From Continental Drift to Plate Tectonics continental drift theoryThe hypothesis developed in the early 20th century that

states that the continents move about on the surface. which dared to challenge the long-held assumption that the continents and ocean basins had fixed geographic positions. single supercontinent consisting of all Earths landmasses once existed. He named this giant landmass Pangaea (pronounced Pan-jee-ah; meaning all lands) Wegener further hypothesized that about 200 million years ago, during the early part of the Mesozoic era, this supercontinent began to fragment into smaller landmasses. These continental blocks then drifted to their present positions over a span of millions of years. The inspiration for continental drift is believed to have come to Wegener when he observed the breakup of sea ice during a Danish-led expedition. Theory on sea floor spreading (hess-dietz hypothesis 1961) Continent do not cut through the earths mantle as a ship cuts through the ocean. Continents ride gently on the tops of the conveyor belts. Plate Tectonics (1965) earths crust is strong fairly rigid to the depth of 100km and plates are compose of continental and oceanic crust. Plate tectonics is the unifying theory of geology. By 1968, these developments, among others, led to the unfolding of a far more encompassing theory than continental drift, known as plate tectonics. According to the plate tectonics model, the uppermost mantle and the overlying crust behave as a strong, rigid layer, known as the lithosphere, which is broken into segments commonly referred to as plates. The lithosphere is thinnest in the oceans (200-300km) brittleit is easily cracked or brokenwhereas the mantle beneath it behaves plastically; it can bend, The lithosphere, in turn, overlies a weak region in the mantle known as the asthenosphere. The temperatures and pressures in the upper asthenosphere (100200 kilometers in depth) are such that the rocks there are very near their melting temperatures and, hence, respond to stress by flowing. As a result, Earths rigid outer shell is effectively detached from the layers below, which permits it to move independently. Earths Major Plates The lithosphere is composed of about two dozen segments having irregular sizes and shapes called lithospheric plates or tectonic plates that are in constant motion with respect to one another. As shown in Figure 7.10, seven major lithospheric plates are recognized. These plates, which account for 94 percent of Earths surface area, include the 1. North American, 2. South American, 3. Pacific, 4. African, 5. Eurasian, 6. Australian-Indian, 7. and Antarctic plates.

a. The largest is the Pacific plate, which encompasses a significant portion of the Pacific Ocean basin. The six other large plates include an entire continent plus a significant amount of ocean Plate Boundaries One of the main tenets of the plate tectonics theory is that platesmove as semicoherent units relative to all other plates. As plates move, the distance between two locations on different plates, such as New York and London, gradually changes, whereas the distance between sites on the same plateNew York and Denver, for exampleremains relatively constant. 1. Divergent boundaries (constructive margins) where two plates move apart, resulting in upwelling of hot material from the mantle to create new seafloor. Also called Subduction zones because they are sites where lithosphere is descending 2. Convergent boundaries (destructive margins)where two plates move together, resulting in oceanic lithosphere descending beneath an overriding plate, eventually to be reabsorbed into the mantle or possibly in the collision of two continental blocks to create a mountain system 3. Transform fault boundaries (conservative margins) where two plates grind past each other without the production or destruction of lithosphere Transform Fault Boundaries THE SUPERCONTINENT CYCLE So, we can imagine the earth's history as a supercontinent cycle. The cycle begins with a supercontinent perched on one side of the earth, balanced on the other side by a superocean. The supercontinent fragments, sending small continental pieces across the ocean to collide to form another supercontinent on the opposite side of the earth. But, shortly that supercontinent fragments also to repeat the cycle. And this has been going on for 4 billion years, requiring about half a billion years for each cycle. This supercontinent cycle does not just go round and round, however, for with each cycle new continental crust is generated, and the continents get bigger. The earth's history is not just a cycle that goes round and round without getting anywhere. Rather, it is a cycle with a directional and irreversible evolutionary trend.

Simplistically, we can imagine this as a globe, and we are passing our hands (the continents) east and west around to one side to collide them. And then separating (fragmenting the continents) and bringing them back around to the other side to collide them again. By swinging our hands back and forth around this imaginary globe in front of us we can envision the oscillating cycle of the continents. There is just one caution. Because the earth is spherical, actual continental movements are quite complex because continents do not just move east and west, they also move north and south, as well as various combinations of these movements. And continents do not always fragment and collide the same

way with each cycle. So, it is not really as simple as swinging our hands around an imaginary globe in front of us. We must be careful in our development of simple models that we do not include significant distortion too. A HISTORY So, there is a history here, the earth beginning with only oceans, . . .

has evolved its continents beginning 4 billion years ago with small volcanic chains (arcs), created by convection cells and subduction zones, . . .

that

evolved

into

proto-continents

through

many

individual

subduction

zones,

that evolved into micro-continents when the proto-continents collided, . . .

that evolved into the major continents today (such as North and South America, Siberia, Australia), that continue to evolutionarily cycle through supercontinent cycles (e.g. Pangaea and Rodinia, but also earlier supercontinent cycles).

This is a wonderful story of great grandeur. The planet we live on is marvelous beyond description. Our goal has to be to transmit to each generation not just the details of identifying rocks, but the wonder of a planet that lives, and grows, and evolves - and is never quiet, for to be quiet would be to die.

VOLCANO it is a mountain or hill, typically conical having a crater which lava flows, rock and gases, hot vapor is erupted. is an opening, or rupture, in the surface or crust of the Earth or a planetary mass object, which allows hot lava, volcanic ash and gases to escape from the magma chamber below the surface. (the angry Earth spewing up its wrath) 1500 volcanoes around the world 600 volcanoes known to erupted 75 % located in the pacific ring of Fire 50-70 erupt each year Philippines Active Philippine volcanoes = 22 volcanoes Last significant eruption = Mount Mayon volcano, Albay province, Jun. 24-Jul. 26, 2001 Philippine volcano with the most recorded eruptions = Mount Mayon volcano, 48 recorded eruptions Potentially active Philippine volcanoes = 27 volcanoes Inactive Philippine volcanoes = 358 volcanoes How Volcanoes Form

Begins as magma (melted rock) A volcano is a vent through which molten rock and gas from beneath the Earths surface escape. (1) Large magma chamber (2) Bedrock (3) Pipe (conduit) (4) Layers of ash (5) Layers of lava (6) Lava flow (7) Vent (8) Lava (9) Ash cloud

Volcanic Materials 1. Lava is the name for magma that escape unto the earths surface (1100OC) 2. rock fragments generally called Tephra are formed from sticky magma 3. Gas is made up of steam (CO2, CO, nitrogen and other gases) Types of volcano classified according to their shape and materials they are made. 1. Shield volcano are formed when a large amount of free-flowing lava spills from a vent and spread widely. 2. Cinder Volcanoes - Cinder cones are simple volcanoes which have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit and steep sides. Builts up when mostly tephra erupts from the vent forms a cone shape 3. composite volcano formed when both lava and tephra erupt from the central vent. The most majestic of the volcanoes are composite volcanoes, also known as strato-volcanoes. Composite volcanoes are tall, symmetrically shaped, with steep sides, sometimes rising 10,000 feet high. They are built of alternating layers of lava flows, volcanic ash, and cinders.

Activities of volcano 1. extinct volcano is a volcano that is not now erupting and is not likely to erupt in the future (Kohala, shown above, has not erupted for 60,000 years ) 2. dormant volcano is a volcano that is not now erupting but has erupted in historic time, since written records were kept (the last 200 years in Hawaii 3. active volcano is a volcano that is erupting or is expected to do so in the near future EARTHQUAKES AND THE EARTHS INTERIOR Earthquakes are natural geologic phenomena caused by the sudden and rapid movement of a large volume of rock. 150,000 earthquakes strong enough to be felt by people 900,000 recorded by seismometers. Around the world 75 recorded every year Faults. The violent shaking and destruction caused by earthquakes are the result of rupture and slippage along fractures in Earths crust. Focus The origin of an earthquake occurs at depths between 5 and 700 kilometers. Epicenter The point at the surface directly above the focus Seismic waves(massive amount of energy)a form of elastic energy that causes vibrations in the material that transmits them. Stress is the force applied to an object. In geology, stress is the force per unit area that is placed on a rock. There are four types of stresses that act on materials. 1. confining stress rock is push down from all side in a single spot. 2. Compression is the stress that squeezes rocks together causes the rock to fold or break. (convergent plate common stress) 3. Tension Rocks that are being pulled apart that causes rock to lengthen(common in divergent plate 4. Shear When forces act parallel to each other but in opposite directions(common on transform plate)

Causes of Earthquake. Elastic rebound theory Stresses build on both sides of a fault, causing the rocks to deform plastically (Time 2). When the stresses become too great, the rocks return to their original shape but they move (Time 3). This motion releases the energy that creates an earthquake. Earthquakes are produced by the rapid release of elastic energy stored in rock that has been deformed by differential stresses. Earthquake Zones 95% of all earthquakes take place along one of the three types of plate boundaries Pacific Ocean (80 %) Mediterranean-Asiatic belt (15%)