SPECIAL PUBLICATION GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

No. 1, 2013, pp.356-379

17

Multiproxy Evidence of Main Deccan Traps

Pulse near the Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary

THIERRY ADATTE1 AND GERTA KELLER2

1
Institut de Géologie et Paléontologie, Université de Lausanne,
Anthropole, CH-1015 Lausanne,
Switzerland; 2Department of Geosciences, Princeton University, Princeton NJ 08544, USA
E-mail: thierry.adatte@unil.ch

Abstract
Recent studies indicate that the bulk (80%) of Deccan trap eruptions occurred over a
relatively short time interval in magnetic polarity C29r, whereas multiproxy studies from
central and southeastern India place the Cretaceous-Tertiary (KT) mass extinction near
the end of this main phase of Deccan volcanism suggesting a cause-and-effect relationship.
Beyond India multiproxy studies also place the main Deccan phase in the uppermost
Maastrichtian C29r below the KTB (planktic foraminiferal zones CF2-CF1), as indicated
by a rapid shift in 187Os/188Os ratios in deep-sea sections from the Atlantic, Pacific and
Indian Oceans, coincident with rapid climate warming, coeval increase in weathering, a
significant decrease in bulk carbonate indicative of acidification due to volcanic SO2, and
major biotic stress conditions expressed in species dwarfing and decreased abundance in
calcareous microfossils (planktic foraminifera and nannofossils). These observations
indicate that Deccan volcanism played a key role in increasing atmospheric CO2 and SO2
levels that resulted in global warming and acidified oceans, respectively, increasing
biotic stress that predisposed faunas to eventual extinction at the KTB.
Keywords: Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary, Mass Extinction, Deccan, Maastrichtian,
Chicxulub, geochemistry, mineralogy, micro and macropaleontology.

INTRODUCTION
Earth’s volcanic activity is one of the two leading scenarios proposed to explain
the pattern of mass extinctions in the Phanerozoic, the other involving asteroid impacts.
During nearly 28 years of unchallenged perception that a large impact (Chicxulub) on
Yucatan caused the end-Cretaceous mass extinction, this theory is facing its most
serious challenge from Deccan volcanism in India.
 MULTIPROXY EVIDENCE OF MAIN DECCAN TRAPS 357

Recent advances in Deccan volcanic studies suggest that the main phase of
eruptions occurred rapidly over tens of thousands of years (Chenet et al., 2007, 2008)
near the end of the Maastrichtian and may have caused the mass extinction as initially
detailed from quarries in Rajahmundry (Keller et al., 2008, Fig. 1). The Rajahmundry
area is ideal because the two traps represent part of the Deccan volcanic acme (phases
1 and 2) and the geographically longest lava flows that have been tentatively correlated
with the Ambenali (phase-1) and Mahalabeshwar (phase-2) Formations (Chenet et
al., 2007, 2008; Saunders et al., 2007; Jay and Widdowson, 2008; Self et al., 2008).

Age Magnetic Lithology Biostratigraphy

Biozones Polarity Keller et al. 2008
C28r

Upper flow
P1c

Zone P1c
64.0
Early Danian

Lower flow
C29n
P1b

Zone P1b
NP1

upper
64.5

lava flows
C29n
P0-P1a

Zone P1a
P. eugubina
65.0

lower
C29r
CF1

lava flows CF1

Late Maastrichtian

C29r
M. prinsii
CF2

CF2
65.5

Maastrichtian
limestone
C30n

CF3
CF3
M. murus

66.0

Fig.1. Late Maastrichtian to early Danian biostratigraphy and map of India with locations of sections in
Rajahmundry and Jhilmili and the Krishna-Godavari and Cauvery Basins. Planktic foraminiferal
biostratigraphy places the lower trap in the latest Maastrichtian zone CF1 with the uppermost lava
flow of phase-2 at the KTB mass extinction. Numerical ages are from Cande and Kent (1995).
Panorama view of Rajhamundry intertrappean sequence (Balaji Quarry) shows upper and lower
basalt trap flows.

Investigations of Deccan Traps outcrops at Jhilmili, Madhya Pradesh in central

India identified the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary (KTB) below a marine incursion in
a predominantly terrestrial sequence, which signals a major seaway existed at KT
time (Keller et al., 2009a,b). Critical data linking Deccan volcanism to the KTB mass
extinction comes from investigations of subsurface cores drilled in the Krishna-
Godavari Basin, eastern India, by the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation of India
(ONGC). In subsurface cores a total of 4 volcanic megaflows have been identified as
358 THIERRY ADATTE AND GERTA KELLER

occurring in very rapid succession near the end of the Maastrichtian and another
4 flows in the early Danian (C29n) (e.g., Jaiprakash et al., 1993; Raju et al, 1995;
Keller et al., 2011, 2012). These megaflows span over 1000 km across India and out
to the Bay of Bengal. They are the longest lava flows known in Earth’s history
(Self et al., 2008).
The biotic effects of these megaflows can be evaluated based on planktic
foraminifera, which suffered the most severe mass extinction of all marine organisms.
With the onset of major eruptions just prior to the first megaflow up to 50% of the
species disappeared. Another 50% disappeared after the first megaflow and with each
new megaflow more species died out culminating in near total mass extinction
coincident with the last megaflow at the KTB. After the mass extinction, no megaflows
reached the Krishna-Godavari Basin for about 280 ky during which time a low diversity
early Danian assemblage of small new species evolved globally. The last major Deccan
volcanic phase-3 began at or near the C29R/C29N boundary and appears to have
been the cause for the long delay in the full biotic recovery (Keller et al., 2011).
Deccan volcanism can thus explain both the KTB mass extinction and the long
delayed biotic recovery that has been an enigma for so long. But instead of a single
impact catastrophe a cascade of rapid massive volcanic eruptions and their complex
destructive interactions with Earth’s equilibrium may have done the deed (Fig. 2). It
is well known that the latest Maastrichtian (~65.8 to 65.6 Ma, planktic foraminiferal
zones CF1-CF2 transition) was characterized by a major warm event that ended with
climate cooling about 50-100 kyr before the KT boundary (Li and Keller, 1998a,b;
Barrera and Savin, 1999; Wilf et al., 2003). These climate changes were associated
with major faunal turnovers in marine micro- and macrofaunas and terrestrial plants
leading up to the KTB mass extinction (Keller, 2001; Wilf Keller and Abramovich,
2009). The observed climate, faunal and floral changes may have been triggered by
Deccan volcanism as a result of massive CO2 and SO2 emissions.
Model results predict that Deccan Traps emplacement was responsible for a strong
increase in atmospheric pCO2 accompanied by rapid warming of 4°C (Dessert et al.,
2001, 2003) that was followed by global cooling. During the warming phase, increased
continental weathering of silicates associated with consumption of atmospheric CO2
likely resulted in the drawdown of greenhouse gases that reversed the warming trend
leading to global cooling at the end of the Maastrichtian. Massive CO2 input together
with massive release of SO2 may thus have triggered the mass extinctions in the marine
realm as a result of ocean acidification leading to a carbon crisis and in the terrestrial
realms due to acid rains (Fig. 2). Global stress conditions related to these climatic
changes are well known and documented in planktic foraminifera by a diversity
decrease, species dwarfing, dominance of opportunistic species and near disappearance
of specialized species (review in Keller and Abramovich, 2009).
What proxies could test the modeling results, especially in terms of tempo and
timing? A number of proxies show promise including osmium, strontium and oxygen
 C02 emissions Greenhouse Enhanced
Increase in humidity Increasing nutrients
(3X present) weathering
and temperature (+ 4°C)

Deccan Trapps Decrease in CO2

Final recovery
Ocean acidification
Activity
(67.5-64.6 Ma)
Cooling (-0.6C°)
SO2 emissions Carbonate Crisis
Acid rains (Planctic forams extinction)

Delayed recovery

Extinctions
MULTIPROXY EVIDENCE OF MAIN DECCAN TRAPS

on land

Fig. 2. Flow chart for the model of massive Deccan volcanism as a main trigger of environmental changes leading to the KTB mass extinction.
359
360 THIERRY ADATTE AND GERTA KELLER

isotopes, bulk and clay minerals and paleontological extinction patterns. Microfossil
extinction patterns, particularly of planktic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils,
have long been the most obvious and reliable proxies of environmental change and
are routinely used by paleontologists to interpret the tempo and nature of past climatic
and environmental changes (Keller and Abramovich, 2009; Thibault and Gardin, 2006).
In terrestrial environments leaf margin analysis is a common proxy for climate change
(Wilf et al., 2003). Oxygen isotopes are the most commonly used geochemical proxy
of climate change and many records exist for the late Maastrichtian (Fig. 3) (e.g.,
Sites 525A, 577, 690, 1050, Brazos River, Texas, Stott and Kennett, 1990; Li and
Keller, 1998b; MacLeod et al., 2005; Abramovich et al., 2011). Other commonly
used proxies are bulk rock and clay minerals (Adatte et al., 2002) and more rarely
δ13Corg from discrete pedogenic carbonate nodules in Alberta, Canada (Nordt et al.,
2003). More recently developed proxies include osmium isotopes, which have been
analyzed from tropical Pacific and South Atlantic deep-sea sites (Fig. 3, DSDP Sites
577, 525A and 690, Robinson et al., 2009) and strontium isotopes from various Pacific
and Atlantic deep-sea sites (e.g., DSDP Sites 356, 384, 528 and 577, Martin and
MacDougall, 1991). Here we review these proxies and their potential relationships to
the main phase of Deccan eruptions in the uppermost Maastrichtian C29r (CF2-CF1
transition) that ended at the end-Cretaceous mass extinction.

Fig. 3. Paleogeographical reconstruction of localities discussed in this study. Paleomap adapted from
Blakey, R., NAU Geology webbsite (http://jan.ucc.nau.edu).

GEOCHEMICAL PROXIES
Osmium Isotopes
Since the work of Luck and Turekian (1983), it has been widely accepted that
 MULTIPROXY EVIDENCE OF MAIN DECCAN TRAPS 361

the abrupt negative shift in 187Os/188Os observed at the KTB was the result of a
very large impact.
Ravizza and Peucker-Ehrenbrink (2003) showed that there is also a decline in
the marine 187Os/188Os record prior to the negative shift at the KTB and attributed this
earlier shift to Deccan volcanism. Their first results thus indicated that the marine
osmium (Os) isotope record of the latest Maastrichtian has a distinct and resolvable
shape that can be used to determine the relative timing of rapid changes in osmium
input to the oceans, specifically those resulting from Deccan volcanism. For Ravizza
and Peucker-Ehrenbrink (2003), the decrease in the 187Os/188Os record during the late
Maastrichtian is linked to Deccan volcanism, which eliminates a source of radiogenic
Os derived from the Indian basement. Several authors have shown an association
between LIP eruptions and 187Os/188Os excursions (e.g., CAMP, (Cohen and Coe, 2002),
Ontong Java (Tejada et al., 2006, 2009; Turgeon and Creaser, 2008).
Robinson et al (2009) provide a high-resolution marine 187Os/188Os record for
the late Maastrichtian in the Bottaccione Gorge at Gubbio, Italy, which reveals the
chemical fingerprints of Deccan volcanism and the KTB impact (Fig. 4). Comparison

Three Main Phases of Deccan Volcanism, World’s Longest

Lava Flows in Rajahmundry & Os Isotopes
28n Ma Rajahmundry Rajahmundry Bottaccione Gorge
upper flow lower flow Italy
Robinson et al. (2009)
64
29n
Phase 3 65.0
Ma
KTB shift-2
29r 65 65.5
Phase 2 shift-1
66.0

66 66.5

30n 67.0

67 67.5
Phase 1 68.0
.25 .35 .45 .55 .65

31n 68 187Os/ 188 Os

Numerical ages, Volume of emitted magma Numerical ages,

Cande & Kent, (1995)) Chenet et al.(2008) Gradstein et al., (2004)

Fig. 4. Timing and magnitude of volume emitted during the three main phases of Deccan volcanism
(after Chenet et al., 2008), and correlation of the main phase-2 with the 187Os/188Os shift of the
Bottaccione Gorge (after Robinson et al., 2009). Note that volcanism phase-2 correlates with the
lower Rajahmundry flows and with the Os isotope shift near the KTB, whereas phase-3 correlates
with the upper Rajahmundry flows. 187Os/188Os data suggest that the main Deccan activity started
around 66.3 and culminated just before the KTB.
362 THIERRY ADATTE AND GERTA KELLER

of their data with the main Deccan phases of Chenet et al. (2008) shows a small
decrease in 187Os/188Os values between 68 to 67.8 Ma coinciding with the first phase
of Deccan activity (Fig. 4). This is followed by a gradual decrease beginning at 66.2
Ma and ending with an abrupt and significant decrease at 65.8 Ma approximately
200-300 kyr before the KTB (time scale of Cande and Kent, 1995). Note that this
time is based on the time scale of Gradstein et al. (2004).
Above this interval 187Os/188Os values decrease gradually and reach minimum
values at the KTB. This gradual decrease spans the last 200 kyr (or 100 kyr based on
Gradstein et al., 2004) of the Maastrichtian that correlates with the main phase-2 of
Deccan eruptions that encompass an estimated 80% of the total Deccan lava pile
(Chenet et al., 2008). However, identifying the origins (impact and/or volcanism) of
the abrupt decrease (shift 1), or the minimum values (shift-2) at the KTB remains
difficult (Fig. 4). Increasingly, Chicxulub impact spherule ejecta in sections from
Mexico and Texas indicate that this impact predates the KTB by 200-300 kyr (half
that time based on Gradstein et al., 2004) (Keller et al., 2003, 2004, 2007b, 2009c). It
is therefore possible that the late Maastrichtian shift-1 coincides with the Chicxulub
impact.

Oxygen Isotopes and Strontium Isotopes

Maastrichtian paleotemperature estimates from high- and mid-latitude deep-sea
sites with reliable age control (magnetic polarity) and oxygen isotope data measured
on foraminifera reveal long-term global cooling through the Maastrichtian
superimposed by dramatic climate and temperature fluctuations during the last 300-
400 kyr (Fig. 5, e.g. Nye Kløv and Stevns Klint, Denmark (Schmitz et al., 1993; Hart
et al., 2005), South Atlantic DSDP Site 525A (Li and Keller, 1998a,b), western North
Atlantic, ODP Site 1050, Weddell Sea ODP Site 690 (Douglas and Savin, 1973; Barrera
et al., 1997; Barrera and Savin, 1999; Olsson et al., 2001; MacLeod et al., 2005). The
most extreme climate changes occurred within the late Maastrichtian, including global
cooling between 67.7 and 66 Ma (in chron C30n), which decreased sea-surface
temperatures (SST) by 3°C in middle to high-latitudes (Barrera and Savin, 1999; Li
and Keller, 1998b; Wilf et al., 2003). This cooling was followed by rapid and intense
warming of 3–4 °C within Chron 29r about 150 kyr or 300 kyr (Gradstein et al, 2004;
Cande and Kent, 1995) respectively) before the KT boundary. Global cooling resumed
during the last 50-100 kyr of the Maastrichtian and lowered SST by 2–3 °C.
Stott and Kennett (1990) suggested that the abrupt high-latitude warming near
the end of the Maastrichtian resulted from changes in the carbon cycle. Site 525A
provides evidence for this idea based on decreased surface productivity evident by
decreased δ13C coeval with climate warming (Li and Keller, 1998b; Abramovich et
al., 2003). This implies that increased atmospheric pCO2 is the most likely cause for
the short-term warming. Deccan Trap volcanic degassing may have contributed
significantly to the increased pCO2 at this time. The main phase of Deccan eruptions
 MULTIPROXY EVIDENCE OF MAIN DECCAN TRAPS 363

Sites

Fig. 5. Uppermost Cretaceous paleotemperatures estimated from oxygen isotope data from tests of
benthic (filled symbols) and planktic (open symbols) foraminifera at middle- (a) and high- (b)
latitude drilling sites (after Wilf et al., 2003). Data based on Bass River core (Olsson et al., 2001),
DSDP Site 525A, South Atlantic, (Li and Keller, 1998a,b), ODP Site 1050, western North Atlantic
(Wilf et al., 2002) and ODP Site 690, Weddell Sea (Barrera et al., 1999; Wilf et al., 2002). Numerical
ages from Gradstein et al., (2004).

occurred in C29R below the KTB (Courtillot et al., 1988, 1996; Baksi et al., 1994,
2005; Bhandari et al., 1995, Knight et al., 2003, 2005; Chenet et al., 2007, 2008;
Keller et al, 2008, 2009a,b). Although precise age control for the onset of the main
phase of Deccan volcanism is still lacking, these massive volcanic eruptions appear
correlative with the rapid climate warming.
The latest Maastrichtian cooling may be attributed to increased weathering caused
by the enhanced greenhouse conditions, which raises CO2 consumption and leads to
decreased PCO2 and hence decreasing temperature (Fig. 2). The evolution of 87Sr/86Sr
ratio through the KTB transition provides good evidence for this scenario (Fig. 6).
87
Sr/86Sr values increased after 66 Ma and show a maximum at or just before the KTB
(Martin and Macdougall, 1991, Vonhof and Smit, 1997; MacLeod et al., 2001) and
364 THIERRY ADATTE AND GERTA KELLER

0.70792
KT
Martin & Macdougall, 1991

0.70790

0.70788
87Sr/ 86Sr

0.70786

0.70784

0.70782

0.70780
67 66 65 64 63 64
Age (Ma)
87 86
Fig. 6. The evolution of the seawater Sr/ Sr ratio across the KT boundary (after Martin and Macdougal,
1991). Absolute age recalibrated based on Cande and Kent (1995).

apparently just after the main phase of Deccan eruption given current time resolution.
Since increased weathering of continental silicate rocks provides radiogenic Sr to the
ocean, a peak in the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of seawater following the Deccan Traps emplacement
is expected. The probable source of the radiogenic Sr is thus enhanced continental
weathering linked to greenhouse conditions. However, the rate of radiogenic Sr release
appears too high for volcanism and associated weathering to be the sole source. But
acid rain associated with SO2 emissions from Deccan volcanism can significantly
enhance the radiogenic Sr input and thus account for the observed peak at or near
the KTB.

Mineralogy
Clay mineral assemblages reflect continental morphology and tectonic activity,
as well as climate evolution and associated sea-level fluctuations (Chamley, 1989,
1997; Weaver, 1989; Li et al., 2000; Adatte et al., 2002). Kaolinite is generally a
byproduct of highly hydrolytic weathering reactions in perennially warm humid
climates and its formation requires a minimum of 15ºC (Gaucher, 1981). The kaolinite/
smectite ratio is a climate proxy that reflects humid/warm to drier and more seasonal
climate variations (e.g., Robert and Chamley, 1991; Robert and Kennett, 1992). The
 MULTIPROXY EVIDENCE OF MAIN DECCAN TRAPS 365

ratio of kaolinite to smectite (K/SM) can therefore be used as proxy for climate change.
Increased continental runoff can also be deduced from the bulk mineralogy where
high phyllosilicates and quartz contents reflect enhanced detrital input (Fig. 7).
Bulk rock and clay mineral compositions trough the KTB interval are
characterized by a significant increase in phyllosilicates to the detriment of calcite
and a strong increase in kaolinite (Fig. 7) in both middle and low latitude sites (e.g.
South Atlantic, Tunisia, Adatte et al, 2002). Identical changes are also observed in
zones CF2 and CF1 in Madagascar (Abramovich et al., 2002). The climate of the east
boreal Paratethys of Kazakhstan, as inferred from clay mineral analysis, was relatively
cool and seasonally variable during the late Maastrichtian followed by abrupt warming
during the latest Maastrichtian (Pardo et al., 1999). This warming is accompanied by
the temporary incursion of lower-latitude species, increased phyllosilicates, particularly
kaolinite in zones CF2 and CF1, which reflects intensified continental runoff under
perennially wet conditions due to greenhouse warming that may be related to the
main phase of Deccan volcanism. Acid rain caused by SO2 emissions may also have
significantly contributed to enhanced terrigenous input.

PALEONTOLOGY

Invertebrates
Some marine invertebrates with carbonate shells declined in diversity well before
the KTB, but the main diversity drop began in the early late Maastrichtian between
67.8 and 67.5 Ma beginning with decimation of rudists, echinoderms and inoceramids
(Fig. 8, MacLeod and Ward, 1990; Johnson and Kauffman, 1990; 1996; Zinsmeister,
1996). As far as age control permits this terminal diversity decline followed a major
sea level drop at ~68 Ma, the onset of the late Maastrichtian climate cooling, and the
onset of Deccan volcanism (67.5 Ma, pase-1, Chenet et al., 2008). Significant
extinctions also occurred among terrestrial plants during this time interval (Johnson,
2002), although palynoflora of the Tethys show a major diversity increase (Méon,
1990). Some macrofauna, including ammonites, also show a significant increase in
diversity at this time based on records from Seymour Island, Antarctica (Macellari,
1986) and Bay of Biscay, Spain (Ward and Kennedy, 1993), whereas their terminal
diversity decrease began around 66 Ma coincident with the maximum late Maastrichtian
cooling and sea level drop. These selective and gradual paleontological variations
have multiple causes linked to sea level, climate and ocean circulation, particularly
during the early late Maastrichtian. Within the limits of invertebrate age control, the
terminal extinctions accelerated during the latest Maastrichtian global warming and
subsequent cooling, a time that coincided with the main phase-2 of Deccan volcanism
that ended at the KTB (Chenet et al., 2008; Keller et al., 2008).
 366
Middle Latitudes (El Kef, Tunisia) High latitude Site (DSP 525a)

Phyllosilicates Kaolinite

Stage

Age (Ma)
20 40 60 20 40 60 80 100

Paleocene
T

Deccan volc.
65.00
K

CF1 P1a P1b F. Biozones

65.30
CF2
65.45

66.80

Late Maastrichtian
CF4 CF3
68.3
60% 80%

CF5
69.1
THIERRY ADATTE AND GERTA KELLER

CF6
69.6

Early Maastrichtian
CF7
Fig. 7. Left: Evolution of the kaolinite/smectite ratio (unpublished data) in DSDP Site 525a compared with 18O data measured on benthic foraminifera (Li and
Keller, 1998a). Right: Phyllosilicate (bulk rock data) and kaolinite (<2µm size fraction) distributions at El Kef, Tunisia (Adatte et al., 2002). Note that
kaolinite and phylloslicates increase from the late Maastrichtian into the early Danian, which indicates overall increased humidity. Numerical ages from
Cande and Kent (1995).
 MULTIPROXY EVIDENCE OF MAIN DECCAN TRAPS 367

Marine Invertebrate Deccan δ18O Site 525A Sea-Level

Extinctions Volcanism
KTB Li & Keller, 1998a,b Li et al., 2000
65.0 Ph
as
Ma Max . w ar m i n g e2
65.5

66.0
Late Maastrichtian

66.5

67.0

67.5

68.0

(Time scale, Cande and Kent, Surface, R. rugosa 10 12 14 16 18 low high

1995); Volc. Chenet et al., 2008 seafloor, A. acuta Paleotemperature ( C)

Fig. 8. Invertebrate and vertebrate diversity record through the Maastrichian. A: Generic diversity changes
of the major molluscan and echinoderm groups. Numerical ages are from Cande and Kent (1995).
Note that the main diversity decrease in ammonites, echinoderms, rudists and inoceramids coincided
with climate cooling and the onset of Deccan volcanism (67.5 Ma) observed by Chenet et al al. (2008).
During the main phase-2 Deccan volcanism these invertebrates were already extinct or near extinction.

Dinosaurs
Sea level regressions and global cooling during the late Maastrichtian also seem
to parallel the diversity decrease in dinosaurs (Fig. 9, Lethiers, 1998), although the
rarity of taxa make this record less reliable due to strong preservational bias and few
localities (Archibald and Bryant 1990; Archibald, 1996; Archiald and Fastovsky, 2004).
However, there is general agreement that dinosaur diversity began a long-term decrease
coincident with global cooling during the late Campanian to early Maastrichtian. They
continued to decrease from 30 to 20 genera by 68 Ma, rapidly decreased to 12 genera
during the last 150 or 300 kyr of the Maastrichtian coincident with the global warming
and subsequent cooling that coincides with the main phase-2 of Deccan volcanism,
and rapidly went extinct by KTB time (Fig. 9).
The correlation with Deccan volcanism is particularly strong in India where
most of the dinosaur remains are found in the Lameta Formation immediately below
the phase-1 volcanism (e.g., Srivastava et al. 1986; Sahni et al. 1996; Mohabey, 1998,
2001). Intertrappean dinosaur remains are rare between Deccan main phases 1 and 2
and consist of eggshell fragments, isolated teeth and rare bones (e.g., Rao and Yadagiri,
368 THIERRY ADATTE AND GERTA KELLER

South Atlantic Site 525A Dinosaur Deccan Sea

δ18O Extinctions Volcanism Level
KTB Cool
C29R
Late Maastrichtian
C30N
C31N

warm temperaate
E. Maast.
C31R

Lethiers (2000)
10 12 14 16 18 0 10 20 30 low high
Li & Keller
(1998a) Paleotemperature ( C) Nr. of Genera
Fig. 9. Decreased diversity of Dinosaurs during the Maastrichtian compared with climate and sea-level
changes and Deccan volcanism phases 1 and 2. Note that the decrease in diversity is strongly
related to climate cooling with accelerated decrease during the global warming. Near the end of
the Maastrichtian, the rapid drop to extinction may be due to Deccan volcanism phase-2.

1981; Ghevariya 1988; Sahni and Bajpai 1988; Srinivasan, 1996; Bajpai and Prasad
2000). These fragmented dinosaur remains are relatively well preserved and therefore
not considered reworked, although recovery of complete dinosaur eggs would
constitute stronger evidence against reworking (e.g., Keller et al., 2009b). To date, no
dinosaurs remains are not anymore present in the sediments intercalated in the lava
from phase -2 (uppermost Maastrichtian).
The cause for the rapid end-Maastrichtian dinosaur decline and extinction in
India and globally appears to be closely linked to Deccan volcanism and resulting
climate and sea level changes (Fig. 9). In particular, the global rapid warming of 3-
4ºC followed by rapid cooling at the end of the Maastrichtian may be a direct
consequence of atmospheric CO2/O2 linked to volcanic activity that may have caused
respiratory and metabolic stress for the more vulnerable organisms (Landis et al.,
1996). The massive release of SO2 likely resulted in the productivity crisis in terrestrial
and marine realms due to acid rain on land and acidification of oceans.
Planktonic Foraminifera
The strongest paleontological proxies for the KTB mass extinction are calcareous
marine micro-organisms, particularly planktonic foraminifera and nannoplankton.
 MULTIPROXY EVIDENCE OF MAIN DECCAN TRAPS 369

Planktonic foraminifera rapidly diversified and reached maximum Cretaceous diversity

during zone CF4 around 67.5-68 Ma and rapidly decreased during the last 100-200
kyr of the Maastrichtian (Li and Keller, 1998a; Keller, 2001). By KT boundary time
all larger specialized Cretaceous species (2/3 of all species) had disappeared. Just a
small number (~9 species) of small species tolerant of environmental changes survived
for a short time into the early Danian leaving just one species, Guembelitria cretacea,
as sole long-term survivor.
Studies of intertrappean sediments in Jhilmili (Madhya Pradesh), Rajahmundry
and the Krishna-Godavari (K-G) Basin (Andhra Pradesh) and Um Sohrenkew in
Meghalaya have for the first time linked the KTB mass extinction directly to the main
phase-2 Deccan volcanism (Keller et al., 2008, 2009a,b, 2011; Gertsch et al., 2011).
In the Rajahmundry and K-G Basin at least 4 megaflows in phase-2 mark the world’s
longest lava flows (Self et al., 2008; Keller et al., 2011). Based foraminiferal studies
of nine deep wells from the K-G Basin drilled by the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
(ONGC) of India the nature and tempo of the KTB mass extinction in India can now
be assessed. The mass extinction began in Deccan phase-2 preceding the first of four
megaflows. Planktic foraminifera suffered a 50% drop in species richness. Survivors
suffered another 50% drop after the first megaflow, leaving just 7 to 8 survivor species.
No recovery occurred between the next three megaflows and the mass extinction was
complete with the last phase-2 megaflow at the KTB. In Meghalaya, the biological
effects of Deccan phase-2 volcanism can be seen in the low diversity species
assemblages dominated (95%) by the disaster opportunist Guembelitria cretacea
(Gertsch et al., 2011). The KTB mass extinction in India was likely the consequence
of rapid and massive volcanic CO2 and SO2 gas emissions, leading to high continental
weathering rates, global warming, cooling, acid rains, ocean acidification and a carbon
crisis in the marine environment.
Still to be evaluated are the global biotic effects of Deccan volcanism. Preliminary
assessment can be made based on the disaster opportunist Guembelitria cretacea that
thrived during late Maastrichtian high stress conditions associated with volcanic
disturbances, as well as in the aftermath of the mass extinction. For example, major
Guembelitria blooms are observed in zones CF1 and/or CF4 in Israel and Egypt
(Abramovich et al., 1998, 2010; Keller, 2002, 2004) Madagascar and Ninetyeast Ridge
(Abramovich et al., 2002; Keller, 2003), Texas and Argentina (Keller et al., 2007b;
Abramovich et al., 2011). Preliminary investigations have also revealed the zone CF4
Guembelitria bloom in the Cauvery Basin. In all these localities the zone CF1
Guembelitria blooms coincide with the latest Maastrichtian climate changes and
Deccan volcanism phase-2, whereas the zone CF4 blooms correspond to the onset of
Deccan volcanism phase-1 (Fig. 10).
Dwarfing, or early sexual maturation is another biotic response to high stress
conditions in planktic foraminifera that affects both large specialized and smaller
generalist taxa (Abramovich and Keller, 2003; Keller and Abramovich, 2009). Deep
370 THIERRY ADATTE AND GERTA KELLER

Deccan Volcanism, Climate and Guembelitria Bloom Events

Eastern Tethys Brazos, Texas South Atlantic DSDP Site 525A
upper slope middle-inner shelf
KTB 0 Ph

CF2-1
m 65.5

455 m
CF1

29R
as
CF1

m
e m ax . w ar m i n g
2
5
5
66.0
CF2

460
10

CF3
Upper Maastrichtian

10
66.5

30N
15

465
CF3

15
20 67.0

470
25 20
Phase 1 67.5
Deccan Volc.

CF4

475
30
25
68.0

480
CF4

35

31N
30
40

mbsf 485
CF5
68.5
35

0 10 20 30 40 50% 0 10 20 30 40 50 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5

δ18O (PDB) (Time scale
Givat Mador, Israel Mullinax-1,Texas after Gradstein
(Abramovich et al., 1998) (Abramovich et al.,in press) Li and Keller (1998a,b) et al., 2004)

Fig. 10. Stratigraphic correlation of Guembelitria bloom events in the upper Maastrichtian of the eastern
Tethys (Israel) and Western Interior Seaway (Brazos, Texas) correlated with the climate record of
South Atlantic DSDP Site 525A and Deccan volcanism phase-1 and phase-2. Note there are two
major Guembelitria blooms in zones CF4 and CF2-CF1, which represent major environmental
stress conditions correlative with the first two phases of Deccan volcanism. Similar Guembelitria
blooms associated with high stress conditions have also been documented from Argentina and
Indian Ocean DSDP Site 216 (Keller, 2003; Keller et al., 2007). (Modified after Abramovich et
al., 2010).

sea Site 525A on Walvis Ridge, South Atlantic reveals up to 60% of individuals of
larger specialized taxa dwarfed (up to 40% smaller than normal adult-sized specimens)
during climate warming accompanied by significantly reduced diversity (Fig. 11). At
the same time the environmentally more tolerant Heterohelix globolusa populations
decreased strongly. These major biotic changes are likely a direct consequence of the
climatic and environmental changes that may be associated with Deccan volcanism
phase-2.

Calcareous Nannofossils
Calcareous nannosfossils at DSDP Site 525A in the middle latitude South Atlantic
and equatorial Atlantic Site 1258A record a succession of dramatic climatic fluctuations
through the late Maastrichtian (Thibault and Gardin, 2006, 2007) that mirror the
climatic changes recorded in the oxygen and carbon isotopes (Li and Keller, 1998a,b)
as well as terrestrial temperatures inferred from leaf margin analysis (Wilf et al.,
2003). At Site 525A “cool-water indicators” and the fertility index species Biscutum
constans suggest that cool surface water temperatures and high fertility prevailed
 MULTIPROXY EVIDENCE OF MAIN DECCAN TRAPS 371

during C30n (equivalent to planktic foraminiferal zone CF3) correlative with cool
terrestrial temperatures (Fig. 12). At the top of C30n, the sudden drop in abundance of
cool water taxa, disappearance of the high fertility index species and coeval increase
in the tropical species Micula murus suggest warming and lower surface water
productivity as also recorded in the stable isotopes and terrestrial plants (Figs. 11,
12). In C29r the M. murus acme reflects maximum warming correlative with the
maximum climate warming recorded in oxygen isotopes (zone CF2-CF1) and warm
terrestrial temperatures. During the last 50-100 kyr of the Maastrichtian, the decrease
in M. murus and increase in cool-water indicators mirror the rapid cooling observed
in marine oxygen isotopes and terrestrial plants. Calcareous nannoplankton are thus
excellent indicators of climate change.

Plants
Floral data derived from more than 22,000 identified specimens collected in the
vicinity of Marmath, North Dakota (Wilf et al., 2003) mirror the climate trends observed
in calcareous nannoplankton, planktonic foraminifera and the marine oxygen isotope
record (Fig. 13). During the latest Maastrichtian maximum warming (65.8 to 65.6
Ma) was followed by cooling during the last 50-100 kyr of the Maastrichtian (Fig.
12). The continental plant record of North Dakota calibrated with magnetostratigraphy
(Johnson, 2002; Hicks et al., 2002) and correlated with carbon and oxygen stable
isotopes measured in paleosol carbonates of Texas (Nordt et al., 2003) thus correlates
well with the marine record (Wilf et al., 2003).
In India a strong floral response is observed as a direct response to Deccan volcanic
phase-2. In Lameta (infratrappean) sediments preceding the volcanic eruptions,
palynoflora are dominated by gymnosperms and angiosperms with a rich canopy of
gymnosperms (Conifers and Podocarpaceae) and an understory of palms and herbs
(Samant and Mohabey, 2005; Samant et al., 2008). Immediately after the onset of
Deccan phase-2, this floral association was decimated leading to dominance by
angiosperms and pteridophytes at the expense of gymnosperms. In subsequent
intertrappean sediments a sharp decrease in pollen and spores coupled with the
appearance of fungi mark increasing stress conditions apparently as a direct result of
volcanic activity.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Various geochemical, mineralogical and paleontological proxies yield information
concerning the faunal, floral and environmental effects of Deccan volcanism in India
and globally. This review highlights the currently most promising proxies that can
improve our understanding of the environmental effects of Deccan volcanism and its
kill-potential leading up to the KTB mass extinction. To date the global climatic and
environmental records of the last 500 kyr of the Maastrichtian are relatively well
372 THIERRY ADATTE AND GERTA KELLER

Biotic Response to End-Maastrichtian Deccan Volcanism and Climate Change

Site 525A Heterohelix Dwarfing Diversity Paleotemperature ( C) Volcanism
9 10 11 12 13
KTB 65.5
KTB mass
extinction
65.6
CF2- CF1

Deccan
Late Maastrichtian

65.7 Volcanism
Phase 2
C29R

65.8

Phase 2 onset
65.9 of Decca volc.
uncertain

66.0
CF3

66.1
C30N

66.2

0 30 60 0 20 40 60 2.2 2.6 3 0.5 0 -0.5

Time scale,
Gradstein et al., Percent Percent Diversity (H’) δ18O (PDB)
2004 Abramovich & Keller, 2003 Li & Keller, 1998b

Fig. 11. Planktic foraminiferal response to the latest Maastrichtian climate warming in South Atlantic
Site 525A. Biotic stress conditions are evident during the maximum warming in the reduction of
species sizes (shown in relative size), abundance of dwarfed species, decreased diversity and
decreased abundance of the dominant species Heterohelix globulosa. (Modified after Abramovich
and Keller, 2003).

DSDP Site 525A Calcareous Nannoplankton Terrestrial Plants

Thibault & Gardin, 2007 Wilf et al., 2003
KTB

M. murus

Estimated mean
annual temperature ( C)
Gradstein et al., 2004 cool water spp. B. constans

Fig. 12. Nannofossils events of the latest Maastrichtian warming in Site 525A (after Thibault and Gardin,
2007) compared with the terrestrial temperature records based on plants (after Wilf et al. (2003).
Time scale after Gradstein et al. 2004). Note the dominance of M. murus during climate warming,
disappearance of the fertility index B. constans and decrease in cool water species.
 MULTIPROXY EVIDENCE OF MAIN DECCAN TRAPS 373

documented although the correlation with Deccan volcanism still tends to be inferential.
In India, direct cause-and-effect studies are possible based on sediments below and in
between Deccan flows. However, with the exception of the ONGC wells from the K-
G Basin these records are primarily terrestrial and fluvial with rare estuarine to marine
sequences, which hampers correlation with the marine record. As a result, studies
rarely attempt to integrate India’s local records with global climatic and environmental
changes. Although the proxies reviewed here primarily link global marine sequences
to Deccan volcanism, they can also be used in reverse to interpret India’s terrestrial
record.
Recent studies estimated that the bulk (80%) of Deccan trap eruptions occurred
in C29r below the KTB (Chenet et al, 2007, 2008), whereas planktonic foraminifera
identified the KTB at the end of Deccan phase-2 coincident with the world’s largest
and longest lava flows (Keller et al., 2011). Deccan volcanism must thus be considered
as major contributor, if not the sole cause for the mass extinction. As noted above a
possible killing mechanism could have been massive CO2 release triggering climate
warming and SO2 release causing acid rain and ocean acidification leading to a global
carbon crisis.
Evidence for rapid climate warming of at least 3-4ºC is ubiquitous in marine and
terrestrial realms just prior to the end-Maastrichtian cooling (e.g., Li and Keller, 1998b;
Wilf et al., 2003). A carbon crisis is apparent in decreased carbon productivity,
decreased diversity, lower abundance of calcareous organisms, high biotic stress
conditions and dissolution effects during the last 150 kyr or 300 kyr based on time
scales of Gradstein et al. (2004) and Cande and Kent (1995), respectively. Similarities
in the marine and continental (North America) climate records imply a common
response by photosynthetic organisms that suggests CO2 increase linked with the
main phase-2 Deccan volcanism as likely cause for the increasing temperatures.
Evidence from geochemical (187Os/188Os, 87Sr/86Sr, 18O isotopes), mineralogical (high
detrital and kaolinite influx), macropaleontological (near disappearance of rudist and
inoceramid, decreased dinosaurs diversity) and micropaleontogical (dwarfing and
decreased abundance of species) proxies from localities outside India confirm that
this megapulse took place in the uppermost Maastrichtian C29r below the KTB (CF2-
CF1 transition).
Empirical observations to date thus indicate that Deccan volcanism played a key
role in increasing atmospheric CO2 levels that resulted in global warming and enhanced
greenhouse effect which, coupled with high SO2 emissions, increased biotic stress
and predisposed faunas to eventual extinction at the KTB. Planktic foraminiferal studies
of intertrappean sediments indicate that the mass extinction is directly linked to the
main phase-2 Deccan volcanism that ended at the KTB. Still unknown are the nature
and killing mechanisms of Deccan volcanism globally, the local and global
environmental changes associated with it, and the roles that the pre-KTB Chicxulub
impact played in this multi-causal mass extinction scenario.
374 THIERRY ADATTE AND GERTA KELLER

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