Appendix B

The Boundary Element Method

Appendix B : The Boundary Element Method B1 Historical background

The concept of boundary integral techniques has a long history. As early as 1886, Somigliana established a direct integral equation that related values of boundary displacements and boundary tractions [Gol88]. Regularly during this century, books and papers on integral equations in potential and elasticity theory where published by quite a large number of mathematicians. Until the mid sixties the integral formulations were exclusively solved with analytical mathematics, and thus limited to simple (trivial) problems. A major breakthrough came in 1963 with two papers [Jas63 and Sym63] that presented an approach to discretize (boundary elements defined by nodal points) the integral equations for twodimensional Laplace type potential problems. In 1967, Rizzo [Riz67] presented a direct approach to use displacements and tractions in a boundary integral. This approach was extended to 3D by Cruse [Cru69] in 1969. Since the early seventies, the BEM technique has been developed further, and is now suitable for modeling and solving a wide range of continuum mechanical problems, including some non-linearities.

B2 Basic theory
In the boundary element method (BEM), the governing differential equations are transformed into integral variables, which are applicable over the boundary surface of the region. The integrals are numerically integrated over the boundary, which is divided into boundary elements. If the boundary conditions are satisfied, a system of linear algebraic equations may be established for which a unique solution can be found. The following steps illustrate a typical BE derivation in stress analysis, according to A. A. Becker [Bec92] : 1. Derive the differential equations for displacements and stresses over the solution region (i.e. the Navier equations) by substituting the constitutive equations (i.e. Hooks law), and then plug it into the equilibrium differential equations. 2. Obtain the fundamental solution for the differential equations. This is a solution that must be applicable in any geometry, and it is based on the solution of a point load in an infinite medium, which often is referred to as the Kelvin solution. The fundamental solution is of the order 1/r or log(1/r), where r is the physical distance between the point of application of the load, referred to the load point p, and any other point on the boundary, referred to as the field point Q. 3. Use the reciprocal work theorem (i.e. Bettis theorem), which states that if two stress states (a and b) exist that satisfies equilibrium, then the work done by the forces of system a on the displacements of system b is equal to the work done by the forces of b on the displacements of a :
p

Fpa upb =

F p p

upa

(B.1)

where p is any point with a force F.

B1

Appendix B

The Boundary Element Method

If the external forces are confined to the surface S only, the following integral equation can be obtained :
S

tia uib dS =

ti b uia dS

(B.2)

where i=1,2,3 corresponding to the Cartesian co-ordinates x,y,z, and the traction vector is defined as ( ti = ij nj ), where nj is the unit outward normal at the surface. Choose the a system to be the fundamental (known) solution, and the b system to be the actual (unknown) problem. The result is a boundary integral equation relating the displacements and tractions at the surface boundary. 4. Discretize the surface into elements. Shape functions are used to describe the geometry and the variables over each element. These shape functions may be linear, quadratic or higher order, just as for finite elements. Because analytical integrations are not practical due to the complexity of the integral functions, numerical integration based on Gaussian quadrature technique is performed. Special schemes are necessary to integrate the singular terms when the nodal points are very close to each other, or when the load point p coincides with the boundary point Q. This is because the fundamental solution contains terms of the order 1/r. By summing the integrals over each element, the total surface integral is evaluated. 5. Form the solution matrix by repeating the integration process with the load point p placed in turn at each point on the surface. The point load p is first placed at point 1, which yields only one set of equations relating N variables on the surface. A set of equations in three-dimensional problems contain three equations. Then the point load p is placed at point 2, yielding another set of equations, and so on until all N sets of equations are formed. The resulting system of linear equations is of the following form : Au = Bt (B.3)

where A is a matrix kernel multiplying either a potential function vector, a temperature vector , or a displacement vector u. B is a matrix containing the kernels multiplying either a normal potential gradient vector, a temperature gradient vector /n, or a traction vector t. 6. Apply the boundary conditions. These take the form of either prescribed displacements, prescribed action, or stresses, or a linear relationship between displacement and traction such as a spring attachment. By rearranging the linear equations such that all the unknown variables are on the left-hand side, and all the known variables are on the righthand side, the following modified solution matrix is obtained : A x = B y = c (B4)

where the unknown vector x contains a mixture of unknown displacements and tractions, while y contains all the prescribed values of displacements and tractions. The right-hand side vector c is a vector of known coefficients. B is a modified form of the matrix B after the application of the boundary conditions.

B2

Appendix B

The Boundary Element Method

7. Solve the overall system of linear equations. Since the solution matrix is unsymmetric and fully populated, with non-zero coefficients, direct solution techniques, such as Gaussian elimination, are used. 8. From the computed boundary displacements and tractions, the values of stress, strain, strain energy and stress intensity factors can be computed. Values of displacements and tractions (or stress) at internal points can be calculated from the computed boundary values.

B3