General Studies: Paper 2 - Indian Heritage and Culture, History & Geography of the World & Society "Culture

Language & Literature"

Chapter: Culture - Language & Literature
Some four thousand odd years ago, the Harappan people knew how to write; unfortunately, their script has not yet been deciphered and we do not know anything about their language. But the literary tradition of India clearly goes back more than 3000 years, and during this period was dominated by Sanskrit, first in its Vedic and later in its classical form. By the time Paninis Grammar had standardised Sanskrit (about 5th century BC), language had developed another branch besides Sanskrit the language of the masses, Prakrit or Middle Indo-Aryan (though these terms came into use much later). Prakrits are recorded in various local dialects, based on geographical and regional factors. Middle Indo-Aryan is divided into three stages covering a period ranging from 500 BC to 1000 AD. The first stage is represented by Pali and the inscriptions of Asoka. The term Prakrit In its narrow sense applies to the second stage, and it has various dialectsMaharashtri, Sauraseni, Magadht, Ardhamagadhi. The third stage is represented by what is known as Apabhramsa. The emergence of the modern Indo-Aryan languages dates from the period after 1000 AD when already the division of regional languages was assuming the shape that it has today. The main group of IndoAryan languages stretches across north and central India. The literary development of these language took place at various times. Apart from the Muslim influence, the development of the modern Indo-Aryan languages followed the same lines. An important new feature in the modern languages, as opposed to the earlier Middle Indo-Aryan was the extensive introduction of Sanskrit loanwords. After the eighteenth century, under the impact of British rule and European contact as well as the introduction of printing, the range of subjects for literature widened and was modernised. Literary output increased. The processes initiated at that time have continued till the present day. The Dravidian languages are Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam, of which Tamil was the earliest to be developed for literary purposes. The Dravidian language came into being before the Indo-Aryan, according to scholars. It had three branches (i) the northern branch of Brahui spoken in Baluchistan, Kurukh and Malta spoken in Bengal and Orissa; (ii) the central branch comprising Telugu and dialects such as Kui, Khond, etc.; (ill) the southern branch comprising Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam besides dialects like Tulu, Badaga, Toda, Kodagu, etc. Tamil developed uninhibited by the competition of Sanskrit or Prakrits, because the Tamil country was the furthest removed from the centre of Aryan expansion. The Tamil language was less influenced by Sanskrit than the other three Dravidian languages, and the number of Sanskrit and other Indo-Aryan loanwords in it is fewer. Kannada and Telugu were inhibited at first because their region was the dominion of the Andhra Empire whose administrative language was Prakrit. But by the ninth-tenth centuries there are plenty of literary works In both languages. Two other distinct speech families, the Nishada or Austric (the oldest and most indigenous) and Ktrata or Sinolndian, have also existed for 3000 years or more. India never really had a common language used by the masses. Even when Sanskrit grew to prominence and was widely used, ifwas still the language of the learned sections of the population. With independence the question of a common language came up, and it was decided by a very narrow marginthat Hindi would be the national language of India. The Constitution lists 18 languages in the Eighth Schedule after the Seventy-First

Amendment, Act 1992. Languages in the 8th Schedule

Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Sindhi. The Sahitya Akademi has approved, besides the constitutionally recognised languages, English, Dogri,

Malthili and Rajasthani for its activities. A brief survey of the Indian languages and their development, writers and their works is given in the following pages.

Bengali
Bengali probably emerged as a separate language around 1000 AD. The beginnings of Bengali literature are to be seen in the songs composed in the 1 Ith- 12th centuries. The Natha literature was inspired by the philosophy cf the Buddhist Sahajiya cult. Ir the 14th century Vaishnavism spread over Bengal and Chandidas composed his devotic nal lyrics which deeply influenced the literature. Adaptations of the Ramayana became popular in the 15th century; Kritivasa Ojhas rendering of the epic is given the same kind of respect in the East as Tulsidass Ramacharitmanas gets in the North. In the 16th century another type of Vaishnava literature developedbiographical in nature, centred round the personality of Chaitanya. The best known work in this style is the Chaitanya Charitamrita by Krishnadasa Kaviraja. Mangal kavyalong narrative poems extolling the struggle and triumph of a god or a goddess in estabbshing himself or herself against rivalsbecame a popular literary form after Sanskrit works came to be rendered in Bengali. Three major kinds of mangal kavya are Manasamangal, Chandimangal and Dharmamangal. After a period of decadence, it was in the nineteenth century that modern Bengali literature came into being. In the development of Bengali prose, the role of the Christian missionaries must be acknowledged. William Carey wrote a Bengali grammar, compiled an English-Bengali dictionary and got the Bible translated into Bengali. The establishment of the Fort William College at Calcutta in 1800 also contributed to the development of Bengali. But it was Raja Rammohan Roys pamphlets and essays on the issues of the day that gave to Bengali prose a forceful and vibrant style. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Akshaykumar Datta showed the rich potential of Bengali prose and brought a sense of discipline to the use of the languaoe which became chaste and vigorous in their hands. They standardised the medium, one might say, which their younger contemporary Bankim Chandra Chatterjee turned with skill and verve into a creative tool for his novels and stories. Bankim Chandra is considered the father of the modern novel in India, though social and historical novels had been written before him in Bengali, e.g. Peary Chand Mitras Alaler Gharer-Dulal which, in fact, anticipated the development of the novel. But Bankim Chandra established the novel as a major literary form in India. Sarat Chandra Chatterjee was another novelist of merit in the early twentieth century. The emotional temperament and lyrical genius of the Bengali found a fitting medium in poetry. Michael Madhusudan Dutt was the pioneer to break out of traditionalism and successfully experiment with naUiralising European forms into Bengali poetry. He is known for his epic in blank verse, Meghanabandh, an unorthodox interpretation of an episode from the Ramayana, besides a number of sonnets. In the twentieth century the patriotic feivour inspired poets like Kazi Nazrul Islam. Calcutta was the scene of the birth of the modern drama in Bengali. The first original play in Bengali was Kulin Kulasarvasva, a social satire on polygamy among the Kulin Brahmins by Pandit Ramnarayan. Madhusudan Dutt too wrote some plays. Then came Dinabandhu Mitras Neel Darpan and Kamale Kamtnt Girishchandra Ghose was another notable playwright. Bengali dramas played an important role in conveying nationalism and ideas of social change to the common man. Bengali literature found a fruition in the works of Rabindranath Tagore who blended Vaishnava lyricism, the vigour of the folk medium and Western influences to a nicety. In him modern Indian literature came of age not only in poetry but in prose as well. Novel, short story, drama, essay, and literary criticism, they all attained maturity in his hands.... Tagore was the most vital creative force in the cultural renaissance of India and represents its finest achievement (Krishna Kripalani).

After Tagore, Bengali literature has continued to offer rich fare. Bibhutibushans Father Panchali and Aranyak are sensitive novels. Tarashankar Bandopadhyays Gana Devata and Arogyaniketan are widely read. Another great novel is Padmanadir Maghi by Manik Bandopadhyay. Ashapurna Devis Pratham Prathi Shruti got her the Jnanpith Award. Subhas Mukhopadhyay is a noted Bengali poet whose works such as Padatik and Ja Re Kagajeer Nauka are marked by social commitment and he too has received the Jnanpith Award.

Hindi
The term Hindi is used somewhat loosely to denote several dialects which had evolved distinct literary forms of their own over some five centuries. There was, and still is, the Braj-bhasha in which Surdas sang, the Avadhi in which Tulsidas wrote, Rajasthani in which the earliest secular literature in the form of heroic ballads appeared in north India and in which Mirabai sang, Bhojpuri; the mother tongue of Kabir, Maithili which in the hands of Vidyapati attained Immense grace and power. What Is called Hindi today has this vast heritage behind it. But in its present standard literary form it is of comparatively recent origin, not earlier than the first decade of the nineteenth century. It is built on the basic structure of a western Indo-Aryan dialect spoken in and around Delhi known as Khari Bolian epithet originally used In a derogatory sense implying rough and crude speech. The early period of Hindi literature is known as Adikala- This period comes upto mid-fourteenth century. It may be noted that while the origin of Hindi is traced by scholars to the period between the 7th and 10th centuries AD, it was only in the late 12th and early 13th centuries that Hindi literature could be said to have crossed the stage of infancy. The Adikala period was embellished by the Siddhas, the Jain poets, the Nathapanthis and the heroic poets. Chand Bardais Prithviraj Rasau was the earliest representation of the tradition of secular writing In Hindi {of the Rajasthani dialect). One of the pioneer experimenters in Hindi was Amir Khusrau. From the middle of the fourteenth century to the middle of the seventeenth century Bhakttkavya dominates Hindi literature. Kabir Is the outstanding poet of the Nirguna school which believed in a formless or abstract God. Guru Nanak is another great poet of this school. The Saguna School believed in a God with attributes, a human incarnation, and this school Is represented by the Vaishnava poets singing in praise of either Rama or Krishna. If the great champions of Krishna are Surdas and Vidyapathi, Tulsidas sang of Rama. There was another school of writing called the Ritikavyakal Literally the word ritl means a way; in Hindi it refers to the special form giving predominance to the erotic element. Historic poetry and epics were also written in this period. Muhammad Jaisi composed his Padmavat, a romantic epic, in the Hindi metre and dialect, but based on Persian masnavi style and written In Persian characters. The second half of the nineteenth century saw Hindi literature enter the modern period. Hindi had to face the difficult task of cutting a new broad channel into which the waters of Its many tributaries could flow and which could be perennially fed from the vast reservoir of Sanskrit. This feat was performed by Bharatendu Harlshchandra and Mahavlrprasad Dwivedi, says Krishna Kripalani. Bharatendu is regarded as the father of modern Hindi literature. He deliberately chose the Khari Boll as the medium of prose and dramatic works, even as he used Braj-bhasha for his poetry. His writings reflect the urges and impulses of an age In which the old and the resurgent were inextricably woven together. His writings had an immense influence on other writers who enriched and modernised Hindi. Mahavirprasad Dwivedi brought a new vigour to literary activities and rejuvenated prose writing. Writers like Maithilisharan Gupta reflected in their work a simultaneous growth of the old and the new. In his poetry traditional style in all its vitality is combined with the force of new ideals. He revived the epic

tradition. It was an age when social, political and economic problems were taken up. Notable names of this school are Makhanlal Chaturvedi, Balkrishna Sharma Navin1, Ramdhari Singh Dlnkar. Then came the romantic upsurge which came to be known as Chayavada. Jayashankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi Nirala and Sumitranandan Pant were the leaders of this movement. Jayashankar Prasads Kamayani published in 1936 presents the psycho-biological journey of man through time and space. Mahadevi Varma is another major poet of the chayavad school. Nature was given importance by these writers who wrote according to their inner urges.After Chayavad came two rival trends. One was progresstvism Pragatlvadaor peoples poetry inspired by Marxian ideology. Yashpal, Nagarjun, Rameshwar Shukla and Naresh Mehta belong to this school. The other was Prayogavad or experimentalism, looking upon experiment or constant quest as the basic element of life and literature. Vatsyayam lAgyeya) initiated this movement. His Sekhar Ek Jivant is a noteworthy work. Others in this school are Dharmavlr Bharatl, Girija Kumar Mathur, Lakshml Kant Verma. In the field of fiction the name of Premchand stands out He brought contemporary realism into the Hindi novel and short story. His imaginative insight into the life of the common folk, specialty in the villages, and his simple and direct delineation of that life had a great influence on many other writers of the time. The Progressive school owed much to Premchand. The post-Premchand novel is characterised by historical, psychological and progressive factors. Novels of local colour are being developed. In the field of drama, the first original drama In the real sense was Gopa l Chandras Nahusa Nataka. But it was Gopal Chandras son Bharatendu who effected a compromise between the technique of Sanskrit and Western drama to evolve Hindi prose-drama in the real sense. In the field of literary criticism, Acharya Ramachandra Shukla synthesised ancient Sanskrit poetics and modem Western criticism.

Malayalam
Pacha Malayalam, i.e. the pure Malayalam stream consists of ballads and folk songs difficult to date. By the 10th century or so, Malayalam had come into Its own. As a literary language, Malayalam was influenced by Tamil in Its early stages of development To this period belongs Chiramans Ramacharitam (12th century AD). Then came the works of the Niranam poets who show a little less of Tamil Influence. Sanskrit also influenced Malayalam, resulting In a specal variety of literary dialect known as manipravalam. In the 14th century was written Lilathilakam which is concerned with grammar, especially of the manipravalam compositions. Such compositions were either Sandesa kavyas or Champus. Among sandesa kavyas, the best-known is the Unnunli Sandesam (14th century) whose authorship is not known. Among the champus, a well-known work is Unntyaticharitam. In the fifteenth century there was a move to avoid excessive use of Sanskrit or Tamil idiom. A pioneer In this class of literature was Rama Panikkar who wrote Kannassa Ramayanam. Ramanuja Ezhuthachan (16th century) represented grandeur in poetic quality. His Adhyatama Ramayanam and Bhagavatam are classics in Malayalam literature. His literary modes were anticipated to an extent by Cherusseri Namboodri who wrote Krishnagatha. Ezhuthachan made popular the literary form known as kilipattu or song of the parrot. In the 18th century came Kunchan Nambiar who took literature to the common masses through his Thullals popular narrative poems full of social criticism and satire. In the same period we have Atta-kathathe literature form for the Kathakali performance. Kottarakara Thampurans Ramanattam is the first full-fledged Atta-katha. In the nineteenth century two factors gave a fillip to the development of Malayalam as a literary language, namely, the new system of education that had taken roots through the activities of missionaries and the influence of Madras University established In 1857. Kerala Vannas name Is famous for devising a programme for developing the language by the production of suitable text books for all classes. The Venmani school of poets broke off the shackles of Sanskiit and developed a popular diction to take

literature to the masses. Besides, there were missionaries, like Benjamin Bulley and Hermann Gundert who compiled j dictionaries. Rajaraja Varma gave Malayalam an authoritative grammer [Kerala Pcminlyam} and standardised Malayalam metres. With Kumaran Asan and Vallathol Narayana Menon, modernism gatheied momentum. Vallathoi brought the spirit of nationalism into Malayalam literature. Asans writings were motivated by deep social urges. Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer aitempted to reconcile the classical with the modem spirit. By the 1930s a new revolt began to manifest itself. Changampuzha Krishna Pillal was its leader. Symbolism became prominent and G. Sankara Kurup, the first ever Jnanpith Award winner, was its outstanding exooient. Not only ir poetry but In all fields of literature Malayalam has made its mark. Thakazhi Siva sankara Pillal (Chemmeen) and S.K. Pottekat are Jnanpith Award winners in fiction writing. Other novelists of note are Mohammed Basheer, O.V. Vijayan and MT.Vasudevan Nair. In the field of drama names like E.V. Krishna Pillai, C.J. Thomas, G. Sankara Pillai stand out. Malayalam literature has shown great vitality and creativity in recent times.