General Studies: Paper 2 - Indian Heritage and Culture, History & Geography of the World & Society "Culture

- Art Forms (Music)"

Chapter: Culture - Art Forms (Music) Indian music
It is considered to be at least 3,500 years old. Some regard this civilisation as pre-Vedic and some as Vedic. Among other finds, a flute, a harp with strings and percussion instruments have also been found. A bronze figurine of a dancing girl beating time to music with her foot has also been found. This shows that people in that remote age knew the use of harp, flute, percussion instruments and the art of dancing. On the basis of these scanty data, we cannot say what the music of those times was like. Seals similar to those of Mohenjodaro and Harappa have also been discovered in Sumeria. There was evidently a common civilisation in the Indus Valley and Syria, Assyria and Babylonia. We have, however, a more detailed account of the music of the Vedic times. The date of the oldest text, i.e., Rigvedq is variously estimated by scholars from 1,500 B.C. to 1,000 B.C. The Vedas were musically recited. Udatta (raised, Greek oxyu, sharp or acute), Anudatta (not raised, grave, Greek baryu) and Svarita (Greek oxyubaria, acute grave or circumflex) were the three pitches used in Vedic recitative. Udatta was an acute or sharp pitch, Anudatta was a grave pitch and Svarita was a pitch which combined in itself the characteristics of both i.e. it started with Udatta and fell down to Anudatta. In Vedic literature, Svarita is called pravana, i.e., it gradually descended from Udatta to Anudatta. It formed a link between Udatta and Anudatta. These three were not merely accents or stress on words; they were musical pitches used for simple recitative.

INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC

The Classical Music of India has its origins in the chanting of the Vedas dating back to several thousands of years ago. Since then, by oral tradition, it has been bequeathed through the generations to its present form. In the course of time, it evolved into two distinct systems, namely the Carnatic (in the South) and the Hindustani (in theNorth). Indian classical music is based on melody. It can be described as contemplative and introspective. There is no intentional harmonic structure beneath the melodic lines. Such freedom permits almost unlimited melodic possibilities. Another attribute of Indian music is improvisation. Most of the classical music performed is extemporaneous. Even while playing the compositions, the performer attempts variations and embellishments which bring out a unique interpretation of the composition and the artists individuality. This makes the ensuing music spontaneous, never ceasing to amaze the listener. It is interesting to note that the seven notes in Indian music, Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, correspond to Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Si, in the West. What makes Indian classical music unique is its two important characteristics: the raga and the tola. Every piece played (adheres to the confines of raga and tala. A raga defines the melodic aspects of the music. The raga is a melodic pattern defined by an ascending and a descending scale and key notes and phrases that bring out the entire character of the raga. There are numerous ragas that span an entire spectrum of emotions, colours and characters. In fact a raga has been personified as a divine being with character and moods just hke a mortal. The performer, while elaborating a raga, builds up the mood(s) portrayed by the raga.

Traditionally, most performances of Hindustani music begin with alap: an extensive solo exploration of the raga by the instrumentalist. Alap is divided into three basic parts. The first section of alap begins slowly, with an invocational and meditative approach. Within this stream like, arhythmic style the artist gradually unfolds the shape, textures and moods of the raga. Eventually, a pulse is introduced by the soloist and the second section known as jor has begun. In jor, there is still no specific rhythmic framework to speak of. Moving through many variations within the jor, the musician will finally arrive at the jhalla, the culminating section of the alap. Jhalla, characterised by a faster paced and rhythmically dense exposition of the raga, is carried through to the end of the alap. After the alap, the instrumentalist is joined by the accompanying drummer and together they enter the section of the raga known as the gat. Here we are introduced to the rhythmic basis of Indian music: the tala. A tala is a cycle of a fixed number of beats repeated over and over again and played as distinct patterns of strokes on the accompanying drums. There are many different talas (6 beats, 7,10, 12,14, etc.) and each one has a different rhythmic mood. Except for alap, every piece of Indian classical music is played within a particular tala. The gat begins with the instrumentalist playing a rhythmic/melodic theme within the raga. Through this theme, the soloist thus establishes the tala within which the raga will now progress. Often, the tala will not be announced prior to the performance and is chosen on the spot by the instrumentalist. Even the accompanying drummer may not know what the rhythmic cycle will be and must infer from the first hearing of the theme what patterns to play on the drums. The gat proceeds with the drummer supporting the soloist while variations are made and the raga is further explored. The two musicians interact rhythmically throughout the performance, always meeting on the first beat of the rhythmic cycle. This dynamic interchange becomes more prevalent as the raga progresses. Staying within the same raga, a new theme in a new tala may eventually be introduced by the soloist. This is most often a faster-paced rhythmic cycle that adds excitement to the building energy of the music. The musicians then carry the raga to its final improvised ending. This long exposition of the raga is often followed by a performance of light-classical raga or folk melody. These pieces are usually much shorter than the opening raga and are set in certain talas to give the music a light and lighting feel. As regards Indian classical music in general, there are a huge number of modes (ragas). Musicians will elaborate a single mode in detail, largely through improvisation but also based on compositions and formal demands. There are also pieces (called ragamala or ragamalika) in which modulations are employed. Individual pieces are shorter in Garnatic music, so recitals are constructed by selecting items in contrasting ragas. The rationale is specifically contrast (usually), as opposed to Turkish music where modes are chosen for a directed development or Arabic music, where the frequent modulations- should be as unnoticed as possible, etc. A general aesthetic discussion of this type could become much more extensive. In both Hindustani & Camatic music, songs (or instrumental compositions in Hindustani music) are usually (although not always) -preceded by an improvised unmeasured prelude (alap/alaapana) which is sometimes extensive. This is followed by the composition section in which a specific rhythmic cycle (tala) is used (ordinarily with percussion accompaniment). Although it is usually based upon a pre-existing composition, there are specific improvisationa! features to this section as well. This aspect earns Indian classical music comparisons with Western Jazz, with which it shares some demands. Hindustani music is the music of North India, involving both Hindu and Muslim musicians. In this case (as opposed to every other world classical tradition, except European), there are a large number of high quality recordings. Different people will, no doubt, like different styles to varying degrees.

Dhrupad is the older style of Hindustani music, now rare. The style with which most readers will be ihore familiar is the more modern style, especially as represented in the Hindustani instrumental (sitar, etc.) list above. Carnatic music is the music of South India, different in many of its terms and formal demands, although similar in overall outline. The two share some common origins, but the details of these relationships can be contentious. Indian classical music continues to gain tremendous popularity in the West and is now taught widely. In addition to many opportunities to learn it at universities or in specialised instruction, more general resources are appearing. The recently released Raga Guide on Nimbus Records is a landmark and well worth pursuing for someone interested in learning the rudiments of ragas:

NORTH INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC

The subject of classical Indian music is rich, with its historical cultural, aesthetic, theoretical and performing facets. This discussion is limited to aspects of the North Indian instrumental genres. The primary genres of musical composition in North Indian or Hindustani classical music are dhrupad and khayal. Dhrupad, the older of the two genres, is the ancestor to the more popular khayal that eclipses it today. The concept of the melody and rhythm, however; serves as the foundation for both khayal and dhrupad. Melody is captured in the concept of the raag (also pronounced raaga) and rhythmic foundation in the taal (alternatively pronounced as tala).

The Raag
Raag, in the Sanskrit dictionary, is defined as the act of colouring or dyeing (the mind in this context) and any feeling or passion especially love, aff ection, sympathy, vehement desire, interest, joy or delight. In music, these descriptions apply to the impressions of melodic sounds on both the artist(s) and listener(s). A raag consists of required and optional rules governing the melodic movements of notes within a performance. The rules of a raag can be defined by: The list of specific notes that can be used during playing of the raag The manner in which the notes are used, i.e. specific ways of ornamenting notes or emphasising/de-emphasising them Manner in which the scale is ascended or descended Optional or required musical phrases, the way in which to reveal these phrases and/or combine them The octave or frequency range to emphasise The relative pacing between the notes The time of day and/or season when the raag may be performed so as to invoke the emotions of the raag for maximum impact on the mental and emotional state of the performer and listener

Observance of these rules during the performance ol a raag does not aspire to be purely a technical or intellectual exercise; but also to evoke the rasa or bhava (the experience, mood, emotion or feeling) of the raag in bom the artist and the listener. A raag is best experienced rather than analysed. Theoretically, there is no limit to the number of raags, but only a few hundred are documented and designated by specific names. Of these, only a small percentage are usually performed in concerts. The melodic performer utilises a raag as the foundation for improvisation. A recital explores a raag in an non-metered form and/or within the confines of a cyclical] rhythmic structure, using intricate ornamentation of notes First the raag is introduced with a note or group of notes and then the improvisation progresses to a more melodically and rhythmically complex form.

The manner in which raags originate is a fascinating subject. Many raags are polished forms of a family of regional folk melodies while others have been created through the imagination of musicians. Some of the latta are raags with their own distinct characteristics whereas other creations are a combination of one or more existing raags. The names of some established raags have changed with time and the characteristics/ definitions of raags also are not as rigid as claimed in theory.

The Taal
Just as the note is the basis of the melodic component of music, the bol (pronounced bowl) is the foundation for taal. Bol literally means speech or syllables. The vocal bols sound very similar to bols played on the percussive instrument. The most common tabla bols are Dha, Dhi/Dhin, Ti/Tin, Ra, Ki, Ta, Na, Tin and Te. Different schools of percussion may pronounce the same bol differently. Several bote structured in a specific manner and arranged in sub-divisions are called thekas. Each bol usually takes up one, halt or quarter of a beat (matra) in a theka, The first beat of a theka is called the sam (pronounced sum). It plays a crucial role in the improvisation structure during a recital since it becomes a point of convergence for both the melodic and percussive improvisation. A theka also consists of layers of accents or voids in the first beat of a sub-division. A degree of symmetry, with an elegant manner of the theka leading to the same, is quite common in the arrangement of the bols in a theka. A theka (also referred to as tool) can theoretically contain between 2 arid 108 beats, although in reality there is no limit. While bols have existed in the percussion repertoire for a long time, thekas are probably a recent phenomenon (perhaps only around 600 years old). The commonly heard thekas are dadra (6 beats), roopak (7 beats), keherwa (8 beats), jhaptaal (10 beats), ektaal (12 beats), chautal (12 beats), dhamar, deepchandi, jhumra (all 14 beats but with different bols and sub-divisions) and teentaal (16 beats). Although thekas are usually standard, bols of thekas can vary slightly, depending on the musical school or individual style of the tabla player.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF DHRUPAD AND KHAYAL

Dhrupad derives from the word dhruv, which literally means fixed and pada literally verse/text. Dhrupad refers to both a type of composition (hence the name) (in chautaal or sooltaal) as well as a genre in North Indian classical music. The discussion here focuses on the genre. Dhrupad probably evolved from a family of musical styles called prabhand that flourished during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The bhakti (devotional) movement of the Vaishnavas and Shivites also substantially contributed to the format and composition styles of dhrupad performed in the courts of Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior and other courts in Delhi, Rajasthan, Punjab and Gujarat in the fifteenth century. The popularity of dhrupad arose when it entered the court of Emperor Akbars court in the sixteenth century. Tansen, a legendary musician in Akbars court, is considered to be the father of the current form of classical dhrupad and most classical performers trace their tradition to him. Dhrupad itself has evolved considerably since Tansens time. Since North Indian classical tradition is transmitted orally, the music heard today is probably different from what listeners experienced five centuries ago. Khayal is a more recent style of music that evolved from dhrupad and crystallised in the seventeenth century. Khayal, (literally meaning imagination) combines facets of dhrupad styles, techniques and structure. A wider variety of ornamentation is used in khayal and the improvisation takes place within the confines of a taal. The structure of a performance is iess restricted arid the artist has a Aider latitude in structuring and improvising the performance. Due to its open nature, khayal has become far more popular than dhrupad ever was and has eclipsed its predecessor.

Dhrupad
Dhrupad is essentially a poetic form incorporated into an extended presentation style marked by precise and orderly elaboration of a raga. The exposition preceding the composed verses is called alap and is

usually the longest portion of the performance. This aspect of dhrupad has been the most influential and is reflected in other North Indian musical formats, especially in instrumental music and even khayal singing. The term dhrupad itself means the literal rendering of verse into music and so the songs have a particularly potent impact. The actual dhrupad song-form is set in the rhythm chautal (4+4+2+2) and rendered in steady declaration in an austere style. Some performances in this idiom include related songs, especially the called dhamar, in dhamar tola (5+5+4 beats), but there are also other rhythmic forms which sometimes appear. These are usually somewhat lighter in content than the dhrupad proper. The rhythmic sections are generally accompanied by the two-head drum pakhayyaj (similar to the mridangam of Caraatic music). Dhrupad is often presented as the oldest Indian music, with an explicit continuity to ancient times. In this respect, it is perhaps the most direct development of Vedic chanting and the literal respect for text in dhrupad is representative of those scriptural ideas. However many of the codifications of dhrupad are dated more specifically to the same period as the origin of khayal and the two might be viewed more accurately as parallel developments, although dhrupad is certainly more austere in its formalism. This music provides a wealth of depth in melodic nuance, with the smallest motion elaborated for minutes in a variety of tirne-tested techniques. The sophistication of the unmeasured exposition is nearly impossible to match in the worlds music and is buoyed by a variety of patterns derived from the original melody of the raga. Today the Dagar family dominates the scene of dhrupad vocal performance due to their dedication and world-wide prominence, but there are other styles remaining.