Joints and movement

- muscles bring about movement at a joint - muscles can only pull they cannot push so two muscles are needed to move a bone back and forth. - a pair of muscles like these are called antagonistic. - a muscle that contracts to cause extension of a joint is called an extensor - a flexor contracts to reverse the movement - the hip, knee and ankle joints are examples of synovial joints - the bones that move in the joint are separated by a cavity filled with synovial fluid. - the bones are held in position by ligaments that control and restrict movement. -tendons attach muscles to the bones - cartilage protects bones within joints.

- synovial fluid: acts as lubricant - synovial membrane: secretes synovial fluid - ligament: joins bone to bone and is strong and flexible - muscle - fibrous capsule: encloses joints - pad of cartilage: gives additional protection - cartilage: absorbs synovial fluid and acts as shock absorber - bone - tendon: joins muscle to bone At a joint there is:

Joints and movement continued

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How do muscles work?

- muscle is made up of bundles of muscle fibres, each fibre is a single muscle cell - each muscle cell is multinucleate (has more than one nucleus) this is because a single nucleus could not effectively control the metabolism of such a long cell. - Tendons connect muscle to bone - the muscle is made up of bundles of muscle fibres. these are bound together by connective tissue. - each muscle fibre is a single muscle cell surrounded by a cell surface membrane. - Inside the muscle fibre is the cytoplasm containing mitochondria and the other organelles found in a cell. - Within each muscle fibre there are also numerous myofibrils, each is composed of repeated contractile units called sarcomeres.

- when the muscle contracts the dark band overlaps the intermediate band shortening the length of the muscle and the sarcomere. - there only myosin filaments occur there is a intermediate-coloured band. - where both actin and myosin filaments occur there is a dark band. - where actin filaments appear on their own there is a light band on the sarcomere. - contractions are made by the sliding of these protein filaments within the muscle sarcomeres. - the sarcomere is made up of two types of protein, mainly actin, and thicker ones made from the protein myosin. - these are made up of contractile units called sarcomeres - each muscle fibre is made up of myofibrils

Inside a muscle fibre

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How the sarcomere shortens

When a nerve impulse arrives at a neuromuscular junction calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This moves the protein filaments in these steps: - Ca2+ attaches to the troponin molecule, causing it to move. - because of this the tropomyosin on the actin filament moves its position, exposing myosin binding sites on the actin filaments. - Myosin heads bind with myosin binding sites on the actin filament, forming cross-bridges. - When the myosin head binds to the actin, ADP and Pi on the myosin head are released. - the myosin changes shape, causing the myosin head to nod forward. This moves the filaments and the actin moves over the myosin. - An ATP molecule binds to the myosin head. this causes the myosin head to detach.

- This hydrolysis causes a change in the shape of the myosin head. It returns to its upright position.The cycle starts again. - An ATPase molecule on the myosin head hydrolyses the ATP, forming ATP and Pi.

How the sarcomere shortens continued

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Carbohydrate oxidation
In low intensity exercise enough oxygen is supplied to cells to enable ATP to be regenerated through aerobic respiration of fuels. C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy released - in aerobic respiration the hydrogen stored in glucose is brought together with oxygen to form water again. - there is a release of energy that can be used to generate ATP. - glucose and oxygen are not brought together directly because this would release large amounts of energy too quickly and could damage the cell. - glucose is split apart in a series of small steps. Carbon dioxide is released as a waste product. - hydrogen from the glucose is reacted with oxygen to release large amounts of energy as water s formed.

ATP in water -> ADP in water + hydrated Pi + energy transferred when removed the phosphate group becomes hydrated, a lot of energy is released as bonds form between the water and phosphate. - when one phosphate group is removed from the ATP by hydrolysis, ADP forms. - ATP is created from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) - cells use the molecule ATP as an energy carrier molecule. - a series of enzyme-controlled reactions, known as respiration is linked to ATP synthesis. Releasing energy: The minimum energy requirement of the body at rest to fuel basic metabolic processes is called your BMI.

Releasing energy
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- the hydrogens are taken up by hydrogen acceptors (FAD and NAD which then become reduced FAD and reduced NAD)

Glycolysis
The initial stages of carbohydrate breakdown occur in the cytoplasm, including the sarcoplasm of muscle cells. - two phosphate groups are added to glucose from two ATP molecules, this increases its reactivity. It can now split into two molecules of 3-carbon (3C) compounds. - each intermediate 3C sugar is oxidised producing a 3-carbon compound, pyruvate. - two hydrogen atoms atoms are removed during the reaction and taken up by the coenzyme NAD, a non-protein organic molecule. - phosphate from the intermediate compounds is transferred to ADP, creating ATP. - this is called substrate level phosphorylation, because energy for the formation of ATP comes from the substrates ( the intermediate compounds.) - two ATP's are made, two pairs of hydrogen atoms and two molecules of 3-carbon pyruvate.

- each glucose provides two pyruvates so the cycle turns twice per glucose. The 2 carbon molecule made combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A (or acetyl CoA) the two hydrogens released are involved in ATP formation. The coenzyme A carries the 2C acetyl groups to the Krebs cycle. - dehydrogenated (two hydrogens are removed and taken up by the coenzyme NAD) -decarboxylated (carbon dioxide is released as a waste product) pyruvate is: If oxygen is available the 3C pyruvate created at the end of glycolysis passes into the mitochondria. There it is completely oxidised, forming carbon dioxide and water.

The link reaction

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The Krebs cycle continued

The Krebs cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix, where the enzymes that catalyse the reactions are located. - each 2-carbon acetyl CoA combines with a 4-carbon compound to create one with 6 carbons. - in a circular pathway of reactions the original 4-carbon compound is recreated. Each 2-carbon molecule entering the Krebs cycle results in the production of: - two carbon dioxide molecules. - one molecule of ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation. - and four pairs of hydrogen atoms, which are taken up by hydrogen acceptors. - fatty acids can also be respired to release energy. - fatty acids are broken down generating the same 2-carbon compound which can be put into the Krebs cycle for oxidation.

The Krebs cycle

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The electron transport chain

- reduced coenzyme carries H+ and electron to electron transport chain on inner mitochondrial membrane. - Electrons pass from one electron carrier to the next in a series of redox reactions; the carrier is reduced when it receives the electrons and oxidised when it passes them on. - protons (H+) move across the inner mitochondrial membrane creating high H+ concentrations in the intermembrane space. - H+ diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix down the electrochemical gradient. - H+ diffusion allows ATPase to catalyse ATP synthesis. -Electrons and H+ ions recombine to form hydrogen atoms which then combine with oxygen to create water. - if the supply of oxygen stops the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis stops.

- as the hydrogen ions pass through the channel ATP synthesis is catalysed by ATPase in each stalked particle - the hydrogen ions diffuse down the electrochemical gradient through hollow protein channels in stalked particles on the membrane - making the intermembrane space more positive than the matrix - this creates a steep electrochemical gradient across the inner membrane - this energy is used to move hydrogen ions from the matrix, across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the intermembrane space. - energy is released as electrons pass along the electron transport chain how the electron transport chain leads to ATP synthesis:

ATP synthesis by chemiosmosis

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ATP synthesis by chemiosmosis continued

- the hydrogen ions cause a change in shape in the enzymes active site so the ADP can bind - within the matrix the H+ and electrons re combine to form hydrogen atoms - these combine with oxygen to form water - the oxygen acts as the final carrier in the electron transport chain and is therefore reduced - this method of synthesising ATP is known as oxidative phosphorylation

How much ATP is produced?

The maximum number of ATP's that can be made per glucose is 38 This is based on the assumption that: - each reduced NAD that is reoxidised forms 3 ATP molecules - each reduced FAD results in the production of two ATP molecules

How much ATP is produced? continued

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Rate of respiration
n small organisms the rate of respiration can be determined by measuring the uptake of oxygen using a respirometer. - respiration is a series of enzyme-controlled reactions - it is affected by enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, temperature and pH. - the concentration also has a role in the control of respiration. - ATP inhibits the enzyme in the first step of glycolysis. The enzyme responsible for glucose phosphorylation can exist in two forms: - in the presence of ATP the enzyme has a shape that makes it inactive so it cannot catalyse the reaction. - as ATP is broken down the enzyme becomes an active form and catalyses the phosphorylation of glucose. - this is end point inhibition: the end product inhibits an early step in the metabolic pathway which controls the whole precess.

- the net yield is just 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule. - anaerobic respiration partially breaks down glucose to make a small amount of ATP. - the pyruvate created during glycolysis is reduced to lactate and the oxidised form of NAD is regenerated. - it is possible to oxidise the reduced NAD without oxygen. - most respiration reactions cannot continue. - The reduced NAD created during glycolysis, the link reaction and the krebs cycle is not oxidised. - without oxygen to accept the hydrogen ions and electrons the electron transport chain does not work: In exercise oxygen demand in the cells exceeds supply:

Anaerobic respiration
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Getting rid of lactate

- most lactate is converted back into pyruvate. - it is oxidised directly to carbon dioxide and water via the Krebs cycle and releases energy to synthesis ATP. - so oxygen uptake is greater than normal in the recovery period after exercise. - this oxygen requirement is called the oxygen debt or post-exercise oxygen consumption. - it is needed to fuel the oxidation of lactate. - some lactate may also be converted into glycogen and stored in the muscle or liver. Yeast cells cope differently with anaerobic conditions: - they reduce pyruvate to ethanol and carbon dioxide using the hydrogen from reduced NAD. - this recreates oxidised NAD and allows glycolysis to continue. - this is called alcoholic fermentation.

- the substrate may no longer bind to the enzymes active site. - the attraction between charged groups on the substrate and in the active site will be affected. - as hydrogen ions from the lactic acid accumulate in the cytoplasm they neutralise the negatively charged groups in the active site of the enzyme. - enzymes function best over a narrow pH range. - lactate forms lactic acid in solution so as lactate accumulates the pH of the cell falls inhibiting the enzymes that catalyse the glycolysis reactions. - it builds up in the muscles and must be disposed of The end product of anaerobic respiration is lactate:

The effect of lactate bulid-up

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Three energy systems

- At the start of exercise aerobic respiration cannot meet the demands for energy because the supply of oxygen to the muscles is insufficient. - the lungs and circulation are not delivering oxygen quickly enough and ATP will be regenerated without using oxygen. - first the ATP/PC system and then the anaerobic respiration system allow ATP regeneration. - in endurance type exercise an increased blood supply to the muscles ensures higher oxygen supply to the muscle cells. - aerobic respiration can regenerate ATP as quickly as it is broken down. - this allows the exercise to be sustained for long periods.

- this is known as the ATP/PC system its is used for regeneration of ATP. - the reactions do not require oxygen and provide energy for 6-10 seconds of intense exercise. - creatine phosphate breakdown starts as soon as exercise starts. - This energy can be used to regenerate ATP from ADP and phosphate, the phosphate is given by the creatine phosphate. - this is a substance stored in muscles that can be hydrolysed to release energy. - at the start of exercise immediate regeneration of ATP is achieved using creatine phosphate (PC)

Supplying instant energy

creatine phosphate -> creatine + Pi

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ADP + Pi -> ATP

Cardiac output and stroke volume

Cardiac output
the volume of blood pumped by the heart in one minute. Cardiac output depends on the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle (the stroke volume) and the heart rate: Cardiac output (CO) = stroke volume (SV) x heart rate (HR)

Stroke volume
Is the volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle each time the ventricle contracts. - how much blood the heart pumps out with each contraction is determined by how much blood is filling the heart, this is the volume of blood returning to the heart from the body. - during exercise there is greater muscle contraction so more blood returns to the heart this is called venous return. - in diastole during exercise the heart fills with a larger volume of blood. - the heart muscle is stretched to a greater extent, this increases stroke volume and cardiac output.

When running oxygen supply is maintained by:

- cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by the heart in a minute.

- VO2(max) is the maximum amount of oxygen we can consume per minute.

- VO2 is the volume of oxygen we consume per minute.

- being able to go for long periods of strenuous exercise depends on maintaining a constant supply of ATP, and this depends on aerobic capacity: ability to take in/transport/use oxygen.

Peak performance

deeper breathing faster rate of breathing increasing cardiac output

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How does the heart beat?

- the heart is myogenic; it can contract without external nervous stimulation. - contraction of cardiac muscle is initiated by small changes in the electrical charge of cardiac muscle cells. - when these cells have a slight positive charge on the outside they are polarised. when this charge is reversed they are depolarised. - this polarity spreads amongst the cells and causes them to contract. - depolarisation starts and the sinoatrial node (SAN). - the SAN is a small area of specialised muscle fibres located in the wall of the right atrium beneath the opening to the superior vena cava. - the sinoatrial node is also known as the pacemaker.

- resulting from thickening of the muscle cell walls. - this is because increase in size of the heart - Endurance training produces a lower resting heart rate - It will expel more blood with one beat and so does not have to beat as frequently to keep the circulation of blood constant. - A larger heart usually has a lower resting hear rate. differences in resting heart rate are caused by:

Heart rate

different size body size genetic factors

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How does the heart beat? continued

- the SAN generates an electrical impulse this spreads across the left and right atria causing them to contract at the same time. - the impulse then travels to some specialised cells called the atrioventricular node (AVN) - the impulse is then sent to the ventricles after a delay of 0.13 seconds. this delay makes sure the atria have fully contracted. - the signal then reaches the purkyne fibres. these are large specialised muscle fibres that conduct impulses to the apex of the ventricles. - there are right and left bundles of fibres and these together are called the bundle of His. - the purkyne fibres continue around each ventricle so the impulse makes the ventricles contract from the apex upwards. - this is so the blood is pushed upwards into the aorta and pulmonary artery.

- but it is also used to detect heart problems only when the heart is working hard. - an ECG is usually performed when the patient is at rest. - there is a small electrical current that can be detected on the skins surface. - when there is a change in polarisation of the cardiac muscle. - electrodes are attached to the person's chest and limbs to record the electrical currents produced during the cardiac cycle. - it is the most common test to check for problems with the heart. - the electrical activity can be detected and displayed on an electrocardiogram (ECG).

Measuring electrical activity

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-hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: is an inherited condition in which gene mutations cause abnormally thick walls in the left ventricle.

What does an ECG trace show us?

- P wave: depolarisation of the atria leading to atrial contraction (atrial systole) - PR interval: the time taken for impulses to be conducted from the SAN across the atria to the ventricles, through the AVN. - QRS complex: the wave of depolarisation resulting in contraction of the ventricles (ventricular systole). - T wave: repolarisation (recovery) of the ventricles during the hearts relaxation phase (diastole). - the ECG does not show atrial repolarisation because the signals generated are small and are hidden by the QRS complex. - you can work out the time for one complete cardiac cycle by: multiplying the the number of squares between QRS complexes by 0.2 and then doing 60 divided by the answer.

- and arrhythmias is caused which is irregular beatings of the heart caused by electrical disturbances. an ECG can provide information about: - this causes the normal electrical activity and rhythm of the heart to be disrupted. - during a period of ischaemia the heart muscle does not receive blood due to atherosclerosis causing blockage of the coronary arteries. - a heart rate of more than 100bpm is known as tachycardia. - a heart rate of less than 60bpm is known as bradycardia.

ECG

abnormal heartbeats areas of damage inadequate blood flow

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Nervous control of heart rate

- heart rate is under the control of the cardiovascular control centre located in the medulla of the brain. - nerves forming the part of the autonomic nervous system lead from the cardiovascular control centre to the heart. - there are two nerves going from the cardiovascular control centre to the heart sympathetic nerve (accelerator) vagus nerve which is a parasympathetic nerve (decelerator) - stimulation of the SAN by the sympathetic nerve increases the heart rate whereas impulses from the vagus nerve slow down the heart rate. - the cardiovascular control centre detects accumulation of carbon dioxide and lactate in the blood, reduction of oxygen, and increased temperature. - mechanical activity in the muscles and joins is detected by sensory receptors in muscles, and impulses are sent to the cardiovascular control centre.

- adrenaline causes an anticipatory increase in hear rate before the start of a race. - this maximises blood low to the active muscles. - it also causes constriction of arterioles going to the digestive system and other non-essential organs. - adrenaline also causes dilation of the arterioles supplying skeletal muscles - it has direct on the SAN increasing the heart rate to prepare the body for physical demands. - adrenaline has an effect on the hear rate similar to stimulation by the sympathetic nerve. - fear, excitement and shock cause a release of the hormone adrenaline into the blood from the adrenal glands located above the kidneys.

Hormonal effects on heart rate

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- the volume of air taken into the lungs in one minute is the minute ventilation. This is calculated by:

The control of breathing

- The ventilation centre in the medulla oblongata of the brain controls breathing.

Inhalation
- the ventilation centre sends nerve impulses every 2-3 seconds to the external intercostal muscles and diaphragm muscles. both sets of muscles contract using inhalation. - when inhaling the external intercostals and diaphragm muscles are also used.

Exhalation
- as the lungs inflate stretch receptors in the bronchioles are stimulated. - the stretch receptors send inhibitory impulses back to the ventilation centre. - impulses to the muscles stop and the muscles relax stopping inhalation and allowing exhalation. - exhalation is caused by the elastic recoil of the lungs and gravity helping to lower the ribs. - the internal intercostal muscles only contract during deep exhalation.

- lung volumes can be measured using a spirometer.

- the maximum volume of air we can inhale and exhale is out vital capacity (most people 3-4 dm3).

- the volume of air we breathe in and out at each breath is our tidal volume (at rest around 0.5 dm3).

Lung volumes

minute ventilation = tidal volume x breathing rate

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- the various chemoreceptors sensitive to CO2 levels and to changes in blood temperature increase the depth and rate of breathing via the ventilation centre. - ventilation is also increased in response to impulses reaching the ventilation centre from stretch receptors in tendons and muscles involved in movement. - impulses from the motor cortex have a direct effect on the ventilation centre in the medulla increasing ventilation sharply.

Controlling breathing rate and depth

an important stimulus controlling the breathing rate and depth is the concentration of dissolved CO2 in the arterial blood. a small increase in CO2 concentration causes a large increase in ventilation: - carbon dioxide dissolves in the blood plasma, making carbonic acid. - carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen ions and hydrogencarbonate ions, this lowers the pH of the blood CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3 <=> H+ + HCO3- chemoreceptors sensitive to hydrogen ions are located in the ventilation centre of the medulla oblongata. they detect a rise in H+ concentration. - impulses are sent to other parts of the ventilation centre - impulses are sent from the ventilation centre to stimulate the muscles involved in breathing.

what controls breathing?:

Controlling breathing during exercise

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Fast twitch fibres

- they are specialised to produce fast contractions - the ATP used in these contractions is produced almost entirely from anaerobic glycolysis. - the fast twitch fibres have few mitochondria, high glycogen content, and extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum. - they also have very little myoglobin so they have few reserves of oxygen and few associated capillaries. - they rely on anaerobic respiration which means there is a rapid build up of lactate, so the fast twitch muscle fibres fatigue easily - with aerobic training fast twitch fibres can take on some of the characteristics of slow twitch fibres - for example they could have more mitochondria allowing them to use aerobic respiration reactions when contracting.

- slow twitch fibres are associated with numerous capillaries to ensure a good oxygen supply. - it acts as an oxygen carrier within muscle cells - it has a high affinity for oxygen, and only releases it when the concentration of oxygen in the cells falls very low. - they also contain large amounts of the dark red pigment myoglobin. - they also have a little sarcoplasmic reticulum and a low glycogen content. - they have many mitochondria and high concentrations of respiratory enzymes to carry out the aerobic reactions. - they can cope with long periods of exercise to do this they carry out a lot of aerobic respiration - slow twitch fibres are specialised for slower sustained contraction

Slow twitch fibres

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- they hypothalamus detects changes and turns on effectors when needed to return to norm temp. - the system involves receptors that detect changes in the blood temperature. these receptors are located in the hypothalamus.

Homeostasis
- homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. - this is partly achieved by maintaining stable conditions within the blood. - in the blood the concentration of glucose, ions, carbon dioxide, water potential, pH and temperature of the blood also needs to be kept within narrow limits. - each condition that is controlled has a norm value or a set point that the homeostatic mechanisms are trying to maintain. - receptors are used to detect changes from the norm. - these receptors are connected to a control mechanism which turns on or off effectors to bring conditions back to the norm.

- in humans temperature is maintained by a negative feedback system. - At lower temperatures the reactions would occur too slowly for the body to remain active, and at higher temps the enzymes could denature. - our body stays at around 37 degrees, this allows enzyme-controlled reactions to occur at a reasonable rate. - thermoregulation is the control of body temperature.

Temperature control
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Temperature control: Sweat and hairs

Sweat: - sweat released via the sweat ducts evaporates taking energy from the skin - sweat glands are stimulated by nerves from the hypothalamus Hairs: - they are raised in cold weather by contractions of the erector muscles. - this is a reflex we have no control over. - the aim is to trap a layer of air that insulates the body. - although due to our shortage in hair this is better in other mammals and birds compared with humans. - most of us wear clothes for further insulation.

stimulates - arterioles in the skin to constrict

Heat gain centre: Inhibits - sweat glands

inhibits - contraction of arterioles in skin (dilates capillaries in the skin)

Heat loss centre: stimulates - sweat glands to produce sweat.

Temperature control continued

- skeletal muscles (relax - no shivering)

- liver (reduces metabolic rate)

- hair erector muscles (relax - hairs lie flat)

- skeletal muscles to contract in shivering - liver to raise metabolic rate - hair erector muscles to contract
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Temperature control: Skin

when cold: - energy is lost from the blood flowing through the surface capillaries by radiation. - in cold condition the muscles in the arteriole walls contract causing the arterioles to constrict - this reduces the blood supply to the surface capillaries. - blood is diverted through the shunt vessel which dilates as more blood goes through it. - blood flows further from the skin surface so less energy is lost. - this is known as vasoconstriction.

- this is known as vasodilation. - blood flows closer to the surface so more energy is lost. - blood flows through the arterioles making them dilate. - in warm conditions the shut vessel constricts and muscles in the walls of the arterioles relax. - constriction of the arterioles and shunts is controlled by the hypothalamus. when warm:

Temperature control: Skin

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- energy loss by conduction involves direct contact between objects, and energy transfer from one to the other.

How energy is transferred to and from the body

Energy transfer: - sweat evaporation increases energy loss. - evaporation from moist surfaces of lungs increases energy loss. - arteriole vasoconstriction decreases blood flow to skin reducing energy loss by conduction, convection and radiation. - arteriole vasodilation increases blood flow to skin increasing energy loss by conduction, convection and radiation. - Hairs raised by contraction of erector muscles reduces energy loss by conduction, convection and radiation. - voluntary muscle contraction and involuntary shivering release energy, raising body temperature.

Conduction:

- our bodies are usually warmer than the surrounding environment so we radiate energy. - energy can be radiated from one object to another through air, or through a vacuum, as electromagnetic radiation.
Radiation :

Methods of energy transfer

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- some scientists believe there is a U-shaped relationship between risk of infection and amount of exercise.

Methods of energy continued

Convection: - air lying next to the skin will be warmed by the body - as the air expands and rises it will be replaced by cooler air which is then warmed by the body. - the energy loss by bulk movement of air is called convection. Evaporation: - energy is needed to convert water from liquid to vapour. - the energy required to evaporate sweat is drawn from the body cooling it. - in conditions with high humidity it is much harder to evaporate sweat. - some animals pant to keep cool, by evaporation of water from gas exchange surfaces.

- two main factors that can contribute to higher infection rates: - upper respiratory tract infections (sore throat and flu-like symptoms) are most common. - athletes engaged in heavy training programmes seem more prone to infection than normal.

Excessive exercise and immune suppression

and suppressed immunity with hard exericise increased exposure to pathogens

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Effects of exerice on immunity

- components of the non-specific and specific immune systems are effected by both moderate and excessive exercise.

Moderate exercise:
- increases the number of a lymphocyte called natural killer cells. - they are found in the blood and lymph - they are not like B and T cells because they do not use specific antigen recognition. - they provide non-specific immunity against cells invaded by viruses and cancerous cells. - they are sctivated by cytokines and interferons and they target cells that are non self - they release the protein perforin which makes pores in the targeted cell membrane.

- both of these hormones are known to suppress the immune system. - physical exercise and psychological stress cause secretion of hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol. - this then reduces the amount of antibody being produced. - the decrease in T helper cells reduces the amount of cytokines available to activate lymphocytes. - after vigorous exercise the number of some cells in the immune system falls: Vigorous exercise:

Effects of exerice on immunity continued

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natural killer cells phagocytes B cells T helper cells

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How are joints damaged by exercise

- professional athletes risk developing joint injuries bue to high forces the sport generates on their joints. - repeated forces on such joints of the knee can lead to wear or tear in the joint. - knees are particularly susceptable to wear and tear injuries: the articular cartilage covering the surfaces of the bones wears away and they grind on eachother causing damage. Patellar tendonitis occurs when the kneecap (patella) does not glide smoothly across the femur due to damage of the articular cartilage on the femur. the fluid sacs swell up with extra fluid, as a result they may push against other tissues in the joint causing inflamtion. sudden twisting or abrupt movement of the knee often result in damage to the ligaments.

- is an artificial body part used by someone with a disability to enable him or her to regain near to normal function. Prostheses: - damage to the cruciate ligaments in the knee can be tackled particulary well with keyhole surgery. - keyhole surgery on joints is known as arthroscopy. - it is possible to repair damaged joints or to remove diseased organs through small holes. - using fibre optics or minute video cameras Keyhole surgery:

How can medical technology help?

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Taking enough exercise

Advantages of doing exercise: - increasing arterial vasodilartion lowers blood pressure (reduces the risk of CVD) - increases the lovel of blood HDLs which transport cholesterol to the liver where it is broken down. - reduces LDLs which are associated with the development of atherosclerosis. - helps maintain a healthy weight. - increased sensitivity of muscle cells to insulin improves blood glucose regulation, and reduces the likelihood of getting type II diabetes. - increases bone density and reduces its loss during old age. - reduces the risk of getting some cancers - improves mental well-being.

pituitary gland: hormone - growth hormone

glands and hormones:-

- the vesicles fuse with the cell surface membrane releasing their content by exocytosis.

- most are produced either in an inactive form or packaged within secretory vesicles by the golgi apparatus.

- hormones are chemical messengers that are released directly into the blood from endocrine glands.

Hormones

Function - stimulates growth

- causes reabsoption of water in kidneys - controles testes and ovaries - antidiuretic hormone - follicle-stimulating hormone
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Hormones continued
glands and hormones: Ovary: hormone - oestrogen function - promotes development of ovaries - promotes female secondary sexual characteristics testis: hormone - testosterone function - promotes development of male secondary sexual characteristics - each hormone affects only specific target cells modifying their activity - hormones are carried around by the blood stream - they either entr the target cells or they bind to complimentary receptor molecules on the outside of the cell membranes.

Pancreas: hormone - insulin Adrenal gland: hormone - arenaline Thyroid gland: hormone - thyroxine

glands and hormones:-

Hormones continued

function - lowers blood glucose concentration function - raises basal metabolic rate function - raises basal metaboic rate - prepares the body for action - dilates blood vessels
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How transcription factors work

In transcription only occurs when the transcription initiation complex is formed. Repressor molecules: - protein repressor molecules can attach to the transcription factors - this prevents them from forming the transcripton initiation complex. - so the gene is switched off and is not transcribed within the cell. Activator molecules: - activator molecules stimulate the binding of the transcription initiaton complex. - genes are switched on by successful formation and attachment of the transcription initiation complex to the promoter region - the transcription factors attach the RNA polymerase to the promoter region.

- the hormone- receptor complex functions as a transcription factor, switching enzyme synthesis on or off. - steroid hormones are formed from lipids and have complex ring structures. - the second messenger brings about chemical changes in the cell by affecting gene transcription - this receptor activates another molecule in the cytoplasm called a second messenger - they bind to a receptor on the cell membrane - even though they are relatively small molecules they can not pass through cell membranes easily because they are charged - peptide hormones are protein chains

How hormones affect cells

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- some side effects include diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, high blood pressure, kidney damage and muscle cramps.

Hormones used to enhance performance

Erythropoietin:
- is a peptide hormone produced naturally by the kidneys - it stimulates the formation of new red blood cells in bone marrow - it can be made using DNA technology and is used to treat anaemia - if you have too much it can make the body produce too many red blood cells and can cause heart attack and stroke.

Testosterone:
- is a steroid hormone - produced in the testes by males and in the adrenal glands in males and females - testosterone is in a group of male hormones called androgens - it causes the development of the male sexual organs - testosterone binds to androgen receptors

- it is also synthesised in the body from the amino acids glycine and arginine - once ingested it is absorbed and unchanged and carried in the blood to tissues - it is naturally found in meat and fish - it is amino acid derived - it is considered to be a nutrition supplement - is not banned Creatine:

Hormones used to enhance performance continued

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Nervous system continued

The Peripheral nervous system is divided into:
Autonomic nervous system:

involuntary stimulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands

Somatic nervous system:

voluntary stimulates skeletal muscle Autonomic nervous system is divided into:

Sympathetic nervous system:

prepares body for 'fight' or 'flight' responses

Parasympathetic nervous system:

prepares body for 'rest and digest'

Peripheral nervous system: The central nervous system:

The nervous system is divided into:

Nervous system

CNS motor nerves - carrying the motor commands from the CNS to the effectors
sensory nerves - carrying sensory information from the receptors to the Brain spinal cord
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Neurones
There are two types of main extensions from the cell body of a neurone: dendrites that conduct impulses towards the cell body the axon which transmits impulses away from the cell body Motor neurone: cell body is at the end of the neurone its situated within the CNS it conducts impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands) they are also known as effector neurones

sensory neurones: cell body is attached to the middle of the axon they carry impulses from sensory cells to the CNS

Myelin sheath: Relay neurone:

Neurones continued

is a fatty insulating layer around the axon made of schwann cells wrapped around the axon it effects how fast nerve impulses pass along the axon
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the cell body is in the middle of the axon they are found mostly within the CNS they can have a large number of connections with other nerve cells they are also known as connector neurones and as interneurones
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Reflex arcs
nerve impulses follow routes or pathways through the nervous system. These pathways are called reflex arcs and are responsible for our reflexes. An example is a reflex arc allowing withdrawal of the arm: Receptors detect a stimulus and generate a nerve impulse sensory neurones conduct a nerve impulse to the CNS along a sensory pathway sensory neurones enter the spinal cord through the dorsal route sensory neurone forms a synapse with a relay neurone relay neurone forms a synapse with a motor neurone that leaves the spinal cord through the ventral route motor neurone carries impulses to an effector which produces a response in this case the bicep contracts to raise the arm away from the flame

Pupil dilated: Pupil constricted: How do the muscles of the iris respond to light?:

The pupil reflex

radial muscles contract circular muscles relax radial muscles relax circular muscles contract
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the iris controls the size of the pupil it contains a pair of antagonistic muscles; radical and circular muscles these are both controlled by the autonomic nervous system the radical muscles are controlled by sympathetic reflex the circular by parasympathetic reflex
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The resting potential

1. Na+/K+ pump creates concentration gradients across the membrane 2. K+ diffuse out of the cell down the K+ concentration gradient making the outside of the membrane positive and the inside negative 3. the electrical gradient will pull back K+ into the cell 4. at -70 mV potential difference the two gradients counteract each other and there is no net movement of K+ Why is the axon resting potential =70 mV? there are two forces involved in the movement of the K+ ions: the concentration gradient generated by the Na+/K+ pump the electrical gradient due to the difference in charge on the two sides of the membrane resulting from K+ diffusion the electrical gradient balances out the chemical gradient and there is no net movement of K+ so a steady state exists.

Why is there a potential difference?:

Inside a resting axon

the uneven distribution of ions across the cell surface membrane is achieves by the action of sodium-potassium pumps they carry Na+ out of the cell and carry K+ into the cell these pumps act against the concentration gradients and are driven by energy supplied by hydrolysis of ATP the organic anions are large and stay within the cell so chloride ions move out of the cell to help balance the charge all cells have a potential difference across their surface membrane the inside of the axon is more negative then he outside so the membrane is said to be polarised the value of -70 mV is known as resting potential
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What causes an action potential?

1. Depolarisation when a neurone is stimulated some depolarisation occurs this change in the potential difference changes the shape of the Na+ gate this opens some of the voltage-dependent sodium ion channels as the Na+ ions flow in depolarisation increases triggering more gates to open the opening of more gates increases depolarisation further this is an example of positive feedback there is a higher concentration of Na+ ions outside of the axon so Na+ ions flow rapidly inwards through the open voltage-dependent Na+ channels causing a build-up of positive charges inside this reverses the polarity of the membrane the potential difference across the membrane reaches +40 mV

- the large change in voltage across the membrane is known as an action potential - this is known as repolarisation - it then returns to its resting potential so more impulses can be conducted - the potential difference becomes +40 mV for a very short time - this is known as depolarisation - this makes the inside of the axon positive and the outside negative - the potential difference across the membrane is locally reversed - if an electrical current above the threshold level is applied to the membrane it causes a massive change in the potential difference

What happens when a nerve is stimulated?

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How is the impulse passed along an axon?

- when a neurone is stimulated it triggers a sequence of action potentials along the length of the axon - at resting potential there is a positive charge on the outside with high Na+ concentration and a negative charge inside with a high concentration of K+ ions - when stimulated voltage-dependent Na+ ions open and Na+ ions flow into the axon depolarising the membrane - the Na+ ions move to the area in the membrane where change is causing the electrical charge to change - the change in potential difference in the membrane next to the first action potential causes a second action potential - at the site of the first action potential the Na+ channels close and the K+ channels open - K+ ions leave the axon repolarising the membrane and it becomes hyperpolarised - a third action potential is started by the second one at the site of the first action potential K+ ions diffuse back into the axon restoring resting potential

3. Restoring the resting potential 2. Repolarisation

What causes an action potential? continued

the membrane is now very permeable to K+ ions and more ions move out making the potential difference more negative than the normal resting potential, this is called hyperpolarisation of the membrane the resting potential is back by closing K+ channels and opening Na+ the voltage-dependent Na+ channels close and the permeability of the membrane to Na+ ions decreases voltage-dependent K+ channels open due to the depolarisation of the membrane because of this K+ channels open due to the depolarisation of the membrane K+ ions move out of the axon down the electrochemical gradient because they are attracted by the negative charge outside of the cell as K+ ions move out of the cell the inside of the cell becomes more negative than the outside
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Speed of conduction
- the speed of nervous conduction is in part determined by the diameter of the axon - in general the wider the diameter the faster the impulse travels - the myelin sheath acts as an electrical insulator along the axon - it prevents any flow of ions across the membrane - gaps known as nodes of Ranvier occur in the myelin sheath at regular intervals - in these gaps is the only place where depolarisation can occur - the impulse jumps from gap to gap making depolarisaion quicker - this is called saltatory conduction

- these synaptic vesicles contain a chemical called a neurotransmitter - in the cytoplasm at the end of the presynaptic neurone there are synaptic vesicles - a nerve impulse cannot jump across the gap - the synaptic cleft separates the presynaptic membrane which the impulse arrives at from the postsynaptic membrane of the other cell - the cells do not touch there is a gap known as a synaptic celft - where two neurones meet is known as a synapse

How does a nervous impulse pass between cells

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How does the synapse transmit an impulse?

1. An action potential arrives at the presynaptic neurone 2. the membrane depolarises. Ca2+ ion channels open and Ca2+ ions enter the neurone 3. Ca2+ ions cause synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitter to fuse with the presynaptic membrane 4. Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft 5. Neurotransmitter binds with the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane. Cation channels open. Na+ ions flow through the channels. 6. membrane depolarises and initiates an action potential 7. when released the neurotransmitter will be taken up across the presynaptic membrane (whole or after being broken down), or it can diffuse away and be broken down

Neurotransmitter release:

There are three stages leading to the nerve impulse passing along the postsynaptic neurone:

Nerve impulses

this causes their contents to be released into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis the increased Ca2+ concentration causes synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine to fuse with the presynaptic membrane Ca2+ ion concentration is greater outside the cell so they diffuse into the cell the presynaptic membrane is depolarised by an action potential, channels in the membrane open increasing permeability to Ca2+ ions neurotransmitter release stimulation of the postsynaptic membrane inactivation of the neurotransmitter
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Nerve impulses continued

stimulation of the postsynaptic membrane: embedded in the postsynaptic membrane are specific receptor proteins these proteins have a binding site that have a complimentary shape to part of the acetylcholine molecule the ecetylcholine molecule binds to the receptor changing the shape of the protein this opens the cation channels and makes the membrane permeable to Na+ ions the flow of Na+ ions across the postsynaptic membrane causes depolarisation an action potential is produced inactivation of the neurotransmitter: an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase breaks down the acetylcholine so that it cannot bind to receptors some of the products from the breakdown are then reabsorbed by the presynaptic membrane and are used again

- is an action potential is made or not depends on the balance of the synapses - a postsynaptic cell has many inhibitory and excitatory synapses - others are inhibitory and make it less likely that depolarisation will occur - some synapses help stimulate an action potential Two factors that affect the likelihood that a postsynaptic membrane will depolarise: Synapses have two roles:

Control and coordination

the type of synapse the number of impulses received control of nerve pathways allowing flexibility of response integration of information from different neurones allowing a coordinated response
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Inhibitory synapses
- inhibitory synapses make it less liely that an action potential will result in the postsynaptic cell - the neurotransmitters from these synapses opens channels for Cl- ions and K+ ions in the postsynaptic membrane - these ions then move through the channels down their diffusion gradients. -Cl- ions move into the cell carrying negative charge and K+ ions will move out carrying a positive charge - this results in a greater potential difference across the membrane as the inside becomes more negative than usual (-90 mV) - this makes depolarisaion less likely as more excitatory synapses will be needed to depolarise the membrane

- their combined release of neurotransmitter generates an action potential in the postsynaptic membrane. - in this case several impulses arrive at a synapse having traveled along a single neurone one after the other. - here the impulses are from different synapses, usually from different neurones. There are two types of summation: - more than one of these is needed to provide sufficient depolarisation each impulse adds to the effect of another this is called summation - Excitatory synapses make the postsynaptic membrane more permeable to Na+ ions

Excitatory synapses

Temporal summation Spatial summation 19 of 71 20 of 71

Coordination in plants
- plants use chemicals to coordinate growth these chemicals can be called plant growth regulators or plant growth substances - plants have phototropism (bending of plants towards a light source) - there is a chemical in the tip that travels down the coleoptile (a plant) it was found that this chemical is an auxin called indoleacetic acid - when the tip of a plant is removed and placed on some agar jelly and then placed back on top of the plant, it started to grow again showing the chemical had diffused through the agar jelly - auxins are synthesised in actively growing plant tissues (known as meristems) such as shoot tips etc - they bind with receptors on the plasma membranes in the zone of shoot elongation - by doing this the auxins produce second messenger signal molecules that bring about changes in gene expression - an increased potentail difference across the membrane enhances uptake of ions into the cell - this causes uptake of water by osmosis causing cell elongation

Mechanoreceptors: Chemoreceptors: Different types of receptors - some types of receptor cells are grouped together into sense organs - stimuli are detected by receptor cells that send electrical impulses to the central nervous system.

Receptors

stimulated by - forces that stretch, compress or move the sensor examples or role - balance, touch and healing stimulated - by chemicals examples of role - taste,smell and regulation of chemical concentrations in the blood.
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Receptors continued
Photoreceptors:

stimulated by - light examples of role - sight

Thermoreceptors:

stimulated by - heat or cold examples of role - temperature control and awareness of changes in the surrounding temperature
- all of the receptors except for photoreceptors work in the same way - at rest the cell surface membrane has a negative resting potential, stimulation of the receptor causes depolarisation - when the depolarisation goes above the threshold level it triggers an action potential - it is either relayed across the synapse using neurotransmitters or passed directly down the axon of the sensory nerve

ciliary muscle - alters thickness of lens for focusing choroid - black layer prevents internal reflection of light vitreous humour - transparent jelly retina - contains light-sensitive cells yellow spot (fovea) - most sensitive part of the retina located in the macula the central area of the retina blind spot - no light-sensitive cells where optic nerve leaves the eye sclera - protective layer iris - controls amount of light entering the eye lens - focuses light on retina cornea - bends light Conjunctiva - protects the cornea

The structure of the eye

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Photoreceptors
- the human retina contains two types of photoreceptor cells sensitive to light, these are rods and cones -cones allow colour vision in bright light - rods only give black and white vision but work in dim light and bright light - in the centre of the retina there are only cones but over the remainder of the retina rods outnumber cones - the rods and cones synapse with bipolar neurone cells - which in turn synapse with ganglion neurones - whose axons together make up the optic nerve - light hitting the retina has to pass through the layers of neurones before reaching the rods and cones

here i drew a picture of the structure of rods and cones within the retina because i could not find an appropriate one from the internet. - the rhodopsin molecules are located in the membranes of these vesicles - rods contain an outer and inner segment these contain the many layers of flattened vesicles - in rods the molecule is a purplish migment called rhodopsin - in both rods and cones a photochemical pigment absorbs the light resulting in a chemical change

How does lioght stimulate photorecertor cells?

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In the rod cells: light

- when light falls on the rhodopsin molecule, it breaks down into retinal and opsin non-protein and protein components, the opsin activates a series of membrane-bound reactions - these reactions end in hydrolysis of a molecule attached to the cation channel in the outer segment - the breakdown of this molecule results in the closing of the cation channels - the entry of Na+ into the rod decreases while the inner segment continues to pump Na+ out - this makes the inside of the cell more negative and because of this it becomes hyperpolarised and the release of glutamate stops - the lack of glutamate results in depolarisation of the bipolar cell with which the rod synapses - the neurones that make up the optic nerve are also depolarised and respond by producing an action potential

- the neurotransmitter binds to the bipolar cell stopping it depolarising - the rods release this neurotransmitter continuously - this slight depolarisation triggers the release of a neurotransmitter thought to be glutamate from the rod cells - the potential difference across the membrane is about -40 mV - this movement of Na+ produces a slight depolarisation of the cell - the sodium ions move down the concentration gradient into they inner segment where pumps transport them back out of the cell - sodium ions flow into the outer segment through non-specific cation channels
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Dark:

In the rod cells: dark

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Phytochromes - plant photoreceptors

- a phytochrome molecule consists of a protein component bonded to a non-protein light-absorbing pigment molecule. - the five phytochromes differ in their protein component - the non-protein component exists in two forms which are different isomers:

Pr - phytochrome red; absorbs red light Pfr - phytochrome far-red; absorbs far-red light
- these two isomers are photoreversible but plants synthesise phytochromes in the Pr form - absorption of red light converts Pr into Pft, absorption of far red light converts Pfr back into Pr - in sunlight Pr is converted into Pfr and Pfr is converted into Pr - the former reaction dominates in sunlight because more red than far-red light is absorbed - therefore Pfr accumulates in the light - and in the dark any Pfr present is slowly converted to Pr

- when exposed to far-red light Pfr is converted back to Pr inhibiting germination - because of this the seeds do not germinate because there is no presence of Pfr - when they are kept in the dark no Pr is converted to Pfr - when lettuce seeds are exposed to red light Pr is converted to Pfr stimulating responses that lead to germination - the findings they produced where that red light is effective at triggering germination, while farred light seems to inhibit germination - ones that do not germinate in the dark and only germinate when close enough to the soil surface - they used seeds that have thin seed coats and few food reserves - phytochromes were discovered through germination experiments

Phytochromes trigger germination

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Phytochrome and greening

- once a shoot has broken through soil into sunlight the plant unsergoes big changes in both its form and biochemistry - these changes are called greening - once in the light phytochromes promote the development of primary leaves, leaf unrolling and the production of pigments - they can also inhibit certain processes such as elongation of internodes

How do phytochromes which processes on or off?

- exposure to light causes phytochrome molecules to change from one form to another bringing about a change in chape - the phytochromes may then bind to proteins or disrupt the binding of a protein complex - these signal proteins may act as transcription factors or activate transcription factors that bind to DNA to allow transcription of light regulated genes the transcription and translation of proteins result in the plants response to light

- short-day plants: - long-day plant: - summer nights may not be long enough though so some Pfr may still be present in the morning - long nights give time for Pfr to convert back to Pr so that all phytochrome will be Pr - the ratio of Pr to Pfr in a plant enables it to determine the length of day and night - the photoperiod is the environmental cue that determines the of flowering

Photoperiods, flowering and phytochromes

tend to flower in spring or autumn when the period of uninterrupted darkness is greater than 12 hours they need long hours of drakness in order to convert all Pfr present back into Pr Pfr inhibits flowering in shot-day plants only flower when day length exceeds a critical value flower when the period of uninterrupted darkness is less them 12 hours they need Pfr to stimulate flowering
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Plants detect other environmental clues

Gravity:
- more than a short distance under the soil surface light cannot be the cue for the shoot to grow upwards and the root to grow donwards - the stimulus for this is gravity and the response ensures that developing shoots reach the light while roots grow in the soil

Touch and mechanical stress:

- some plants are sensitive to touch and mechanical stress - it is thought that mechanical stimulus (such as rubbing the plant stem) activates signal molecules whose end result is the activation of genes that control growth - some plants have leaves that move rapidly in response to mechanical stimulation - the mechanism is that when touched speciaslised cells lose potassium ions - water follows by osmosis and the cells become flaccid so no longer support the leaf and keep it upright

- the two cerebral hemispheres are connected by a broad band of white matter (nerve axons) called the corpus callosum. - each hemisphere is composed of four regions called: - the cortex is the largest region of the brain, and is divided into left and right cerebral hemispheres - this outer layer of the brain is known as the grey matter - the top of the brain is called the cortex it is made of mainly nerve cell bodies, synapses and dendrites The cerebral hemispheres:

The brain

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frontal lobe parietal lobe occipital lobe temporal lobe

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The brain continued

Frontal lobe: - is concerned with the higher brain functions such as decision making, reasoning, planning and consciousness of emotions, it is also concerned with forming associations and ideas - it includes the primary motor cortex which has neurones that connect directly to the spinal cord and brain stem and from there to the muscles - it sends infomation to the body via the motor neurones to carry out movements - the motor cortex also stores information about how to carry out different movements Parietal lobe: - concerned with orientation, movement, sensation, calculation, some types of recognition and memory

The thalamus - responsible for routing all the incoming sensory information to the correct part of the brain, via the axons of the white matter. The structures lying directly below the corpus callosum are: And the cerebellum. - concerned with processing auditory information, i.e. hearing, sound recognition and speech (left temporal lobe). it is also involved in memory. Temporal lobe: - concerned with processing information from the eyes, including vision, colour, shape recognition and perspective Occipital lobe (visual cortex):

The brain continued

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The brain continued

The hypothalamus - contains the thermoregulatory centre so it monitors such things as core body temperature and initiates action to put it back to normal. - it also acts as a endocrine gland which secretes hormones such as antidiuretic hormone - it connects directly to the pituitary gland, which in turn secretes other hormones The hippocampus: - is involved in laying down long-term memory The basal ganglia - is a collection of neurones that lie deep within each hemisphere - they are responsible for selecting and initiating stored programmes for movement.

Corpus callosum - the brain stem is situated at the top of the spinal column and it extends from the midbrain to the medulla oblongata

The cerebellum and brain stem

white matter made mainly of axons and it has white myelin sheaths it provides connections between the cortex and the brain and the structures below it also forms connections between the two hemispheres of the cortex
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The cerebellum and brain stem continued

Cerebellum: responsible for balance coordinates movement as it is being carried out, receiving information from the primary motor cortex, muscles and joints. constantly checks whether the motor programme being used is the correct one, e.g. referring to incoming information about posture and external circumstances Midbrain: relays information to the cerebral hemispheres, including auditory information to the temporal lobe, and visual information to the occipital lobe Medulla oblongata: regulates those body processes that we do not consciously control, such as heat rate, breathing, and blood pressure.

- brain structure and functioning is affected by both nature and nurture - the structure of the brain remains flexible even in later life and can respond to changes in the environment - this change is known as neural plasticity - some patients can recover some abilities after a stroke showing the potential of neurones to change in structure and function - lesions in small cortical area in the in the left frontal lobe were responsible for deficits in language production - brain damage caused by a stroke can cause problems with speaking, understanding speech, reading and writing

The effects of strokes

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Brain imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):
- uses a magnetic field and radio waves to detect soft tissues - when placed in a magnetic field the nuclei of atoms line up with the direction of the magnetic fiels - in an MRI scanner the magnetic field runs down the centre of the tube in which the patient lies - another magnetic field is superimposed on this which comes from the magnetic component of high frequency radio waves - the combined fields cause the direction and frequency of spin of the hydrogen nuclei to change taking energy from the radio waves - when the radio waves are turned off the hydrogen nuclei return to their original alignment and release the energy they absorbed - this energy is detected and a signal is sent to a computer which analyses it to produce an image - it is used in the diagnosis of tumors, strokes, brain injuries and infections of the brain and spine

- they do not use harmful x-rays they look at the structures in the brain and can detect brain disease and monitor the tissue of the brain over the course of an illness - they only give frozen pictures - the x-rays are detected and are used to produce an image of a thin slice of the brain on a computer screen in which the different sort tissues can be distinguished - each narrow beam is reduced in strength depending on the density of the tissue in its path - use narrow-beam X-rays rotated around the patient to pass through the tissue from different angles CT scans: (Computerised Axial Tomography)

Brain imaging
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Brain imaging
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): - fMRI is used to look at the functions of the different areas of the brain by following the uptake of oxygen in active brain areas it works because the deoxyhaemoglobin absorbs the radio wave signal where as oxyhaemoglobin does not - increased neural activity requires an increased demand for oxygen and because of this increase in blood flow - there is a large increase in oxyhaemoglobin levels in the enhanced blood flow so less signal is absorbed - the less radio signal there is absorbed the higher the level of activity in a particular area - active areas of the brain 'light up'

- audio signals also arrive at the midbrain so we can quickly turn our eyes in the direction of a visual or auditory stimulus - here they connect to motor neurones involved in controlling the pupil reflex and movement of the eye - before reaching the thalamus some of the neurones in each optic nerve branch off to the midbrain - and then impulses are then sent along other neurones to the primary visual cortex where the information is then processed - it extends to part of the thalamus - the axons of the ganglion cells that make up the optic nerve pass out of the eye and extend to several parts of the brain

From the eye to the brain

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- neurones must make the correct connections in order for a function such as vision to work properly

Axon growth
- axons of the neurons from the retina grow to the thalamus where they form synapses with neurones in the thalamus - axons from these thalamus neurons grow towards the visual cortex in the occipital lobe - the visual cortex is made of columns of cells, axons from the thalamus synapse within these columns of cells - columns of cells receive stimulation from the same area of the retina in the left and right eye - it used to be thought that these column of cells in the visual cortex were formed during a critical period for visual development, it is now found not to be the case - periods of time during postnatal development have been identified when the nervous system must obtain specific experiences to develop properly - these are known as critical periods, critical windows or sensitive periods

- axons lengthen and synapse with the cell bodies of other neurones - once neurones have stopped dividing the immature neurones migrate to their final position and start to wire themselves - this increase in brain size is due to the elongation of axons, myelination and the development of synapses - there is no large increase in the number of brain cells after birth but there is a large increase in brain size - by the 21st day the neural tube has formed the front part of the neural tube goes on to develop into the brain where the rest of it develops into the spinal cord - the human nervous system begins to develop after conception

Visual development
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Evidence for a critical period in visual developme

Medical observations:
- a young boy who had a eye infection had his eyes bandages for two weeks and when it was removed he had permanently impaired vision - some people are born with cataracts, which is a clouding of the lens which affects the amount of light entering the retina - they can have permanent impairment of their ability to perceive shape of form, including difficulties in face recognition - but elderly people who develop cataracts in later life and have them for several years have normal vision after they are removed Research: - research is conducted on just a few types of animals so a lot of information is available about them they are known as animal models - most animal models are easy to obtain, easy to breed, have short life cycles and a small adult size - for example mice are used extensively in the study of cancer and disease

- deprivation in adults had no effect - retinal cells in the deprived eye did respond to the light stimuli but the cells in the visual cortex did not respond to any visual input from the deprived eye - after 6 months the eye was exposed to light and it was clear that the monkey was blind in the light-deprived eye - they raised monkeys from birth to six months depriving them of any light stimulus in one eye, this is known as monocular deprivation Hubel and Wiesel: - when they were returned to the normal world both groups had difficulty with object discrimination and pattern recognition - in one study one group of newborn monkeys were raised in the dark for 3 to six months and another exposed to light but not to patterns

Studies of newborn animals

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What happens during the critical period?

In the visual cortex:
- overlapping columns in the visual cortex are present at birth - in a normal adult the critical period produces the distinctive pattern of columns for the left and right eye - columns that receive input from a light-deprived eye become much narrower

Explanation:
- columns with axons from the light-deprived eye are narrower than those receiving light stimulation - dendrites and synapses from the light-stimulated eye take up more territory in the visual cortex - this suggests that light stimulation is needed for the refinement of the columns and full development of the visual cortex - axons compete for target cells in the visual cortex - every time a neurone fires onto a target cell the synapses of another neurone sharing the target cell are weakened and they release less neurotransmitter

- visual perception involves knowledge and experience as the brain interprets the sensory information received from the retina - others called complex cells respond to edges, slits or bars of light that move, others to the angle of the edge and others to contours, movement or orientation - some neurones called simple cells respond to bard of light - individual neurones in the columns of cells respond in different ways to the information from the retina and to different characteristics of the object being viewed - neurones in the visual cortex are alve to respond to the information from the retina

Making sense of what we see

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Cross-cultural studies
- people from different cultures may not share the same beliefs and they may show different behaviours Carpentered world hypothesis: - those who live in a world dominated by straight lines and right angles perceive depth cues very differently from those who live in a 'circular culture' - when surrounded by buildings with right angle corners unconsciously from an early age tend to interpret images with acute and obtuse angles as right angles - people who live in 'circular culture' with few straight lines or right angle corners - they have have little experience of interpreting acute and obtuse angles on the retina as representations of right angles - studies show them to be rarely fooled by optical illusions

- for example when a car drives away we perceive it as moving further away not getting smaller - overlaps of objects and changes of colour also help in judging depth the images - for far objects the images on our two retinas are very similar, so visual cues and past experiences are used with interpreting

Distant objects:
- this is called stereoscopic vision and allows relative position of objects to be perceived - the cells in the visual cortex let us compare the view from one eye with that from the other - the visual field is seen from two different angles - for close objects we depend on the presence of cells in the visual cortex that obtain information from both eyes at once

Close objects:

Depth perception
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Studies with newborn babies

The visual cliff: - babies are encouraged to crawl across a table made of glass or perspex, below which is a visual cliff - patterns placed below the glass create the appearance of a steep drop - if the perception of depth is innate then babies shout be aware of the drop even if they have not previously experienced this stimulus themselves - young babies were reluctant to crawl over the 'cliff' even when their mothers encouraged them - the experiment was repeated with animals that can walk as soon as they are born (e.g. chicks) - they too refused to cross the cliff

- in the brain every neurone connects with many other neurones to make up a complex network How memories are stored: - different types of memory are controlled by different parts of the brain - memory is located in different parts of the cortex with different sites for short and long-term memory - it also changes when changes in the synapses that underpin learning and memory changes - the nervous system changes with changes occurring in our network of neurones, often by the modification of synapses

Learning and memory

the pattern of connections the strength of synapses

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Sea slugs and habituation continued

- sea slugs are habituated to waves, habituation is a type of learning - so the gill withdraws when siphon is stimulated but after a few minutes of repeated stimulation the siphon no longer withdraws - habituation allows animals to ignore unimportant stimuli - this is so that limited sensory, attention and memory resources can be concentrated in more threatening or rewarding stimuli How habituation is achieved: - with repeated stimulation Ca2+ channels become less responsive so less Ca2+ crosses the presynaptic membrane - therefore less neurotransmitter is released - there is less depolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane so no action potential is triggered in the motor neurone

- if the siphon is touched the gill is withdrawn into the cavity, this is a protective reflex action - water is expelled through a siphon tube at one end on the cavity - the sea slug breathes through a gill located in a cavity on the upper side of its body - sea slugs behaviour can be modified by learning and the effects on neurones and synapses studied - sea slugs also have large accessible neurones so those involved in particular behaviors can be identified - but sea slugs have less neurones so their neurobiology is much simpler than that of humans - there are no fundamental differences between the nerve cells and synapses of humans and animals such as sea slugs

Sea slugs and habituation

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Ethics of using animals in medical research

The importance of consent:
Accepting that animals have rights we could only use animals that consented to participatein medical experiments, just like we only use humans if that give their consent. Animal welfare rather than animal rights: A widespread belief is that humans should treat animals as well as possible. No country in the European Union is allowed to use vertebrates in medical experiments is there are non-animal alternatives.

Animal suffering and experience of pleasure:

both the animal rights approach and the animal welfare apporach assume that animals can suffer and experience pleasures.

A utilitarian approach to the use of animals:

Utilitarianism is the belief that the right course of action is one that maximises the amount of overall happiness or pleasure in the world. A utilitarian framework allows certain animals to be used in medical experiments provided the overall expected benifits are greater than the overall expected harms.

sensitisation: (a shock to the tail enhances the gill withdrawal due to the water jet) -in sea slugs if a predator attacks it becomes sensitised to other changes in its environment and responds strongly to them - sensitisation is the opposite of habituation, it happens when an animal develops an enhanced response to a stimulus What is happening during sensitisation?:

Sensitisation

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impulse due to electric shock to tail serotonin released greater calcium ion uptake impulse passes along sensory neurone more neurotransmitter released greater depolarisation higher frequency of action potentials enhanced gill withdrawal response
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Treatment for parkinsons disease

- slowing the loss of dopamine from the brain by using drugs such as selegiline. The drug inhibits the enzyme monoamine oxidase which breaks down dopamine in the brain. - A drug called L-dopa can be given. Once in the brain L-dopa is converted into dopamine, increasing the concentration of dopamine. - the use of dopamine agonists. They are drugs that activate the dopamine receptor directly, they bind to dopamine receptors at synapses and trigger action potentials. - gene therapy can be used. genes for proteins that increase dopamine production and that promote the growth and survival of nerve cells are inserted into the brain. cell therapy in which the proteins themselves are injected is also being trialled. - New surgical approaches are being trialled, some of which are generating encouraging results.

- the main symptoms of the disease are: - Parkinson's patient motor cortexes receive little dopamine and there is a loss of control of muscular movements - these neurones normally release dopamine in the motor cortex - dopamine is a neurotransmitter secreted by neurones, included many located in part of the midbrain

Dopamine and Parkinson's disease

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stiffness of muscles tremor of the muscles slowness of movement poor balance walking problems depression difficulties with speech and breathing
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Depression
- neurones that secrete serotonin are stimulated in the brain stem. a lack of serotonin has been linked to depression. - Their axons extend to the cortex, the cerebellum and the spinal cord, targetinga a huge area of the brain. - depression is a multifactorial condition; several genes my be involved but so my environmental factors. - a gene called 5-HTT is known to influence our susceptibility to depression, people with the 'short' version of the 5-HTT gene are more likely to develop depression after a stressful life event. - when someone is depressed, fewer never impulses than normal are transmitted abound the brain, which may cause low levels of neurotransmitters to be produced. - serotonin binding sites are more numerous than normal when depressed to make up for the low levels of the molecule. Drug treatment for depression:(SSRI and Prozac) - the drugs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin from synaptic clefts - this type of drug is called a Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor (SSRI) so it blocks the only uptake of serotonin.

- long-term effects include changes in behaviour and brain structure - short-term effects include changes in behaviour and brain chemistry, sweating, dry mouth, increased heart rate, fatigue, muscle spasms and hypothermia. - there are five different stages in synaptic transmission that can be affected by drugs: - effects thinking, mood and memory and can also cause anxiety and altered perceptions. Its most desirable effect is that it provides feelings of emotional warmth and empathy. The effect of ecstasy:

How drugs affect synaptic transmission

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neurotransmitter synthesis and storage neurotransmitter release neurotransmitter-receptor binding neurotransmitter reuptake neurotransmitter breakdown
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Better treatments
- the deciphering of the base sequence in the human genome as part of the Human Genome Project (HGP) means we are now getting a better understanding of the way genes control our phenotype - a genome is all the DNA of a organism (or species), including the genes that carry the information for making the proteins required by the organism (or species) - these proteins help determine all the characteristics of the organism from individual biochemical pathways to its overall appearance - In 1977 Fred Sanger the first DNA sequencing process - DNA is used as a template to replicate a set of DNA fragments, each differing in lenth by one base - the fragments are are separated according to size using gel electrophoresis and the base at the end of each fragment is identified - this allows the sequence of bases in the whole DNA chain to be determined

- there is growing evidence of long-term effects including insomnia, depression and other psychological problems - these higher levels of serotonin bring about the mood changes seen in users of the drug - the drug may also cause the transporting molecules to work in reverse, further increasing the amount of serotonin outside the cell - this prevents its removal from the synaptic cleft - it does this by binding to molecules in the presynaptic membrane that are responsible for transporting the serotonin back into the cytoplasm - ecstasy increases the concentration of serotonin in the synaptic cleft How ecstasy affects synapses:

How drugs affect synaptic transmission

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- restricted availability of many medical treatments will add considerably to the problems faced by the health services in deciding who is eligible for the treatments

Using genetically modified organisms to produce dr

-it has been possible to genetically modify non-human organisms to produce specific human proteins, such as the human growth hormone, insulin and collagen - the artificial introduction of genetic material from another organism through genetic modification produces a transgenic or genetically modified organism (GMO) - genetic modification is also known as genetic engineering or genetic manipulation or recombinant DNA technology Modifying organisms: - the first success in genetic engineering was with bacteria - bacteria contain simple DNA structures, plasmids, which can be transferred from one cell to another - using restriction enzymes, the circular plasmid can be cut, and using another set of enzymes a piece of DNA from another species can be inserted in

- many medical treatments made possible through the development of genetic technologies will initially be very expensive - making and keeping records of individual genotypes raises acute problems of confidentiality - who should decide about the use of generic predisposition tests, and on whom should they be used? - testing for generic predisposition has many implications Issues with the Human Genome Project:

Human Genome Project

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Genetically modified plants

- for centuries farmers have picked out the hardest and most prolific plants from their crops and have saved the seeds from these plants for sowing the following year - because of this crops have steadily improved, this is called artificial selection - genetic engineers introduce new genes with alleles for desired characteristics into a plants DNA resulting in genetically modified plants - Genes are inserted into plant cells. this can be done by: a bacterium that infects many species of plant. When the bacteria invade the plant cells genes from plasmid DNA become incorporated into the chromosomes of the plant cells Minute pellets that are converted with DNA carrying the desired genes are shot into the plant cells using a particle gun. viruses are sometimes used. They infect cells by inserting their DNA or RNA. They can be used to transfer the new genes into the cell.

The steps in using bacteria to produce human insulin: - a vaccine was then produced using this to protect against hepatitis B - an example of how bacteria can be used for modifying organisms is to produce the human protein insulin

Modifying organisms

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a plasmid is extracted from a bacterial cell the extracted plasmid is then cut with restriction enzyme an isolated human gene is spliced into the plasmid the modified plasmid is then put back into the bacterial cells the cells then multiply in a fermenter the bacterium then produces human insulin the bacterial cells are destroyed and the insulin protein is extracted and purified
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Genetically modified animals

- ways in which genes can be inserted into animal cells: injecting DNA directly into the nucleus of a fertilised egg the egg is then implanted into a surrogate female retroviruses have also been used to introduce new genes into fertilised eggs this type of virus incorporates its DNA into the hosts DNA

- tracey was the first transgenic sheep, her DNA contained the human gene for the protein AAT - AAT is normally made by our liver cells and inhibits the enzyme elastase. elastase is released from neutophils, the white blood cells that fight infection. - protease digests damaged or aging lung cells, foreign particles and bacteria. ATT prevents elastase attacking normal tissue. - the inherited disease A1AD mutates the gene coding for ATT. A lack of ATT can cause lung disease such as emphysema, as the elastase attacks normal lung tissue

- the plantlets are then separated and grown into full size plants to produce transgenic plants - the genetically modified plant cells can then be cultured in agar with nutrients and plant growth substances to produce new plants (sucrose, amino acids, inorganic ions and plant growth substances) - the only cells to survive are the ones that have successfully incorporated the new genes and are resistant - the plant cells are then incubated with the antibiotic which kills of any unsuccessful cells that have not taken up the new genes - this is generally done by incorporating a gene for antibiotic resistance, often called a marker gene, along with the new desired gene - scientists need a method of screening to find out which plant cells actually have the new gene

Genetically modified plants continued

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Concerns about genetic modification

Health: transfer of antibiotic-resistance genes to microbes formation of harmful products by new genes transfer of viruses from animals to humans Environmental concerns about GMOs are: transfer of genes to non-GM plants (e.g. cross-pollination caused by wind or insects) increased chemical use in crops Solutions: ensure that outcrosses are not fertile and cannot proliferate development of technology whereby the pollen does not contain the modified gene so it cannot be spread