PHY 5200 Mechanical Phenomena Projectile Motion

PHY 5200 Mechanical Phenomena

Newtons Laws of Motion Click to editClaude Master style A title Pruneau

Physics and Astronomy Department Wayne State University Dec 2005. Click Claude to edit A Pruneau Master subtitle style Physics and Astronomy Wayne State University

Content
Projectile Motion
Air Resistance Linear Air Resistance Trajectory and Range in a Linear Medium Quadratic Air Resistance

Charge Particle Motion

Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Field Complex Exponentials Motion in a Magnetic Field

Description of Motion with F=ma

F=ma, as a law of Nature applies to a very wide range of problems whose solution vary greatly depending on the type of force involved. Forces can be categorized as being fundamental or effective forces. Forces can also be categorized according to the degree of difficulty inherent in solving the 2nd order differential equation F = m a.
Function of position only Function of speed, or velocity Separable and non-separable forces

In this Chapter
Separable forces which depend on position and velocity. Non separable forces.

Air Resistance
Air Resistance is neglected in introductory treatment of projectile motion. Air Resistance is however often non-negligible and must be accounted for to properly describe the trajectories of projectiles.
While the effect of air resistance may be very small in some cases, it can be rather important and complicated e.g. motion of a golf ball.

One also need a way/technique to determine whether air resistance is important in any given situation.

Air Resistance - Basic Facts

Air resistance is known under different names
Drag Retardation Force Resistive Force

Basic Facts and Characteristics

Not a fundamental force Friction force resulting from different atomic phenomena Depends on the velocity relative to the embedding fluid. Direction of the force opposite to the velocity (typically).
True for spherical objects, a good and sufficient approximation for many other objects. Not a good approximation for motion of a wing (airplane) additional force involved called lift.

Here, we will only consider cases where the force is antiparallel to the velocity - no sideways force.

Air Resistance - Drag Force

Consider retardation force strictly antiparallel to the velocity.

v
! f = ! f (v)v
! ! w = mg

! f = ! f (v)v
Where

! v ! v = ! v
! f(v) is the magnitude of the force.

Measurements reveal f(v) is complicated - especially near the speed of sound At low speed, one can write as a good approximation:

f (v) = bv + cv 2 = flin + fquad

Air Resistance - Definitions

f (v ) = bv + cv 2 = flin + fquad

flin ! bv

Viscous drag Proportional to viscosity of the medium and linear size of object. Inertial Must accelerate mass of air which is in constant collision. Proportional to density of the medium and cross section of object.

fquad ! cv 2

For a spherical projectile (e.g. canon ball, baseball, drop of rain):

b = !D
c = ! D2

Where D is the diameter of the sphere !and " depend on the nature of the medium At STP in air:
! = 1.6 " 10 #4 N i s / m 2 $ = 0.25 N i s / m 4

Air Resistance - Linear or Quadratic

Often, either of the linear or quadratic terms can be neglected. To determine whether this happens in a specific problem, consider
fquad flin = cv !D = v = 1.6 # 10 3 ms2 bv "
2

$ ! 1: linear case & Dv % &" 1: quadratic case '

Example: Baseball and Liquid Drops

A baseball has a diameter of D = 7 cm, and travel at speed of order v=5 m/s.
fquad flin fquad flin
fquad flin

! 600

! f = ! cv 2 v

A drop of rain has D = 1 mm and v=0.6 m/s

!1

Neither term can be neglected.

Millikan Oil Drop Experiments, D=1.5 mm and v=5x10-5 m/s.

! 10
"7

! ! f = !bv

Air Resistance - Reynolds Number

The linear term drag is proportional to the viscosity, # The quadratic term is related to the density of the fluid, $. One finds
fquad flin !R! Dv" #

Reynolds Number

Case 1: Linear Air Resistance

Consider the motion of projectile for which one can neglect the quadratic drag term. From the 2nd law of Newton:
y

v
! ! w = mg

! ! f = ! bv

! ! ! ! "" mr = F = mg ! bv
Independent of position, thus:

! ! ! " mv = mg ! bv
!x = !bvx mv !y = mg ! bvy mv

A 1st order differential equation

Furthermore, it is separable in coordinates (x,y,z). Two separate differential equations Uncoupled.

2 2 !x = ! c vx mv + vy vx 2 2 !y = mg ! c vx mv + vy vy

By contrast, for f(v)~v2, one gets coupled y vs x motion

! 2 2! = ! c vx f = ! cv 2 v + vy v

Case 1: Linear Air Resistance - Horizontal Motion

Consider an object moving horizontally in a resistive linear medium. Assume vx = vx0, x = 0 at t = 0. ! ! Assume the only relevant force is the drag force.

f = !bv

Obviously, the object will slow down

!x = ! v

b vx m

Define (for convenience): k = Thus, one must solve: Clearly:

b m dv !x = x = ! kvx v dt
dvx ! vx = " k ! dt
with

dvx = ! kdt vx

ln vx = ! kt + C

Which can be re-written:

vx (t ) = vx 0 e! t /"

! =1/ k = m /b

Velocity exhibits exponential decay

Case 1: Linear Air Resistance - Horizontal Motion (contd)

Position vs Time, integrate

dx dt ! = x(t ) # x(0) " dt ! 0

One gets
x (t ) = x (0) + $ vx 0 e! t " /# dt "
0 t

=0+% & ! vx 0# e

! t " /#

' (o

x(t ) = x! 1 " e" t /# x! $ vx 0#

x(t ) = x! 1 " e" t /# x! $ vx 0#

)
vx (t ) = vx 0 e! t /"

Vertical Motion with Linear Drag

Consider motion of an object thrown vertically downward and subject to gravity and linear air resistance.
y

! ! f = !bv

v
! ! w = mg

!y = mg ! bvy mv
Gravity accelerates the object down, the speed increases until the point when the retardation force becomes equal in magnitude to gravity. One then has terminal speed.

0 = mg ! bvy

mg vter = vy (a = 0) = b

Note dependence on mass and linear drag coefficient b. Implies terminal speed is different for different objects.

Equation of vertical motion for linear drag

The equation of vertical motion is determined by

!y = mg ! bvy mv
Given the definition of the terminal speed,

One can write instead

mg vter = b

!y = !b vy ! vterm mv
Or in terms of differentials

) )

mdvy = !b vy ! vterm dt
Separate variables

dvy vy ! vterm
Change variable:

bdt =! m
u = vy ! vterm du = dvy

du bdt =! = ! kdt u m
where
k= b m

Equation of vertical motion for linear drag (contd)

So we have Integrate Or Remember So, we get
du bdt =! = ! kdt u m

du ! u = " k ! dt

ln u = ! kt + C

u = Ae! kt
u = vy ! vterm

vy ! vter = Ae! t /"

with

! =1/ k = m /b

Now apply initial conditions: when t = 0, vy = vy0 This implies v ! v = Ae!0 /" = A
y0 ter

The velocity as a function of time is thus given by

vy = vter + vy 0 ! vter e! t /"

vy = vy 0 e! t /" + vter 1 ! e! t /"

Equation of vertical motion for linear drag (contd)

We found

vy = vy 0 e! t /" + vter 1 ! e! t /"

vy = vy 0

At t=0, one has Whereas for

t!"

vy = vy 0

As the simplest case, consider vy0=0, I.e. dropping an object from rest.

vy = vter 1 ! e! t /"

)
time percent of t/tau vter 0 0.0 1 63.2 2 86.5 3 95.0 4 98.2 5 99.3

Equation of vertical motion for linear drag (contd)

Vertical position vs time obtained by integration! Given

vy = vter + vy 0 ! vter e! t /"

The integration yields

y = vter t ! " vy 0 ! vter e! t /" + C

Assuming an initial position y=y0, and initial velocity vy = vy0. One gets

y0 = !" vy 0 ! vter + C C = y0 + ! vy 0 " vter

The position is thus given by

)
x y

! ! f = !bv

v
! ! w = mg

y = y0 + vter t + ! vy 0 " vter 1 " e" t /!

)(

Equation of vertical motion for linear drag (contd)

Note that it may be convenient to reverse the direction of the y-axis. Assuming the object is initially thrown upward, the position may thus be written
y x

! ! f = !bv

v
! ! w = mg

y = y0 ! vter t + " vy 0 + vter 1 ! e

)(

! t /"

Equation of motion for linear drag (contd)

Combine horizontal and vertical equations to get the trajectory of a projectile.

x(t ) = vx 0! 1 " e" t /! y(t ) = y0 ! vter t + " vy 0 + vter 1 ! e! t /"

)(

To obtain an equation of the form y=y(x), solve the 1st equation for t, and substitute in the second equation.

y(t ) = y0 +

vy 0 + vter vx 0

# x & x + vter! ln % 1 " vx 0! ( $ '

Example: Projectile Motion

m tau vx0 vy0 vter 5 50 2 200 490 b vx0*tau (vy0+vter)*tau vter*tau 0.1 100 34500 24500

y (m)

Linear friction

No friction

x (m)

Horizontal Range
In the absence of friction (vacuum), one has

x(t ) = vxot y(t ) = vyot !

0.98 2 2

The range in vacuum is therefore

Rvac =

2 vxo vyo g

For a system with linear drag, one has

0=

vy 0 + vter vx 0

# R & R + vter! ln % 1 " vx 0! ( $ '

A transcendental equation - cannot be solved analytically

Horizontal Range (contd)

If the the retardation force is very weak

R ! vxo!
vy 0 + vter vx 0 # R & R + vter! ln % 1 " vx 0! ( $ '

So, consider a Taylor expansion of the logarithm in 0 = Let

!=

R vxo"

2 1 3 We get ln(1 ! " ) = ! " + 1 2 " + 3 " + ...

Neglect orders beyond We now get This leads to

0=

!3
2 3 ) R 1# R & 1# R & , R ! vter" + + % + % . ( ( v " 2 v " 3 v " $ ' $ ' + . x0 x0 * x0 -

vy 0 + vter vx 0

R=0
R= 2 vxo vyo g ! 2 R2 3vxo"

R ! Rvac "

$ 2 4 vyo ' 2 Rvac = Rvac & 1 " 3vxo# 3 vter ) % (

Quadratic Air Resistance

For macroscopic projectiles, it is usually a better approximation to consider the drag force is quadratic

! 2! f = ! cv v

Newtons Law is thus

! ! 2! " mv = mg ! cv v

Although this is a first order equation, it is NOT separable in x,y,z components of the velocity.

Horizontal Motion with Quadratic Drag

We have to solve

dv = ! cv 2 dt
Separation of v and t variables permits independent integration on both sides of the equality
t

Rearrange

dv = ! cdt v2
v

Integration

dv! m " 2 = # c " dt ! v! vo 0

v

where

v = vo

at t = 0.

Yields

) 1 1, # 1& m % ! ( = m + ! . ! ct * v0 v $ v" ' v0 v(t ) = v(! ) = v0 v0 = 1 + cv0t / m 1 + t / ! v0 = v0 / 2 1+! /!

with

Solving for v Note: for t=%,

!=

m cvo

Horizontal Motion with Quadratic Drag (contd)

Horizontal position vs time obtained by integration

x(t ) = x + " v(t ! )dt !

0

= v0# ln(1 + t / # )
Never stops increasing By contrast to the linear case.

v(t ) =

v0 1+ t /!

x (t ) = vx 0! 1 " e" t /!
Which saturates Why? ! ?

The retardation force becomes quite weak as soon as v<1.

x (t ) = v0! ln(1 + t / ! )

In realistic treatment, one must include both the linear and quadratic terms.

Vertical Motion with Quadratic Drag

Measuring the vertical position, y, down. m Terminal velocity achieved for vter =
mg c

dv = mg ! cv 2 dt

For the baseball of our earlier example, this yields ~ 35 m/s or 80 miles/hour
2 Rewrite in terms of the terminal velocity dv = g " 1 ! v % $ dt v2 ' # & ter

Solve by separation of variables

dv = gdt v2 1! 2 vter

Integration yields

! v $ vter arctanh # =t g " vter & %

Solve for v

! gt $ v = vter tanh # & " vter %

2 vter ) ' ! gt $ * ( y= ln cosh

Integrate to find

) (

, # " vter & %+

Quadratic Draw with V/H motion

Equation of motion
! ! m"" r = mg ! cv 2 v ! ! = mg ! cvv

With y vertically upward

2 2 !x = ! c vx mv + vy vx 2 2 !y = ! mg ! c vx mv + vy vy

Motion of a Charge in Uniform Magnetic Field

Another simple application of Newtons 2nd law Motion of a charged particle, q, in a uniform magnetic field, B, pointing in the z-direction. Z The force is

! ! ! F = qv ! B

! B

The equation of motion

! ! ! " = qv ! B mv

The 2nd reduces to a first order Eq.

x

! v

Components of velocity and field

! v = v x , v y , vz ! B = ( 0, 0, B )

! v = vy B, ! vx B, 0

Motion of a Charge in Uniform Magnetic Field (contd)

Three components of the Eq of motion

!x = qBvy mv !y = ! qBvx mv !z = 0 mv
Define
x y

vz = constant

( v , v ) ! transverse velocity
!=
qB m
Cyclotron frequency

Rewrite

!x = ! vy v !y = "! vx v

Coupled Equations Solution in the complex plane

Complex Plane
y (imaginary part)

Representation of the velocity vector

! = vx + ivy
vy

i = !1
x (real part)

vx

Why and How using complex numbers for this?

Velocity

! = vx + ivy
!=v !x + iv !y !

Acceleration

Remember Eqs of motion

!x = ! vy v

!y = "! vx v
We can write Or

!=v !x + iv !y = " vy # i" vx = #i" vx + ivy !

! = "i#! !

Why and How using (contd)

Equation of motion

! = "i#! !
Solution

! = Ae" i# t
Verify by substitution

d! = "i# Ae" i# t = "i#! dt

Complex Exponentials
Taylor Expansion of Exponential
2 3 z z ez = 1 + z + + + ! 2! 3!

The series converges for any value of z (real or complex, large or small). It satisfies

And is indeed a general solution for df ( z ) = kf ( z )

d Aekz = k Aekz dz

) (

)
dz

So we were justified in assuming # is a solution of the Eqs of motion.

Complex Exponentials (contd)

The exponential of a purely imaginary number is
2 3 4 i ! i ! i ! ( ) ( ) ( ) e! = 1 + i! + + + +!

2!

3!

4!

where & is a real number

Separation of the real and imaginary parts - since i2=-1, i3=-I

# !2 !4 & # & !3 e = %1 " + " !( + i %! " + !( 2! 4! 3! $ ' $ '

!

cos!
We get Eulers Formula

sin !

e = cos! + i sin !

i!

Complex Exponentials (contd)

Eulers Formula implies ei& lies on a unit circle.

e = cos! + i sin !
y

i!

cos!

ei!
1
O

sin !

!
x

cos 2 ! + sin 2 ! = 1

Complex Exponentials (contd)

A complex number expressed in the polar form

A = ae = a cos! + ia sin !
where a and & are real numbers y

i!

a cos!

A = ae
a
O

i!

a 2 cos 2 ! + a 2 sin 2 ! = a 2

a sin !

Amplitude Phase

! = Ae

" i# t

!i" t

! = Ae

" i# t

= ae

i ($ " # t )

Angular Frequency

Solution for a charge in uniform B field

vz constant implies

z(t ) = zo + vzot

The motion in the x-y plane best represented by introduction of complex number.

! = x + iy

Greek letter xi The derivative of ' Integration of #

!=x ! + iy ! = vx + ivy = " !

! = # "dt = # Ae$ i% t dt
iA # i" t ! = e + constant "
x + iy = Ce! i" t + ( X+iY)

Solution for a charge in uniform B field (contd)

x + iy = Ce! i" t + ( X+iY)

Redefine the z-axis so it passes through (X,Y)

x + iy = Ce! i" t
y

which for t = 0, implies

C = xo + iyo

xo + iyo
2 2 xo + yo

Motion frequency
!=
qB m
O

x + iy

!t

Solution for a charge in uniform B field (contd)

x (t ) + iy(t ) = Ce! i" t

z(t ) = zo + vzot
!=
qB m
y

xo + iyo

2 2 xo + yo

!t

x + iy
Helix Motion