Article

Ice Losses Now Far Surpass Ice Gains

Satellite Evidence of the Melting Gre

For the first time, NASA scientists have analyzed data from direct, detailed satellite measurements to show that ice losses now far surpass ice gains in the shrinking Greenland ice sheet. Will this trend continue? Today, thanks to modern satellite technology, the quickest and easiest way for scientists to survey the polar regions on a daily basis is from the unique vantage point of space. We compiled texts and images from various sources mostly NASA to bring you a short overview of this hot subject.
By Joc Triglav
sea levels by five meters if it melted completely. Scientists estimate it would take several centuries of global warming to melt all the ice on Greenland. Although they are not forecasting a sudden disastrous loss of Greenlands ice, they do observe considerable melting around the fringes of the sheet. This melting is only partly offset by the observed increase in the thickness of the ice sheet in the islands interior highland. A 2006 NASA study revealed that Greenlands ice mass decreased about 101 billion tons per year from 2003 to 2005. Using a novel technique that reveals regional changes in the weight of the massive ice sheet across the entire continent, scientists at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, reported recently that Greenland's low coastal regions lost 155 billion tons (170.8 cubic kilometers) of ice per year between 2003 and 2005 from excess melting and icebergs, while the high-elevation interior gained 54 billion tons (58.3 cubic kilometers) annually from excess snowfall. In this new analysis, dramatic ice mass losses were seen to be concentrated in the lowelevation coastal regions, with nearly half the loss coming from southeast Greenland.

GRACE
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) is a joint partnership of NASA and the German Aerospace Center, Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft und Raumfahrt. Its satellites, launched in 2002, are managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The pair of GRACE satellites orbiting in close formation detects changes in the Earth's mass directly below them by measuring changes in the distance between the two satellites as the gravitational force of the mass causes each to speed up or slow down. The study is based on an innovative use of data from GRACE satellite observations that reveals detailed information about where and when the Greenland ice mass has changed. Other recent studies using GRACE observations have reported continent-wide ice mass declines, but none has shown these changes in enough detail for scientists to investigate the amount different areas of the ice sheet are losing. To achieve this more detailed view of the ice sheet's behavior, a technique was used that brings GRACE's global view of the Earth down to a more frequent, more local view. The study was based on data collected over Greenland every 10 days. Scientists divided the island into

Elephant Foot Glacier, at the geographic latitude around 81 N along the east coast of Greenland. The grey zone at low elevation is the ablation zone incised by meltwater channels, clearly separated from the white surface accumulation zone higher up. (Image credit: Hans Oerter/Alfred-Wegener-Institut).

Fourth International Polar Year

Scientific research into polar regions is particularly relevant now that the Fourth IPY (International Polar Year) is underway (http://www.ipy.org/index.php?/ipy/ about/). March 1, 2007, marked the beginning of the IPY. The IPY actually spans two full years from March 2007 through March 2009 and includes more than 200 scientific research projects involving more than 10,000 scientists from 63 nations. The goal of the IPY is to increase international cooperation in polar exploration while advancing scientific understanding of these regions. One objective is to observe and mea-

sure the ways in which the polar regions affect, and are affected by, the global climate system. Naturally Greenlands ice sheet, as the largest remaining relic of the last ice age in the Northern Hemisphere, is the focus.

100 Billion Tons

Greenland, the worlds largest island, contains the second-largest ice sheet on Earth, with a surface extent of approximately 1.75 million square kilometers and an average thickness of 2.3 kilometers. The ice sheet is so massive that it holds about seven percent of all the freshwater on Earth, enough water to elevate global

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enlands Ice Cap

during the summer melt season and growth during winter is captured clearly. The new results also capture more precisely where changes are taking place, showing that the loss of ice mass is occurring in the same three drainage systems where other studies have reported increased glacier flow and icequakes in outlet glaciers. combination of different tools, including laser altimeters, radar, and field studies, to sort out more clearly what is happening. All technologies have different strengths and weaknesses. GRACE shows us the big picture, while other measurements look at a smaller scale. Scientists need to use them all together and they have to pay close attention, as these ice sheets are changing much faster than the scientists were expecting. Observations are the most powerful tool science has to know what is going on, especially when the changes - and what is causing them - are not obvious. Continued monitoring is needed, the authors of the NASA study point out, to determine whether this ice loss is a long-term trend.

Faster Change
This is a very large DMSP Special Sensor Microwave/Imager change in a very short The DMSP (Defense Meteorological Satellites time. In the 1990s, the The changes in the ice sheet's mass were measured from space by the Gravity Program) is a US Department of Defense proice sheet was growing Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission. GRACE is a pair of satellites gram run by the Air Force Space and Missile inland and shrinking sigorbiting in close formation that can detect changes in the Earth's mass directly below Systems Center. The DMSP designs, builds, nificantly at the edges, them by measuring changes in the distance between the two spacecraft as the gravilaunches, and maintains satellites that monitor which is what climate tational force of the mass causes each to speed up or slow down. GRACE twin satelthe meteorological, oceanographic, and solarmodels predicted as a lites celebrate their fifth anniversary on orbit this year, completing a successful terrestrial physics environments. The DMSP-F13 result of global warming. primary mission that's improved our knowledge of Earth's gravity field by more SSM/I (Special Sensor Microwave/Imager) sensor than 100 times and is helping to revolutionize our understanding of Earth's climate. Now the processes of But GRACE's mission is far from being over. (Credit: NASA and GFZ). measures microwave radiation emitted naturalmass loss are clearly ly from the surface of the Earth. Dry snow and beginning to dominate separate drainage basins, based on which direcliquid water behave differently in the microwave inland growth, and we are only in the early tion the ice sheet flows from the interior toward region of the spectrum, a fact that allows stages of the climate warming predicted for this the coasts. They further divided the basins into scientists to distinguish melting snow from dry century. high- and low-elevation terrain. While the two snow in SSM/I data. While GRACE provides a new and independent northernmost basins were in balance snow The number of days on which melting occurred way to study Earth's ice sheets, it will take a accumulation equal to melting and iceberg loss the southeastern basins experienced a rapid decline in ice mass, especially at low elevations. Overall, Greenland lost 20 percent more mass than it received in snowfall each year. These results are consistent with overall trends in ice loss that other types of observations of Greenland have documented, including radarbased estimates of accelerating glacier flow off the ice sheet. Standard GRACE data products infer local mass changes from a global data set of these satellite measurements. The new study used only data from over the Greenland region. This new detailed view of the Greenland ice sheet goes a long way toward resolving the differences among recent observations and what we know about how the ice sheet behaves. A consistent picture from the different data sets is emergMonthly changes in the mass of Greenland's ice sheet coverage observed by the GRACE satellites during 2005. Purple and dark blue areas indicate areas of largest mass loss. (Credit: NASA/JPL). ing. The seasonal cycle of increased mass loss

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One of the largest Greenlands ice tongues belongs to Petermann glacier, which is the most influential outlet of ice in northern Greenland. Petermanns floating tongue is also the fastest flowing, moving between 950 to 1100 meters per year. The research, based on observations made by NASAs Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellites, has revealed regional changes in the weight of the Greenland ice sheet between 2003 and 2005. This image illustrates where Greenland gained mass during the study period and where it lost mass. While the equivalent of 10 to 15 centimeters of water per year accumulated over the core of the island (red and orange areas), an even larger area experienced losses (blue) of between 5 and 25 centimeters per year. Losses were highest over southeastern Greenland. Low coastal regions (blue) lost three times as much ice per year from excess melting and icebergs than the high-elevation interior (orange/red) gained from excess snowfall. (Credit: Scott Luthcke, NASA Goddard). The 70-kilometer-long Petermann ice tongue drains a portion of the ice sheet about 71,500 square kilometers in area, pouring 12 cubic kilometers of ice per year into the Arctic Ocean. (Image credit: NASA/JPL).

on the surface of Greenlands ice sheet was determined by comparing SSM/I measurements taken both during the day and at night through most of the spring and summer of 2006. Specifically, by taking the difference of those measurements at frequencies of 19.35 gigahertz and 37 gigahertz each day, the SSM/I data was used to map where meltwater existed even meltwater below the surface. Unlike existing techniques, a multi-frequency approach allows detection of wet snow at different depths and intensities, providing a tool for improving climatological and hydrological applications. Air temperature values, recorded either by ground-based stations or derived from models, were used for calibrating and validating the technique. Long-term results show that the extent of snowmelt has been increasing at a rate of approximately 40,000 square kilometers per year for the past 14 years.

Further reading
More information on the subject can be accessed at the following websites which were also used as a source for the compilation of texts, images and captions in this article: Gravity Measurements Help Melt Ice Mysteries www.nasa.gov/ vision/earth/lookingatearth/grace20070320.html Greenland Ice Sheet on a Downward Slidewww.nasa.gov/vision/earth/ lookingatearth/greenland_slide.html Images at NASA Earth Observatory http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ NASA and IPY video http://ipy.nasa.gov/multimedia/ m000000/ m000000/m000015/mv/index.html A Tour of the Cryosphere video http://learners.gsfc.nasa.gov/mediaviewer/Cryosphere/ A series of GRACE videos www.csr.utexas.edu/grace/gallery/animations/ GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam (GFZ) GRACE website www.gfz-potsdam.de/grace/ Tedesco, M. (2007). Snowmelt detection over the Greenland ice sheet from SSM/I brightness temperature daily variations, Geophysical Research Letters, 34, L02504, doi:10.1029/ 2006GL028466. National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC)-NOAA Satellite and Information Service-Earth Observation Group (EOG)-Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) www.ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp/

The image above was made using data collected by the Defense Meteorological Satellites Program (DMSP-F13) Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) from April 1 to September 1, 2006. It shows the number of days snow was melting during that 5month period. Darker blue shades show where there were more days of melting (up to 60 days or more), and lighter blue shades show fewer melting days (down to zero). The topographic shading along the coastlines is based on data collected by NASAs ICESat satellite. (Image by Robert Simmon, NASAs Earth Observatory, using data and analysis courtesy Marco Tedesco, University of Maryland-Baltimore County).

Joc Triglav (jtriglav@geoinformatics.com) is a contributing editor of GeoInformatics.

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Showing Underground Stations in a GIS-based Guide System

The Vienna 3D City Model

Figure 1: Left: Building represented by structure lines from the 3D database, middle: automatic surface model derivative, right: photo texture applied.

In the Vienna metropolis, 3D geo-information is required for noise protection and city planning tasks but also for managing the underground line systems; this geo-information should ideally be available as part of the communal GIS. For this reason, the City of Vienna decided in 2003 to expand the existing geo-data into a database managed 3D city model that will be regularly updated and made available to users under ArcGIS. By Gerald Forkert and Lionel Dorffner

The

city of Vienna uses ArcSDE to manage the elements of the digital map MZK(Digitale MehrZweckKarte digital multi-purpose map), the digital terrain model, and the supply line cadastre. Within the city of Vienna, this 2.5D geo-data is mainly used by GIS Power Users, like city planners, noise protectors, water supply or fire brigade. At present, about 100 workstations are equipped with ArcGIS. The geo-information technicians of the city of Vienna were recently looking for a 3D solution for buildings and subterranean structures compatible with the existing system. This solution was found in the form of the CityGRID system (www.citygrid.at), which was implemented at the city of Vienna from the year 2003 in several stages. The advantage of this system lies in line-oriented 3D modelling where the geo-data is topologically processed and saved in a 3D database as a result. This principle facilitates the continuous updating of the modelled objects.

Noise Protection In the first phase of city modelling the roof scenery of the above-ground city model was established by completing the existing geo-data with the help of photogrammetric aerial restitution. This task was managed by only two employees of the surveying department. This effort is rather small compared to the generation of the digital map MZK which tasks 30 employees. In other words: an accurate terrain model and a well organized digital map like the MZK provide already 90 per cent of the city model. In the meantime, an almost complete model of 500,000 buildings represented by simplified flat roof models and 25,000 buildings represent- Figure 2: simulation of designed building using 3D visualisation module.

ed by detailed roof shape models is available. On request, a scenery of roof shape models can be textured quickly by handheld photographs. Noise protection departments are among the principle users of 3D city models, as the current model of the entire city is always required for simulating noise propagation over a wide area. Noise protection departments are responsible for documenting existing noise pollution in the form of noise maps and for simulating the effect of any building and protection measures. Topography and buildings affect noise propagation. A 3D city model is therefore essential for calculating noise pollution in a city. For an average noise protection department project, an existing 3D city model saves more than 90 per cent of the time needed for preparing the geometrical input for the expert system used to calculate noise. For

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Figure 3: Left: Structure Lines defining underground buildings, middle: automatic surface model derivative, right: modelling of interior structure.

using 3D data as input to noise protection systems the city model must be available in the form of a block model. A simplified roof can be included as a prism on top of the building if attributive information on the average height of the eaves and ridge height is available. In addition road and green areas (stored in the MZK) provide information about areas with different acoustical absorption. Urban Planning The higher highrise-buildings are, the more interesting they are to investors. When determining the height of buildings, city planners try to avoid negative impact on sensitive parts of the city. The aim is to find the optimum height for the project site at which the highrise will not be visible from critical points in the city. This optimisation is practically impossible using conventional methods, but the 3D city model can solve this task in just a few hours: the city model with correct roofs is converted into a GIS-compatible grid height model. This model can then be used in GIS to carry out the optimisation process using visibility analyses. Integration of subterranean structures in the 3D city model started in the year 2005. At the moment 9 kilometres of the Viennese

line network have been recorded to date. The subterranean models are saved in ArcSDE for 2D and 3D utilization. Until the middle of 2007 the facilities of the 35 km of underground train will be incorporated with the help of the existing design drawings, which are mostly available in hard copy only. 3D modelling is carried out by the CityGRID system using digitized structure lines of subterranean facilities. Relevant elements in the interior of the underground train facilities can also be modelled. Architectural Competitions Different designs submitted in the course of an architectural competition should be evaluated using an objective basis. The 3D city model can provide a standard framework for all participants and ensure that results can be compared. The city model in the project neighbourhood should be a roof shape model, ideally with textured facades. Using 3D visualisation module, submitted designs can be simulated and assessed in different variants in an interactive 3D visualisation. Supply Line Management Additional underground supply lines must be planned especially carefully in city centres. The countless existing supply lines limit the available space, and traffic obstructions due to excavation should be kept to a minimum. Exact information on underground structures saves considerable time and money, especially when

pipes must cross underground railway lines. So, 3D simulation and optimization may be realized already in an early state of the planning process. By that way planning errors can be avoided and constructional measures are minimized. Actually, all elements of the supply line cadastre are at least available in 2D. The underground train system managed in the subterranean city model is available in 3D. The city department of electronic data processing will take this occasion to improve the supply line cadastre to 3D also. Transport Services Underground railway stations are often complex structures, especially those that are hubs. In addition to the multi-level areas and stairways accessible to the public, stations also include service rooms, ventilation structures, connecting passages and the like. In general, all rooms have a fire alarm sensor, which, in the case of a fire, reports the code of the room where the fire is located to the central office. Actually locating the room on site in the station is often difficult using conventional 2D plans, even in the case of a false alarm where smoke does not obstruct the view. 3D representations of the station offer a crucial orientation aid and help emergency workers reach the position reported by the alarm faster. Therefore the possibility of showing underground stations in a GIS-based guide system along with other safety-related constructions is not only nice to have, but is an essential component of an up-to-date emergency system. In this context the aboveground city model also provides valuable information on the stations surroundings.
Gerald Forkert is managing director of the company Geodata IT (forkert@geodata.at) . Lionel Dorffner is chief of the 3D city modelling task force at the Vienna Municipal Department 41 - Surveyors (lionel.dorffner@m41.magwien.gv.at).

Figure 4: 3D presentation of an underground train system.

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Transparency through information.

Corruption Is Everywhere.

Transparency and Land Administration

Even in an almost corruption-free country like the Netherlands (in the top ten of the TI (Transparency International) Corruption Perceptions Index), a 2005 university survey of 341 representatives of public organizations showed they perceive 3.2% of all civil servants and 5.2% of politicians to be corrupt. In a survey among 1000 citizens, 0.5% reported encountering corruption in civil servants. Although already quite embarrassing, both conclusions were challenged in an investigation by an opinion poll bureau. The findings of this investigation were even worse: its respondents perceived that c ivil servants are three times and politicians are five times more corrupt than was found in the university survey. Land issues not free from corruption By Paul van der Molen and Arbind Tuladhar
A literature search, including internet searches during March and April 2006, reveals that land management and land administration are not free from corruption. We report on cases which have been documented and reported in the free press and in open publications e.g. Transparency International reports, newspapers and parliamentary investigations (exact references are available). We present highlights only; much more information is available. tration and management of land belong to the domain of government authority (although cooperation with private-sector and civil parties is common). Formal decisions are necessary to register a property, to grant a mortgage, to impose or lift restrictions and to allocate a particular land use, which implies discretionary powers of the public sector. Favouritism, nepotism and clientelism might also easily apply to land issues, as access to land in many situations is kinship-dependent, especially under customary law.

What about corruption in land?

As corruption is, by nature, hidden, sound statistical data are not available. It is amazing, however, how much has been published openly about land-related corruption practises. Before we report on some of these publications, we will refer to some definitions of corruption. Although there is no universally agreed-upon definition, UN/Habitat defines corruption as 'the misuse of office for private gain'. Some common forms of corruption are - Bribery (abuse of discretion in favour of -

a third party in exchange of benefits given by the third party) Fraud (abuse of discretion for private gain without third parties involvement) Favoritism, nepotism and clientelism (abuse of discretion not for self-interest but for the interest of family, clan, political party, ethnic group etc.)

Our intuition says that all three forms of corruption might occur in land issues. Bribery and fraud might easily apply, as the adminis-

Europe In Lithuania 34 per cent of the residents believe land use planning divisions are very corrupt institutions.

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In the 1980s an employee involved in land registration in the Netherlands (Amsterdam office) was convicted of discharging mortgages in the land book against payment by land owners/debtors. Bribes to speed up cadastral procedures in Pragues land registry prompted radical changes in the management of its offices. An official in the Land Registry in Dublin (Ireland) has been suspended and is facing 47 corruption charges for allegedly receiving money illegally over a two-and-a-half year period for documents he sold to a Dublin-based legal agent.

Central Asia A household study of 3000 households in Bangladesh shows that 97% of households that bought land had to pay bribes for land registration, 83% had to pay bribes for land surveys, and 40% who received land had to pay bribes. The India Corruption Study states that 79% of those interacting with the Land Administration Department in the country agreed that there is corruption in the department. Work for which bribes were paid included property registration (39%), mutation (25%), land surveys (12% ) and obtaining property documents (4%). A household survey in Nepal concludes that the respondents perceive land administration as the most corrupt sector; 6.6% of those who used land administration services during 2002 noted that they had faced corruption. Tehsilders (revenue officers) were found to be the main actors in land administration corruption, followed by land surveyors. In Pakistan 133 out of 1724 respondents recalled encountering corruption when contacting the land administration department. The main reasons for contacting the department were transfer of property (25%), buying land (24%) and selling land (17%). Surveyors and tehsilders (revenue officers) appeared to be the most involved. In Uzbekistan in January 2003 the father of a large family committed suicide after years of conflict with the local authorities; they had taken the land he had cultivated for many years because the relatives of a prosecutor were interested in it. In Georgia, 0.5% of all corruption pertains to the registration of property. East Africa The Kenya Bribery Index 2001 and 2002 ranked the Ministry of Lands and Settlement 4th and 13th. The Kenya Bribery Index 2005 shows that 65.7% of the people visiting the Ministry of Lands might be asked for a bribe and 36.3% of refusals resulted in denial of service.

Cadastral boundary survey.

The Kenyan Minister of Lands and Settlements says that since independence, land has been used as a payback system for political supporters, though limited to certain groups of people. He also observes that the state has large chunks of land for development and research that were irregularly subdivided and sold. The coordinator of the Kenya Land Alliance reports that all land registries, land boards, the land rent collecting offices and the central registry in Nairobi are very prone to corruption. Equally prone to corruption are the offices of the provincial administration because they are in charge of the executive administration of land within their administrative areas. Others include the survey offices and the land tribunal offices, right from the chief district officer to heads of municipalities. All services offered in these offices are highly prone to corruption, he said. The management of trust lands, land which is under the county council for the purpose of nomadic lifestyle and where some leaders have grabbed lands on the river banks, is also prone to corruption, he added. The Ndungu Report (December 2004) gives a

full and detailed overview of land and graft in Kenya. It talks about the unbridled plunder of urban, state and ministerial lands, of settlement schemes and trust lands, and of forest lands, national parks, game reserves, wetlands, riparian reserves and protected areas, facilitated by the extensive complexity of professionals (lawyers, surveyors, valuers, land registrars, etc.) Even the former American embassy was constructed on lands allocated illegally under the track of the Southern Bypass of Nairobi. President Kikwete (Tanzania) said that he would sack officers if it was discovered that they had allocated land to more than one person. One of the slogans in the first anti-corruption campaign in Mozambique was dont pay high administration costs asked for by land officers for the registration of land property. In Ghana, the struggle for land and the role of the chiefs is related. Although according to customary law the chief should administer the land in the interests of the community, in approximately 65% of case studies the chief himself is the main beneficiary of land sales, giving rise to much local resistance.

A household study of 3000 households in Bangladesh shows that 97 per cent of households that bought land had to pay bribes for land registration.

East Asia The Malaysian minister of Lands, Kasitah Gaddam, was arrested for misusing his position of chairman of the state lands body to approve the sales of shares it held in plantations, holding 25 per cent of the sales, worth $10 million, for himself. A recent survey on corruption in Vietnam showed that land management tops the list of ten fields accused of corruption. There are a multitude of land corruption crimes committed, but the three most popular are (1) taking advantage of state projects to appropriate land, share land, especially in forestation, residential areas and resettlement programs, (2) making corrupt use of power to confer land, for example leasing land plots of large areas, favourable positions, low prices, quickly completing related formalities and seeking profit through the conferring of land, especially for investment purposes, and (3) authoritarian behavior, asking for presents and money while performing formalities related to land, such as land allocation, land lease, land rights transfer, land use certificate granting, land compensation and site clearance. A special UN rapporteur on housing rights visiting Cambodia reported concerns about significant land grabbing which appears to be exacerbating land disputes and skewed land ownership patterns to the disadvantage of both the rural and urban poor. The land man-

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Open access.

agement system in place has been unable to address this situation as a combined result of (1) the absence of land records, (2) an underdeveloped and non-transparent land registration system, (3) the absence of cadastral index maps, (4) inadequate land laws and procedures, (5) unclear delineation of state land and (6) the weakness of the justice system. Chinas Ministry of Lands and Resources announced new measures to crack down on corruption and inefficiency in the land sector. The new rules forbid officials to receive personal benefits from parties under their administration. It is estimated that in 2003 the country faced 168,000 violations of its Land Law. Complaints about corruption in the land and mining sector have increased in recent years, mainly focused on the illegal approval of using farmland for construction and the rights to mine mineral resources at a very low price or even free of charge. The Chinese prime minister, Wen Jiabao, has warned that the rampant seizure of farmland for development amid a rising wave of violent protests is threatening social stability in the countryside. There are more than 230 demonstrations every day. Hopefully, the new Property Law as endorsed

by the National Peoples Congress on March 16 is a step forward.

Australia Corruption was reported in a Local Aboriginal Land Council in Australia, registering false transfers of land in the Land Titles Office. Southern Africa The Directorate on Corruption and Economic Crime in Botswana is investigating 73 cases of land corruption. The head of the Directorate reported that in the last ten years the Directorate received 238 allegations relating to lands that were allocated illegally.

Suggestions for Curbing Land Corruption

Transparency is widely recognized as a core principle of good governance: transparency means sharing information and acting in an open manner; it allows stakeholders to gather information that may be critical to uncovering abuses says UN/Habitat (2004). The toolkit developed by UN/Habitat and Transparency International includes assessment and monitoring tools, improved access to infor-

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tor as follows: Creation of an inventory of existing land tenure (cadastre) no ownership is possible without being recorded, to prevent land grabbing Open access to information about the ownership, value and use of land open for public inspection, to monitor illegal land sales limited personal privacy protection, to prevent the concealment of illegal interests Standardized procedures for the determination, recording and dissemination of information no change in inventory without source document that justifies the change (title application, deed, or other document), to prevent illegal land transactions limited discretionary abilities, to prevent concentration of powers Supervision and the possibility of appeal independent audits, to monitor illegal operations working with witnesses, to combat bribery special Land Tribunals to avoid clogging up regular courts Computerization essential for dealing with large amounts of data gives people direct access to services better monitoring of progress and processes

Cadastral map.

and (5) embarking upon a process of revocation and rectification of such titles. Computerization of land records under the Bhoomi project in Karnataka, India, increases efficiency, shortens delay and curbs corruption.

mation and public participation, promotion of ethics, professionalism and integrity, and increased transparency through institutional reforms. Although there are many public documents suggesting various measures to curb corruption, we mention here, as an example, only those relating to Cambodia, Kenya, and India. The UN expert on housing rights, visiting Cambodia, recommends (inter alia) (1) prepare a land use plan that clearly identifies the different types of state land and the respective authorities in charge of its management, (2) strengthen public participation, (3) strengthen the monitoring of illegal land sales, (4) announce a moratorium on land swaps and land concessions, (5) declare a moratorium on land sales affecting indigenous people, (6) ensure accountability by disclosing a list of all illegal land swaps that have or are being negotiated by local authorities, and (7) effectively enforce the 2001 Land Law. The Ndungu Report in Kenya recommends (1) an inventory of public lands, (2) computerization of land records, (3) a comprehensive land policy, (4) the creation of a Land Title Tribunal charged with reviewing each and every case of suspected illegal or irregular allocation of land,

Epilogue
Transparency through computerization.

Can Land Administration Systems Help?

We believe land administration systems can help to curb corruption. The proposals of TI and the UN are very suitable for the land sector as possession of land is visible to anyone, land cannot be hidden, and making an inventory of land tenure (a 'cadastre') contributes greatly to openness, transparency and the availability of information. (The fundamental meaning of the 'old' principles of land registers and cadastres, 'publicity' and 'specialty', has always been the provision of transparency in the land market.). Based on real life experiences (e.g. the Bhoomi project in India), a new approach in Georgia, the Land Administration Guidelines of the UN (1996), and the Transparency Toolkit of UN/Habitat (2004), we categorize potential measures against corruption in the land sec-

Land administration systems find their rationale in the difference between movable and immovable goods. In many legal frameworks, possession of a movable thing suggests ownership different from possession of an immovable thing. To identify the ownership of an immovable thing and related land transactions, a land register is needed, as well as for situations of legal pluriformity. The very essence of land administration systems therefore is transparency.
Paul van der Molen (paul.vandermolen@kadaster.nl) is a professor at the International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC) in Enschede, the Netherlands. Arbind Tuladhar (tuladhar@itc.nl) is assistant professor at the department Urban and Regional Planning and Geo-Information at ITC.

Transparency through property titles.

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Part 1: Standardization of Geo-information

Standards in Practice
The European directive known as Inspire came into force on May 15, 2007. Its purpose is to achieve an infrastructure for geographic information in Europe. Once implemented in national legislation, this ambitious undertaking will have a considerable impact on the information management of government organizations. By: Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk Standards
One way to differentiate between standards is based on the area of application. When considering information infrastructure we can distinguish between three important types of standards: Technical standards Semantic standards Guidelines and directives

Technical Standards These standards focus on the technical aspects of data exchange and storage. They specify how an exchange format such as GML should be defined or how services between two systems are to be built. This type of standard is usually defined on an (inter)national level by an organization such as the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) and the CEN (European Committee for Standardization), but Inspire is also involved in the development of this type of standard. Semantic Standards This type of standard describes the meaning of the information or a part thereof. They are not concerned with the how of the exchange but more with the what. Semantic standards are usually developed by a certain sector or domain and are only valid within that domain. Semantic standards that cross domains are usually framework standards developed on an (inter)national level. Guidelines and Directives A guideline or directive is usually a set of agreements on how to define certain processes, for example a guideline on how to perform certain measurements. If such a guideline becomes normative for an entire industry it is usually standardized on an (inter)national level. Otherwise, the guideline is more of a best practice.

Standardization trajectory within the CEN (source: www.cen.eu).

Open or Closed
countries have been working towards a national geo-information infrastructure for some years. An important aspect of creating a national geo-information infrastructure is the adoption of various agreements between suppliers and users of geographic information. The terms of these agreements concern the organization, but (technical) stan-

Various

dards also play a large role. This series of articles will discuss certain geoinformation-related standards: what the standard describes, what it is for, and its impact on everyday processes. This article serves as an introduction and will discuss the various types of standards in the development of international standards.

Apart from the area of application, we can distinguish standards by the method used to define them. On that basis there are open and closed standards. An open standard should conform to the following [European Interoperability Framework]: 1. The standard is adopted and will be maintained by a not-for-profit organization, and its ongoing development occurs on the basis

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of an open decision-making procedure available to all interested parties (consensus, majority decision etc.). 2. The standard has been published and the standard specification document is available either freely or at a nominal charge. It must be permissible to all to copy, distribute and use it for no fee or at a nominal fee. 3. Intellectual property - i.e. patents possibly present - of (parts of) the standard is irrevocably made available on a royalty-free basis. 4. There are no constraints on the re-use of the standard. Based on this definition, standards developed and/or maintained by a company are usually closed since they are not maintained by a nonprofit organization.

complicated and takes several years to complete. Within the ISO the following steps are distinguished in the process: 1. Proposal 2. Preparation 3. Commission 4. Enquiry 5. Approval 6. Publication. During development of the standard a relatively small number of specialists form a working group under the guidance of a so-called technical commission (TC ISO: TC211; CEN: TC287). Draft standards developed by the working group are checked by the technical commission and, during the final stages of the development, also with the national Differences between the national vertical datums (height reference) within standardization bodies. During enquiry the draft stan- signify the need for standardization (source: www.ec-gis.org). dard is publicized for comment. The first category of data, including orthoimBased upon the nature of the comments the agery, needs to be made available via Inspire draft standard is either changed according to in 2010. the comments and then re-sent for additional comment, or is considered not viable as an Standardization and Inspire international standard. It can then be publicized Inspire not only defines which information as a guideline if deemed important enough. should be made available, but also the method The resulting ISO standard is not mandatory or by which it should be made available, or which put into law, but those wishing to do business standards should be used. For this purpose on a worldwide basis would be foolish not to Inspire operates independently from CEN adopt it since it provides easier access to new although they cooperate closely. Inspire has markets. Whenever an ISO standard is adopted three important drafting teams writing the soby CEN, however, or the CEN develops a specalled implementing rules: cific standard, the situation changes. European Metadata national standardization bodies must adopt a Data specifications harmonization CEN standard and must also de-activate all con Network specifications. flicting national standards. Since national standards are usually referred to in legislation, this At the moment the draft implementing rules for can have a serious impact on the industry of Metadata have been published. These draft that country if a conflicting standard was in implementing rules are directly based on operation before the publication of the CEN ISO standard 19115. It is expected that the standard. definitive implementing rules will be Inspire published later this year. Inspire is concerned with the exchange of enviThe data specifications harmonization team is ronmentally-related geographic information concerned with semantic standardization, from European governments. The idea is to whereas the network specifications team is create a central European Information defining the implementing rules for the technical Infrastructure wherein national geo-information standardization of the infrastructure. sources are coupled to each other within a Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk central infrastructure. It is therefore only (hlekkerkerk@geoinformatics.com) is a contributing concerned with the environmental information editor of GeoInformatics and project manager inforbeing exchanged between levels of government mation standards at IDsW as well as a freelance and not with the information used within an writer and trainer. For more information: organization for its own purposes. Inspire: www.ec-gis.org; ISO: www.isotc211.org; Inspire defines which information should be OCG: www.opengeospatial.org; CEN: www.cen.eu. made available, and against which restrictions.

(Inter)national Standardization Organisations

Considering geographic-oriented standards, the most important international standardization organizations are: OGC (Open Geospatial Consortium), a consortium between various large software vendors and users ISO (International Organization for Standardization) CEN (European Committee for Standardization). Many geographic-oriented standards were developed primarily by the OGC and from there, through the ISO, were adopted as international standards. Such a standard can then be adopted by the CEN or national standardization bodies. But a standard can also be developed by a national standardization body and from there, through either CEN or ISO, be adopted as a European or international standard.

Sector Specific Standards

Apart from (inter)national organizations, there are a number of organizations that operate within a certain domain, usually within a certain country. Within the Netherlands, for example, the IDsW (InformationDesk standards Water) is responsible for maintaining and developing information standards relating to water management. These standards are usually classified as semantic standards and guidelines/directives.

Standardization Process
One of the major differences between an open and a closed standard lies in decision making. With an open standard everybody should be allowed to take part in the standardization process. This leads to Inspire logo a process that is fairly (source: www.ec-gis.org).

Latest News? Visit www.geoinformatics.com

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Conferences & meetings

HP Graphic Arts Summit in Rome

Saving Ink and Time

With great pride, HP presented its new printers to the international press in Rome on May 10 and 11. HP uses new technologies to improve its printers and to save both ink and time, technologies such as DreamColor, the Optical Media Advance Sensor and Vivera inks. By Job van Haaften Rome
The day we arrived, May 9, was Europe Day which celebrates the signing of the Treaty of Rome 50 years ago. This treaty established the European Coal and Steel Community, the predecessor of the European Union. It was a very special day for GeoInformatics to land in Rome, the city where the EU was founded, the city that was the center of the Roman Empire, and the city that contains the home of the Pope, who at that moment was visiting Brazil.

Great opportunity
HP put on quite a show. Steve Nigro flew over from the USA to welcome the press to the summit. Nigro is Senior Vice President and General Manager of Imaging and Printing Technology Platforms, part of HPs Imaging and Printing Group. The audience-the journalists-came from all over the world including Canada, the USA, Poland, Russia, England, Germany and Israel. Nigro described the summit as a great opportunity for our customers, a great opportunity for us. The challenge for HP, he said, is to fit our products to various markets, tailored and customized solutions for every aspect of the graphic design industry. HP presented three printer series of particular interest to GIS professionals, the HP Designjet Z6100, the HP T610 and HP T1100with new technologies like HP Optical Media Advance Sensor (OMAS), Vivera inks and DreamColor. (DreamColor is applicable to the Z6100 but not the T-series).

Optical Media Advance Sensor

The Optical Media Advance Sensor (OMAS) is a built-in sensor that follows the advance of the medium in the printer by scanning and comparing during the printing process. Using the same technology as in a wireless mouse, it diagnoses and reports every change in direction or location. Every anomaly in speed or direction is reported and adjusted so the correct amount of ink gets to the right spot. It helps overcome banding issues while allowing the printer to print at higher speeds. The Vivera inks include matte black, photo black and grey. These inks produce strong blacks and neutral greys for the background or metallic surfaces, and strong, clear, accurate colors. David M. Ancona, Chief Designer at Volvo in Barcelona, said we need more good neutral and silver colors, and that is what we get. Another advan-

Steve Nigro flew over from the USA to welcome the press to the summit.

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The six Vivera inks in the T-series, including matte black, photo black and grey.

of 0.067 millimeters vertically and 0.045 millimeters horizontally on HP Matte Film. This printer series can handle media up to 610 millimeters or 1118 millimeters in width.

HP Designjet Z6100
HP Designjet T1100 line accuracy is improved at 0.1 per cent.

tage of using more inks is that less ink is needed to blend a color, which ultimately saves on ink. This means the medium dries more quickly and it ripples less than when larger quantities of ink are used. The inks also have improved durability, water-resistance and smudge-resistance, and a better resistance to fading. HP guarantees that prints on interior display and away from direct sunlight, will resist fading for more than 200 years on a wide range of photo papers and coated media. Water-resistance and smudge-resistance is up to ISO standards. The DreamColor technology consists of an embedded spectrophotometer to ensure consistent colors on various media. The printed colors accurately match the colors on the display even on different printers. The spectrophotometer provides feedback on the color workflow. The same design on different media should

have the same intensity of color. Ancona: We pay great attention to choosing colors and shades for our designs, so we dont want to spend even more time on correcting the colors.

HP Designjet T610 and T1100

The T610 has been designed especially for GIS professionals working from home and in smaller studios, producing fewer than ten prints a day. For teams of GIS professionals that produce ten to twenty prints a day, HP developed the T1100. It prints one A1 page per minute, which makes it three times faster than its predecessor, the HP Designjet 800, both in normal mode. The line accuracy is improved at 0.1 per cent; it was 0.2 per cent in the 800 and 1000 series introduced about seven years ago. This allows presentations with better readability. These printers allow lines with a minimum line width

The most productive large format printer in its class is the HP Designjet Z6100. It is suited to teams of GIS professionals that produce more than 20 prints a day. Speed is always an important issue when purchasing a new printer, with labor costs rising and companies expecting greater personal productivity. The Z6100 produces output up to 92 square meters per hour on plain paper. That is four times the productivity of the HP Designjet 5000. On coated paper it produces up to 66.9 square meters and on glossy paper up to 23.4 meters per hour. The Z6100 uses eight Vivera inks, two more (light-cyan and light-magenta) than the T-series. Applying eight inks reduces the quantity of ink used. In addition to DreamColor, the printer is equipped with Double Swath technology: the Z6100 has twice as many nozzles as the HP Designjet Z2100. The Z6100 uses four pairs of HP 91 printheads. The maximum resolution on glossy paper is 2400 x 1200 dpi. The media can, respectively, be 1067 millimeters or 1524 millimeters wide, depending on which printer is chosen.

Translation and compression

The embedded HP-GL/2 language compresses the files without losing details or information. A 206 megabyte tiff file is compressed by HPGL/2 to 6 megabytes which speeds up the printing process and reduces hardware and memory use. For the development of this language, HP cooperated with Autodesk, Bentley Systems, ESRI and Dassault. The included drivers support Windows, AutoCADR14, AutoCAD 2000 and higher and Citrix MetaFrame environments. The ps version of the printers supports all PDF files and PostScript files directly.
Job van Haaften (jvanhaaften@geoinformatics.com) is editor of GeoInformatics. For more information on the subject you can visit www.hp.com. The HP Designjet Z6100 is four times faster than its predecessor, HP Designjet 5000.

Latest News? Visit www.geoinformatics.com

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Article

Crop and Yield Monitoring Activities

MARS Stat Action of the European

For implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy, the European Commission needs timely information on the agricultural production expected in the current season. This is the main concern of the MARS (Monitoring Agriculture with Remote Sensing) Stat Sector of the Agriculture and Fisheries Unit, part of the Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen of the Joint Research Centre (DG-JRC EC). By Giampiero Genovese, Bettina Baruth, Antoine Royer, Armin Burger
On May 22, 2000 the European Parliament and Council adopted Decision no. 1445/2000/EC on the application of aerial survey and remote sensing techniques to the agricultural statistics for 1999-2003. The period of coverage was later extended to 2004-2007 (Ref. PE/CONS 3661/1/03 OJ L 309 of November 26, 2003). The current legal basis for research activities related to the system is in the JRC multi-annual working program (FP6 2003-2006 action 1121 MARS Stat).

(http://agrifish.jrc.it/marsstat/Bulletins/2006.ht m). The following sections briefly describe the system components.

Weather Monitoring
Based on daily meteorological data coming from more than 2000 EU-25 stations, weather phenomena are monitored throughout the season. The data, processed daily and quality checked, is interpolated to a 50 kilometer by 50 kilometer grid. The derived grid weather comprises 10 agro-meteorological parameters like temperature, rainfall, snow cover, radiation etc. The grid weather is used for crop yield evaluations in two ways. In the first it serves as input for the crop growth model, and in the second as weather indicators for direct evaluation of alarming situations such as drought or extreme rainfall during sowing, flowering, harvest etc. (see Figure 1).

Flowchart of crop simulation.

The

need of DG Agriculture for early European figures on harvests led to the development of the MARS Stat activities. A crop yield forecasting system was put in place to supply early information to DG Agriculture on the development and growth conditions of crops during the campaign. After several years of research in co-operation with Member States and a pre-operational phase, the MARS Stat action is now operational, running what is called the MCYFS (MARS Crop Yield Forecasting System) in accordance with a European Parliament and Council decision (see framed text). Besides this main activity, research is done on crop area estimates, and ongoing surveys are also supported, e.g. LUCAS.

MARS Crop Yield Forecasting System

The core of the MARS Crop Yield Forecasting System (MCYFS) is a geospatialized agro-

meteorological crop growth model (CGMS) monitoring crop behaviour by means of decadal crop growth indicators. The crops covered are: wheat, spring barley, grain maize, rape seed, sunflowers, potatoes, sugar beets, field beans, rice and pasture. This system can be considered as having three levels: 1. Management of a meteorological database (level 1 weather monitoring); 2. Management of an agro-meteorological model and DB (level 2 crop simulation); 3. Statistical analyses of data produced and crop yield forecasting at the European level (level 3 yield forecasting). It is rounded off by the management of lowresolution satellite information supporting the CGMS at each level. Results are published in a bulletin containing analysis, forecasts and thematic maps on crop yield expectations. This is done approximately monthly, in paper and on a public access internet site

Crop Simulation
The agro-meteorological model uses the daily interpolated grid weather to simulate biomass accumulation and crop development showing the effect of recent weather on crop growth. Crop growth is simulated by the point model WOFOST (version 6.0) on a regional basis by means of geospatialized input data like soil parameters, weather information and crop parameters. The work is divided into three operational activities regional crop simulation; spatial aggregation; and production of crop indicator maps. Besides regional monitoring of crop conditions, this component of MCYFS issues warnings in the case of abnormal conditions. The outcome of the crop monitoring portion is also one of the inputs for yield prediction.

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Commission
of the two similar sensors increases the chances of permanent data availability. Mainly vegetation state parameters are derived from these two sensors, like NDVI, VCI, VPI, SAVI and fAPAR. They are currently the main remote sensing information used in the context of the MCYFS. They allow interpretation of vegetation conditions, biomass development etc. At present the data is used as an independent source of information to check convergence of results. These products are widely used by our analysts, as they allow vegetation conditions to be evaluated in an historical context. This low-resolution data with 1 kilometer pixel size is completed by MODIS data at 250 meter spatial resolution. As well, MSG SEVIRI data with 5 kilometer spatial resolution is used. The derived meteorological products are distributed by the LSA SAF (Land Surface Analysis Satellite Applications Facility [http://landsaf.meteo.pt/]) and adapted to MCYFS requirements throughout an operational processing chain. They support weather monitoring and crop simulation.

Flowchart of crop simulation.

Crop Yield Forecasting at the European Level

The main role of the third level of the MCYFS is to provide yield statistics for major crops at the EU and national levels, in as accurate and timely a fashion as possible, while ensuring independence from all external sources of estimates including national statistical systems. To achieve this, different statistical tools are used. At the end of the process different possible forecasts are available, often statistically acceptable. The most performing result is then individuated and selected according to statistical tests. Results at the national level are published in our bulletins approximately monthly throughout the season.

throughout the season, there is high demand for the timely availability of remote sensing data products. Operational chains are put in place to regularly produce 10-daily and monthly vegetation state parameters covering EU-25 and neighboring countries. All data is mosaiced to a pan- European extent and compiled with the same spatial extent and projection. A variety of different sensors is used to support the MCYFS, starting with data from 1987: a time series with almost 20 years of NOAAAVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) which is the cornerstone of the remote sensing database with pan-European coverage. In addition, spot vegetation data is available from 1998 on. The apparent overlap

Data Access and Distribution

In order to allow our users to access information, two main tools have been put in place: the MARS-OP website showing a comprehensive picture of the agricultural campaign; and all the information derived from the MCYFS and the MARS Stat ImageServer giving access to the full-resolution vegetation state parameters derived from low-resolution satellite imagery.

MARS-OP Website
The MARS-OP website offers a wide variety of information about the current agricultural season in Europe and other important agricultural areas of the world. Available products include maps of weather indicators based on observations and numerical weather models, maps and time profiles of crop indicators based on agro-meteorological models, and maps of vegetation indices and cumulated dry matter based on remote sensing images. The extranet site can be freely accessed under www.marsop.info/ upon login request through the web site.

Low-Resolution Satellite Information

Remote sensing data is used as an independent source of information to confirm crop growth indicators and forecasts with the help of vegetation state indicators and weather indicators. As well, an integrative approach will be followed by direct ingestion of derived parameters into the Crop Growth Monitoring System. Derived phenology or crop phasing parameters in level two and quantitative crop cycle parameters in level three are also under development. As real-time crop monitoring is performed

MARS Stat ImageServer

The MARS Stat ImageServer is a Web mapping application that allows searching for vegetation state parameters using various search fil-

MARS Stat ImageServer.

Latest News? Visit www.geoinformatics.com

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ters like sensor, product and time period (see Figure 3). The identified datasets can be previewed interactively by zooming and panning to the area of interest. Additional thematic map layers, like country borders, NUTS (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) regions or municipalities, allow better navigation on the map. The selected datasets can be downloaded in full resolution, either as the full dataset or clipped to an area of interest. Administrators can predefine reusable user-specific areas of interest that make it easy for users to clip the downloaded datasets to the same area every time. In addition, users can define the area interactively or insert the bounding coordinates manually. Image formats provided for download are GeoTIFF and ERDAS Imagine (HFA). As well, the interactive map with the selected image product and geographic extent can be printed out as HTML or downloaded as a PDF file. The Image Server is based on the OpenSource Web mapping framework of UMN MapServer (http://mapserver.gis.umn.edu) and uses the PHP MapScript interface of MapServer. The advantage of UMN MapServer is its flexibility and extendibility for working with various kinds of data sources and integration into an exist-

ing application framework. The built-in support of a large number of raster formats permits direct access to image products in their native storage format ENVI Labeled Raster without the need for pre-processing or conversion. The processed images are uploaded by the contractor into a pre-defined directory structure. An automated task scheduler checks for new data and references them with their required metadata in a PostgreSQL database. Directly afterwards the images are available for visualization and download: users select the product parameters and the time frame they are interested in; a request is sent to the metadatabase; and the identified image data is offered as dynamic layers in the Image Server application. Visualization including printing and PDF creation is available to everybody. Downloading imagery data requires registration. Upon registering in the database, users are permitted a certain download quota.

will be enhanced in terms of spatial resolution, and direct ingestion of remote sensing data into the model is foreseen. Moreover, climate-change scenarios will be developed and implemented into the MCYFS to study the impact on crop production systems at the EU level.
Giampiero Genovese, Bettina Baruth, Antoine Royer and Armin Burger (name.surname@jrc.it) work at the Joint Research Centre, Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen, Agrifish-Unit, TP 268, 21027 Ispra (Va), Italy. More information can be found at http://agrifish.jrc.it/marsstat/, http://imageportal.jrc.it, www.marsop.info.

References
Genovese, G. (2004) (editor): Methodology of the MARS Crop Yield Forecasting System. Vol. 1 to Vol. 4, EUR-report 21291 EN Baruth, B., Royer, A., Genovese, G., Klisch, A. (2006): The use of Remote Sensing within the MARS Crop Yield Monitoring System of the European Commission. In ISPRS Archives Vol. XXXVI, Part 8, Remote Sensing Applications for a Sustainable Future (in print).

Outlook
The MARS Stat activities will continue under the 7th Framework Programme of the EU and expansion of crop yield forecasts to additional countries is envisaged. The MCYFS itself

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History of Positioning

From Sextant to Satellite

Nowadays general access to positioning systems such as GPS seems a natural thing. The turbulent developments of the last decade appear almost an anti-climax when we consider the history of positioning. By: Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk

Until well into the Middle Ages, positioning as we know it today was
virtually non-existent. Of course ships needed to know where they were, but they usually trusted their eyes and landmarks along the coast. During the Middle Ages, the predecessor to our modern compass obtained its place in the history of navigation. And although the compass is today a trusted navigation and positioning instrument, in those days it was primarily used for navigation. By determining how long (far) a certain course was sailed, an approximated position was obtained, a technique called dead reckoning. This method is excellent for navigating over short distances between known positions that, for example, can be obtained from landmarks.

Determining Latitude
When making longer voyages over open water, dead reckoning does not provide positions that are accurate enough. Under these circumstances a true position in latitude and longitude is needed. For determining the latitude of a position, the star Polaris (or the sun) can be used in the Northern hemisphere. For example, the angle between the horizon and Polaris is nowadays almost equal to the geographic latitude. For the determination of that angle, specialized instruments such as the astrolabe, quadrant and octant were developed from the Middle Ages onwards. These provided latitude with a precision of some tens of kilometers on open water, which was accurate enough for those days. Those instruments have, of course, evolved into the modern sextant. The basic principle, however, has remained the same over more than 500 years.

Octant equipped with artificial horizon for use on land (source: www.photolib.noaa.gov).

Determining Longitude
The determination of longitude is somewhat more complex. The theory is simple enough and uses the rotation of the sun around the earth. Since a complete revolution takes 24 hours, the sun covers 15 degrees of longitude for every hour. If we measure the time difference between two locations on earth, we can also determine the difference in longitude. For centuries man sought a method for accurately determining this time difference. To speed up the process, the English offered a prize to the first person who could solve this problem. For a long time the money was bet on astronomic and magnetic methods. The solution was finally found in a series of exceptionally accurate clocks or chronometers developed by the Englishman, John Harrison, between 1728 and 1761. His clocks were found to have a deviation of less than a few seconds during a crossing of the Atlantic Ocean. It took years, however, before John Harrison, who had no formal education, was awarded the prize; this despite the fact that his clocks were found to work as promised. The use of chronometers was enhanced over the following centuries as

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Copy of Harrisons chronometer H4 used by James Cook (source: www.portcities.org.uk).

well with, amongst other developments, the introduction of radio time synchronization signals. The basic methods for position determination on the oceans remained the same, however, until the introduction of inexpensive GPS receivers around the mid 1990s.

Radio Acoustic Positioning

Although radio communication was introduced in the 19th century, it was only used in positioning as a time reference. The speed of the signals was so fast that no measurement technique could be developed that was

accurate enough. In the United States a system of radio acoustic positioning was developed as an alternative during the 1920s. This method included the under water detonation of a bomb near the vessel to be positioned. The sound wave thus produced was received by a listing station and from there broadcasted back to the ship by radio. The twoway travel time was used to determine the distance between ship and station. Ships on hydrographic surveys were positioned this way when away from land. In its modern form, the technique is still used in the offshore industry for positioning underwater robots and pipelines using the long baseline acoustic positioning method.

Electronic Positioning Systems

The current positioning systems originated in the development of radar during the Second World War. At first the technique was primarily used for finding enemy aircraft, but later was adapted for precision bombardments and positioning as well. After the war, during the 1950s and 60s, the technique was further developed, resulting in the creation of a large number of electronic positioning systems. Probably the most famous were Decca and Loran, although both were used primarily for navigation. The precision of electronic positioning systems varied from a few meters to hundreds of meters. Although most systems were phased out in the 1990s, Loran is still active and is currently selected by the United States as a backup to satellite navigation systems.

Satellite Navigation
In 1964 the American Transit global navigation satellite system became operational, offering a precision of around 400 meters. The greatest disadvantage of the system was the relatively low update rate and precision compared to other terrestrial electronic positioning systems. As a result, the American government started developing the successor to Transit, the Navigation by Satellite Timing and Ranging (NAVSTAR) system. The system was later rechristened Global Positioning System (GPS), and we all know the GPS success story. In Russia a similar system, Glonass, became operational in the 1990s. It seems that nowadays every self-respecting country needs to have at least one satellite navigation system.
Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk (hlekkerkerk@geoinformatics.com) is a contributing editor of GeoInformatics and project manager information standards at IDsW as well as a freelance writer and trainer.

The Tellurometer was one of the first electronic positioning systems used in land survey (source: www.photolib.noaa.gov).

Latest News? Visit www.geoinformatics.com

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Means to Command Resources and Influence Ground Actions M

The Natural Absorption of Airborne G

A curious trait found within most moments of progress is that any technological advancement saves work and yet, at the same time, creates more work. Airborne surveying is no exception. Pessimists reading this should not assume that more work is a bad thing and proof of a failed idea. On the contrary, it illustrates that airborne surveillance work, much like nature, abhors a vacuum. With developments in processing speed and simplicity come reduced costs, new applications, and rising demand for airborne-derived data resources in short, the opportunity for more work. By Anthony Melihen
and burgeoning spatial market. Aerial cameras like the Applanix DSS (Digital Sensor System), featuring precision GPS-supported inertial measurement technology, made the direct georeferencing of every captured image pixel a far faster and more accurate feat of processing. These strengths added to the inherent advantages of airborne platforms plus the time/cost/risk savings of no longer needing people on the ground collecting ground control points for image correction. Suddenly, not only could aerial surveying compete very well with satellites, it was obvious that airborne earth observation assets could operate with near impunity within whole new market segments.

The Demand for Data

One application to emerge from this plot twist comes from the rising demand for data during or immediately following a sizable disaster. Calls for high-priority site and situation information in the wake of a forest fire, flood, tornado, or hurricane now come not only from emergency response leaders and politicians but insurance agencies and public engineers alike. Airborne rapid ortho solutions are close to producing data products on demand in markets that satellite data can generally only support before and/or after all circumstances have played out. This will not likely change, and as a result, the rapid response segment has become one of the newest market niches to be carved out, explored, and dominated by aerial survey teams looking to expand business revenues and market share.

Airlift Over New Orleans. Flood victims lifted from rooftops by helicopter. Image: Courtesy U.S. Air Force.

Best Use of Available Services

More important for its intended purpose, the birds-eye perspective has provided a means to command resources and influence ground actions more effectively, making the best use of available services and limited numbers of people. If one is fortunate enough to invest in airborne earth observation surveillance, the returns are almost immeasurable, and if such a level of visualization is indeed the only possible option for managing a large-scale geographic challenge, the investment price will quickly disappear. Only a decade ago, when commercial submeter satellites were being launched, it was feared that much of the airborne surveying market would quickly dry up. This might well have been the case had it not been for the

development of new technologies and new approaches. The moment for progress was ideal, with several key factors arriving at the perfect time. The combination of the digital revolution, the removal of GPS restrictions, and the development of modern INS (inertial navigation systems) for direct georeferencing suddenly made aerial survey operations practical and profitable again. It also made the overflowing amounts of data produced more affordable, and their application in many new purposes more sensible.

The Demand for Results

A by-product of the race to deliver on these data needs is the demand for increasingly effective remote sensing tools capable of delivering ever more immediate results. Geospatial solution suppliers see this as a sign of a healthy industry and recognize the developmental and financial opportunities that come from being responsive to changing user requirements. Applanix, recognized early as a rapid-response solution provider by organizations such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), has begun serving the disaster-relief surveying market with a DSS RapidOrtho solution that encompasses new rapid response ortho products, each designed with specific speed and data precision goals.

Reaping the Rewards of Technology

Any organization that recognized the initial investment opportunity could potentially reap the rewards of technology and would find itself well positioned at the threshold of a new

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ore Effectively

eospatial Technology

As population growth and climate change become critical issues, the number of people at high risk of flooding is expected to rise dramatically over the next half century. Image: Courtesy of Flickr.com.

Geospatial companies are not alone in their rapid response market agendas. Numerous organizations, such as those involved with communications or robotics, are joining in the pursuit, some going so far as to specialize heavily in delivering specific emergency response technologies within singular geographic markets that experience cyclical envi-

ronmental misfortunes. The Center for RobotAssisted Search and Rescue at the University of South Florida, for example, is unique among academic institutions in that they have developed and hold on standby a cache of robots (both ground and aerial), sensors, and a team of specialists to assist with an emergency situation within hours.

Detailed Record of Events

Once the time for fear has fully passed, both the compilation of data produced plus the technology applied as remedy become the subject of study. The data
Typical product lifecycle and adoption curves. Depending on the conditions surrounding a product, its life cycle may last months or decades. Adoption rates vary depending on such things as recognized advantages, price and operational costs, substitutes, promotional marketing efforts, and risk. Image: Courtesy of Applanix Corp.

may eventually be applied to build better prediction and action models or to study the hourly progression of an event in incredible detail. At the very least, it will provide a durable and detailed record of events, the likes of which were never before possible. The fate of technological developments is somewhat more difficult to track. In simplest terms, most leading-edge technologies entering the market begin their product lifecycle positioned as a premium technology. Singular in purpose and design, unit market price meshes with specialized advantages. What takes place next can best be described as a downward filtration. While proven technologies may hold their position through further development and client brand insistence, competitive substitutes enter the market in due course, creating choices and trade-offs based on fundamental criteria (price, performance, etc.) One inescapable derivative of this process is that the highest performance standards established today eventually become tomorrows minimum expectations. To reach the stage where rapid-response ortho production could capture, orthorectify, and mosaic map-grade data for immediate GIS

Latest News? Visit www.geoinformatics.com

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application within hours took years of development. It is easy to imagine, however, that one day soon the advantages of this technology will permeate into far less critical applications. Foresters and town planners may grow increasingly accustomed to having the immediate access to data resources enjoyed by crisis centers. Without fanfare, leading-edge technology gradually becomes one among many competitive advantages or a product-differentiator footnote.

Something We Call Progress

Such may be the nature of growth. And such may be the nature of the market. How the work of the metaphorical invisible hand may periodically be seen within the economics of the geospatial industry could be the subject of much longer discussions in the future. And similarly, despite our best intentions, the altruism we feel every day, whether developing geospatial technology or using it, is arguably guided by the same Adam Smith altruism that guides Walmart and Microsoft, that is to say that any social benefits that have accrued are simply a by-product of players within the industry striving for reward. But

GPS supported INS provides highly accurate position and orientation for direct georeferencing of captured ground data. Image: Courtesy of Applanix Corp.

this is all part of a larger process taking place in our geospatial world that we like to call progress. To ignore the economics that fuels this machine is almost as dangerous as not fully capitalizing upon the exceptional endowment it grants.

Anthony Melihen (amelihen@applanix.com) holds a position in marketing communications, and technical writing at Applanix Corporation. For more information on the companys Integrated Inertial/GPS technology, visit www.applanix.com.

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Is Distance Dead?
About maps and.Distance in our Internet-age it is often heard we face the dead of distance. Location would no longer matter since we can obtain our goods via a web portal, mail or chat with the other side of the world without worrying about distance.

Of course we were able to phone to the other side of the world before but with our mobile phone this goes much easier, without worry about distance or location. The only problem might be time. Did you ever wake up because you were called by someone forgetting about time zones? Mobility has also increased due to an improve road network and cheap tickets. In Europe students are stimulated to spend part of their study in another country (the EU Erasmus programme). Thirty years ago it was special if you would follow a course at another university in your own country. Is distance dead? I wonder, but indeed distance is not always just distance. Borders have also their influence on distance, although this is changing rapidly with the disappearance of the borders as physical barriers. They somehow remain mental barriers. To illustrate, I'm now living tens year very close to a border and it took me several years to look equally on both sides of the border to obtain goods. At the beginning I would look only in one direction, instead of considering the shortest distance. Recently I visited the United States and for an appointment with my host I told him I would walk to their office from the hotel. Only two kilometres, so just a nice twenty minute morning stroll. No way, my colleagues insisted in picking me up be car. Here I learned that walking distance in North America is different from European walking distance. Over there it is as long as you can see the car. Distance and time are also closely related. If one travels from A to B the moment of the day does influence the travel time. During rush hours it takes more time to get into the city then out, and this changes from morning to evening. For some this resulted in an interesting optimization problem. Where do I position my ambulances and tow truck to be able to deliver optimal services? From the above it is obvious that their location will change during the day depending on the time of the day to get them as close

as possible to potential problem areas. To cover a certain distance within a certain timeframe will depend on the kind transport available. In GIS terminology, a simple buffer operation will not work because one has to consider the network in use (for instance being streets or rail). This brings back the concepts of time geography like potential path space.

Walking distance in North America is different from European walking distance. Over there it is as long as you can see the car.

Menno-Jan Kraak (1958) has a Doctors (PhD) degree in Cartography of Delft Technical University (1988). In 1981 he graduated in Cartography from Faculty of Geographical Sciences, Utrecht University (cum laude).He was (senior) lecturer in Cartography starting in 1983 at Faculty of Geodesy, Delft University of Technology. In 1996 he started at ITC as professor in Geovisualization. In 1998 an additional appointment followed as professor in New visualization techniques in Cartography at Department of GeoSciences, Utrecht University. Currently he is head of ITCs Geo-Information Processing Department. He is a member of the editorial board of several international journals in the field of Cartography and GIS.

From a cartographic perspective it would be interesting to have graphic representations available to map all these different kind of distances, and to be able to compare them. Interesting examples do exist like the maps of shrinking France that show the effect of the TGV on travel time from Paris, or the interactive London Underground maps where you can click on a station to see how distant other destinations are (remember this map itself does not exist in the Cartesian world anyhow). Even in a planning environment where maps are often indicative (Place instead of Space) and objects are often connected based on relations, and not necessarily by geographic distance challenging cartographic problems remain. So-called perception maps do exist indicating liked and non-liked areas, sometimes even according to the principle of cartograms. Diagrams representing the Internet showing connections between servers are well known. It seems there are still many kinds of distances to be mapped.

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Product review
Students at work with the Topcon GMS-2 during the Skilltrade-STC Hydrographic Surveying course.

Review Topcon GMS-2

Picture GIS
Geo-information provides an adequate description of the general lay-out of an area. It cannot, however, capture the truth like a photo or video camera can. On the other hand, manually referencing your photographs is a painstaking process. The Topcon GMS-2 offers a potential solution as it is a GPS receiver / controller with built-in camera, digital compass and GPS receiver. By Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk
Topcon GMS-2 mobile mapping GPS.

Camera
As mentioned, the GMS-2 has both a camera and a digital compass. The camera is mounted in front of the receiver in such a way that, with the receiver in a natural position, the lens points forward. The lens itself is very small and recessed, protecting it from shocks. The downside of a small lens is that every particle of dust on the lens will show up in the photograph. The camera itself is 1.3 megapixel, which is quite low resolution compared to modern digital cameras and camera phones. The maximum resolution equals 1280 x 1024, barely enough for full-screen viewing on a modern display. The default resolution selected by the camera when storing the photograph in survey mode is 160 x 120; this has to be reset for each photograph taken with TopPad. There are few controls on the camera and no flash, making it easy to operate. This makes it hard to operate, though, in disadvantageous circumstances such as darkness or with fast moving objects. During testing I found that

The GMS-2 can be used as a stand-alone

receiver using the onboard GPS patch antenna or with an external (geodetic) antenna connected to it. When used stand-alone it can either employ SBAS (WAAS / Egnos) or, in the USA, coast guard beacon corrections. It can also log raw GPS data which can then be post-processed in the office. In addition, the receiver can be used as controller with other GPS systems from Topcon. It can replace controllers such as the FC-100 and FC-200 in this manner.

Controller
The reviewed system consisted of a single receiver/controller without an additional antenna or receiver. The purpose of the review was to test the GIS capabilities of the receiver/camera combination. The receiver was operated using SBAS corrections only.

The receiver feels very robust and has a replaceable battery. However, no separate charger was supplied for the battery and the receiver was charged using a power cord directly connected to the receiver. Furthermore, with the unit off, the battery is still drained when the GPS board is switched permanently on, requiring regular recharging. One needs to get accustomed to the method of shielding the port covers on the GMS-2. Rubber covers are used that, at first, dont seem to fit. After some practice, however, they open and close without a problem. Something I still dislike on this type of controller is the lack of a (numeric) keypad. All data entry has to be done using the onscreen keyboard which covers almost a third of the screen and has tiny keys. Personally, I prefer to have at least a numeric keyboard with cursor keys.

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Number of channels Battery Interface Display Camera Dimensions (receiver / controller) Weight (receiver / controller)
GMS-2 particulars as specified by Topcon

50 (50 GPS, Glonass & SBAS satellites at L1) Replaceable internal battery Bluetooth, USB, SD card, external antenna 3.5 (240 x 320 QVGA touchscreen) 1.3 megapixel fixed focus lens W: 90 x L: 197 x D: 46 mm 0.7 kg

Part of an image taken with the internal camera (1.3 MP) and a similar image using a semi-professional 6 MP camera. Both images have been edited and scaled in a similar manner and are directly comparable.

under cloudy conditions, only slow-moving or stationary objects could be captured.

ESRI software, loading it takes some time: roughly a minute on this receiver. Moreover, a total of four toolbars are used which, together with the status bar, take up almost a third of the screen. That said, the software performs exactly as expected and behaves like other ESRI products. Surveys can be set up using the feature and attribute dialogs that are familiar to ArcGIS/ArcPAD users.

Compass
The built-in digital compass provides heading as well as pitch and roll, making it possible to keep the camera exactly level when taking a photograph. The compass is a so-called fluxgate compass, indicating magnetic north instead of true north. For a general indication of direction this is no problem, but do not expect miracles from it. Furthermore, a magnetic compass is influenced by magnetic and steel objects in its vicinity that, depending on the type of disturbing object and the distance from it, can cause deviations as large as tens of degrees.

Coupling Photograph to a Position

A downside to the current version of the software is that only shapes created on the receiver itself can store photo information. The method for storing the photo information is less than optimal. The photos are stored in a certain folder on the receiver with the shape file, including an attribute link to the bitmap file connected to the surveyed feature. After copying the shape file to the office computer, the attribute link will still reference the original folder on the GMS-2, requiring either a folder at the same location on the office computer or adjustment of all the references in the shape file. Furthermore, since the format used to store the photographs is bitmap instead of jpg, no position information is stored within the actual photograph. Other solutions store the position in

the so-called EXIF part of a jpg image, keeping position and image together. When storing a full resolution photograph (1280 x 1024), TopPad seems to lose the connection to the GPS receiver. The probable reason is that storing the image to the flash disk takes too much time. Resetting the receiver solves the problem, which does not occur at lower resolution. Finally, there seems to be no integration between the camera/receiver on the one side and the compass on the other. For example, the compass heading is not used to indicate the direction into which the photo was taken. This addition would be very useful when analyzing the imagery in the office.

Conclusion
As a receiver and/or controller there is nothing amiss with the GMS-2 apart from some minor nuisances that are not specific to this product. The integration of a camera, digital compass and GPS receiver is promising, and the GMS-2 could be a valuable piece of equipment when some of the issues mentioned in this review are ironed out. In particular, the quality of the camera and the integration of the images with position and heading need more attention. We naturally asked Topcon Europe Positioning B.V. to respond to our remarks. They answered as follows: Our TopPad Mobile GIS software has been updated in the meantime. This new release will come to the market in June 2007. At the International ESRI User Conference in June 2007 in San Diego, California, Topcon - as a Business Partner of ESRI - will introduce the new GMS-2 extension that runs on the ArcPad platform and gives every ArcPad customer access to the GMS-2. With this update, our customers are assured of a smooth workflow.
Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk (hlekkerkerk@geoinformatics.com) is a contributing editor of GeoInformatics and project manager information standards at IDsW as well as a freelance writer and trainer. For more information on this receiver: www.topcon.eu.

TopPad Software
The GMS-2 as reviewed came with TopPad survey software installed. This is an extension of ESRI ArcPad software. As seems the case with all

Shape file with geo-referenced image in Global Mapper software.

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Article

Safe and Convenient Use at Ground Level

Laser Scanning for Change Detection

Advances in laser scanning are opening up some interesting new applications in three-dimensional mapping. With recent developments in scanning technology and processing software, new systems are being developed to electronically map and monitor change with greater precision than previously possible. Here we will look at examples in the environmental, mining, construction and education sectors where the technology is addressing important safety, security, commercial and research requirements. By Graham Hunter

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anywhere. Surveyors can freely move around a site or along a route using a tripod-mounted laser scanner.

Unsafe Rock Structures

Tripod-based systems are fine for one-off mapping but it is a slow and therefore costly process and does not address the requirement for change monitoring. To broaden the scope of laser scanning, recent developments have looked at ways of speeding up data capture and the added portability of devices has led to a number of vehicle and even back-pack mounted systems. Such technology was used in a recent project to map part of the South Coast of England. The project, commissioned by New Forest District Council in partnership with the Channel Coast Observatory, employed laser scanning to monitor changes in coastal defence structures over time. A series of lasers mounted on a specially equipped Quad Bike scanned the coastal terrain capturing millimetre-accurate measurements to create a 3D model of the rock and soil surface. Laser scanning allows us to record changes in the rock structure that would be difficult and time consuming to detect using our existing surveying techniques, said Stuart McVey, Coastal Surveyor. When you also consider the speed at which the data is captured and the fact that we can remotely access unsafe or otherwise inaccessible parts of the rock structures, this technology gives us very valuable data and provides good value for money.

Dinosaurs
This type of stop and go laser scanning has all sorts of uses for 3D mapping, from construction site mapping to coastal surveys and research. More unusual uses include a European research project to trace the movements of dinosaurs by their footprints. The University of Manchester and Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona are using a scanner with integrated digital camera and satellite positioning to accurately record and locate individual footprints. In this case a portable Riegl LMS Z420i laser scanner is used that comprises a high performance long range 3D laser scanner, software and an integrated high resolution digital camera. The laser transmits a light pulse, from a known position and at a known angle, which is reflected off a surface or feature and bounced back to a receiver. Using the time taken for each individual pulse to be returned and the known value of the speed of light the system can automatically calculate the distance of the feature from the unit. From this data highly detailed and accurate 3D models can be produced. This project would simply not have been possible without the laser scanning system, said Dr David Hodgetts, Lecturer in Reservoir Modelling and Petroleum Geology, School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences at The University of Manchester. Due to the fragile environment and the sensitivity of the site we were not permitted direct contact and therefore all measurements had to be taken remotely. Laser scanning allowed the rapid, high resolution digital mapping of an otherwise inaccessible site.

Major Power Cuts

Even greater portability is offered by an innovative system that can be carried as a backpack. This has been developed to map overhead infrastructure such as power lines. Major power cuts are becoming a common occurrence both in Europe and North America and one cause is the increased vegetation growth rates, which are perhaps induced by global warming. Power companies have traditionally used

European research project involves tracing the movements of dinosaurs by their footprints.

Laser scanning has been widely used for

terrain aerial mapping with airborne LiDAR proving to be an ideal tool for applications such as flood plain mapping. However, airborne surveying does not provide the required accuracy or aspect for many engineering and environmental applications and this has required the development of special land-based systems. Most airborne LiDAR systems are not eye-safe at short range making it dangerous in populated areas. In addition, field of view is usually limited and the GPS/Inertial Navigation System (INS) is not effective when satellite visibility is obscured by vegetation or buildings. Laser scanners have therefore been developed for safe and convenient use at ground level. Manufacturers such as Austrian firm Riegl have pioneered these developments with highly portable scanners that can be used just about

Anglo American has installed SiteMonitor at a number of platinum and iron ore mines.

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Article

SiteMonitor records movements in the slope surface as small as 10mm with a distance range of up to 1000m. It records and analyses up to 8,000 measurements per second to create a detailed, accurate and continuous record of the slope profile. SiteMonitor can deliver real commercial benefits by allowing mining operations to be optimised; allowing greater extraction volumes through steeper slope profiles; something that is only possible with continuous monitoring.

Platinum
Anglo American has installed SiteMonitor at a number of platinum and iron ore mines. Anglo Platinum is the worlds largest primary producer of platinum, with a production target of 2.9 million ounces of refined platinum in 2006. Safety is a primary concern for the company whose operation comprises of 7 mines, 3 smelters, a base metals and a precious metals refinery. SiteMonitor is used at Anglo Platinums Potgietersrust Mine in South Africa. Traditionally we have used conventional survey methods to monitor slope stability of open pit slopes. This limited the size and number of locations we could survey and the frequency of survey, said Frans Benad, Section Surveyor. The combination of highly accurate laser scanning units and software specifically engineered for this application enables us to cover a larger area at more frequent intervals. Anglo Platinum is currently operating two Riegl LPM-2K Laser Scanners. These units are specifically designed for the automatic and manual long range profiling of surfaces, operating at distances up to 2,500 metres with an accuracy of 50 millimetres. The systems perform continuous, 24/7, remote scanning at locations determined by Anglo Platinums Geotechnical Rock Engineering team collecting hundreds of point measurements daily. The point cloud data collected by the laser scanners is automatically analysed using SiteMonitor software from 3D Laser Mapping. By comparing readings against base measurements the software can detect surface movement or slope deformations. SiteMonitor has significantly reduced the risk of injury to personnel, property and equipment, enabled higher production due to decreased downtime and reduced the resources required for ongoing safety monitoring. Commented Benad.

The vehicle mounted WireFinder system measures the position of telecom network assets, such as poles and wires.

airborne LiDAR to survey high voltage power networks however low voltage cables are too small and too close to the ground to be visible. Their size and proximity to both ground and vegetation make them vulnerable to damage therefore increasing the risk of network failure. This system instantly maps the proximity of vegetation to overhead cables. Special software automatically identifies potential conflict between cable and vegetation, determining the level of risk, backed up with images from an integrated digital camera. By maintaining accurate and up to date records of the infrastructure and nearby vegetation proactive maintenance can be scheduled and the risk and liability reduced.

StreetMapper and WireFinder

A similar system has been developed for mapping overhead telecom networks. In this case the vehicle mounted WireFinder system accurately measures the position of telecom network assets, such as poles and wires. The WireFinder laser scanner with its 360 degree field of view can capture 12,000 measurements per second, at distances of up to 300 metres with a repeatability of less than 10 millimetres. The system, which is mounted on the roof of a 4x4 or other suitable vehicle, is used while stationary, making the WireFinder solution significantly safer than existing systems where survey staff have to stand in the road while recording measurements. In other sectors there is an increasing demand for systems that can rapidly map infrastructure such as highways and this has led to some major developments in vehicle-based systems. Mapping in 3D at normal road speeds threw up some serious technical issues and 3D Laser Mapping formed an alliance with IGI mbH. The two companies spent one and a half years

tackling these technical issues and successfully developed a system now known as StreetMapper. Operating at speeds of up to 70 km an hour, laser surveys can be undertaken quickly and safely to create highly detailed picture of the road network and associated assets and features. The accuracy is such that the heights and positions of overhead wires as small as 3mm in diameter can be accurately recorded. StreetMapper can be used for a wide range of applications including road surface and safety inspections, landscape mapping, street asset recording, bridge height surveys and road width mapping for entire routes. Originally developed as a custom-fit system, the system has been further developed as a modular vehicle-mounted system. Suitable for fitting to a standard 4 wheel drive vehicle StreetMapper 2 allows surveying off road, extending the scope of use beyond the highway. With easy-fit rack mounting and a roof rack suitable for any 4x4, 3D Laser Mapping is able to ship the system to any location allowing StreetMapper technology to be used worldwide for the first time.

Mining Operations
Although portable laser scanning is proving to be an important innovation for many markets, some of the most important commercial developments for laser scanning have been in the mining sector. Here laser scanning is proving to be a tremendous asset in supporting mining operations through site monitoring and improving site safety. A system called SiteMonitor has been designed to provide accurate and repeatable measurements of surfaces and slopes in hazardous or inaccessible environments. The application was first developed for monitoring slope stability on old coal mine waste tips in South Wales, UK. Now the system is being adopted more widely in the mining industry.

Slope deformation
New laser scanning technology is also helping South Africas Kumba Iron Ore to improve the safety of iron ore extraction. Kumba Iron Ore is majority owned by Anglo American and a new Riegl LMS Z420i laser scanner is being used to monitor slope deformation at the Sishen Mine, an open pit operation with extraction dating

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Mapping, 3D-R1 allows 3D surveying to be carried out in dangerous or hazardous environments. Traditional scanning in hazardous situations often lead to blind spots due to restrictions in access but the RSV is moved by remote control from location to location. It can perform scans and video in areas that are otherwise not safe to enter. Even in safe environments, the RSV is a useful tool that can increase productivity by 75% be eliminating the need to manually set up scanners at each location. Being light and easy to use, 3D-R1 can also be used easily elsewhere and potential applications including tunnel surveys and the surveying of earthquake, fire or blast damaged buildings.

Real-world View
One of the most important aspects of developments in laser mapping is the rapid processing of the vast amounts of data generated from scanning itself. This improved processing is underpinning many of the new applications where traditional methods of data collection are regarded too slow and too inaccurate. The presentation of the data is also improving all the time with advances in visualisation and interpretation using GIS and 3D modelling software. So, the information provided by laser scanning provides an important new perspective, enhancing information systems with an accurate realworld view of both the natural and man-made environment. As long as man requires detailed information about the world that surrounds him technology will continue to develop and innovate in order to meet this demand. We already have laser scanners in aircraft, ground vehicles and even robots, what comes next could be down to you.
Dr Graham Hunter (graham@3dlasermapping.com), Managing Director of 3D Laser Mapping Ltd. For more information visit www.3dlasermapping.com.

Laser scanning is being used to monitor slope deformation in open cast mines, improving the safety of personnel and reducing risk in operations.

back to the 19th Century that achieved a record production of 28.5 million tonnes last year. The Riegl LMS Z420i laser scanner is specifically designed for the mining environment. The system comprises of a high performance long range 3D laser scanner, associated operating and processing software and an integrated and calibrated high resolution digital camera. The unit is rugged and fully portable and offers an unrivalled combination of wide field of view, high maximum range and fast data acquisition. The laser scanning system has a number of features that make it ideal for our environment and application. The scanner covers a broad area so even small failures can be detected and operates at a range of 800m. Laser scanning complements our existing slope monitoring equipment and adds an extra dimension to the monitoring network at Sishen; improving the safety of personnel and reducing risk in our operations said Glen Mc Gavigan of Kumba Iron Ores Geotechnical Services.

underground and one of the latest innovations is a laser scanning robot called 3D-R1. The idea of a Remote Sensing Vehicle (RSV) for mining was first conceived at the UKs Camborne School of Mines and that technology has been employed in the 3D-R1. Developed by Jobling Purser RSV LLP in conjunction with 3D Laser

Scanning Underground
Safety is a big concern in all mining operations and the use of laser scanning is not restricted to open cast mines. Surveying can be taken

The Sishen Mine, an open pit operation with extraction dating back to the 19th Century.

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Conferences & meetings

Hands-on Sessions, Classical Trainings and Other Study Forms

BE Conference 2007 All About Innov

Buddy Cleveland: Research does not only imply developing new techniques but also integrating existing techniques in areas that are relevant for Bentley Systems.

The Bentley BE Conference 2007 was held in the state where Bentley was founded: California. For the first time this event took place in the west of the United States, but this was of no influence to the number of visitors. About 2,000 people found their way to the Convention Center in Los Angeles. By Lambert-Jan Koops

maximised. The third aspect is innovation, bringing about solutions that can aid the user in working more effectively.

Cooperation and Exchange

Senior VP Bhupinder Singh went further into the topic of the keynote by Greg Bentley. He informed the audience about ProjectWise Navigator, developed by Bentley Systems. This product is capable of collecting all sorts of 2D, 3D and accompanying data and will become available via a Bentley Select update released in May. Flythroughs and walkthroughs are viewing options that ProjectWise Navigator offers for studying models. The software also enables detection of collisions and errors in the model and the analysis of alterations. For optimum communication Bentley Systems releases a free version of the product with limited functionality and aimed at viewing. This way there is no need for third parties in a project to obtain the complete software. Another point of attention was ProjectWise Passport. By using this Passport an end user can use a random version of the ProjectWise part anywhere in the world.

he keynote at the first day of the conference was all about innovation. According to CEO Greg Bentley this is an aspect not only of importance to the participants of the BE Conference, but also to Bentley Systems. This generation needs to undertake different infrastructural tasks. Because of the growth in world population and steadily increasing environmental problems changes need to take place. The problem however is that there is a shortage of well educated designers. One option is having these people work more hours, but this clearly is not the best solution. It would be better to increase productivity per person, a solution in which the software of Bentley Systems can play a role.

Greg Bentley used a simple graph to indicate why increase in productivity is an important subject for most Bentley users. Not the amount of work per hour was shown, which has in fact increased, but the commercial proceeds per working hour. Whereas in other industries this kind of proceeds has almost been doubled since 1990, its level remained the same or even went down when looking at architects and civil engineers. According to Bentleys CEO this can only be improved if changes take place in three areas. First of all architects and engineers need to make fully use of the software, naturally by following courses. Besides this compatibility and exchange within the software need to be

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ation
Bentley Electric XM
Bentley released its comprehensive engineering design solution to advance GIS for electric utilities. The solution includes two new products: Bentley Electric XM and Bentley Expert Designer XM. Bentleys solution for electric utilities supports new levels of efficiency in managing electric distribution networks throughout the plan, design, build and operate lifecycle. Enabled with configurable business workflows, the solution helps integrate mapping, facilities management, and design with work management and asset management workflows. Users can optimize designs, specify all materials and labour required to complete work requests, and have flexibility in managing labour and materials costs, all in the context of defined business processes. Bentley Electric XM delivers core mapping, network documentation, facility mapping, and facility management functions. In addition, it provides feature placement, editing, and viewing, supports directional network trace and highlight, validates feature placement against configurable business rules, and enables simple service delivery. Bentley Expert Designer XM extends Bentley Electric XM to add intelligent and optimized design and integrated estimating. It features rapid rules-based placement of facilities, provides an interactive catalog with drag and drop placement, automatically assigns compatible units (standard materials and labour), and facilitates design version and cost comparisons. Awards for the most interesting projects by users of Bentley software. Thirty-one projects in the professional portion of the program received BE Awards during the BE Conference in Los Angeles. In the academic portion of the program, BE Awards went to the Educator of the Year and to the top four student designs. The independent panel of BE Awards jurors, which included accomplished Bentley users and distinguished industry experts, selected the winning projects from more than 280 nominations. During his keynote address, Bentley COO Malcolm Walter announced the winners of a special new category of BE Awards Best Return on Innovation personally selected this year by Malcolm based on ROI data supplied by each of the nominees. The winners included: Bechtel, Dutch Ministry of Finance, GHAFARI Associates, and Kentucky Transportation Cabinet.

Design with Attributes

And the Winners Are

Logically there was also a keynote by Keith One of the well-known highlights of the BE Which Version for Which Application? Bentleys acquisitions and developments might Bentley. He claimed that the DGN file is getting Conference is the presentation of the BE make it difficult to determine which vermore important. According to the CTO of sion of an application works best with a Bentley Systems the relation between certain version of MicroStation or attributes and the graphic display is changProjectWise. To provide insight in the best ing. A designer used to start with the combinations Bentley Systems is working attributes to add the graphic display later on. on a so-called Compatibility Zone on Nowadays it is more common to first have Bentleys website. In due time it will be the design (sketch) ready which is afterwards possible for an end user to enter the verprovided with attributes. As a consequence sion of his platform to see which version more and more data are connected to one of the application is compatible. And vice single project. Because an increasing amount versa of course. Moreover Bentley of detail information is available the files are Systems wants to offer a service in future getting bigger and bigger. A DGN the size of whereby the customer needs to register a gigabyte is no longer an exception and his version of the software only once so the number of models that a single file can that the software developer can take this contain can amount to a couple of thouinto account when offering new versions sands. This is the reason why currently of the software. Bentley Systems focuses on supporting the 64 bit platform. At the moment MicroStation Code Name Athens is still a 32 bit program functioning properly Most new releases by Bentley Systems on a 64 bit platform, but unable to make use are in the area of applications. However of the benefits speed is bringing about. lots of work is being done regarding the Besides this Bentley Systems is exploiting platform software. Gradually the new verthe possibility of using Distributed DGNs sion with code name Athens is taking making optimum use of the double processhape. Some of its features are sors present in the next generation PCs. Conceptual Design, Dynamic Views and Bentley Systems will develop extra functions Geo Coordination. for publishing models, such as 3D animaWith Conceptual Design Bentley Systems tions. For this reason Bentleys CTO advised the audience to pay special attention to the Keith Bentley: The relation between attributes and the graphic display aims at the user group working with programs like Rhino and SketchUp. Though it performance of the graphics card instead of is changing. A designer used to start with the attributes to add the graphic display later on. will be possible to import the sketch modonly looking at processor speed.

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Greg Bentley: This generation needs to undertake different infrastructural tasks. Because of the growth in world population and steadily increasing environmental problems changes need to take place.

els from these packages, the company is aiming at full integration of the sketch process in the design phase. On platform level Dynamic Views will become available within the software of Bentley Systems. These views offer different displays of the same model. This type of display is already in use in other, competitive packages for architecture and mechanics. But since this capability is also released on platform level it is also available for thematic maps and other geospatially related matters. Bentley VP Styli Camateros showed the function Geo Coordination. First he told that there are different ways of indicating locations at this planet. There are several Geographic Coordinate Systems that contain coordinates with which a place on earth is determined. As coordinates dots are used on meridians, half circles with starting and finishing point in the Poles, and parallels of latitude which are parallel to the equator. This is a general and not perfect system for the earth. For this reason there are many variations to it. Camateros started counting and discovered over 1,000 projection methods all working in a different way. To relate these systems Bentley Systems is working on Geo Coordination. This function enables the end user to import and export spatial data from and to WMS, Google and GPS aids after which these data are converted to the desired coordinate system. It is also possible to indicate the spatial location of objects, such as buildings and roads, so that the software fits it in the coordinate system used. This prevents a building being at the right location but facing in the wrong way because it is turned. The demonstration by Camateros

showed flats, houses and other buildings not only in the right location but also correctly positioned in relation to each other. Geo Coordination is implemented on platform level. This means all applications are compatible without the need for an implementation in each product.

RFID and Remote Video

Bentley Systems is an R&D company and Buddy Cleveland, senior VP Applied Research, showed the activities of the enterprise in this field. Research does not only imply developing new techniques but also integrating existing techniques in areas that are relevant for Bentley Systems. An example is connecting several devices for the real-time determination of geo locations to ProjectWise. Exploiting the possibilities of RFID and remote videos on location are also currently of interest to the R&D department. By far the most interesting thing to see was the digital pen and paper, still under development. The paper of this combination is provided with small dots, so-called microdots. The pen is provided with a reader so that the connected software can exactly determine the location of the pen point. When a digital drawing is printed on paper it is possible to put notes and remarks on it. These notes and remarks are registered by the software and entered in the digital version of the drawing.

Geospatial Developments
At the moment Camateros and his colleagues are in the process of developing Bentley Map. This is the follow-up of Bentley Geographics, which was the first step in the geospatial area,

but in fact nothing more than a toolkit. Bentley Map will probably be released in August and is supposed to be a real application. The databases are upwards compatible so that Geographic users can easily move over to Map. Users who like to develop can make use of Geospatial Extension, equipped with features already present in Bentley Geographics. It is striking to see that for the development of both products the R&D departments of the Geospatial and Civil group have been merged. This is remarkable since Autodesk, an other big CAD player, decided to put Civil and Building together. According to Bentleys Civil department this has to do with the extent to which the competitive products are used. Bentleys software as such is not particularly meant for developing constructional works and other relatively small-scale objects but more related to the geo side of the story instead of building. There is another aspect in which the way of developing changes in the world of Bentley. The third party developers will get a different task because of the features that will become available in Bentleys Geospatial suite. Instead of developing functions or building applications they will get local tasks. Not particularly the conversion of languages but adapting the workflow will get full attention. This last aspect is different for every country and demands local knowledge that can be provided by third party developers.
Lambert-Jan Koops (lkoops@geoinformatics.com) is contributing editor to GeoInformatics. Surf to www.bentley.com for more information.

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Military Leaders Have Always Sought the Best Information Abo

Could the British Have Won at Yorkt

The victory of the Americans and French at Yorktown, Virginia, on October 19, 1781, secured the independence of the United States and was a tribute to their ingenuity and perseverance. For General Charles Lord Cornwallis, the British commander, it was an admonition against going into battle without adequate geographical information and intelligence. Information we today call geospatial intelligence or GEOINT. By Bruce Heinlein
understood Yorktowns suitability as a fortress. The city had boomed with the advent of the tobacco industry, but was now in decline. Norfolk and Portsmouth had clearly surpassed Yorktown as ports. And while Yorktown had 300 homes and some docks, the cliff the town stood upon completely blocked potential British naval support of the army. Likewise, the York River was wide at Yorktown, and while warships could anchor there, an escape attempt across the river faced significant challenges from the currents. And finally, while the town offered a small frontage for the British to defend, that frontage and the ravines leading out of the town limited avenues for breakout attempts. Thus, the geography and environment of the site were almost completely unsuitable for a substantive defense. The only argument favoring Yorktown was that access to the river and a defensible line should have allowed the sheer force of the Royal Navy and British Army to prevail. The British fleet was expected to control access to the great Chesapeake Bay and thereby Yorktown. The army under Lord Cornwallis could outfight any small force the Americans might throw against it. This argument was wrong in both assumptions.

Strategic Mobility Lost

A painting of Yorktown prior to the battle. Credit: National Park Service, Colonial National Historical Park, Yorktown Collection.

ilitary leaders have always sought the best information about their surroundings. Obviously commanders want to know about their opponents: their strength, location, and ability to maneuver and fight. The terrain, the obstacles to movement and the dangers of the environment: swamps, rivers, water currents, or an areas tendency for bad weather, are equally important. How then did the British become trapped in this small port at a bend in the York River?

A Costly War for Both Sides

The road to Yorktown for Lord Cornwallis was circuitous, but with no indication that it would result in disaster. The British had fought and won numerous victories throughout the Southern Campaign of the American Revolution which had been costly for both sides. The British won major victories at Savannah and Charlestown, and hoped to cut off support for the Revolutionary cause and bolster Loyalist support for the Crown.

But the disaster at Cowpens in January 1781, which inflicted a very unexpected and severe blow to Cornwallis, robbed the British of a sizable part of its force in the South. Then, two months later, near victory for the Americans at Guilford Courthouse further weakened the British. Nevertheless, after the battle Lord Cornwallis thought significant resistance in the Carolinas was over, and he decided to venture to Virginia. His army moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, for resupply and then into Virginia. Opposing the British in Virginia was the General Marquis de Lafayette and a small American force. As Cornwallis advanced, Lafayette withdrew to the north. But instead of chasing them, Cornwallis chose to rest at Yorktown and wait for naval supplies. This decision set the stage for disaster.

Unfortunately for the British, a French fleet arrived off the Chesapeake in August, less than a month after Lord Cornwallis, and blocked British access to the bay. A British fleet arrived
General Charles Lord Cornwallis Credit: National Park Service, Colonial National Historical Park, Yorktown Collection.

An Unsuitable Defensive Location

Although records do not indicate why Lord Cornwallis chose Yorktown, he completely mis-

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ut their Surroundings

own with better GEOINT?

The Surrender at Yorktown. Lord Cornwallis deputy surrenders to General Washington. Painting by American artist John Trumbull. Credit: Photo courtesy of Architect of the Capitol.

in September to find the Chesapeake in French control. The two fleets fought an inconclusive naval battle that yielded strategic results: the French fleet returned to the blockade, and the British fleet withdrew to New York. British strategic mobility had melted away. Worse, the British commander had no idea that the bulk of the Continental Army, led by General George Washington himself, was moving to Yorktown for a strategic battle. This movement from New York to Virginia was the best deception and greatest strategic mobility effort by the Americans during the war. The bulk of the American Army arrived in Virginia before Cornwallis headquarters was aware the Americans were moving. Lord Cornwallis intelligence failed him, and he was now facing the majority of the American Army which was soon joined by a French Army. The combined allied force quickly besieged the town. The British were now trapped.

a dire situation. His only remaining hope was that the reinforcements promised by General Clinton, the British Commander-in-Chief, would arrive soon. They did not. As the armies faced each other at Yorktown, both sides built and reinforced siege lines. The siege began and British casualties mounted. The confines of the small hamlet quickly became apparent as there was no shelter from the cannon fire except the small beach below the cliff. British naval gunfire was useless in support of ground forces. The British tried to escape across the York River, but currents and a storm prevented the escape. Washington tightened the siege lines and the British became more cramped. Approximately two weeks after the siege began, Lord Cornwallis forces surrendered.

In the end, a third of the British Army in North America surrendered at Yorktown. Negotiations for peace continued, but the war was over. The most professional army in the world, with a long string of military victories in the American Revolution, was suddenly defeated and the war lost, in part because of poor geospatial information and intelligence.

Importance
Geospatial information and intelligence, GEOINT, is always important. History, with its many examples of military commanders failing to heed its warnings, reminds us how crucially important GEOINT is, and the profession and the craft that provide it.
Bruce Heinlein (Bruce.B.Heinlein@nga.mil) is a

A Failure to Use Intelligence Wisely

The strategic success of General Washington and the combined Franco-American forces at Yorktown was greatly aided by the failure of the British to use geospatial and intelligence information wisely. The defensive site at Yorktown paled in comparison to others locally available. Also, Cornwallis received intelligence late on the movement of the large Continental army from New York. If he had received this intelligence earlier, Lord Cornwallis might have broken out of Yorktown and escaped.

manager in the Joint Operations Integration Office of the NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) and a retired US Air Force Officer. He commanded the 67th Information Operations Group and the 94th Intelligence Squadron. He has published research on the Battle of Yorktown and worked for the National Park Service at the Yorktown National Battlefield . An abridged version of this article first appeared in the March/April 2007 issue of Pathfinder published by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency. Special thanks to Paul Hurlburt, Editor.

Would Reinforcements Arrive?

British supremacy over both the land and waters around Yorktown had been neutralized. The poor geography of Yorktown, once seemingly unimportant, was now critical to Lord Cornwallis defense. Cornwallis had already begun to realize that failed geographical and intelligence information had helped put him into

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Part 3: The Geoid

Practical Geodesy

Worldwide geoid model (in meters) relative to the GRS80 ellipsoid. (source: www.gfz-potsdam.de)

In the previous articles we saw that the earth, considering its shape, could be compared to a potato or, more scientifically, the geoid. It was best approximated by the ellipsoid. But what is this geoid, the definition of which is: The equipotential surface at mean sea level? By: Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk

he definition says, in short, that if the sea were not influenced by the tides, wind and waves, and if the entire earth were covered with it, its level would represent the geoid. At a smaller scale we can imagine this as the surface of a small, sheltered lake; the water will distribute itself over the lake and, as such, form a level that corresponds to the local gravity.

Gravity Potential
The important part of the geoid definition deals with the gravity potential. Most of us will have learned at some time in our

academic career that the average gravitational acceleration equals roughly 10 m/s2. The actual gravitational pull, however, depends on both the masses and the distance between two objects. A larger distance will thus result in gravity being less. On top of a mountain the gravity will thus be slightly lower than at sea level. Another aspect is the mass of the earth: the more mass between the object and the center of the earth, the higher the gravity. In general, water has a lower density than rock and therefore less effect on gravity. But different types of rock have different impacts

on local gravity. We should therefore distinguish between the density, which influences gravity, and the actual shape of the earth.

Impact of the Geoid on Geodesy

Since the geoid equals the local gravity field, and this in turn depends on local circumstances, it does not form a mathematical surface but instead changes from location to location. In the previous article we saw that there are many ellipsoids (or, better, horizontal datums), but there is only one geoid. When we measure height with a GPS receiver we always obtain height relative to the

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ellipsoid. If we use a level instrument to determine height (differences), these are always related to the geoid (orthometric height). Therefore, if we want to integrate or compare GPS and leveled heights, we need to know the local difference between the ellipsoid and the geoid.

2002. This project employs two satellites that travel the same trajectory with a small distance between them. They can determine the gravity field / geoid to within a centimeter.

Geoid Model and GPS Geoid Models

The ellipsoid is a mathematical surface the size and shape of which can be determined with relative ease. Since the geoid varies with local circumstances, gravity measurements need to be taken for an accurate determination. The determination of absolute gravity is very difficult. Determining gravity differences is less difficult but still not easy, especially at sea. A number of expeditions using submarines were undertaken between the 1920s and the 1940s, but the information they gathered was fragmented. With the launch of Sputnik in 1957 this changed. Soon after the launch, scientists discovered small variations in its orbit which seemed to be correlated with the gravity field of the earth. The first, coarse models of the geoid were developed. The models were improved upon, but with the introduction of carrier phase GPS systems such as RTK dGPS, they were found to be not precise enough. For this reason, extensive gravity measurement campaigns have been carried out from the 1990s on. In order to obtain a good understanding of the entire geoid, the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment, GRACE, was started in The geoid plays an important role in the accurate determination of height using GPS. Depending on the location in the world, the difference between the WGS84 ellipsoid and the geoid can amount to 100 meters. Differences regarding Relation between the geoid and the ellipsoid with GPS surveys. local ellipsoids are usually small- H = orthometric (geoid) height; h = ellipsoid height; N = ellipsoid-geoid er, for example within the separation; h = ellipsoid height difference from GPS. Netherlands the difference is at (source: staticfree.info - adapted) most approximately one meter. Every GPS receiver has a coarse geoid model A more common method is the calculation of built into it, enabling it to calculate height a correction grid. The receiver then uses the relative to the geoid or mean sea level. This positions of base and rover to determine into model is not precise enough, however, for which grid cell they fall and applies the accurate height determination. corresponding difference to the height. The With carrier-phase GPS it is not the absolute accuracy of such a model depends on both height that is important but the difference the size of the grid cell used and the local between two points: base and rover. The variation of the geoid. geoid difference between these two points depends on both the local geoid and the distance between the two points. The smaller Another aspect is the mass of the the distance between base and rover, the smaller the potential error. earth: the more mass between the

Practical Application of the Geoid Model

object and the center of the earth, the higher the gravity.

When using GPS for height determination, the geoid model needs to be taken into account. Usually the base station height is referenced to WGS84. The rover knows the coordinates, and thus the height, of the base station. Based upon this knowledge the receiver can, using the geoid model, determine the difference between the geoid height at the base and rover positions. This difference is then applied to the WGS84 height as determined from the range measurements at the rover. The method used to correct for the geoid differs from receiver to receiver. For some countries a mathematical model describing the geoid-ellipsoid differences is available. Such a Dutch geoid model (De Min, 1996) relative to Bessel 1841 and the corresponding model will generally give gravity measurements (source: www.rdnap.nl). the best results.

Conclusion
The geoid is, for many people, an abstract concept. When performing accurate carrierphase GPS measurements, however, it is of the utmost importance to have a good grasp of the geoid. The main problem is that errors are relatively small and thus hard to detect in a practical situation. A good method for checking for geoid errors is to begin each set of GPS measurements on a benchmark lying at a considerable distance from the base. Taking the degradation in precision into account, the average height of the benchmark should be found correctly. Any systematic error in the average height is an indication of either incorrect height of the GPS antenna or the geoid-ellipsoid separation.
Huibert-Jan Lekkerkerk (hlekkerkerk@geoinformatics.com) is a contributing editor of GeoInformatics and project manager information standards at IDsW as well as a freelance writer and trainer.

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Geodata Good Enough to Use?

The Big Guys Are Interested in 1Spa

Its remarkable to see how big organisations like Oracle, Autodesk, Intergraph, HP and the OGC show so much interest in the world of thought, and the products, of 1Spatial.

In 2007 1Spatial, formerly known as Laser-Scan, attracts important partners. Next in line to Oracle are not only Autodesk, Google, HP, the OGC, but also Tele Atlas and Intergraph who are interested in this British geo-think-tank. 1Spatial may continue to be a specialist company with a suite of very specific products that deal with spatial data quality (based on open standards and interoperability), but suddenly the world at large is taking notice. By: Remco Takken

he organisation that opened their doors for the 1Spatial Conference on May 2nd and 3rd; Ordnance Survey Great Britain in Southampton stands, according to Vanessa Lawrence, CE of Ordnance Survey at the beginning of the chain of location intelligent specialists. She continued: just like everyone else in this hall, we are aware of the fact that location lies at the core of most decisions. As early as the first lecture of the first day of the conference with the theme Fit For Purpose, Lawrence summarized the essence in an amazingly short sentence: just good enough is good enough. 1Spatial CEO Mike Sanderson didnt let this bring him down. On the contrary, he made it clear that by using the thinnest possible streams of information, sooner or later machines will be able to talk to machines. Oracles David Pearson agreed with this: computers will tell other computers what to do.

FDO (Feature Data Objects) as an entrance bridge between their Radius product suite and the Open Source Community (OSGeo). Zeiss told his audience that he sees Open Source as some sort of box where all standardised and crystallised technology should be available for free. In Southampton Zeiss addressed the field force, workers out in the field who are still invisible when it comes to policy making within an organisation. With Web 2.0-technology, which most of you know through the Wikipedia on the web, its going to be very easy to update newly acquired knowledge directly from the field. This way the real workers will be heard more easily, while the organisation as a whole can profit from their knowledge.

Open Geospatial Consortium

A striking speaker at the 1Spatial event was Open Geospatial Consortium chairman and CEO David Schell. 1Spatial recently became Chair of the OGC Data Quality Working Group, so there was an obvious link. However, 1Spatial has been involved in OGC initiatives for over 10 years now. Schell spoke about the

Autodesk
The presence of Autodesk-prominent Geoff Zeiss undoubtedly has a lot to do with the fact that recently 1Spatial started supporting Autodesks

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tial
Schell would like to see that science would continue to build its models, but that media like Google Earth will create awareness among the masses. How do we organize ourselves to make an absolute iron-clad statement to address both to Mr Gore and Mr Bush? Survey Great Britain before he went to Google, where hes passing through the evangelical message that: it is our goal to organise -geographically- the worlds information and make it universally accessible and useful. Time Magazine traditionally has its person of the year. In 2006 it was proclaimed that it was everybody. A unique situation, which was possible thanks to the mass amounts of user generated content of YouTube, MySpace, Wikipedia and of course Google. Parsons clearly found a way to deal skilfully with the lesser value of Google Earth for professional users. An aerial photograph as used by Google of Schiphol Airport in the Netherlands turned out to be a picture of a scale model, with huge human beings walking around it. Is our data useful? Is it fit for purpose? We have had 200 million downloads since 2005. Admitted: we, Google, are users of geo data. And for Googles purposes a photograph with a good resolution is more important than its date. The Google lecture was spiced with nice anecdotes concerning the very beginnings of Mash-ups, which reportedly began with the

SOA on Steroids
There were also some concerns for the near future in the geospatial world, ventilated by Schell. Theres a great deal of new technology around us, which outruns our ability to use it. Theres a tendency not to look back, but it just confuses people. Think about the net centric infrastructure, its SOA on steroids. Then theres the Google revolution: we better integrate KML and GML. Fortunately Google came in and shows concern with harmonisation. Microsoft came into the OGC; Oracle is there for years now. What worries me is that we will have to do it so fast. Then theres what I call the consumer phenomenon. Theres some confusion going on within the OGC concerning our deep technology tradition versus the easy-use lightweight measuring. There got to be a way to mix the new wave of map images. I would also like to mention the cost of legacy data made fit for purpose. It is going to be an expensive endeavour when our old machines arent there anymore to read our old data. To the end of his list of worrisome concerns, Schell made a sharp observation, which also put his own position as a chairman of the OGC in perspective: I would like to state that theres too much optimism in reference to liabilities. We made the standards, all right. But one day someone might get killed through an application using the OGC standards. All hell will break loose at our end.

need for the OGC, the importance of which he found of equal value as Galileos telescope. The OGC created a new lens, and a new scope. Of course one needs to come up with an example to prove it. Take climate change. A lot of models dont talk together. The stream of information is a 1000 per cent eclectic and heterogeneous. This field is more in need of integration than any other. Schell: Geospatial and GIS is just another form of data acquisition and it has to do with the integration of information, putting together different types of information. So what is it doing in a boutique-environment, owned by a few companies that are completely closed from IT mainstream? According to Schell, one of the most important events of 2006 was when Google came into the OGC. What the OGC has been doing for the last 15 years, it was to make us ready for this year. The market was hiding under a rock. The traditional vendors couldnt do it. Google has the ability to harvest enough, not necessarily perfect, but enough, information to make you aware.

Google
Ed Parsons is a geospatial veteran who has worked for OGC-Chairman and CEO David Schell. Google has the ability to harvest Autodesk and Ordnance enough, not necessarily perfect, but enough, information to make you aware.

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An attentive audience for David Schell: Think about the net centric infrastructural, its SOA on steroids.

hacked site Housingmaps.com. This site used Google Maps with housing information. Parsons: When we were able to tax the added value of that mash-up to each original site, we immediately opened the API of Google Maps. All thanks to some inventive hackers.

data formats, and standards are anything but standards. Integration means that we can access, understand, migrate, check quality, cleanse, aggregate, transform, validate, synchronize and move our data without problems.

Common European Framework Standards Need Revision

Luckily enough it was not all about big names and big companies. Brendan Soustal, a young Australian GIS-specialist tore the house down by his hilarious presentation of the evidence that standard measures of American railroad tracks had their origin in the wheel axes of Roman two-horse chariots. Apparently wheel makers and decision makers have never asked a question concerning the standard. Standards arent something you should take for granted; they can and must be updated once in a while. I think its a crazy situation that the space of two horses asses is still measured as the ideal size for a 21st century train wagon. Ingrid Vanden Berghe, CEO and Surveyor General of mapping agency NGI in Belgium explained how her mapping agency was preparing for INSPIRE. Already in 2001 we were aiming at creating a seamless GIS, and we are preparing the NGI to contribute to the NSDI and ESDI initiatives within INSPIRE. Vanden Berghe went on to show how a generalisation tool like Radius Clarity was used, and the validation process (with Radius Studio). Ordnance Surveys Keith Murray reminded all attendees of the fact that from May 15, 2007, INSPIRE was to become European law in his speech on data integrity needs from local data quality to European ESDIs (European Spatial Data Infrastructure).

work. Success depends on selected and widely implemented standards. We embrace and engage in the Open Source Community and Open Technology. Furthermore we work ever closer with Oracle. Stickler went on to explain how the 1Spatialproducts, Radius Topology (for rule-based geometric cleaning and consistency) and Radius Studio (for finding business rules and automatically fixing errors in geodata) already function within Oracle Spatial. He went on to announce the support for Oracle Spatial with the Radius Vision product (Topological Editing and Management) and explained the vision for the adoption of Oracle within the Radius Clarity product (for data generalisation). The latest version of Studio will be totally integrated with Autodesks Feature Data Objects (FDO). Furthermore there will be a dashboard for the presentation of data quality, meant for non-specialists. This health check indeed looks like a cars dashboard on the PC screen. This seems to be a popular item to convince managers. Now with this new version, Radius Studio is ready for the rest of the world, claimed Stickler. Also, he announced the imminent release of a new product, Radius Sentry: the first version due in October 2007. Its an Oracle extension for the implementation of geometric corrections, based on user-defined rules. This product will show some overlap with the existing Radius Topology solution, but with one big difference. Radius Sentry will run on top of Oracles own topology extension model, for users who chose that solution. Version 1, Stickler explained, will simply provide a data loading function, with subsequent versions allowing for editing.

World of Thought
Its remarkable to see how big organisations like Oracle, Autodesk, Intergraph, HP and the OGC show so much interest in the world of thought, and the products, of 1Spatial. The specific solutions that 1Spatial has to offer, like data generalisation, the cleaning of data sets and the measuring of data quality will continue to be niche-solutions in a small market. Well, that is until one of the big boys decides that all data worldwide will be validated with 1Spatials tools. Who wouldnt want to have Google as a client?
Remco Takken (rtakken@geoinformatics.com) is a

Generic Data
Not all lectures were given by cracks from the geospatial world. More and more people from the mainstream IT world come to recognise that spatial data quality issues might be applicable to normal data, too. Bert Oosterhof, European CTO at Informatica, talked about the crossover between generic data and spatial data. His organisation deals with non-spatial data quality, and in hooking up with 1Spatial, tries to broaden its base, essentially offering a data quality and integration programme. Oosterhof came with a near-to-complete list of requirements for data integration, which also makes sense for it spatial counterpart: 80 per cent of data is stored in unstructured

sooner or later machines will be able to talk to machines

1Spatial Radius Products

This need to share data was picked up by 1Spatial Product Director Graham Stickler with the question of how we could know when data is fit for purpose. Of course he neatly fitted in a little plug for 1Spatial expert tools, but his message also lends to a broader perspective. We need to have a common frame-

contributing editor of GeoInformatics. For more information visit www.1Spatial.com.

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Buried Infrastructure as Prerequisites for Development of a Civ

Geolocating the Underworld Maze of

For eight millennia is mankind using buried infrastructure as prerequisites for development of a civilisation. From ancient clean water and safe disposal of sewage our society has added enormously to this infrastructure, particularly to cater for our modern desire for energy and telecommunications. Therefore the utility companies in the UK have decided to enhance and integrate existing legacy asset information with dynamically acquired accurately geo-referenced data and to get this unseen maze of pipes and cables beneath our feet accurately recorded and mapped. By Jo Parker
to map their new assets, information on legacy services which may have been installed decades earlier by a predecessor organisation may be inaccurate or even non-existent. Pipes in older cities may be over 150 years old. Poor mapping techniques used at the time of installation and the practice of recording the pipes location relative to a physical feature that may no longer exist means the exact locations of many of todays networks are unknown. As a result the only way to reliably identify the accurate position of any buried service is to excavate a trial hole. Current surface location and detection techniques are of limited use, being both unreliable and slow to operate. Utilities are faced with the continuing need for high levels of access to an increasingly congested underground environment, with little or no real knowledge of it, and the inevitable costs. As a society, the impact of this work on people and the environment continues to grow, with an increasing recognition of the need to mitigate its effects, evidenced by Landfill Tax, the Aggregate Levy and the Traffic Management Act.

Economic Disruption
The direct cost of trenching and reinstatement work in UK highways for utilities is in excess of 1.5 billion per year, part of which is attributable to dry holes (plant or equipment not found) and damage to third party assets which is estimated to be as high as 150 million. Large though they are, direct costs are significantly less than the societal costs such as delays to road users, disruption to businesses and environmental damage which may be as high as 5 billion per year. These costs will continue to rise unless better information and more effective technologies can be made available to those doing the work. Today there is a boom in cable laying. The Government is actively promoting the use of broadband and the fibre optic cables required for this are vast. Today there is over 3 million km of fibre optic laid under the streets of the UK with 60,000 new connections each week. On the other side, many utilities are reaching the end of their design lives. National Grid, for example, has a programme to replace all their iron mains within 30 meters of properties over the next 30 years. Thames Water will replace over 1600 km of iron mains in London over the

Utility plan for a highway improvement scheme or an underground labyrinth?

Buried Asset Records

In the UK there are currently over 4 million kilometres of buried pipes and cables providing utility services. These are a combination of telecommunications, water, gas, sewerage, electricity and drainage. It is estimated that every year, on average, 1.5 million holes are dug in UK highways and footpaths by utilities in order to install new services, or repair and maintain existing ones. Over the past 25 years, the UK has seen an increase in traffic of 72 per cent, with an increase in cars on the road of 14 million from 10 million in 1972. In addition the amount of freight carried on the roads has increased by 69 per cent since 1980. Latest Government figures forecast that road traffic will increase by about 40 per cent over the next 20 years. Congestion is an everyday part of our lives and has many causes. Busy

roads are very sensitive to small disturbances, such as accidents, weather conditions, traffic volume and road works. Any unnecessary disturbance should be avoided. However, working on apparatus in the street has never been an easy task for utilities. Every time a hole is dug in the road, it impacts on traffic and the local environment, and carries the risk of hitting and damaging other utilities buried plant and equipment. The highways authorities themselves own extensive cable and pipe networks used for powering streetlights, traffic lights and other highway signs as well as for road drainage. Records of different utilities assets have been kept but may be in different formats such as paper, microfiche and digital and may be incompatible between the various companies. Even where a utility uses the latest techniques

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ilisation.

Pipes and Cables

In addition, a network was funded which has been used to establish a web site for the programme and organise regular seminars to disseminate the findings from the programme and collect industry views to inform future research directions. Further details of the programme can be found on the web site. The first project investigated the Raster utility data will have to be transformed into digital vector form. feasibility of several novel approaches alongside enhanced next five years. existing approaches to be combined into a Growth in the economy, the introduction of single multi-modal unit which would locate, competition into utility services and increasing identify and condition assess buried assets. customer demand for essential services has These techniques include developing ground brought with it a greater number of excavations probing radar, acoustic and electro-magnetic in the streets in order to supply these services. techniques as well as considering the interThe increase in the number of utilities licensed action of the utility with the surrounding soil to lay mains and cables within our streets brings to develop tools which can both operate with it the increased potential for conflict from the surface and through in pipe sysbetween the utilities and a greater need for tems. readily accessible accurate records. There is also The second project is developing low cost a need to develop better ways to display the detectable labels which can be affixed to information as utility plans become so complipipes, cables and ducts and which can be cated it is difficult for site operatives to identify remotely interrogated from a surface based what they will actually find below the ground. unit to give information on the location and Interestingly this problem is not limited to the nature of the asset. UK. Countries in Europe, USA and increasingly in The final two projects have laid the foundaAsia report that they are suffering from probtion for a further project funded by the DTI lems with locating and accessing their buried Department of Trade & Industry, Visualising utilities and the disruption that causes particuIntegrated Information on Buried Assets to larly in urban areas. Reduce Streetworks (VISTA). oped to display the information to digging teams and network designers. The work will include field trials to confirm issues and trial solutions.

Mapping and Positioning

The research carried out by the University of Nottingham through their IESSG - Institute of Engineering Surveying and Space Geodesy will develop a prototype positioning system which can deliver 3D absolute co-ordinates to centimetre accuracy, using local transmitters such as Locatalites, Inertial Navigation Systems (INS), Leicas Smartstation, commercially available GNSS technology and GNSS simulators developed by the IESSG. The accuracy, availability and reliability of satellite based positioning are very dependent on the number of tracked satellites and their spatial geometry. One of the limiting factors in using GPS is the requirement of having direct line of sight with the satellites themselves and the GPS receiver. Ideally, the GPS receiver should see at least 5 satellites to allow On-The-Fly ambiguity resolution to take place. Most of the utility mapping required will be in built up areas where line of sight to a sufficient number of satellites is not always possible. In addition the presence of trees as well as buildings can cause masking issues as well as introducing multipath errors, i.e. interference caused by the signal reflecting from a number of surfaces. This part of the project will research various means of improving the position availability, integrity and precision through a GPS based system augmented with other systems such as Galileo, GLONASS, INS and Locatalites.

Mapping the Underworld

The UKs EPSRC - Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council announced in 2004 that it would establish a programme as an initial attempt to tackle these issues. It organised an Ideas Factory, whereby invited academics, industrialists and EPSRC got together in the autumn of 2004 to review the problems and agree priority research topics. Out of this a 1 million research programme was identified with four projects funded: Buried asset location, identification and condition assessment a multi-sensor approach Enhanced Methods of Detection of Buried Assets Mapping and Positioning Knowledge and Data Integration.

VISTA
This project, lead by UKWIR - UK Water Industry Research brings together the University of Nottingham and the University of Leeds as well as 19 other organisations including various utility companies, highways organisations, professional organisations, utility contractors, consultants and survey companies. The research for this project focuses on the enhancement and integration of existing legacy asset information together with dynamically acquired accurately georeferenced data in the street. Novel techniques will be devel-

The VISTA vision.

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Article

Data Integration
The University of Leeds is investigating the various data issues related to buried asset records and is currently developing a schema which can be used to allow organisations to access varied digital records via the web. In order to allow other media to be easily included, additional research is investigating how raster data can be converted in to vector. Finally the Leeds team is considering how accuracy can be displayed to allow the users of asset information to be aware of the confidence the owning organisation has in the data.

The Future
Traffic Management Regulations are likely to require all utilities to improve the information they currently hold about their buried assets. This has been supported by the results of a review of the current process carried out recently by the NUAG - National Underground Asset Group a group of stakeholders from utility companies, local authorities, contractors, Government Departments and industry organisations which was established in 2005. Its role is to fully represent all industries view to support the Department for Transports decision making associated with the Traffic Management Act. Acting under the Departments governance the group is currently developing and implementing standards on recording, storing and sharing underground asset data across Great Britain. The research described above will facilitate this and allow the UK to significantly improve managing of buried assets as well as help ensure that any excavation carried out is minimised.
Jo Parker (jo@watersheduk.com) is an independent consultant in the field of project management and asset management for the utility sector. Further information on the VISTA project can be found at www.comp.leeds.ac.uk/mtu/vista.htm and www.vistadtiproject.org. Also relevant on this subject are www.epsrc.ac.uk, www.dti.gov.uk, www.mappingtheunderworld.ac.uk, www.ukwir.org, www.nottingham.ac.uk/iessg and www.nuag.co.uk. VISTA team members surveying buried utility assets.

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Product News

Applanix Unveils 39 MegaPixel Airborne Imaging Solution

Applanix introduced its most advanced medium format airborne directly georeferenced imaging solution, the Digital Sensor System (DSS) 439. The DSS 439 incorporates the latest advances in direct georeferencing and 39 MegaPixel CCD imaging technology, featuring faster data productivity capabilities, advanced optics, plus TrueSpectrum Image Chain Analysis support for the generation of high-resolution color and color infra-red (CIR) ortho-rectified imagery. The DSS 439 is built using a rugged and tightly integrated computer architecture inside a lightweight and compact modular design. Highly portable and requiring less space than previous DSS models, the system is easily transferred and can be installed in small survey aircraft typically in less than an hour. The DSS 439 comes with a pressurized, shock isolated, and temperature controlled removable data storage system, integrated POSTrack flight management and Direct Georeferencing system, embedded camera control firmware, and a custom azimuth mount. POSPac and INPHO image post-processing software are also included, which combine to provide a straightforward, productive, and results-driven end-to-end orthomosaic production environment. The DSS 439 is capable of generating high-resolution colour or CIR digital orthophotographs and orthomosaics using Applanixs industry-recognized direct georeferencing techniques. Mission planning, operations, post-processing, and analysis of data have all been simplified through a supported workflow that produces a variety of data products for a mix of applications ranging from agricultural reconnaissance and urban/regional planning to rapid response services and change detection. Applanix offers DSS clients world-wide customer support and a yearly maintenance and warranty program. The new DSS 439 is expected to be available at the beginning of the third quarter of 2007 through the Applanix sales network. For more information on the Applanix DSS 439 including specifications, features, and benefits, please visit www.applanix.com. Internet: www.applanix.com

Trimble MultiTrack Target

The Trimble MultiTrack Target is a premium target designed for flexibility and robust survey performance. The new accessory for the Trimble S6 Total Station or Trimble VX Spatial Station can operate as a normal passive prism or as an active target, making it the first of its kind in the surveying industry. With the Trimble MultiTrack Target users can find and lock to the correct target. Nearby reflective surfaces, including road signs, cars, warning vests and other on-site prisms, do not impact tracking during surveys. Active tracking also offers longer range, and the 360 degree active LED rings ensure the correct target is tracked from any angle. Internet: www.trimble.com

New Topcon Robotic Total Station Adds Digital Imaging

The newest addition to Topcons robotic total station series the GPT-9000Ai -now offers the added productivity and versatility of integrated digital imaging. The GPT-9000Ai robotic total station provides precise reflectorless measurement up to 2,000 meters the longest in the industry, and can easily measure on difficult targets like power lines. Internet: www.topcon.eu

BAE Systems Introduces Automation Technology for Map Creation

New Leica ALS Corridor Mapper LIDAR System

BAE Systems has released its Next-Generation Automatic Terrain Extraction (NGATE) software for creating 3D models from satellite or aerial imagery. The 3D terrain and surface models generated by NGATE can be used for geospatial simulations, mission rehearsals, situational awareness, and disaster relief and recovery. NGATE uses a hybrid matching process to create precise elevation data

for 3D terrain and surface models. The software is particularly useful for mapping urban areas, large geographic landscapes, mountainous or rough terrain, and areas with little contrast, such as road surfaces on large-scale imagery and vast deserts. Internet: www.baesystems.com

Leica Geosystems announces a new airborne LIDAR system designed specifically for corridor mapping and other large-scale mapping applications. The new system, called the Leica ALS Corridor Mapper, satisfies the needs of the lower-altitude LIDAR mapping market segment. The Leica ALS Corridor Mapper can be enhanced over time, since it is engineered to allow incorporation of the latest MPiA (Multiple Pulses in Air) technology, and can also be upgraded to full Leica ALS50-II specifications. Internet: www.gi.leica-geosystems.com

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Product News

Trimble Introduces Lightweight Solution for Mapping and GIS Applications

Trimble introduced the Juno ST handheld, a portable, low-cost data collection solution supported by Trimbles range of field and office software. It comes standard with a built-in high-sensitivity Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver, Microsoft Windows Mobile version 5.0 software, and has Wi-Fi/Bluetooth for wireless connectivity to office networks, cameras and mobile phones. The Juno ST handhelds low price point facilitates large-scale deployment, allowing a company or organization to equip a significant number of its employees; it is especially practical for use in applications where high productivity is most important. Examples include natural resources organizations, utility companies, and government agencies conducting inspection and permitting tasks. The Juno ST handheld is also fully compatible with other Trimble data collection systems, utilizing the same software and workflows as the entire range of Trimble Mapping & GIS solutions. Delivering a range of 2 to 5 meter positioning, real-time or postprocessed, the Juno ST handheld incorporates a high-sensitivity GPS receiver and has been specially designed to maximize yield of positions in hostile environments, such as under forest canopy and up against buildings. For use in a vehicle, an external antenna can be added. Purpose-built for streamlined data collection, the Juno ST handheld has 128 MB of non-volatile Flash data storage and a Secure Digital (SD) card slot for additional data storage. The removable Li-Ion battery is rechargeable and lasts for up to eight hours. The Juno ST handheld provides flexibility with Windows Mobile 5.0 software and includes familiar Microsoft productivity tools such as Word Mobile, Excel Mobile, Internet Explorer Mobile and Outlook Mobile. Internet: www.trimble.com.

Leica Geosystems GMX901 GPS Smart Antenna

Leicas new GMX901 is an affordable and precise GPS receiver with integrated antenna and ground plane. The antenna is specially developed to monitor sensitive structures such as mines, slopes, bridges, dams and buildings. The GMX901 streams precise single frequency code and phase data up to 1 Hz, providing the basis for highly accurate position determination and deformation analysis. Designed with a focus on the essential low power consumption, high quality measurement, simplicity, durability the Leica GMX901 is an ideal sensor for monitoring. It has a robust housing that is water, heat, cold and vibration resistant and which can be easily mounted on the infrastructure to be monitored. The GMX901 connects seamlessly to the Leica GPS Spider advanced GPS processing software for coordinate calculation and raw data storage. The Leica GeoMoS monitoring software can be used to provide integration with other sensors, analysis of movements and calculation of limit checks. Third party analysis software can also be easily integrated via the standard NMEA interface of Leica GPS Spider. Internet: www.leica-geosystems.com

Trimble R7 GNSS System

Magellan Introduces DG14 RTK GPS Board

Magellans new DG14 RTK is a cost-effective, sub-meter GNSS (GPS + SBAS) + Beacon receiver. In the DG14 RTK, BLADE, Magellans new proprietary GNSS processing technology, uniquely incorporates ranging and carrier phase signals from satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS), such as WAAS, EGNOS & MSAS in the RTK computation. An embedded beacon receiver provides sub-meter differential positioning, when SBAS corrections are not available. DG14 RTK customers can choose from a fixed centimeter solution or a flying RTK decimeter solution. Because it offers an optimized mix of speed and accuracy, the decimeter mode makes DG14 RTK the perfect solution for customers who need decimeter accuracy but dont want to spend the typical time necessary to achieve a decimeter fix. BLADE enables decimeter accurate position collection in about one-third of the time of the traditional float solution. In addition, BLADE enables DG14 RTK to support moving base operation and heading plus pitch/roll computation with auto-calibration for easy initialization. For best results, DG14 RTK rovers can be configured to use SBAS signals in addition to GPS for RTK positioning with any RTCM 3.0-compatible base station. DG14 RTK was developed to meet the needs of demanding high-precision applications for machine control, agriculture, aviation, military, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), robotics, marine survey and navigation. Other applications include marine navigation and survey, aviation, UAV, and military applications that can take advantage of the DG14 RTK moving base, relative navigation and heading, pitch and roll computation for precise and accurate positioning, navigation and tracking of vessels for demanding operating environments at sea, land, and air that require reliable decimeter or centimeter accuracies. Internet: www.magellangps.com

Trimbles new R7 GNSS System is a multi-channel, multi-frequency GNSS receiver and UHF radio in one compact rugged unit. The receiver and internal UHF radio are protected from water, dust, and shock inside the units metal jacket. This field sturdiness makes the lightweight Trimble R7 GNSS ideal for tough environments. The Trimble R7 GNSS combines advanced receiver technology with proven system design to provide maximum flexibility, accuracy, and productivity. Powered by R-Track technology, an enhanced Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) engine, the Trimble R7 GNSS now supports both the nextgeneration GPS L2C and L5 signals and GLONASS L1/L2 signals. The GNSS signals are capable of providing surveying professionals with real field benefits. With flexible separate antenna options, the Trimble R7 GNSS System can be used with the Trimble Zephyr Geodetic 2 ground plane antenna as a base to minimize signal multipath. As a rover, the modular system can be used with Trimble Zephyr 2 antenna for flexibility: carry the receiver on the pole, wear it in the purpose-built Trimble backpack, or drive with the Trimble R7 GNSS inside a vehicle. These flexible options allow surveyors to use the Trimble R7 GNSS system as a base or rover according to each jobs needs. For extra convenience and fewer cable hassles, the Trimble R7 GNSS includes Bluetooth capability for wireless connection to a Trimble controller, such as the Trimble TSC2 Controller. Internet: www.trimble.com

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Industry News
NovAtel Licensed to Sell Galileo Receivers
NovAtel has received a license valid for 10 years from the European Space Agency (ESA), which allows NovAtel to sell receivers that track Galileo signals. NovAtel received this license based on its participation in the Galileo Receiver Chain (GRC) program. Recently, NovAtel announced that it was the first company outside Europe to be accepted as a Full Member of Galileo Services, a non-profit organization made up of a consortium of businesses and agencies involved with Galileo satellite system downstream technology and services. of SAR data in the remote sensing field. SARMAP is a spin-off of the University of Zurich and is now a privately held company. Core activities are algorithm, software and application developments in the domain of Earth Observation (particularly based on airborne and spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar) and consulting services. SARMAPs expertise include the production and analysis of high resolution 3D Digital Surface and Terrain Model and ground deformation maps as well as 2D products, such as mapping and monitoring of land cover features, agriculture and forestry anomalies. Systems Center, Los Angeles Air Force Base, Calif. The final eight spacecraft, designated Block IIR-M, were modernized to enhance operations and navigation signal performance for military and civilian GPS users around the globe. ITT supplied all 21 navigation payloads for both the IIR and IIR-M spacecraft.

www.lmco.com

OSGeo Graduates Autodesk MapGuide Open Source to Full Project Status

MapGuide Open Source has achieved a new status within the Open Source Geospatial Foundation (OSGeo) as a fully endorsed project. Open Source is a Web-based platform that enables users to develop and publish online mapping applications and geospatial web services. During its incubation process, the projects community of more than 600 members actively engaged in development and application efforts to validate the softwares functionality, viability and support. As part of the projects graduation, Robert Bray, platform software manager and architect of geospatial solutions at Autodesk, has assumed the role of OSGeo vice-president MapGuide Open Source. With more than 25,000 downloads in its first year and an average of four to five thousand downloads per month in 2007, the software is already being embraced by the geospatial open source community. To date, MapGuide Open Source has had three version releases, with the most recent update in January 2007 adding direct support of KML files for Google Earth mapping service. In addition to MapGuide Open Source, Autodesk contributed its Feature Data Object (FDO) data access technology as an open source project to OSGeo. Autodesk is also a sustaining sponsor of OSGeo, further showing their support of the open source community. For more information about MapGuide Open Source, visit http://mapguide.osgeo.org/.

www.novatel.com

Hexagon Acquires D&P Systems and Topolaser System

Hexagon has entered into an agreement to acquire all outstanding shares of the French companies D&P Systems and Topolaser System s.a.s. D&P Systems develops and supplies multidimensional systems for measuring, planning and machine control for excavators, graders, dozers and pavers. Similar to the recently acquired Svensk ByggnadsGeodesi AB (SBG), D&P Systems main operation is software development. Topolasers main operations are distribution of surveying and construction equipment and integration of machine guidance systems in France. The two companies combined employ 22 people today.

www.sarmap.ch www.creaso.com

ESRI's GIS Selected for Analysis of Nationwide Educational Facilities in Kenya

The Ministry of Education (MOE) in Kenya has contracted Oakar Services Ltd. (OSL), ESRI's distributor in eastern Africa, to develop a geographic information system (GIS) database of the educational facilities in the country. The project, started in December 2006, is valued at US $ 1 million, and is being funded with a grant from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).

www.esri.com

www.leica-geosystems.com

Hexagon Acquires Leading US Catalogue Distribution Company

Hexagon, the parent company of Leica Geosystems, has entered into an agreement to acquire all outstanding shares of the American company Allen Precision Equipment, Inc. (www.allenprecision.com). Allen Precision is primarily a catalogue company that represents several major suppliers and sells surveying equipment and related supplies to engineers, surveyors, contractors and government agencies. Allen Precision had a turnover of over US $24 million in 2006 and has shown consistent growth exceeding the USA market growth for several years. The company is based in Duluth, Georgia and employs 41 people.

1Spatial Build on Quality Control with OGC

1Spatial has successfully deployed an online Quality Control service as part of the Open Geospatial Consortium project OWS-4, their fourth web services testbed activity. The OWS-4 project is based on a hypothetical major disaster scenario; a toxic bomb is discovered as a container is unloaded from a ship in the New York City area. The project incorporates elements of a multi-faceted operation that requires setup of a temporary medical response facility within an existing military installation. The scenario includes the discovery and deployment of remote imaging and point in-situ sensors, the acquisition and processing of data obtained with them, and the integration of these data with other geospatial data assets.

www.autodesk.com

www.leica-geosystems.com

Poland Chooses Trimble Technology to Establish its Nationwide GNSS Infrastructure Network
Trimble has been chosen by the Polish National Office of Geodesy and Cartography, GUGiK, to supply 78 Continuous Operating Reference Station (CORS) receivers and Trimble VRS (Virtual Reference Station) technology to establish a nationwide Global Satellite Navigation Positioning System (GNSS) infrastructure network for the country of Poland. The Trimble VRS network will provide a geospatial infrastructure for surveying, engineering and Geographic Information System (GIS) professionals that enables high accuracy real-time kinematic (RTK) GNSS positioning without the need of separate base stations or software, significantly increasing efficiency and productivity.

Leica Acquires ER Mapper

Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging has acquired all assets of Earth Resource Mapping Ltd (ER Mapper). ER Mapper has clients around the world, with a particularly strong foothold and in Southeast Asia and Australia that, when combined with Leica Geosystems strengths in the US, Europe and Asia Pacific markets, creates a much stronger global enterprise.

www.1spatial.com

AED-SICAD Selected Foundation Partner Award 2007

ESRI selected its strategic partner AED-SICAD for this years Foundation Partner Award. This prize category is awarded to ESRI partners who showed special commitment in setting up a strong, close and lasting cooperation between the companies. Partners like AED-SICAD are the foundation on which the comprehensive ESRI Partner Program is built.

www.gi.leica-geosystems.com

Lockheed Martin Receives US$ 6 million Contract to Add Additional GPS Signal
The U.S. Air Force has awarded Lockheed Martin a US $ 6 million contract to develop and integrate a demonstration payload that will temporarily transmit a third civil signal on a modernized Global Positioning System Block IIR (GPS IIR-M) satellite. This new contract directs Lockheed Martin and its navigation payload supplier ITT in Clifton, N.J. to provide an on-orbit demonstration capability for the new civil signal. The signal, located on the L5 frequency (1176MHz) will comply with international radio frequency spectrum requirements. The Block IIR-M spacecraft with the demonstration payload is planned for launch in 2008. Lockheed Martin Space Systems, Valley Forge, Pa., is the prime contractor for the GPS IIR program. The company designed and built 21 IIR spacecraft for the Global Positioning Systems Wing, Space and Missile

www.aed-sicad

Bentley Acquires TDV GmbH

Bentley Systems has acquired TDV GmbH of Austria, a leading provider of structural modeling, analysis, and design software for bridge engineering serving engineers, designers, and owners. TDVs industryleading RM 2006 product for static and dynamic design and analysis of steel, concrete, and composite structures is used by hundreds of bridge design firms worldwide.

www.gugik.gov.pl www.trimble.com

ArcGIS Image Server Now Included in ESRI Developer Network Program

ArcGIS Image Server, a server-based solution that provides fast access and visualization of large quantities of file-based imagery processed on the fly and on demand, has been added to the suite of software provided to ESRI Developer Network (EDN) subscribers. Both ArcGIS Image Server extensions, Orthorectification and Seamline are also included. For more information on the ESRI Developer Network, visit www.esri.com/edn.

www.bentley.com

CREASO Signs Agreement with SARMAP

CREASO and SARMAP signed an agreement to create new solutions based on SARscape for ENVI. SARscape is a software platform for processing

www.esri.com

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CARIS Selected for Brunei US$ 6.2 Million NSDI Project
Brunei Darussalam has awarded a US $ 6.3 million project for delivery of the countrys National Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI). Through the project, geomatics software company CARIS will deliver its spatial database and web-mapping technology. The primary contractor for the project is Selective Powertech Consulting of Brunei Darussalam, which has a specialization in information and communications technology consultation and implementation for e-government. highlights DigitalGlobe's role as a versatile business solution in both the public and private sector. from various OEMs under the offset programs. HAL and Infotech Enterprises would be equal partners in this venture.

www.digitalglobe.com

Intermap Reports Revenue Growth in Q1

Intermap Technologies reported financial results for the first quarter ended March 31, 2007. For the first quarter, Intermap reported an increase in total revenue to US $ 6.2 million, as compared to total revenue of US $ 2.1 million for the same period in 2006. For the first quarter of 2007, Intermap reported a net loss of US $ 2.8 million to a net loss of US $ 2.7 million for the same period in 2006.

www.hal-india.com www.infotechsw.com

1Spatial and QC Data Offer Solution for UK and Irish Utilities

1Spatial and QC Data announced a partnership to provide an innovative data quality solution for the UK and Irish utilities marketplace. The partnership unites industry knowledge, technical expertise and innovative technology to deliver a combined software and services solution for data quality auditing and improvement. Utility organisations working in gas, electricity, water or telecommunications in the UK and Ireland can now take advantage of this pioneering approach. For more information on the Asset Conformance Analysis (ACA) service, visit:

www.caris.com.

www.intermap.com

GeoEye and East-Dawn of China Partner

GeoEye has partnered with the East-Dawn Group, a privately held company based in Beijing, China to provide satellite imagery and value-added products in China. To implement this, the East Dawn Group has formed a new company, Beijing Earth Observation (BEO). BEO, also headquartered in Beijing, will focus on the resale of satellite imagery and value-added products. Under terms of the agreement and subject to U.S. Government approval, BEO will be GeoEye's exclusive Master Reseller in China and will have access to GeoEye's archive of more than 278 million square kilometers of map-accurate satellite imagery. GeoEye will appoint two directors to BEO's board to gain a better understanding of the market and provide strategic advice to the company. A ceremony marking this new relationship was held in Beijing on April 19, 2007.

Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging Acquires Acquis Technology

Leica Geosystems Geospatial Imaging has acquired the technology assets of Acquis, Inc., a leader in the development of web-based data editing software for Oracle Spatial. Leica Geosystems will use this technology to provide enterprise functionality on the Oracle Spatial database. In addition, key personnel from Acquis will join Leicas enterprise efforts. Acquis brings a combination of mobile and web enterprise tools and services for a variety of user solutions including spatial database editing tools, Oracle Spatial data management expertise, solution design and implementation services.

www.1spatial.com/solutions/industries/utilities/ aca.php www.1spatial.com

Hexagon Acquires Jigsaw Technologies

Hexagon has entered into an agreement to acquire all outstanding shares of Jigsaw Technologies in Tucson, Arizona, USA. Jigsaw develops and supplies software for fleet management, the largest area of the measurement technologies market segment machine control for mining. The companys products are used mainly for coal or mineral open pit mining. Jigsaw was founded in year 2004 and today employs 17 people. The business has developed tremendously. Net sales for 2007 are expected to reach more than 9 Million US $.

www.gi.leica-geosystems.com

www.geoeye.com

Leica Geosystems Supports African AFREF Project

The African Geodetic Reference Frame (AFREF) is conceived as a unified geodetic reference frame for Africa - the fundamental basis for the national and regional reference networks. In March, the first permanent GNSS reference station was launched in Kenya. Leica Geosystems supports the project with its knowledge, as well as via donation of a complete system. Currently, African countries each maintain their own geodetic reference system. In the past, this resulted in mismatched maps at national borders or even in the same country; in Kenya alone there are currently two different mapping coordinate systems in use. The African Geodetic Reference Frame (AFREF) shall build a fundamental basis for a continent-wide reference network system, consisting of permanent Global Navigational Satellite Systems (GNSS) stations. The goal is to provide users free access to GNSS data and products, with a maximum distance of 500 km from the next reference station - anywhere in Africa.

GITA Announces Partnership with INTERGEO

GITA has established a new partnership with the organizers of the INTERGEO Conference, which this year will take place Sept. 25-27, 2007, in Leipzig, Germany. GITA will work with the German Association of Surveying (DVW) on an International Exhibitor Trade Mission to help their respective exhibitors build or enhance their presence in the European market. GITAs corporate members/exhibitors will be offered special exhibit packages at INTERGEO, and European exhibitors from INTERGEO will receive the same for GITAs Annual Conference 31, which will take place March 9-12, 2008, in Seattle, Wash.

www.leica-geosystems.com

NovAtel Expands and Reorganizes Senior Team

NovAtel appointed Colin Maclellan into the newly created position of Vice President and General Manager. NovAtel executives Farlin Halsey and Graham Purves will be taking on new roles. Mr. Halsey, previously Vice President, Marketing, has been appointed Vice President, Corporate Strategy and Alliances. Mr. Purves, previously Vice President, OEM Sales, has been appointed Vice President, Sales and Marketing.

www.gita.org

www.novatel.com

Greece Selects Trimble to Build Nationwide GNSS Infrastructure Network

Trimble has been selected by the Greek National Cadastre, KTIMATOLOGIO S.A., to supply Trimble VRS network hardware and software to establish a nationwide Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) infrastructure network for the country of Greece. Trimble will also provide complete network set up, deployment and operation during the initial start-up period. The Trimble VRS network will provide a fixed geospatial infrastructure for surveying, engineering and Geographic Information System (GIS) professionals that enables high accuracy realtime kinematic (RTK) GNSS positioning, significantly increasing efficiency and productivity.

Infoterra Leads European Mapping Project for EEA

A European service provider network led by Infoterra GmbH will map built-up areas and soil sealing for Europe. By 2008, the consortium will cover 5.8 mio square kilometres at 20 m resolution for the reference year of 2006. This challenging project has recently been awarded by the European Environment Agency (EEA) as one of the first seamless panEuropean geo-information services within the GMES (Global Monitoring for Environment and Security) initiative of the European Commission (EC) and the European Space Agency (ESA). The service provider network consists of GeoVille GmbH (Austria), GISAT s.r.o. (Czech Republic), Metria (Sweden), Planetek Italia srl. (Italy), Tragsatec SA (Spain), and Infoterra GmbH (Germany), gathering essential expertise from all over Europe.

www.leica-geosystems.com

MDA Acquires Vexcel Canada from Microsoft Corporation

MDA has acquired Vexcel Canada Inc. Financial terms will not be disclosed. Founded in 1981, Vexcel Canada is based in Ottawa, Ontario, and specializes in providing advanced products and services using the latest radar image data sources. The company is a subsidiary of Vexcel U.S. that was acquired by Microsoft in 2006. Iwww.mdacorporation.com

www.trimble.com

www.vexcel.com

Indonesian Government Partners With DigitalGlobe to Visually Identify Taxable Property

DigitalGlobe announced a partnership with the Indonesian Directorate of Property Tax (PBB) and Ministry of Finance. DigitalGlobe's QuickBird satellite imagery will facilitate visual identification of taxable land, to help the Indonesian government properly classify and categorize property. The partnership

HAL Infotech Joint Venture to Offer Engineering Services to Aerospace Sector

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) and Infotech Enterprises Limited (IEL) have formed a joint venture company to offer engineering design services for the aerospace sector. The joint venture, an independent business entity, will mainly focus on aeroengines, technical publications and anticipated work

www.infoterra.de

Latest News? Visit www.geoinformatics.com

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