Cooling Training

COOLING OPERATOR TRAINING
CHAPTER 5 DEPOSITION
INTRODUCTION
The gradual accumulation of deposits in cooling water systems directly affects production. Deposition problems can lead to: reduced tower efficiency decreased heat transfer reduced carrying capacity of pipelines Ultimately, if unchecked, deposition can result in production losses, shortened equipment life, and increased costs, due to frequent cleaning or added pumping requirements. faces show retrograde, or inverse solubility with temperature. Lets look at this more closely. Most salts become more soluble as temperature is increased. Common table salt (sodium chloride) shows this kind of behavior: the hotter the solution, the higher the concentration of salt that dissolves in it. Some salts show inverse solubility: as the temperature increases, their solubility decreases (See Figure 5-1). With salts having inverse solubility, the potential for scaling problems is greatest in the hottest part of the cooling system the heat exchanger surfaces which also happen to be the most critical for efficient heat transfer to occur. Calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, calcium phosphate, and magnesium silicate are examples of salts that have inverse solubility. They may be completely soluble in the lower temperature bulk water of the cooling system, but they are not soluble in the higher temperature water at the heat transfer surface of the exchangers and they precipitate on the surface. Note that calcium and magnesium salts are particular problems in this respect. Most sodium salts show normal solubility. Most hardness-based salts show inverse solubility. Theres more at work here than just temperature effects. Scales form by a multistep process which begins with the production of tiny crystals of a hardness salt as shown in Figure 5-2. This initial step is termed nucleation. The initial crystals grow and can actually provide more nucleation sites, accelerating the scale-forming
FACTORS AFFECTING DEPOSITION

Deposit formation is strongly influenced by a number of factors. The key factors are: water composition pH water and exchanger skin temperatures water velocity residence time system metallurgy These factors are interrelated. The most severe deposition is normally encountered in process equipment, operating at high skin temperature and/or low water velocity. For cooling towers with high efficiency film fill, deposit accumulations are another area of concern.
Hardness Salts
Common Salts
SCALE AND FOULANTS

In general, deposits are broadly classified as scale or foulants. Scale is a coating of predominantly inorganic (salt-like, or mineral-like) materials, formed by precipitation and subsequent crystal growth at a surface in contact with water. Precipitation occurs when the solubilities of deposit-forming minerals are exceeded, either in the bulk water or at the surface. The most common scale-forming salts that deposit on heat transfer sur-
Solubility
Normal Solubility
Inverse Solubility
Temperature
Figure 5-1: Mineral solubility
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1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.
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process. If you can interfere with the nucleation step, you can interfere with scale production. Conditions at metallic surfaces, however, are ideal for crystal nucleation. The surface of the metal is rough from an atomic viewpoint, providing sites for nucleation. In addition, water velocities are lower next to a surface, which prevents turbulence from breaking up nucleation sites. Further compounding the problem, corrosion cells on a metal surface produce local areas of relatively high pH, promoting the precipitation of many cooling water hardness salts. Once formed, scale deposits provide additional nucleation sites, and crystal growth accelerates. Calcium carbonate is the most common scale formed in cooling water systems, because it is formed from two materials present in virtually all makeup water: calcium hardness and bicarbonate alkalinity. The chemistry of calcium carbonate formation, however, depends on several factors: calcium hardness bicarbonate alkalinity total dissolved solids (TDS) pH temperature of the water
A university professor, W. F. Langelier, explored how these factors are all interrelated. He developed an index, or mathematical short-cut that we use to predict the tendency of calcium carbonate to either precipitate or remain soluble in cooling water systems. This index is the Langelier Saturation Index, LSI. If its positive, calcium carbonate tends to deposit. If the LSI is negative, calcium carbonate tends to dissolve or remain soluble. Basically, the LSI measures the gap or difference in pH between the water s actual pH and the pH at which calcium carbonate would start to precipitate. The pH at which calcium carbonate would start to precipitate is called the saturation point, and thats where the saturation part of the name LSI comes from. And, all the factors affecting scaling listed above can act to change that saturation point. The use of LSI tables and a sample calculation are provided as enrichment reading at the end of this chapter. One way to prevent calcium carbonate scaling is to maintain a negative LSI. That sounds easy, but it is quite often not feasible. Incoming makeup water may contain enough calcium, alkalinity, and TDS to push the index well into the positive range. In addition, the more negative the index, the higher the potential for corrosion. It does not make much sense to prevent a deposition problem by promoting corrosion! As we will see later in this chapter, there are special deposit control agents which we can add to interfere with the normal scaling tendency of positive LSI waters. Another common deposit is calcium phosphate. Like calcium carbonate, it becomes less soluble with increasing pH and temperature. Typical phosphate sources include river or city water, partially-treated sewage waters or phosphate-based water treatment programs. As we saw in Chapter 4, phosphate is often added to prevent corrosion. High levels of phosphate provide protection to anodic areas at the metal surface and controlled precipitation of calcium phosphate protects cathodic areas. If phosphate precipitates as an uncontrolled scale on a heat exchanger surface, not only do we get reduced heat transfer, but the loss of phosphate in the bulk water may promote further corrosion. Dissolved silica is found naturally in water. As water is concentrated in a cooling tower system, high levels of silica can build up. Levels of silica greater than 200 ppm [mg/L] often lead to silica scales. Unlike most other scalants, silica shows normal solubility its solubility increases with increasing temperature. Therefore, if we are going to have silica scale, it usually deposits in the coldest parts of the cooling system. We sometimes see
CO32
Dissolved Atoms
Ca+2 Ca+2 CO32 Ca+2 Ca+2 Ca+2 CO32 Ca+2 Ca+2 Ca+2 CO32 CO32 Ca+2 Ca+2 CO32 Ca+2 Ca+2 CO32 CO32 Ca+2 Ca+2 CO32 CO32
Ca+2
Nucleation (Suspended Small Crystals)
CO32
Crystal Growth (Suspended Large Crystals)
Scale (Deposition and Continued Growth of Large Crystals)
Figure 5-2: Crystal growth leading to scale
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silica scale on the tower fill and transfer lines. Silica can also react with itself, forming large aggregates. Calcium and magnesium can react with silica to form very tough magnesium silicate or calcium/magnesium silicate scale. These compounds show inverse solubility and deposit on exchanger surfaces. Deposits formed by these scalants are highly tenacious slight amounts can drastically decrease heat transfer. Iron in well water often shows low solubility in cooling systems, leading to the formation of iron deposits throughout the cooling system. They can be hard, dense, tightly adhering scales, or loose, highly porous deposits. Both forms can drastically reduce heat transfer efficiency. Manganese is often seen in conjunction with iron. Manganese deposition depends on system metallurgy. Manganese deposits form preferentially on admiralty and stainless steel surfaces. Once formed, these deposits are very difficult to remove and they can lead to severe under-deposit corrosion. Aside from the ions occurring naturally in water, treatment chemicals, added to control corrosion, can cause deposit problems if not fed properly. It really is possible to have too much of a good thing in these treatment programs. Thats why testing and monitoring the cooling system are critical to maintaining reliable operations with minimal deposition.
DEPOSIT CONTROL
Just as there were mechanical and chemical methods to control corrosion, there are also mechanical and chemical methods to control deposition. In terms of mechanical control methods, improving makeup water quality to the tower is of prime importance. Lime/soda softening, zeolite softening, ion exchange and reverse osmosis are options; however, a good cost/benefit analysis is needed to make the most appropriate treatment choice. Another alternative is to allow the impurity to precipitate as a removable sludge rather than as a hard deposit. Clarifiers or solids separators are designed to remove these sludges. Many systems use sidestream filters on the tower water to remove, or at least reduce suspended solids or corrosion products, substantially decreasing the potential for deposition. Process adjustments provide another means of controlling deposits. These adjustments include increasing blowdown, decreasing pH, increasing water velocity or reducing temperatures. There is a cost limitation to increasing blowdown: operation of a tower at too few cycles can be uneconomical. Acid is often added to cooling systems to reduce pH, but many customers do not want to handle acid in their plants. Velocities are very important in shell-side exchangers, where suspended solids in the cooling water can settle in low flow areas. Even with good process adjustments, however, a chemical deposit control program is required for optimal system operation. There are 3 types of chemical control: inhibitors dispersants surfactants Inhibitors delay or retard crystal growth of scale-forming salts by adhering to the surfaces of crystals. They distort crystal structure as it is forming, during the nucleation step. This makes the initial crystal fragile, breaking into smaller units or even redissolving. Use of an inhibitor allows higher salt concentrations in the system without danger of deposition on hot exchanger surfaces. The microphotographs in Figure 5-3 show the powerful effect of crystal inhibitors. A tremendous research effort has been expended by the water treatment industry to discover new, more powerful crystal growth inhibitors. The objective is to find more cost-effective molecules that can be applied at lower dosages, or to extend the range of chemistry in which a deposit control program works. A brief history of these deposit control agents is given in Chapter 7.
FOULING
Fouling is the accumulation of suspended materials in water as opposed to dissolved materials in water which usually form scales. Suspended materials include mud, silt, organic compounds, oils, dust and dirt, corrosion products, biological slimes, and general debris. Suspended solids enter a cooling system in a number of ways. If the makeup water contains suspended solids, these become concentrated during tower operation as the water is cycled. As air passes through the tower, it is scrubbed by the tower water. Any dust or particles carried in the air are scrubbed into the water. In addition, microorganisms carried by the air have a prime breeding ground in the cooling water because of its warmth and nutrient loading. Biological-based fouling can severely reduce heat transfer efficiency if not controlled.
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Ca+2 Ca+2 CO32 Ca+2 CO32
Ca+2
Inhibitors Reduce Nucleation Force Small Crystals to Redissolve
CO32
Ca+2 Ca+2 Ca+2 CO32 Ca+2 CO32 CO32 Ca+2 Ca+2 CO32
a. Untreated
Dispersants Prevent Large Crystals from Growing
Dispersants also b. Treated Figure 5-3:Example of crystal distortion using phosphonate Prevent Crystals from Attaching to Metal Surfaces
Dispersants control particle size by interfering with particle-to-particle attraction. Normally, particles are attracted to each other and combine to produce larger particles, eventually leading to deposition. The use of dispersants interferes with this process. Dispersants attach to particles, while they are still small, and give them a greater negative charge. As you may recall from using magnets: like charges repel. The same effect applies: negative charges on the particles repel each other and particles are prevented from growing to a dangerous size. Figure 5-4 shows this effect. If we can keep small particles dispersed, they can be removed from the cooling system by blowdown. Again, considerable research work continues to find the right molecule to disperse specific particles or foulants. Surfactants are also useful in a deposit control program. These chemicals act like soap, reacting with greases and oils, and dispersing them. Surfactants have an interesting structure: part of the molecule has a
Figure 5-4: Deposit control agents
moderately charged end and prefers to dissolve in water, like other charged species. The other part of the molecule has a non-charged end that does not like water very much. This end of the molecule prefers oils and greases, which are also not very highly charged chemicals. As shown in Figure 5-5, when surfactant molecules react with grease or oil, the non-charged ends line up and surround the oil globule, leaving the charged ends free to disperse themselves and the oil in the water. This is the same mechanism which makes soap effective at removing grease and dirt from your hands. The word surfactant is an abbreviation of surface active agent. Surfactants are effective because they act on the surfaces of a mixture of oil and water.
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Surfactant Molecule
Charged End (Prefers Water) Water
Uncharged End (Hates Water)
Surfactant Surrounding and Dispersing Oil Droplet
growth in cooling systems is the production of slime layers on cooling system surfaces. Biocides are used to control microbiological populations, but they are often used with biodispersants. Biodispersants break up the slime layer by a soap mechanism, as described above. Once the slime layer is broken, biocides are used to kill the microbiological populations. Use of biodispersants permits lower overall dosages of biocides, saving the plant money, and posing less of a problem for ultimate disposal. In this chapter of the workbook we examined the differences between mineral-based scale and other foulants. We introduced you to the LSI measurement, an important consideration in deposit control. We also reviewed the three main chemical approaches we use to reduce deposition and fouling: inhibitors, dispersants, and surfactants. Your attention to chemical feed levels and monitoring tests is a vital factor in the success of any deposit control program.
Oil
Figure 5-5: Surfactants
Biodispersants are a special class of surfactants used in microbiological control programs. As you will see in the next chapter, part of the problem with microbiological
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KEY WORDS
Dispersants
Fouling
Inhibitors
Inverse Solubility
Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)
Nucleation
Scaling
Surfactants
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CHAPTER QUIZ
1. When crystals start to form, the first step is termed nucleation. 2. An important factor in the LSI calculation is the water velocity in a heat exchanger. 3. An important factor in the LSI calculation is the total dissolved solids of the water. 4. In the following list of compounds, identify which show normal solubility (solubility increases with temperature) and which show inverse solubility (solubility decreases with temperature) True True True False False False
Compound Sodium Chloride Calcium Carbonate Calcium Sulfate Sodium Bromide Magnesium Silicate
Normal Solubility
Inverse Solubility
5. Sodium chloride deposition is very difficult to treat in a cooling system. 6. All cooling towers should be operated with a negative LSI to avoid deposition of calcium carbonate. 7. Dispersant chemistry is based on the principle that like charges repel. 8. In the surfactant molecule, both ends are highly charged and prefer to dissolve in water. 9. It is impossible to interfere with the way crystals grow. 10. If scaling is the accumulation of mineral salts, what is fouling?
True
False
True True True True
False False False False
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11. What are some of the steps you can take to reduce the level of fouling in a cooling system?
C Scale
Parts per Million (mg/L)
Parts per Million (mg/L)
pAlk and pCa Scale
Figure 5-6: LSI Calculator
pAlk
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ENRICHMENT READING Langelier Saturation Index

Many makeup waters for cooling systems contain significant calcium hardness and natural alkalinity. This is a dangerous combination. When cycled up in a recirculating cooling system, calcium carbonate can deposit on heat exchanger surfaces. As scale accumulates, heat exchange efficiency decreases, eventually resulting in production losses. The mechanism for the precipitation of calcium carbonate scale involves several factors: calcium concentration, alkalinity levels, temperature, pH, and total dissolved solids. The Langelier Saturation Index incorporates these factors into a very helpful mathematical formula which measures the tendency of calcium carbonate to precipitate or remain dissolved with any given combination of factors. The first step in the use of LSI is the calculation of the theoretical pH at which calcium carbonate begins to precipitate as a scale. This is the pH of saturation, abbreviated pHs. Here is an example, taken from the 9th edition of the Betz Handbook. Suppose the recirculating water has the following composition: Calcium Hardness M-alkalinity Total solids pH 200 ppm [mg/L] as calcium carbonate 160 ppm [mg/L] as calcium carbonate 400 ppm [mg/L] 7.80
total solids is also read from the same ppm [mg/L] scale, but read the value on the top C scale corresponding to the appropriate temperature of the exchanger. Some interpolation is needed for temperatures between those listed on the chart. In the example, the pCa corresponding to a calcium concentration of 200 ppm [mg/L] is 2.70. The pAlk corresponding to an alkalinity of 160 ppm [mg/L] is 2.50. The C scale value for 400 ppm [mg/L] total solids at 140F [60C] is 1.56 The pH of saturation, pH s, is the sum of these three values: pHs = pCa + pAlk + C = 2.70 + 2.50 + 1.56 = 6.76 The LSI is the difference between the pH s and the actual water pH: LSI = pHactual pHs = 7.80 6.76 = + 1.04 In this case, the positive LSI indicates a tendency of the water to form calcium carbonate precipitate. Note that it is an indication, not an absolute prediction that the water will form scale on the exchangers. If the LSI were negative, calcium carbonate would probably not precipitate; however, the water could be corrosive. If the LSI were close to zero, the water would be in equilibrium. Due to the mathematical calculations above, some corrosive waters may actually have positive LSI values. To remove this ambiguity, Ryznar modified the LSI, proposing a Ryznar Stability Index, calculated as follows: Ryznar Stability Index = 2 (pHs) pHactual Waters with a Stability Index of 6.0 or less tend to form scale and the potential for corrosion decreases. Waters with a Stability Index exceeding 7.0 usually do not form scale. When the Stability Index exceeds 7.5, the probability of corrosion increases. In some cooling treatment systems, it may be necessary for you to calculate the LSI as part of your monitoring program. Your BetzDearborn representative will review the calculations with you.
and the skin temperature of a critical exchanger is 140F [60C]. The value for pCa is read from the ppm [mg/L] scale on Figure 5-6, proceeding horizontally to the left diagonal line and reading the pCa from the scale below the line. The value for pAlk is read from the same lower scale, but using the right-hand diagonal line. The contribution from
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CHAPTER 6 MICROBIOLOGICAL FOULING
INTRODUCTION
Our focus in this chapter of the workbook is very different from all the other chapters. In the other chapters, we talk about non-living processes: corrosion, deposition, pumps, monitoring tools, and treatment programs. All of these, although complex, do not involve life. When life is introduced into the equation, things get very complicated. Cooling systems provide conditions which support the growth of microscopic lifepredominantly algae, fungi, and bacteria. You are already familiar with these life forms. Algae grow in swimming pool water or standing ponds, turning the water green or yellow. Fungi show up in the form of bread molds. Mushrooms are larger species. As yeasts they make bread dough rise. And bacteria, well, they are everywhere. They are responsible for many serious, human infections, such as pneumonia and tuberculosis. They also help to make cheese and are responsible for the natural fertilization of soil, in the form of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Although they have good and bad implications for human life, in cooling systems they are only bad news. We distinguish between two major classes of microorganisms: planktonic free-swimming organisms, live in the water sessile prefer to live attached to a surface Microorganisms that attach to wetted surfaces grow there and, in time, form larger communities. These communities, called biofilms, consist of microbial cells and material secreted by the cells as a protective layer. This layer consists of complex biological polymers. These materials are gelatinous and stickyslimy. Another word for biofilm is slime. This process is illustrated in Figure 6-1. If their growth is not controlled, biofilms interfere with equipment performance: biofouling can reduce or even block water flow, reduce heat transfer and increase corrosion rates. Some biofilm organisms attack wood, which weakens structural members of wooden cooling towers. Plus, dirty cooling systems increase the risk of airborne disease from inhalation of cooling tower drift laden with microorganisms.
STAGE 1 Individual microorganisms attach to a surface
Water Cooling Tower Surface
STAGE 2 Original organisms multiply into small colonies Water Cooling Tower Surface
STAGE 3 Colonies secrete protective layer Water Cooling Tower Surface
STAGE 4 Colonies merge to form biofilm Water Cooling Tower Surface
STAGE 5 Slime layer traps debris Water Cooling Tower Surface
Figure 6-1: Development of biofilm
Without adequate microbiological control, effectiveness of corrosion inhibition and deposition control programs is seriously compromised. For example, a thick protective slime layer can prevent corrosion inhibitors from reaching the surface of the metal beneath the organisms. Worse yet, the organisms often secrete acidic waste products which actually accelerate corrosion of the metal. Protective slime layers are sticky and trap suspended solids from the bulk water, increasing the level of fouling in the cooling system.
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MICROBIOLOGICAL FOULING
Where do microorganisms come from? In open recirculating systems, they are primarily introduced into the tower by being scrubbed out of the tremendous volumes of air drawn through the towers. They also enter both open and closed systems by way of contaminated makeup water or by inleakage from process streams. Why do they thrive in cooling systems? Cooling systems provide optimal conditions for growth of microorganisms: water nutrients for growth optimal temperature preferred pH range The nutritional needs of microorganisms are simple. They primarily need sources of carbon, nitrogen, and a little phosphorous. These elements can be in the makeup, leaked into the cooling system from process streams, scrubbed out of the air, leached from the tower wood, or even added as corrosion or deposition treatment chemicals. Many species need oxygen for growth, but oxygen is abundant in an open recirculating system. Some organisms actually thrive in the absence of oxygen. As we will see below, closed systems are a favorite breeding ground for such species. Before we discuss each particular type of microorganism, lets look at their general characteristics. First, as the name implies, they are quite small. Typically, a microscope is needed to see the individual organisms. Unfortunately, a second characteristic is a very rapid growth potential. Microorganisms reproduce at a phenomenal rate because they typically grow by cell division: a given cell grows and divides into two offspring cells. These two cells then grow and divide into four cells, then eight, etc. This leads to explosive growth and large populations, the third characteristic. Its when populations grow very large that we see resulting colonies with the unaided eye. Microorganisms are also environmentally flexible. Not only are there very many species, but they mutate rapidly, changing their basic biochemistry as the environment changes. These creatures are also nutritionally versatile in that they adapt to changes in available food and can make use of thousands of different compounds to survive. Now lets look at the three major classes of microorganisms which invade cooling systems.
ALGAE
The first class is algae. This class of organisms is a form of simple plant life and is characterized by photosynthesisalgae use sunlight to provide energy and to synthesize much of what they need to grow. Using light, they take CO2 from the air and react with water to make sugars and other compounds. They use chlorophyll, a yellow-green compound, to assist with this chemistry. Because they need sunlight to grow, they are generally found on the tower deck and support members of the tower. Chlorophyll gives the colonies their characteristic color. Algae can plug nozzles, upset the tower water balance, plug screens, and reduce tower efficiency. Because they convert CO2 to organic compounds which they and other organisms use, algae are often referred to as pioneer colonizers of a cooling system. They set the stage for the growth of other organisms which follow. A microscopic view of a small colony of algae is shown in Figure 6-2.
FUNGI
Fungi can best be described as simple plants, like algae, but they lack chlorophyll. Their inability to synthesize all their food requirements compels them to live off the byproducts of other creatures, or to get their nutrition from nonliving materials. Fungi include molds and yeasts. They require less moisture and survive at lower pH than algae or bacteria. The major class of fungi we are concerned with in cooling towers is the wood destroyers. These include species which produce soft rot, white rot and brown rot. The white rot mold and yeast species attack and eat cellulose which makes up wood fibers. Brown rot attacks lignin, the binder holding wood fibers together. Often the decay is internal, weakening timbers with little or no outward sign of the condition. Other species, while
Figure 6-2: Algae
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not directly attacking wood, add to the slime mass on tower surfaces. A good illustration of cooling tower wood attacked by fungi is shown in Figure 6-3.
tremendous amount of under-deposit corrosion damage. Special testing is needed to measure the presence of these organisms. An example of metal damaged by corrosion under a deposit of sulfate-reducing bacteria is shown in Figure 6-4.
Figure 6-4: Metal corroded by sulfate-reducing bacteria
The main characteristics of the three classes of microorganisms are summarized in Table 6-1.
Figure 6-3: Cooling Tower Wood Attacked By Fungi Table 6-1: Microbiological Groups Examples
BACTERIA
One of the largest classes of living microorganisms on the Earth is bacteria. Unlike algae and fungi, bacteria tend to grow throughout the entire cooling system. The enormous variety of bacterial types allows them to survive in a wide range of environmental conditions and nutrient sources. Most bacteria require oxygen; these are called aerobic. Some live in the absence of oxygen; these are called anaerobic. This group includes sulfatereducing bacteria. These organisms, because they do not need oxygen for growth, are often found in sludges or underneath deposits. They give off hydrogen sulfide, H2S, which has the smell of rotten eggs. H 2S is very corrosive; consequently, these bacteria can cause a
Type Algae
Characteristics
Everyday Life
Cooling Towers Slime on distribution deck and support members (sessile)
Microscopic plants Green swimming Photosynthesis (only need sunlight pool and CO2) Yellow, yellow-green in color (chlorophyll) Simple plants, but lack chlorophyll
Fungi
Bread mold, Wood rot mushrooms (sessile) Infections, Cheese Turbid water (planktonic) Under-deposit corrosion (sessile)
Bacteria Largest class of living organisms Enormous variety
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POPULATION DYNAMICS
One of the reasons microorganisms are a problem in cooling systems is because of their incredible versatility. A change in system chemistry can have disastrous results. For example, suppose there is a stable population of organisms in a tower. A shift in pH may upset the balance and accelerate their growth into an unbalanced, troublesome phase. There are many operational factors which can affect pH. A process leak may drop the pH. Too low a pH may encourage growth of molds and yeast. Raising the pH to reduce corrosion may encourage an algae bloom in the cooling system. There are strong seasonal effects in open systems. In the fall, contamination of the cooling system with falling leaves can depress pH, encouraging bacteria to grow at the expense of algae. Whenever changes occur in cooling system operations, its always a good idea to be on guard for increases or changes in the nature of microbial activity.
The most commonly used measure of microbiological control is counting the number of microorganisms per milliliter of sample. This number is just like pH or calcium or alkalinity: it is a numerical test value and must be compared with a designated control range. If a value is below the rangeunlike pH or calcium or alkalinity thats OK. If a value is above the range, we must kill some of the organisms.
CONTROL
There are three general types of products used to control microbiological fouling: biocides: (1) oxidizing biocides (2) nonoxidizing biocides
surfactants: (3) biodispersants Biocides kill microorganisms. They do so in an oxidizing manner, such as with chlorine and bromine, or they do so by a nonoxidizing mechanism. Biodispersants are special surfactants which break the protective slime layer of biofilms and help the biocide get to the organisms to kill them. Biodispersants, in themselves, are not toxic to microorganisms; however, they are a clever way of enhancing biocide performance at relatively low cost, with minimal environmental impact. Oxidizing biocides are very reactive chemicals which, in effect, burn whatever compound the oxidizer attacks. Oxidizers typically go after complex carbon-containing structures. They break open cell walls. They destroy life-supporting materials, such as proteins and enzymes and DNA. Because they are nonselective, oxidizers are effective against the widest range of organisms. Oxidizing biocides include chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite or liquid bleach, bromine-chlorine compounds, and ozone. In the United States, chlorine gas has been the main disinfecting compound for many years for water-based applications. It has been used to treat incoming raw water, cooling systems, and even some wastewater streams. Recent concerns over the liability of storing chlorine gas cylinders on site have led many users to consider alternative biocides. Sodium hypochlorite, liquid bleach, is chlorine in liquid form. It provides more or less the same disinfecting chemistry as chlorine gas, but it eliminates the need for pressurized gas cylinders. It is still a very dangerous chemical in its own right and extremely corrosive. It is available commercially as a dilute solution. A considerably larger amount of bleach is needed than chlorine gas for the same level of disinfection. This means that bleach requires large, expensive storage and feed facilities.
MONITORING
A detailed discussion about the measurement of the number of microorganisms in cooling systems is given in Chapter 9. Historically, the water treatment industry focused on methods for measuring planktonic or freeswimming organisms. It was direct and easy to doplate counting. Modern improvements on the earlier techniques include Petrifilm, serial dilution vials, shown in Figure 6-5, and DipSlides. Unfortunately, most of the problems in cooling systems stem from sessile organismsbiofilms, discussed above. There really is not a good correlation between bulk water populations and biofilm presence. Therefore, the water treatment industry has changed the focus of its monitoring efforts to include specialized techniques for sessile populationsBetzDearborn Biobox, MonitAll, Delta P monitor, and a fouling monitor (these are all discussed in Chapter 9).
Figure 6-5: Serial dilution vials
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There is a new chemistry which has many of the benefits of oxidizing-type kill but is much safer to store and feed. It is based on a bromine-chlorine organic compound. The material is furnished as a solid which slowly dissolves in a feeder, releasing both bromine and chlorine into the water. Although the product itself is more expensive than bleach, feed systems are considerably less expensiveand the material is far safer than bleach or chlorine gas. A typical feed system is shown in Figure 6-6. The new bromine-chlorine chemistry works well in high ammonia waters and at high pH. And it works well where contact time is limited. It is also proving to be less corrosive than chlorine to system metallurgies, especially yellow metals. Ozone is another oxidizing biocide used in cooling systems. It is so unstable that it has to be generated onsite, next to the cooling system. Ozone generators are capital-, maintenance-, and energy-intensive; however, ozone is an effective biocide against most microbiological populations. Unfortunately, it is incompatible with many cooling treatment chemicals and, like any oxidizer, overfeed can cause corrosion. Nonoxidizing biocides are much more specific in the way they attack microorganisms. Instead of the burn chemistry of chlorine, nonoxidizers either interact with the membrane surrounding an organism or they interfere with its metabolic activity.
The cell membrane is critical to survival of the organism. The membrane regulates materials entering and leaving the cell. Some biocides selectively damage the cell membrane. With a defective membrane, the cell loses control over its internal environment and dies. Other biocides enter the cell and poison a specific biochemical activity within the cell. There are many biochemical reactions going on in every cell: producing energy, moving nutrients into the cell, using nutrients to make new cell material, and cell division. Interfere with enough of these reactions, or damage a critical reaction, and the cell dies. Because nonoxidizing biocides are more specific than oxidizers, a given nonoxidizing biocide may not be effective against all organisms in a cooling system. We have to test for the right choice of biocide and the most cost-effective dosage. We often have to switch biocides as microbial populations change. Special combinations of biocides are available. Multiple actives expand the kill range and are sometimes more effective than their individual components used alone. Multiple actives may also provide better microbial control at lower net dosages.
CONTACT TIME AND CONCENTRATION

Regardless of what biocide is used, there is an important principle at work. We need the correct concentration of biocide sustained over a certain minimum period of time (the contact time). Whether oxidizing or nonoxidizing, biocides need time to do their work. If we achieve the correct concentration but cut the contact time short, the biocide does not give us maximal kill. Oxidizing biocides are typically fed continuously or semi-continuously at low levels, although a higher dose may be needed to bring a population back under control. Nonoxidizing biocides are typically slug-fed at relatively high levels. But these are generalizations. Each biocide has a preferred feed profile and a lot depends on system dynamics, system chemistry, and biocide chemistry. Your BetzDearborn representative is an excellent source for this kind of information.
CHEMICAL SAFETY
Biocides are, by definition, toxic. Anyone handling biocides must observe proper safety procedures. These include the right choice of gloves (both style and composition), splash-proof goggles and faceshield. The label on a biocide container and the MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheet) provide specific safety precautions for each product and should be reviewed prior to biocide use.
Figure 6-6: BetzDearborn brominator
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KEY WORDS
Here is an alphabetic listing of the key words for this chapter of the workbook. Write your own definitions in the space provided and then check your answers with the text. The words were defined when first introduced in the chapter, and this was indicated by bold text.
Algae
Bacteria
Biocides
Biodispersants
Biofilm
Colonies
Fungi
Nonoxidizing Biocides
Oxidizing Biocides
Photosynthesis
Planktonic
Sessile
Slime (Layer)
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CHAPTER QUIZ
Here is a test to determine your understanding of the material in this chapter. Check your answers with the text or check with your BetzDearborn representative. 1. There are three general classes of microorganisms which cause trouble in cooling systems. They are _________________, ______________________, and __________________.
2. Cooling tower support members are often made of wood because it is resistant to microbiological attack.
True
False
3. All organisms on the Earth need oxygen from the air to survive.
True
False
4. Some microorganisms prefer to live in the recirculating water or bulk water of a cooling system. These organisms are termed ________________________.
5. In contrast to the organisms in question 4, others prefer to live attached to or growing on a surface. These organisms are termed ___________________________.
6. Wood rot is caused by a fungus attack on wood.
True
False
7. There is always a direct relationship between the number of microorganisms growing in the bulk water and the number of microorganisms growing on cooling tower system surfaces.
True
False
8. Chlorine is one of the most powerful biocides available.
True
False
9. Nonoxidizing biocides are very selective in the types of microorganisms they kill.
True
False
10. Because it is very stable, ozone is often purchased in bulk containers.
True
False
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11. The best source for information regarding chemical characteristics, handling precautions, and special safety requirements for biocides is the M_____________________ S___________________D______________ S_________________ available at your plant.
12. Biodispersants are often used in conjunction with biocides for effective control of microbiological fouling.
True
False
13. All biocides work by the same chemical mechanism.
True
False
14. In your own words, describe the stages in the development of a biofilm or slime layer.
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CHAPTER 7 TREATMENT PROGRAMS

INTRODUCTION
All water treatment, whether related to cooling or boiler systems, is directed toward important plant goals: to extend equipment life to minimize downtime and associated production losses to minimize maintenance costs to avoid system upsets to maximize heat transfer/energy efficiency We have to achieve these goals using every opportunity for recycling, minimizing wastewater, maintaining environmental compliance, and providing a safe working environment for you, other plant personnel, and our own representatives who visit your plant. And, the cost of the treatment program has to be economical. Before we chemically treat a cooling system, there are several nonchemical considerations to review. As discussed in Chapter 4, Corrosion, its important to select system metallurgies which are exactly suited for the intended operation. Mechanical engineers at equipment design firms are usually responsible for this step. Metal strength, exchanger temperature, heat transfer rates, flow velocitiesall these factors have to be considered. Even the best designed equipment and systems can be subjected to contamination that might have been unforeseen in the design stages. For example, air leaking into a system that is supposed to be closed dramatically changes the corrosion activity. Process contamination can lead to deposition and microbial growth. Even the wrong kind of makeup water, fed to a cooling tower, can drastically upset things. A sudden introduction of high hardness water in a system that is supposed to see low hardness makeup can lead to significant hardness-scale problems. Speaking of makeup water, there are a lot of special considerations that affect the choice of a cooling water treatment program: Is there readily available soft water in the plant? Can the system be economically made-up with reverse osmosis water, low in conductivity and dissolved minerals? Was the tower designed with a sidestream filter to handle a heavy silt load? Similarly, at the other end of the system, can the waste treatment plant handle blowdown from the cooling towers? We are all seeking to recycle as much water as possible. Sometimes small recycled streams have a big impact on system chemistry, requiring a total treatment program change.
HVAC VS. OPEN RECIRCULATING SYSTEMS

We have to make a distinction early in this discussion between HVAC systems and larger, open recirculating systems. HVAC systems typically operate at lower temperatures and contain relatively high amounts of copper metallurgy. In addition, varying loads require throttled flow. Open recirculating systems often operate at a constant flow rate. Seasonal operation of HVAC systems requires equipment to sit idle for extended periods of time. These conditions create a severe challenge for a water treatment program, because of increased hazards from corrosion and microbiological activity. Closed systems, air washers, and potable/oncethrough systems also have their own unique mechanical and chemical requirements.
PRETREATMENT
The best treatment program can fail if new piping and equipment are not properly cleaned of mill scale and cutting oils before being put into service. There are a variety of procedures for precleaning, pretreating, and passivating cooling systems as part of startup. That discussion is beyond the scope of this chapter. Any questions about pretreatment should be directed to your BetzDearborn representative. Small comfort cooling towers typically use more galvanized metal than larger systems. These galvanized towers need to be seasoned as part of the startup procedures. You play a critical role in the startup of any plant. Your attention to detail and concern for pretreatment procedures ensures that the cooling system is getting a good start in its life and lays the foundation for the success of the chemical treatment program.
COOLING WATER TREATMENT

The selection, construction, and implementation of a cooling water treatment program bring together many concepts developed in preceding chapters. An important principle to understand is the interrelationship between corrosion, deposition, and microbiological fouling. This is illustrated by the triangle in Figure 7-1.
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Deposition
Polynodic programs combat corrosion by using additives to shut down both the anode and cathode of a corrosion cell. These programs contain phosphate to reduce corrosion at anodic surfaces of the metal and to promote formation of a small amount of calcium phosphate precipitate to turn off the cathodic surfaces of the metal. The strategy in any program using calcium phosphate is to make sure you use enough to do the job, but not too much. Thats where polymeric dispersants come into play.
Corrosion
Biofouling
POLYMERIC DISPERSANTS
Polymers are complex chemicals composed of many repeating simple units, strung together to form a chain. There is a tremendous number of polymers available for industrial use. You may be familiar with polymers used in the influent clarifier in your plant or in the waste treatment plant. Polymers used in these applications promote the formation of larger particles in water so they settle and are removed from the flowing stream. Polymers can also be used for the exact opposite purpose. By choosing the correct composition and length of chain, we can design polymers that actually inhibit the formation of precipitatesand thats a key usage in cooling water treatment: precipitation inhibition. In the case of calcium phosphate, the polymer controls the amount of calcium phosphate which coats a metal surface. Again, we want just enough for corrosion protection, but not so much that we form a deposit which interferes with heat transfer. This is not easy to do. Actually, the evolution of cooling water treatment is based on the discovery of various new polymers, each one opening the door for new treatment options. Polynodic programs were effective but were limited to certain ranges of pH and alkalinity. If the pH were too low, corrosion could not be controlled. That was not a common problem because most natural makeup waters (as we saw in Chapter 1) contain alkalinity that, when cycled in a cooling tower, tends to raise the pH. So the bigger problem is controlling calcium phosphate deposition at elevated pH. Thats where BetzDearborn Dianodic II comes in.
Figure 7-1: Interrelationships between corrosion, deposition and biofouling
This diagram shows that corrosion can cause microbiological problems by providing growth sites and corrosion can be caused by microbiological problems as a result of waste products given off by organisms. Similarly, deposition can cause under-deposit corrosion and deposition can be caused by the accumulation of corrosion byproducts. Deposition and biofouling are similarly interrelated. It also makes sense from a treatment standpoint to ensure that a chemical added to the cooling tower to fight corrosion does not cause additional deposition somewhere else in the system. Thats BetzDearborns job. Your representative knows how to put all the components together to ensure an effective blend that addresses all concerns for the cooling system.
OPEN RECIRCULATING COOLING SYSTEMS

In terms of the evolution of chemical treatment, it has been mentioned that chromate is an excellent corrosion inhibitor. Chromates were used primarily in the 1950s and 1960s, until environmental considerations forced the chemical treatment industry to develop better alternatives. The use of zinc phosphate was one of the first alternatives to chromate treatment. It was supplemented by Polynodic treatment programs in the early 70s. A big breakthrough in cooling water treatment was the introduction of Dianodic II by BetzDearborn in the late 1970s. It is still used today in many cooling systems. Zinc/alkaline treatments were developed in the early 1980s to handle higher pH ranges. Many plants now use Continuum products, introduced in the 1990s.
DIANODIC II
This program uses high levels of phosphate, which act as an excellent anodic inhibitor. On steel, it is actually as effective as chromate! The aim of this program is to maintain solubility of calcium phosphate in the presence of high levels of phosphate and calcium hardness. The success of the program was entirely dependent on finding the right polymeric dispersant, better than those previously available. In the case of Dianodic II programs,
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the polymer was a genuine breakthrough; it introduced a whole new chemistry to cooling water treatment. The components of the treatment program include phosphate, polyphosphate, organic phosphonates and a special polymeric dispersant. These components act together to control iron-based corrosion. An azole (organic nitrogen compound) is often added to protect copper-bearing components in the system. And, on top of that, biocide treatment is also neededbut, we do not want to use a biocide which interferes with corrosion/deposition control. The Dianodic II program handles tower calcium levels between 50 and 1200 ppm [mg/L] and carries phosphate levels between 10 and 20 ppm [mg/L]. This substantially exceeds the normal solubility limits for calcium phosphate and allows us to operate cooling systems at the highest number of cycles for optimal efficiency. The special polymeric dispersant works well up to a pH of 7.8. As good as Dianodic II treatment is, there may be a need to operate at pH higher than 7.8. There are many reasons for wanting to do this in a cooling system. Alkaline waters, in general, are less aggressive toward steel. A higher operating pH range tends to buffer system pH upsets, without requiring the feed of excessive amounts of acid, a constant concern with other programs.
required chemical testing to make sure the tower operating conditions are within control ranges of the program being used. This is one of your main responsibilities. If you have any questions about what to do when test results are outside control ranges, you should review them with your BetzDearborn representative.
CONTINUUM TREATMENT
The latest development in cooling water treatment eliminates zinc from the program (any metal is a concern in some areas of the world), and allows the alkaline program to operate under a wider variety of conditions. New Continuum programs contain phosphate, phosphonate, and azole as corrosion inhibitors, with molybdate as needed, and a polymeric dispersant for precise scaling and fouling control. Again, a biocide program is also required.
SURFACTANTS
Sometimes we need to add surfactants as a supplement to the main treatment program. For example, in a system which becomes contaminated with oils and grease, a surfactant is the most cost-effective way to disperse grease. Surfactants perform like soap in a cleaning operation by dissolving grease.
CHEMICAL TREATMENT FORMULATIONS

There is an important subtopic of chemical treatment which is useful for you to understand at this point. When BetzDearborn formulates treatment components together, sometimes concentrated actives cannot be mixed with each other because of chemical incompatibilities. The components are designed to work together, but under diluted conditions in recirculating water (or in a closed loop or other systems). Therefore, some programs require the feed of separate products. That makes your job more complicatedwe understand that. But sometimes, it just cannot be helped. Many programs are available in what is called a one-drum formulation, where everything needed for the program is furnished in one, highly concentrated product. This is convenient, but there is a disadvantage. Suppose your chemical testing indicates that more phosphate is needed. With a one-drum approach, you have no alternative but to add more of everything: inexpensive phosphate, and relatively expensive dispersant. So convenience may come at a higher price. With major separation of components into two or three products, we tailor the amount of additive needed for a given change in system chemistry. This helps keep costs in lineand makes your plant more profitable.
ALKALINE/ZINC TREATMENT PROGRAMS

Programs for higher pH were introduced by BetzDearborn as BAT/zinc. BAT stands for balanced alkaline technology, indicating that we could operate in a higher, more alkaline pH range, while preserving a balance between corrosion and deposition. These programs employ zinc (which forms a precipitate at cathodic areas on a metal surface), phosphonates (which control scale), molybdate (also for anodic corrosion protection), azole (to inhibit copper corrosion), and an all-important polymeric dispersant. The hallmark of this program is that it eliminates or significantly reduces the need for acid feed in the recirculating tower water. However, its not magic and it does have some limitations. For example, we cannot increase LSI much over +2.5 (see Chapter 5, Deposition), and we have to watch the overall level of silica. The alkaline technologies let us operate with pH values up to 9. You can see the need for chemical testing. We will review this in detail in a later chapter, but we wanted to mention it now. Its critically important that you do the
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A summary of treatment options is provided in Figure 7-2.

Water treatment programs address three interrelated problems with a variety of options.
Crystal growth inhibitors Polymer dispersants Surfactants Deposition Biocides Surfactants Anodic/ cathodic inhibitors Adsorbed films
cal). Molybdate then takes over as a long-term corrosion inhibitor. The azole is a film-former and protects copper metallurgies. There are also some sulfite-based programs which borrow from boiler water treatment technology. Sulfite reacts very quickly with oxygen and actually removes it from a system. No oxygen, no oxygen corrosion. These programs are usually run at an alkaline pH to prevent acid attack of the metal. Of course, air in-leakage has to be minimized. One of the biggest problems with closed systems is controlling microbiological growth. There are many species of bacteria which thrive in reduced oxygen environments (See Chapter 6, Microbiological Fouling). A biocide may be recommended as part of a closed system program.
Biofouling
Corrosion
THE TREATMENT OF HVAC SYSTEMS

The unique operating conditions of HVAC systems pose special problems for treatment. As indicated in Chapter 3, they are characterized by variable flow. HVAC systems have to respond to varying atmospheric conditions, varying heat loads, and major seasonal changes. For control purposes, flows are highly throttled and often reduced. Sometimes they are reduced to zero. Stagnant branches of a chilled water system are a breeding ground for anaerobic bacteria. In addition, periodic contamination with glycol and hydrocarbons furnishes food for these microorganisms, compounding the problem. Treatment options include Dianodic II and BAT programs (as discussed above), as well as molybdate and azoles as needed. Because exchanger skin temperatures and heat transfer rates tend to be lower in HVAC systems, the potential for scale formation is less severebut it still exists. Consequently, the thrust of treatment programs for HVAC units focuses on corrosion and microbiological control. Special products have been developed for HVAC systems, providing effective treatment at affordable prices. One of the main problems in treating these systems is that they are often not monitored as closely as open recirculating systems. Therefore, treatment programs have to be able to work under wide operating conditions and still be effective when system upsets and changes occur. There are two additional topics we need to review to round out our understanding of cooling water treatment programs: air washers and potable applications.
Plus special considerations of:

Cycles, LSI, pH, TDS Makeup water hardness, silica Cost Feed and disposal of blowdown Degree of monitoring
Figure 7-2: Cooling water treatment
CLOSED COOLING SYSTEMS

The treatment of closed cooling systems is not as demanding as open systems. Deposition and scale formation are usually not a concern, because of widespread use of softened water or condensate as makeup; however, if you are using hard water makeup, then the potential for scale formation must be addressed. Also, oxygen concentration in closed systems is lower than in aerated, open systems, which reduces the corrosion potential. The corrosion inhibitor program of choice for many closed systems is based on molybdate. In closed systems, we operate with molybdate at the high levels needed for good control. However, molybdate is expensive. In a closed system, its cost is justifiedanother good reason for you to keep alert to leaks in these systems. Molybdate is often combined with an organic azole or nitrite. Nitrite gives rapid passivation of steel surfaces; unfortunately, it is prone to degradation (mostly biologi-
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AIR WASHERS
Air washers are common in the textile industry. They provide filtration (removal of textile fibers and lint) and help control humidity, temperature, and static charges in the air. The main problem in these systems is a combination of microorganisms and particulate fibers, wrapped up in a slime deposit. Sometimes this slime creates objectionable odors in the air. The ultimate objective for treatment is to increase the service time between air washer cleanings. Treatment of these systems combines an effective corrosion inhibitor and a good microbiocide, in conjunction with a surfactant. You might recall from Chapter 6, that we often use surfactants to break up microbiological deposits, allowing the biocide to be more effective. A chemical antistat is added to adjust the static charge in the air. There is a strong seasonal effect. When an air washer is in the humidification phase, evaporation is occurring, allowing solids to build up. Blowdown of the system is required in this phase to control scale. In the dehumidification phase, using refrigeration cooling to promote condensation, the condensation creates an overflow condition. The mineral content of the condensate is quite low, so scale is not a problem, but low conductivity water can be quite corrosive. This provides a good opportunity for recycle, once treated. Consequently, operators responsible for these systems must be aware of the phase in which the air washer is operating.
issues. Selecting an effective treatment program goes beyond selecting chemicals to feed. Every plant has a NPDES permit, regulating discharge from the facility. This permit focuses on heavy metals, phosphates, and sometimes chlorine and chlorides. We control corrosion for all the system integrity and operating efficiency reasons mentioned at the beginning of this chapter. But we also have to factor in how the plant is going to remove blowdown or accidental discharge from treated systems. Uncontrolled iron and copper corrosion can actually put a plant out of compliance when corrosion byproducts are discharged. But to control corrosion, we need phosphate-based chemicals, sometimes in large amounts, and discharge of these phosphates is also regulated. You see how complicated the balancing act can be. The success of many of our treatment programs is based on high-performance polymeric dispersants. What happens when these complex products are released into the environment? BetzDearborn has embarked on a massive research effort dedicated to identify the ultimate fate of these products and their potential effect on the environment. This puts us in a more responsible position to recommend treatment programs for industry.
CONCLUSION
We do not expect you to become a chemical expert. Thats our job. You should now have an appreciation of how treatment programs work, and why we incorporate certain chemicals in them to perform specific tasks. You should also have a better understanding of the relationships between corrosion, deposition, and microbiological fouling. Two important things we would like you to take from this chapter: support system maintenance. The better job you do maintaining mechanical integrity and cleanliness of cooling systems, the easierand less expensivethe chemical control program will be. This directly carries to the bottom linereliable, profitable operation of your plant. some chemical control programs are complicated. We need YOUR help in making these programs work: consistent chemical feed, accurate testing, timely reaction to test results, working closely with your BetzDearborn representative. Thats a winning combination.
POTABLE WATER TREATMENT

The requirements for potable water treatment are driven by federal guidelines for drinking water. Many of the regulations focus on maximum levels of heavy metals, such as lead and copper. Corrosion inhibitors have been reviewed by the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF). Approved components include phosphates, polyphosphates, and low levels of zinc. Products are applied at what is termed threshold levels, levels low enough to meet guidelines, yet just high enough to control corrosion and deposition. As you may guess, operating at threshold levels requires precise control of system chemistry and an attention to good testing practices.
REGULATORY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

The discussion of potable water treatment leads us to a broader discussion of regulatory and environmental
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KEY WORDS
Polymeric Dispersant
Precipitation Inhibitor
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CHAPTER QUIZ
1 HVAC systems require special attention to prevent hardness deposition. True False
2 A one-drum treatment formulation, while convenient, often costs more than the feed of separate products.
True
False
3 The best corrosion protection can be achieved by using additives that shut down both the anode and cathode of a corrosion cell.
True
False
4 Chemical treatment can always overcome design deficiencies in a cooling system.
True
False
5 Chemical treatment can always overcome operating deficiencies in a cooling system. True
False
6 Polymers can be used to promote the formation of particles or to inhibit the formation of particles.
True
False
7 Although calcium phosphate is an excellent corrosion inhibitor, care must be taken to prevent excess accumulation of the material as scale on exchanger surfaces.
True
False
8 Because closed cooling systems are closed to the atmosphere, it is impossible for microbiological organisms to grow in these systems.
True
False
9 Azoles are organic nitrogen compounds added to a cooling treatment program to provide corrosion protection for which particular metal?
Answer
10 Before a new cooling system or a new part in a cooling system is put into service, a special chemical treatment step is performed. From the following list, identify this important step: A B C D E Deionization Disbursement Pretreatment Coagulation Bioaugmentation Answer
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11. Explain, in your own words, the interrelationship between deposition, biological fouling, and corrosion.
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CHAPTER 8 FEED SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Every cooling system is different. Water chemistry and component metallurgies can be significantly different, even within the same plant. Therefore, as water treaters, we must tailor treatment programs specifically for each system. There is usually a need for corrosion protection, deposition control, and microbiological control. Corrosion inhibitors need to be fed at a treatment level to protect all the various metallurgies within a system. Dispersants need to be added at a high enough level to disperse suspended solids and inhibit scale formation, and to act as an adjunct to corrosion inhibitors to prevent chemical inhibitors from depositing on heat transfer surfaces. Biocides are maintained at dosage levels to control biological growth, but not at feedrates that interfere with corrosion or deposition program components. To meet these difficult treatment requirements, we need to maintain precise levels of treatment chemicals in recirculating systems. This is not easy to do with the normal system changes and chemistry swings that are part of everyday plant operations. In previous sections, we detailed the results of an underfeed of corrosion inhibitor: the ensuing corrosion can cause damage and losses, ranging from a small loss in efficiency of a minor exchanger, to a major, unscheduled plant shutdown. The economic losses can be staggering. Decreased feed of a deposit control agent shows a similar pattern: deposit buildup in an exchanger may cause an undetectable loss of efficiency or an economic catastrophe, with lost production and replacement or costly cleaning of capital equipment. Control of microbiological growth is no exception to the need for accurate feed control. Uncontrolled growth of microorganisms generates the same list of economic losses to a plant, with a few additional problems unique to biofouling. No one doubts the potential danger of underfeeding a chemical treatment program. Many customers, however, are unaware of the danger and economic losses resulting from overfeed of treatment. The first penalty is that you are using more chemicals than requiredthats a waste of money. But there can be unexpected consequences to overfeed of treatment chemicals. Dispersant fed alone is usually not a chemical problem. Some corrosion inhibitors, however, can form deposits if they are overfed, unless balanced by an overfeed of dispersant. Recall from Chapter 4 that many of the newer corrosion inhibitors work by deliberately forming a controlled precipitate at the cathode. Overfeed of these inhibitors causes a too much of a good thing problem, and undesirable scale is created. Overfeed of biocide can limit the effectiveness of corrosion and deposition control programs. Some biocides, such as chlorine and bromine, indiscriminately destroy all carbon molecules. This is normally good because microorganisms are composed of complex carbon molecules. Chemical components of the treatment program, some of which are also complicated carbon molecules, are usually tough enough to withstand normal use levels of oxidizing biocides. But if the overfeed surpasses the ability of the treatment chemical to survive, it is also destroyed. Once a deposit control agent is destroyed, deposition can proceed unchecked. In addition, byproducts from the reaction with chlorine are corrosive. Underfeed is a problem; overfeed is a problem. Erratic feed can produce highly variable results and make it impossible to determine the effectiveness of a treatment program. Inconsistent feed can also make it difficult to identify system changes which affect performance. Many plants subscribe to the idea of continuous improvement, seeking to constantly improve production practices. With ineffective control of chemical feed, such quality improvement programs are undermined from the start.
FEED POINTS
In addition to maintaining required levels of treatment chemicals, it is also important to know where in the system a treatment is applied. There are a number of concerns you need to consider. Its important to feed chemical treatment programs to a highly agitated area; this promotes good mixing. It is foolish to feed the right amount of chemical and have it remain in a pool, unmixed in a quiet area of the system. Although its the right dosage, unless it gets dispersed throughout the circulating system, its of no use. Even worse, because undispersed treatment is usually a local overfeed situation, it may even cause damage although it was the right amount for the system.
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In cooling systems, the preferred area to feed treatment chemicals is to the suction side of the recirculating pump. The area is highly mixed. Passage through the large recirculating pumps assures proper dilution of the concentrated actives. In fact, many chemical treatment additives are added to the pump sump as concentrates, avoiding the need for dilution or a day tank arrangement. The pump sump area is also mechanically accessible, and usually has room to house bulk product storage tanks. In addition, its easy to check the feed system while performing other duties in the area. If gravity feed of treatment chemicals is required, a below-grade cold well is an excellent choice for a feed point. A major consideration for chemical treatment of boilers is the need for high pressure pumps. The treatment program is applied to high pressure boiler feed lines or pressurized steam lines. However, this is not the case with cooling systems. Atmospheric pumps are sufficient to feed chemical treatment programs. These pumps are much less expensive than high pressure pumps, easier to maintain, and generally safer to use.
Figure 8-1: Chemical Feed Pump
TYPES OF FEED AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

The simplest chemical feed option is called bucket feed. You fill a bucket with treatment chemical and dump it into a tower. The only positive comment about bucket feed is that it is easy and cheap. Actually, in the long run its not really cheap. Consider the results with bucket feed: underfeeding and overfeeding are inevitable with a large percentage of inaccurate feeding. Underfeeding may promote corrosion and deposition or encourage uncontrolled microbiological growth. Overfeeding wastes chemical treatment and can cause deposition. Ultimately, all these problems cost money. A more acceptable method for feeding chemical treatment is with a pump. Small chemical feed pumps are found in virtually every industrial plant in the world. A typical example is shown in Figure 8-1. Few stop to think about the drawbacks of such systems. There are three: (1) The pump setting is based on some assumed constant system conditionsthat is rarely the real situation. (2) Everyone assumes the output from a pump is constantagain, thats not the case. Not only the output, but also the discharge pressure varies. Did we mention that pumps leak? Thats number (3). A variation on bucket feed and pump feed is the shot feeder. This is an intermittent method, used to rapidly develop some maximum treatment concentration. Dispersants and biocides are sometimes fed to open
recirculating systems in this manner. Automated shot feeding uses a chemical feed pump and a controller which actuates the pump to achieve a desired treatment level. There is no feedback from the system being treated, and the chemical profile depends entirely on the quality of the actuating timer. Another intermittent variation is specific for oncethrough cooling water systems and is called semi-continuous. Sometimes its difficult to maintain effective treatment levels with reasonable economics in oncethrough systems. As effective as the treatment chemicals are, the nature of once-through systems (with no recycle of treatment) represents a treatment challenge. Chemical addition to these systems is often controlled by a pump and timer that feed chemical for several hours and then stop the pump for a given period of time. There have been many attempts over the years to somehow target the performance of a feed system to an important, changing parameter in a system. One such attempt is called the meter/counter/timer (MCT) feed system. Another name for this system is meter/accumulator/timer (MAT). It is superior to an unmodulated pump because it follows specific system changes, such as makeup water flow. An MCT system is illustrated in Figure 8-2. MCT is normally based on a targeted treatment level. It attempts to maintain this level by tracking lost chemical, that is, blowdown. Most of the treatment in an open recirculating system is lost by blowdown and this feed
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Counter
Timer
Flow Meter
Chemical Feed Pump Main Flow
Figure 8-2: Meter/counter/timer feed system
system is designed to account for such losses. Makeup flow is metered and sends a pulsed signal to a counter. The counter accumulates a set number of pulses and then actuates chemical feed for a preset time. Unfortunately, even with higher installation costs, feed is still based on a theoretical model of the systemand the feed system does not verify that the pump is feeding what it is supposed to feed. One of the most cost-effective ways to achieve targeted control levels (in the face of changing system conditions), as well as meeting the need for verification of pump delivery, is with a BetzDearborn PaceSetter Plus. This control system is based on a targeted treatment level; however, its on-board logic changes the target in a feed-forward action to meet a variety of changing system conditions. In addition to adjusting the treatment pump (in response to a changing target), it also continuously calibrates the pump with a verified draw down assembly and corrects for inevitable pump output inaccuracies. The PaceSetter Plus system reacts instantly to a pump or feed failure and other alarm conditions. Some systems have been set up to call the local BetzDearborn representative on a beeper system, should the need arise. The device has easy-to-use graphics, logs system and feed data, and interfaces with statistical programs to analyze data. It can also transfer data by way of a modem hookup. Most installations have a demonstrably short payback time in terms of operating equipment protection and conservation of treatment chemicals. Chemical feed and control is a major concern to industry. We at BetzDearborn are proud of the PaceSetter Plus controller and the benefits it provides.
system. And you make changes based on results of chemical testing (reviewed in Chapter 9). Its not enough to just perform the tests and write the numbers in a logyou have to react to the test results. Results out-of-range are telling you something: a low result for a corrosion inhibitor is putting your cooling system at risk. Follow the directions set up for your particular cooling treatment program. They indicate what steps you should take with low test results. A high test result could mean an overfeed and your plant is wasting money. Our success as a team is absolutely tied in with the success of your plantand that includes staying within budget. Follow the procedures set up by your plant and your BetzDearborn representative. The proper feed of treatment chemicals is everybodys business.
SAFETY
No discussion of chemical feed is complete without mention of safety concerns. Some chemicals used in cooling water treatment contain hazardous materials that may be dangerous to handle. You should not come into direct contact with these materials. We are eager to fulfil our ethical and legal obligation to you to fully inform you of the hazards associated with our products. You have access to Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) which identify safety concerns and list explicit safety precautions you need to take. In addition to BetzDearborn products, some cooling systems require the feed of acid or caustic to maintain a desired pH. Some systems may require chlorine or liquid bleach for microbiological control. These chemicals are extremely dangerous. Extreme caution needs to be exercised when working around them. Your own company has safety procedures which you need to knowand follow. There is also a built-in safety hazard in our business: cooling water and electrical pumps or electronic feed systems. Water and electricity, when mixed, are not a good combination. The electrical and electronic aspects of a cooling system and chemical feed delivery systems should be serviced only by a qualified technician. Major electrical work must be done under the auspices of the maintenance department. Check with your supervisor about the proper procedures for your plant. Safety is everybodys business. If you have any questions about the safe handling of BetzDearborn chemicals in your plant, contact your BetzDearborn representative. An emergency number is available to handle serious accidents with BetzDearborn chemicals. Be sure it is posted where you can call quickly, if the need arises.
OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITY
You have a big part to play in the success of a chemical treatment program. You are probably involved in day-to-day adjustment of pumps in the chemical feed
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KEY WORDS
Bucket Feed
Chemical Feed Pump
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
Meter/Counter/Timer (MCT)
Meter/Accumulator/Timer (MAT)
Shot Feeder
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CHAPTER QUIZ
1. As an operator, you should only be concerned when a pump is underfeeding a chemical program.
True False
2. The preferred area to feed cooling water chemicals is to the discharge side of the recirculating pump.
True False
3. Low pressure pumps are safe to use to feed chemicals to cooling water systems.
True False
4. The only drawback to the PaceSetter Plus feed and control system is its inability to verify that the pump is feeding what it is supposed to feed.
True False
5. MCT or MAT feed systems are superior to shot feeders because .
6. Chemical treatment to an open recirculating cooling system is lost by .
7. Before working on a chemical pump that is out-of-service or not functioning, it is a good practice to consult the because .
8. Underfeeding a deposit control agent can cause deposit buildup, resulting in .
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CHAPTER 9 MONITORING
INTRODUCTION
The previous chapters in this workbook have reviewed basic cooling system problemscorrosion, deposition, and microbiological foulingand mechanical and chemical approaches to solve those problems. In the discussion of mechanical issues, we identified the importance of monitoring temperature, pressure, velocity, fan horsepower, etc., and stressed the importance of your job in ensuring that the system performs as well as it was designed to perform. Proper chemical treatment follows efficient mechanical operation. In applying effective chemical treatment, the same concerns are raised about monitoring. We have to watch feedrates, incoming and recirculating water chemistry, and perform special tests which certain treatment programs require. Some tests in large systems need to be performed several times a shift. Large or critical systems require close attention to keep them at optimal performance. Smaller systems are more lenient. You still have to watch them, but mechanical and chemical parameters are set more broadly and the treatment programs we use for these systems already have a lot of built-in safeguards. Comfort cooling systems, although relatively small, are no less important for the efficient operation of a business than the cooling loops on critical process heat exchangers. You may find that some of the monitoring tools mentioned here are not used in your plant. In that case, its certainly OK to skip some of the subsections. BetzDearborn representatives have been trained in the use of all the tools. From a complete monitoring menu, your representative selects the best tools for your cooling systems and treatment programs. If you have a question regarding a monitoring program, please review it with your BetzDearborn representative. Lets start with some routine control tests. Then well progress to more complicated monitoring devices. instruments is that they tell you exactly what to do next and have built in clocks for timing some of the steps!
SAMPLING
Before we discuss chemical testing, we should mention the importance of getting a good, representative water sample. Many people take this step for granted. Dont. You can have the best test in the world, but if the water sample is not a good sample, the results can be quite misleading. What is a good sample? A sample should accurately reflect the larger body of water from which it is taken. Many plants have continuously flowing sample linesthis is water sampling at its finest. The continuously flowing sample is constantly flushing out the sample line and quickly reflects major changes in bulk water chemistry. Sampling lines that are not used very often are a real problem. Do not take a sample right after you turn on a sampling line. It may not be accuratethe water has been sitting in the line for some time. Flush the line, certainly for a minute or two, and then take your sample. Once you start taking the sample, be careful not to disturb the sampling line or control valve. Finish taking the sample, then turn off the control valve. In cooling water treatment, there are very few tests which are done immediately after a sample is taken. Most system and treatment chemistry is stable for reasonable periods of time, especially if the sample container is sealed. The test procedure details any time requirements.
CHEMICAL TESTS
There are many general tests performed on incoming makeup water and cooling system recirculating water. These include total hardness, conductivity, pH, calcium, chloride, silica, and alkalinity. These tests alert us to any problems which may be developing and help us establish system water balances. These tests give you the number of cycles of concentration, based on various ratios, which should more or less agree. Sometimes a discrepancy shows up: for example, cycles based on silica may be substantially lower than cycles based on TDS, conductivity or other parameters. This may indicate we are losing some silica in the system, a warning that silica deposition may be occurring.
CHEMICAL TESTING
It seems that everybody has to do chemical testing. The tests may be simple: add three drops of this reagent or that one and compare the color to a chart or plastic color wheel. Some tests contain many steps, and require sophisticated instrumentation. Although complicated, one of the more fascinating aspects of the newest
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MONITORING
Chemical treatment programs are designed to handle a defined range of chemical problems in a cooling system and the programs react quite well to changes within that range. We have to check the makeup water, however, to prevent a program from being overwhelmed with chemistry outside its range of capability. Your BetzDearborn representative determines normal ranges for makeup water chemistryand provides valuable suggestions on what to do when ranges are exceeded. You may also have been instructed to check with your supervisor before making any system or chemical changes. In addition to general water chemistry, some treatment programs involve specific tests: phosphate (total and acid-hydrolyzed or UV-treated), zinc, molybdate, and azole. Some items require special testing: iron, polyphosphate, copper, TOC, and TSS. Occasionally, samples are sent to a laboratory for chemical testing. In certain applications, your BetzDearborn representative periodically takes a complete set of samples for comparison testing at BetzDearborns central laboratories. During a service call at your plant, a BetzDearborn representative may take samples and rerun the most recent tests. This is not done because we doubt an operator s ability to perform the tests. It is part of a system of double checks, confirming consistent testing procedures. After you do the required testing, record the values on a log sheet, as instructed by your supervisor. In some systems, test data is entered directly into a computer database. Whatever the level of sophistication, its important to check every test result against the operating limits for that test. Is the value in range? Good. Do the next test. If the value is too high or too low, you may be instructed to take specific action. A chemical treatment pump may have to be adjusted, etc. These actions are indicated in your operator s log.
Table 9-1: Cooling tower inspection Where to Inspect Circulating water, sump Distribution deck Air inlet louvers Top of the unit Tower wood Drift eliminators, slats, fill area Fans, motors and pumps What to Look For Changes in color, turbidity, foam, oil, increased debris; condition of screens, silt build-up Want uniform flow across the deck; check also for slime and algae Salt encrustation Plugged spray nozzles, obstructed distribution troughs Changes in texture or strength Physical damage; ice formation during winter months Amperage, unusual vibration, noise, leaks
system metallurgy. It is exposed to cooling water for weeks or months at a time. Often, the BetzDearborn representative inserts and removes the coupon. You may be involved in routinely checking the flow of tower water through the coupon test device. Several coupons are often mounted together in a flow assembly called a bypass rack. This is shown in FIgure 9-1. Individual coupons can also be inserted into a cooling water line by means of a retractable mounting device. Upon removal, the coupon is returned to our central laboratories for analysis. Any weight loss is documented and the average corrosion rate is calculated. Both general corrosion and pit depth are considered. In addition, the laboratory technician carefully studies the coupons and notes anything unusual about them. This is one of the most powerful tools available to document system corrosion and determine the effectiveness of chemical corrosion inhibition. Instantaneous corrosion readings are sometimes obtained with a trimetallic corrosion rate meter. These meters require frequent calibration and occasionally give inaccurate results in certain cooling waters; however, they may be useful under certain conditions. There are several suppliers of these meters. A very powerful corrosion (and deposition) monitoring device available from BetzDearborn is a MonitAll , shown in Figure 9-2. This is a portable test rig in which metal specimens are heated, while immersed in a flow of water from the cooling tower. The MonitAll equipment duplicates plant exchanger heat fluxes and tube-side water velocities, all within actual system chemistry. Hotand cold-side temperatures are continuously displayed to track fouling and a specimen can be weighed after a test to determine the corrosion rate.
TOWER INSPECTION
Part of a good mechanical operation is periodic inspection of the cooling tower. Some of the things to look for are summarized in Table 9-1. Now lets review special monitoring tools for specific problem areas of cooling systems.
CORROSION MONITORING
One of the oldest tests in cooling tower treatment is the use of a corrosion coupon. This is a small metal specimen, pre-weighed before use and matched to the
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CHAPTER 9
MONITORING
Slot To Be Vertical
Test Coupon
Test Specimen Open Ended Discharge

Plant Process Line
Test Specimen
Minimum Length 8 in. (0.2 m) Flow Adjusting Valve or Flow Restriction Rotometer (Optional) (Schutte and Koerting 3/4-in. Ball Flow Indicator [BT-127] is Limited to 200 psig [14 kg/cm2] and 200F [93C])
Flow
Flow Adjusting and Shutoff Valve
Higher Pressure Source
Pressure Bleed Valve
Figure 9-1: Corrosion coupon test specimen: open-loop bypass installation
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MONITORING
ganisms found in cooling systems. Some organisms live in the bulk water. These are called planktonic, a technical term which means they prefer to swim around in the bulk water. Perhaps you have heard of plankton, a catch-all term for small organisms which are free-swimming in the ocean; that is the origin of the term. Other organisms prefer to live attached to a surface. These are termed sessile, which means they sit there. Both are a problem in cooling systems. (See Chapter 6)
Planktonic Monitoring
Planktonic organisms are measured by plate counts. The term comes from earlier methods which grew organisms on agar nutrient gels in round, glass containers called plates. A sample of cooling water is dispersed on the nutrient gel and allowed to incubate, usually at warm temperatures. Each of the organisms, individually invisible in the original sample, grows on the gel and forms a visible colony, which is counted with an optical device, or by by direct observation. Knowing the original sample size, the number of colony forming units (CFUs) per milliliter [mL] is calculated. Sometimes the original sample is diluted many times to reduce the number of colonies produced and facilitate counting. The plate count method is laborious but quite accurate and useful. The nutrient gel may be varied to identify different kinds of organisms. Even exotic sulfate-reducing anaerobic bacteria have their own special growth recipe. The technique is also very useful in evaluating which biocide may be needed to control growth and to identify the most cost-effective dosage. Modern methods have streamlined the agar plate method. 3M makes a disposable testing device called Petrifilm. Other suppliers also furnish combination sampling/incubating devices which have simplified microbiological monitoring. You may be involved in part of this monitoring effort. If not, leave the details to your BetzDearborn representative.
Figure 9-2: BetzDearborn MonitAll
DEPOSITION
BetzDearborn also furnishes model condensers and test heat exchangers. The model condenser simulates surface condenser operating conditions using actual plant cooling water. Condenser tubes are heated by steam. Shell and discharge water temperatures are measured to monitor deposition. In the test heat exchanger system, heat loads and cooling water flows can be duplicated. After a test run, tubes are removed, sectioned, and examined for corrosion and deposition. There are also specific deposition coupons for use within cooling systems. Such coupons contain numerous holes and perforations which provide representative surfaces for the accumulation of deposits. A very important service provided by BetzDearborn, but not part of standard operator testing, is deposit analysis. Samples of deposits from coupons, MonitAll tubes, test heat exchangers, equipment inspections, etc. are analyzed in our central laboratories. Results are reported back to the customer by the BetzDearborn representative.
Sessile Monitoring
A variety of devices has arisen over the years to monitor microorganisms which prefer to grow on surfaces. The BetzDearborn Biobox is quite helpful in this regard. Boxes are constructed of plastic and have removable baffles, on which the organisms grow. A Biofilm Fouling Monitor (Figure 9-3) is used to quantify the number of sessile organisms. The monitor is inserted in a slipstream of cooling water. Microorganisms start to grow on the surfaces of glass or metal beads within the monitor. At the end of a test run, the
MICROBIOLOGICAL MONITORING
As you can see, there is some overlap between corrosion and deposition monitoring devices. The tools for microbiological monitoring, on the other hand, are rather unique. There are two main divisions between monitoring methods, reflecting two main divisions between microor-
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MONITORING
Exchanger Performance
The objective of chemical treatment for control of deposition, corrosion, and biofouling is to keep heat exchanger surfaces clean, unlike Figure 9-6. There are two numerical measurements which are used to track how well a heat exchanger is performing: The first is called the Heat Transfer Coefficient (U coefficient). A mathematical equation to determine its value is: U = Q / A T m Where:
Figure 9-3: A biofilm fouling monitor
U Q
= overall heat transfer coefficient = rate of heat transfer = total area of heat transfer surface
beads are removed and put in a sonic bath. Sonic agitation strips organisms from the bead surfaces and suspends them in water. The water is then plated, according to the technique mentioned above for planktonic organisms. To measure microbiological fouling under non-heat transfer conditions, a P monitor is used. It measures the back pressure generated in a long tube as it becomes plugged with growing organisms. A diagram of this apparatus is shown in Figure 9-4. There are also special coupons which can be inserted in cooling systems specifically to collect sessile organisms. The coupons are made of metal mesh as shown in Figure 9-5. The high surface area of the wire coupons provides a good medium for growth of sessile species.
Tm = mean temperature differential
Figure 9-5: A mesh coupon for sessile organisms
CHAPTER 9
1997, BetzDearborn Water Management Group. All rights reserved.
MAR206 9701
Page 9-5
MONITORING
Other Monitoring Tools

BetzDearborn furnishes special test equipment for unusual cooling water system circumstances or when more elaborate monitoring is required. We have a portable instrumentation station with extensive data acquisition capabilities. Our most sophisticated monitoring capability is a mobile, self-contained laboratory which provides on-site corrosion, deposition, and biofouling studies. Using a slipstream of actual tower water, various treatment programs are assessed in this unit, using a small, evaporative test cooling tower. In addition, it contains MonitAll equipment and extensive chemical testing capabilities. It is called the BetzDearborn TraveLab. Theres no doubt that the job of the operator in any plant has grown more complicated worldwide, as industry has progressed. However, the importance of the work performed by the operator continues to be of prime importance to reliable utility and process operations. We at BetzDearborn thank you for your dedication in working through these nine chapters of Cooling Operator Training. If you have any questions or require additional information about cooling system problems or chemical treatment programs, please do not hesitate to contact your BetzDearborn representatives. They are there to help you.
Figure 9-6: Fouled heat exchanger tubes
Another quantitative measurement which has proved useful compares the U coefficient under clean and dirty conditions, representing the ratio as the % Cleanliness or the cleanliness factor (F): F = 100% x UD / UC
UD = heat transfer coefficient (dirty) UC = heat transfer coefficient (clean)
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MONITORING
KEY WORDS
Bypass Rack Cleanliness Factor (F) Colony Forming Units (CFU) Corrosion Coupon Heat Transfer Coefficient (U coefficient) Planktonic Plate Counts Sessile
CHAPTER 9
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MONITORING
CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Some cooling system sampling lines are not continuously flowing. To get a water sample, a control valve has to be opened. In your own words, explain why it is not a good practice to take the first water coming out of the line for your sample.
2. In the preceding situation, list the sequence of steps you would follow to obtain a good water sample:
3. Corrosion rate meters require frequent
4. Microorganisms that prefer to attach to surfaces are called
Free swimmers in bulk water are called
5. A bug count counts the number of CFUs or
forming
per mL of bulk water.
6. Two quantitative measurements of heat exchanger performance are the
and the
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CHAPTER 9

Cooling Training

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COOLING OPERATOR TRAINING

FACTORS AFFECTING DEPOSITION

SCALE AND FOULANTS

Figure 5-1: Mineral solubility

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Nucleation (Suspended Small Crystals)

Crystal Growth (Suspended Large Crystals)

Scale (Deposition and Continued Growth of Large Crystals)

Figure 5-2: Crystal growth leading to scale

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Ca+2 Ca+2 CO32 Ca+2 CO32

Inhibitors Reduce Nucleation Force Small Crystals to Redissolve

Dispersants Prevent Large Crystals from Growing

Figure 5-4: Deposit control agents

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Charged End (Prefers Water) Water

Uncharged End (Hates Water)

Surfactant Surrounding and Dispersing Oil Droplet

Figure 5-5: Surfactants

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Langelier Saturation Index (LSI)

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

True True True True

False False False False

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Parts per Million (mg/L)

Parts per Million (mg/L)

pAlk and pCa Scale

Figure 5-6: LSI Calculator

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

ENRICHMENT READING Langelier Saturation Index

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

COOLING OPERATOR TRAINING

CHAPTER 6 MICROBIOLOGICAL FOULING

STAGE 1 Individual microorganisms attach to a surface

Water Cooling Tower Surface

STAGE 3 Colonies secrete protective layer Water Cooling Tower Surface

STAGE 4 Colonies merge to form biofilm Water Cooling Tower Surface

STAGE 5 Slime layer traps debris Water Cooling Tower Surface

Figure 6-1: Development of biofilm

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 6-2: Algae

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 6-4: Metal corroded by sulfate-reducing bacteria

Cooling Towers Slime on distribution deck and support members (sessile)

Bacteria Largest class of living organisms Enormous variety

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 6-5: Serial dilution vials

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

CONTACT TIME AND CONCENTRATION

Figure 6-6: BetzDearborn brominator

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

6. Wood rot is caused by a fungus attack on wood.

8. Chlorine is one of the most powerful biocides available.

10. Because it is very stable, ozone is often purchased in bulk containers.

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

13. All biocides work by the same chemical mechanism.

1997, BetzDearborn A Division of Hercules Incorporated. All rights reserved.

COOLING OPERATOR TRAINING

CHAPTER 7 TREATMENT PROGRAMS

HVAC VS. OPEN RECIRCULATING SYSTEMS

COOLING WATER TREATMENT