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Joseph Ayoub
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Bob Cooper
Houston, Texas, USA
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Paul
Martins, BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc., Anchorage,
Alaska, USA; and Jack Elbel and Richard Marcinew,
Dowell Schlumberger, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA.
18
A classic fracture stimulation creates narrow conduits that reach deep into a formationtypically, about 1/10 in. [2.5 millimeters] wide and up to 1000 ft [300 m] long.
Since the 1940s, relatively low-permeability formationsless than 20 millidarcies
(md)have been successfully fractured to
give worthwhile increases in productivity.
However, as formation permeability
increases, creating and propagating fractures become more difficult and economically less necessary. In high-permeability
reservoirs, formation damage is usually
diagnosed as the major restraint on productivity and matrix acidization treatments are
prescribed as the solution (see Trends in
Matrix Acidizing, page 24).
But matrix acidization cannot solve every
problem. The volume of damaged rock
sometimes requires uneconomically large
quantities of acid. The damage may be
beyond the reach of the matrix treatment.
Diverting acid into the right parts of the formation may also be difficult. Additionally,
the aqueous treatment fluid or the acid
itself may threaten the integrity of the wellbore by dissolving cementing material that
holds particles of rock together.
An alternative strategy for stimulating
high-permeability wells has therefore
emerged: the creation of fractures that are
typically less than 100 ft [30 m] long and
Undamaged reservoir
Damage
Bob Hanna
BP Exploration Inc.
Houston, Texas, USA
Oilfield Review
October 1992
High-permeability
formations
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
Low-permeability
formations
0.6
Increasing productivity
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
10 2
10 3
10 4
10 5
Length of fracture,
fracture length/drainage radius (x f /re)
reach beyond wellbore damage and provide a conduit to undamaged reservoir rock.
10 6
Relative conductivity
19
Proppant
bridges
at tip
Proppant
Fluid
leakoff
Proppant
fills
fracture
20
it was very unstable and conventional stimulation was difficult. After acid fracturing,
the acid-etched channels quickly collapsed
as pore pressure was reduced. And after a
conventional propped fracture, the proppant
became embedded in the soft rock, destroying fracture conductivity.
In 1986, Amoco opted to place a high
concentration of proppant in a wide fracture
using a technique it called tip screenout.
In normal fracturing, the tip should be the
final part of the fracture to be packed with
proppant. But in tip screenout, the proppant
forms a pack near the end of the fracture
early in the treatment. When additional
proppant-bearing slurry is pumped into the
fracture, its length cannot grow, so the width
increases (left ).3
At about the same time, in the UK sector
of the North Sea, BP Petroleum Development Ltd. was applying tip screenout techniques to stimulate gas wells in the Ravenspurn South field. Permeability was 2 md
higher than gas wells that are normally fractured, but BP found that conductivity of
long, conventional fractures limited the
reservoirs high rate of production, giving
only a threefold increase in production.
Laboratory tests showed that up to 0.5
lbm/ft2 of proppant in the fracture can be
lost largely through embedment. To combat this loss in conductivity, stimulation programs were designed to create wide fractures, typically placing 3 to 4 lbm/ft 2 of
proppant. This excess of proppant
ensured that enough remained in the fracture after embedment to deliver the
designed conductivity. Subsequent treatments in Ravenspurn South, using high
proppant concentrations, posted increases
in production of up to sevenfold.4
Tip screenout also returned to Prudhoe
Bay. Since 1989, BP and ARCO Alaska Inc.
have employed tip-screenout treatments and
report considerable success.5
Oilfield Review
Proppant
nLaminated pay zone with sand-shale sequences. The sand laminae may be connected to the wellbore by short, wide fractures.
thinner than 5 ft (1.5 m) and the formation
strength. Specialized techniques like
microresistivity logging may then be used to
detect thinner layers of interbedded sandshale laminae. Logs also detect water-bearing zones which must be considered during
the design. Pressure transient analysis is
used to identify wellbore damage and quantify the production potential of the well.
Simulation
Data
10 3
Type A
Type B
Type C
7240
3560
4400
Zone thickness, ft
68
32
48
Zone permeability, md
72
53
60
1600
5100
3500
685
2000
1740
3.8
2.1
1.2
Treatment Type
lbm/ft2
28
5670
1040
115
2140
Pretreatment skin
October 1992
1313
Nonfractured
10 2
0
30
60
90
nPredicted and real productivity increase in a Gulf of Mexico, USA, well stimulated in early 1992 using tip-screenout
fracturing.
18
Posttreatment skin
Treatment Type A
A series of six Indonesian
wells fractured using the
tip-screenout technique.
Although all the wells were
potential sand producers no
special sand-control
techniques were employed.
156
Fractured
2.3
Treatment Type B
Two Indonesian wells
fractured with tip-screenout
treatments performed
through gravel-pack tools
and screens to place a
small, highly conductive
fracture and a gravel pack
in a single step.
Treatment Type C
Series of treatments
performed on two offshore
exploration wells to create
vertical communication
between several thin, highpermeability zones that
were believed to be waterand acid-sensitive.
21
22
Oilfield Review
October 1992
hole memory gauges (below ). Other placement evaluation techniques include use of
multiple-isotope tracers in the sand and
temperature logs to estimate the fracture
height and assess the fractures communication with the perforated interval along the
wellbore by tracing cooling anomalies
where the fluid has entered the formation.
However, the most important indicators of
success are the wells production responses
both immediately after treatment and during
the rest of its productive life. To date, these
indicate that the traditional guidelines ruling
out fracturing for high-permeability formations have been successfully rewritten.CF
8. Taking Advantage of Shear Waves, Oilfield Review
4, no. 3 (July 1992): 52-54.
9. Hainey BW and Troncoso JC: Frac-Pack: An Innovative Stimulation and Sand Control Technique, paper
SPE 23777, presented at the SPE International Symposium on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette,
Louisiana, USA, February 26-27, 1992.
Simulation
Data
1000
500
100
10
20
50
100
23