problems you are having or any
ideas that you have for future work. Your tutor should respond within two
weeks, but please bear in mind possible delays in the post. Keep your tutor
informed if you expect your next submission to be substantially delayed; your
tutor will also alert you if planning to be away on holiday so that you don't
rush to complete an assignment only for it to sit on your tutor's doormat for a
fortnight. Do not wait for your tutor's response to an assignment before
continuing with your work.
Finding time
Some of our students find it difficult to carve out the time for the course every
week; others may find that they have a little extra time available.
If you have more time we strongly recommend that you work in greater
depth on each unit, sticking to the rate of roughly one unit every week, rather
than rush on to complete the course more quickly. On the other hand if you
find that on occasion you can't find six or seven hours a week to work on the
course, don't worry; most of all don't feel that you have to abandon a unit
early because the allotted time is up and you haven't completed all the work
(unless, of course, as mentioned previously, you are held up by something
over which you have no control, such as a visit you can't yet make or a library
book not yet in). Take whatever time you need, and if you do find yourself
Having said this, self-discipline is important to all learning; you should plan
your timetable of work ahead and keep to it if you possibly can. It is not a bad
idea to use your diary to plan times when you will be able to work, and if you
can, to make these times fairly regular throughout the week rather than very
long ‘catching-up’ sessions in which you are bound to get tired. If you have
family at home, make sure they understand that you need some time
completely by yourself.
Additional materials
During the course and in addition to the materials we suggest that you
collect, you will probably want to acquire for yourself:
• further postcards
• catalogues and guidebooks to exhibitions and places you visit
• cuttings of interest from newspapers and magazines
• some sort of storage system as a logbook.
Books
A World History of Art - Fifth Edition is the only set text, but you will find some
other books helpful and may want to buy or borrow them. The list which
follows is only a rough guide, particularly as to prices.
Introduction:
John Boardman, Greek Art (Thames and Hudson)
John Summerson, The Classical Language of Architecture (Thames and Hudson)
Religion:
Michael Baxandall, Painting & Experience in 15th-century Italy (Oxford)
Italian Painting before 1400 (Art in the Making) (National Gallery, London)
Myth:
Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Painters (Oxford or Penguin)
Jill Dunkerton, Susan Foister, Dillian Gordon, Nicholas Penny, Giotto to Dürer:
Early Renaissance Painting in the National Gallery, (National Gallery, London)
History:
Robert L Herbert, Impressionism: Art, Leisure and Parisian Society (Yale)
Impressionism (Art in the Making) (National Gallery, London)
Symbol:
Marina Warner, Monuments and Maidens (Vintage)
William Tucker, The Language of Sculpture (Thames and Hudson)
Still life:
S Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches (Fontana)
John Milner, Studios in 19th century Paris (Yale)
Portraits:
Rembrandt (Art in the Making), (National Gallery, London)
R Brilliant, Portraiture (Reaktion Books)
Interior:
Mark Girouard, Life in the English Country House (Penguin)
Landscape:
K Clark, Landscape into Art (Murray)
J Barrel, The Dark Side of the Landscape (Cambridge)
J House, Monet: Nature into Art (Yale)
A further list of books that may be of interest to you is given at the end of the
course book. In addition to books, there are an increasing number of videos,
DVDs/CDs and slide-tape texts available and which you might wish to
consider.
Sources of materials
Postcards
Postcards are especially valuable for the course. You will normally choose one
postcard for an annotation; for each unit of the course some postcards are
suggested for you to make up your own groups of cards documenting
periods or themes; and postcards are handy for comparisons, or simply to
stick on a mantelpiece or a pinboard as souvenirs.
It is rarely possible to find just the cards you would like at the very moment
you want them; but mail order can help with some advance planning.
However, remember that postcards are not always in print, even at main
galleries. Impulse buying at a gallery you visit is a good policy.
Central Enquiry Services, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes
MK7 6AA
Videos
The National Gallery has published a set of videos about the gallery's own
pictures, and sells a number of others, including one on impressionism. A
CD-ROM is also available.
UNIT 1
Discussion
In this first unit you can take some bearings. The video and set book are
attractive starting points for the course; other resources are useful too, but
nothing is more important than the decision you have taken to find out more
about Western art. This programme of active learning has been planned to
help you carry that decision through.
The activities of the course include drawing. If you have drawing skills, you
can make use of them; but you do not absolutely need to draw, since the
practical turn taken in some projects or assignments can be answered by
rough sketches, diagrams, tracings or photographs. All of these are means for
learning to look at works of art.
I suggest that you skim through this course book in the first week to look at
what projects it contains, what resources you can use, and what planning you
can do in advance. The Open College of the Arts aims to make sure that
courses can be used by everyone wherever they live; all the same, some
students will have easier access to libraries, galleries and other places to visit
than others. The trick of successful planning is to anticipate your future needs
and opportunities.
You will finish the course with an excellent basis of varied material if you
wish to develop your studies. First the video and the set book; thirty
annotated pictures, and a further collection making up an anthology of well
over a hundred; twenty four projects, including your own photographs and
drawings; five assignments; your logbook; one sketch book and one note book
at least, and publications you have bought along the way, such as guides and
possibly some of the books suggested as additional reading. You will have
shaped this material in your own way, perhaps emphasising a historical
period, or enlarging and strengthening the material about a preferred theme,
say still life or portraiture.
A practical note at this stage is to assess your need for books. You are likely to
find librarians very helpful, but book stocks in local libraries are not limitless,
and it takes time to borrow through the national lending scheme.
Buying a book can also be slow if your bookshop has to order it from a
publisher. As a rule of thumb, I hope you can read about ten books during the
course. I make various suggestions for different lines of attack; but this is
more of a looking course than a reading course, so do not be overawed by
bibliographies. ‘Reading a book’ does not necessarily mean ploughing
through every word. Francis Bacon's seventeenth century essays contain some
wise advice:
Your logbook
Keeping material in a logbook is a good organising aid to your studies. But
only you can decide what goes into it. Do you share your notes freely, or do
you prefer to keep them private? A logbook can be used almost like a diary,
or be a more matter of fact record of data and ideas.
Quotations are often lost unless you write them down. Have you ever kept a
commonplace book? You can use your logbook for selected quotations and
miscellaneous information which in the nineteenth century would have gone
into a commonplace book. Anecdotes, too, can find their place in a logbook;
they are easily forgotten.
The actual form of the logbook is up to you, but the best could be a box-file or
a ring-binder with transparent envelopes into which you also put copies of
the work done for the various projects and comments sent to and received
from your tutor. It is best to make your mind up about your logbook and how
you are going to organise it now as paper will start to proliferate very
quickly!
To annotate
You may like to make an informal start, by choosing a postcard of any work
of art and making some notes about it. Look at the suggestions in You and
your course and the examples at various stages in the course to help you get
going.
The first is about planning. Skim through the course book and think about
how you plan to do it. There is a course calendar at the end of You and your
course to help you, and the materials you may need are also listed. Students
have found some trouble in obtaining the postcards they would like; we have
given some addresses, but you may be able to find a good local source.
What about books? I suggest that you make yourself a priority list of those
you would like to buy, those you expect to be able to borrow, and those that
might be desirable but you do not feel are indispensable. Remember all the
books listed in You and your course are paperbacks, but they are not all cheap.
The books listed at the end of the course book are suggested more for
following up the course rather than for use while doing it.
A main planning issue is time. Very few students so far have completed the
course quickly; you might think of a year as more realistic than the target of
33 to 35 weeks which is theoretically possible. What will you be doing in the
year ahead? Holidays and business trips are opportunities to make visits
which you may find easier to take out of the sequence given in the course
book.
Secondly, write down a list of questions that could be asked about works of
art. These should be in two columns. The first column contains questions that
can be answered by looking at the work - in the annotation exercise you will
be answering some of these questions by what you write around your card.
The second column has the questions that have to be answered by other
means, and these have their place below the line in your annotation exercise.
Thirdly, most important, write down what your aim is: why are you taking
this course, and what do you want to get out of it? I suggest this should be
about 500 words long (many people write about ten words to a line, and an
A4 sheet easily gives space for 25 lines). This is a fundamental piece of
UNIT 2
To view
The Classical tradition:
1. The Legacy of Greece
Points to note in your viewing: the sequence of standing figures including the
Kritian boy; the figure of Zeus, which as with other identifications of Greek
figures may be wrong - Zeus is correct if he used to hurl a thunderbolt, but if
he held a trident, Poseidon is the right god; the sculpture at Pergamon which
John Boardman describes as showing ‘subtle poses, postures and actions’.
To read
A World History of Art
Chapter 4: The Greeks and their neighbours
Discussion
In this unit and the next we start by looking at the classical tradition. Greek
culture is familiar to you through many means, not least, as you are reminded
by the video, in architecture using the classical orders. A leading principle of
Greek art is also familiar. Donald Strong has written:
‘The Greeks of the fifth century believed that the highest aspirations of the spirit could
be expressed in a perfection of the human form based on harmony and proportion; that
perfection implies the perfection of a universal order.’
But the moment of fine balance in fifth century Greece was difficult to
achieve, and proved impossible to maintain. Greek art before the fifth century
had been part of a religious culture comparable with the Egyptian and
Assyrian civilisations, whose temples, devotional images, sculptural reliefs,
Unluckily such comparisons can only be made from partial evidence, since so
much is lost; masterpieces by great sculptors, for example, can only be seen
darkly through the veil of later Roman copies. However, during our century
some fine bronzes have been recovered intact from the sea, like the Warrior
from Riace (p 140), some compensation for the ruinous and fragmentary state
of most ancient Greek architecture and stone sculpture. Greek painting,
highly esteemed in its own time, has vanished, though some guesswork about
it can be made from the analogy of a large number of surviving painted vases.
Here, as in sculpture, a development of increased accuracy in representing the
human figure can be traced.
John Boardman suggests in the video that to ‘understand what Greek art is
really about’ we need to know about its original setting, what was in the mind
of the artist, and what impact the art had on the mind of contemporary
spectators. Such an ambitious programme is for a lifetime’s study; but we
must all take his point about the vivid colours of Greek stone sculpture,
which in its time would have made it rather like Egyptian art, whose
splendour is familiar to us from survivals like the Tutankhamun tomb
treasures.
Are we all Greeks, as Michael Wood reminds us that Shelley wrote? At least,
the classical language of architecture is still understood and continues to be
practised, as it has been since its revival in the Renaissance. It is a language
which, once its grammar has been mastered, can be read with interest and
pleasure in the architecture of many periods. The same elements are
everywhere used, but in different combinations, in varying sizes, and with a
You may be lucky enough to have a more beguiling classical building within
reach, perhaps a country house of the eighteenth century; the work of Inigo
Jones or John Nash in London, the planning of Bath by John Wood, or St
George's Hall in Liverpool are city centre examples. Such work, and there are
plenty of others, incorporates architectural allusions and comparisons, as do
Renaissance buildings.
To annotate
Take a Greek sculpture or a vase painting.