Pullman - Structures

Presented by: David Pullman Presented by: David Pullman
Copyright 2013
A Comprehensive Short Course on Rotary Wing
Technology
Introduction
Analysis Part I
Analysis Part II
Design or !abrication
!abrication "ethods
1
3
4
5
2
!ull#$cale %esting
!AA Certiication
&'amples
6
8
7
Application o Advanced
Composites
to (elicopter $tructures
Application of Advanced
Composites
to Helicopter Structures
Introduction to Composites
Section Overview
What is a Composite?
Composite Advantages
Composite Disadvantages
Composite Facts
Summary
Composites
1
What is a Composite?
(Stephen Tsai, PhD Stanford University)
A complex material in which two or more structurally

complementary sustances are used together to
produce structural or functional properties not
present in the individual components
!o chemical mixing process occurs in individual

components" #roperties may e highly directional$
eing dependent on the distriution and orientation of
sustances within the material
%xamples&
Concrete stone/steel (fiber) reinforced cement (matrix)
Wood cellulose (fiber) reinforced lignin (matrix)
iberglass fibrous glass (fiber) reinforced pol!mer resin (matrix)
Composites
" laminate is a combination of lamina of the
same or different materials and/or orientation#
" lamina is a single la!er of matrix reinforced with fibers
(tows)#
Composites
$aminate %otation
Is the same as&
Starting ' the ottom ply&
3 plies, 0 fiber orientation
2 plies, 90 fiber direction
1 ply, +45 fiber direction
3 plies, -45 fiber direction
------ Symmetric
[
(
)
/*(
+
/ ,-/,-
)
]
S
[
(
)
/*(
+
/ ,-/,-
.
/ ,-/ *(
+
/(
)
]
Composites
iber patterns and/or plies orientation(s) can
be selected to suit the direction of loading#
directional fibers for
directional loading
directional
transverse
shear
truss
Composites
&'()
(t!pical characteristics)
Highly directional properties
%xceptional strength
and/or stiffness in
axial direction
0rder1s2 of magnitude
lower properties in
transverse direction
3ow density
4hermal properties
5ay have undesirale properties that must e

accounted for 1low6ductility$ hydrophyllic$ poor
onding adhesion2
Composites
&'()
#recursor 7pulled8 from a die to produce fiers
Individual fier diameter 9 ("(((+6("(((:8
Fiers processed into 7tows8
4ow si;es ased on fier count

<= 1<((( fiers2$ )=$""" -(=
Courtesy !ens-Cornin" #iber"lass
Composites
Commercial iber orms
FI>%?
Continuous
4ow
Chopped
Fier
Woven Cloth
@nidirectional
5at
>raided Cloth
Chopped
Fier 5at
)D =nitted
#reform
Composites
&'()
Continuous 4ow @nidirectional 5at
1999 - 2008 Copyright Vaclav Stejskal
Copyright 2007 Fibraplex Corp
Composites
&'()
Chopped Fier Chopped Fier 5at
Composites
&'()
Woven Cloth
$%lain &ea'e (%&)
$*!ill &ea'e (2+2)
$Satin &ea'e (4,S, -,S)
!"S #evlar$
2%2 #evlar&Carbo'$
() Carbo'$
1999 - 2008 Copyright Vaclav Stejskal
Composites
(xamples of Composite ibers
Alass 1%6glass$ S6glass2
Caron 1#A! B I5C D #itch ased B 4hornel #6<((2
Aramid 1=evlar$ 4waron2
>oron
Euart; 1High #urity Si(+ 6 AstroFuart;2
#olyethylene 1 @H5W#% B Spectra2
Silicon Caride 1metal6matrix composites 55CGs2
>asalt
Composites
Carbon iber
#olyacrylonitrile 1#A!2 Fier
#A! precursor 1i"e" rayon2 spun and

converted via heat into caron fier
5aHority of commercial marIet

1AS,$ 4)(($ I5.$ I5C$ 4C((2
High Strength D Stiffness

5esophase #itch Fier
#etroleum ased pitch heated$ spun

into fier 1=6<<(( B <,( 5si 5odulus2
#otentially higher stiffness$

conductivity than #A!
Composites
*"+)&,
?elative to fier&
3ow strength
High ductility$ strain6to6failure
High density
Aood toughness
5ay have undesirale properties 1similar to fier$ i"e"

Hydrophyllic$ @J degradation$ #oor hot/wet2
4wo primary categories
4hermoset
4hermoplastic
Composites
*"+)&,
4hermoset ?esins
10ne6time only$ Cross6linIing polymer chains2
Higher Strength than 4hermoplastics
>etter High64emp #erformance than
4hermoplastics
%poxy
Cyanate6%ster
Jinyl6%ster
#olyester
#henolic
>ismaleimide 1>5I2
Composites
(xamples of +hermoset )esin
#rimary Structure&
1sIins$ ris$ spars$ engine components$ rotors2
%CC) B toughened epoxy 1)-(KF Cure2

CLC05):< 6 +
nd
generation epoxy 1+-(KF2
%M<-(- B Cyanate %ster$ 3ow oservales
CLC05-+-( B >5I$ ,((KF High64emp$ ismaleimide 1>5I2

Secondary Structure&
1interior panels$ access panels$ fairings2
>4+-(%6< B +-(KF curing epoxy

Hex#ly 5,< B #henolic 1Fire SmoIe and 4oxicity$ FS42
CLC05,<(+ 6 #olyester
Composites
*"+)&,
4hermoplastic ?esins
5ultiple melt6remelt 1reformale6recyclale2
4oughness$ Compression6After6Impact 1CAI2
High processing temps reFGd
#%%= 1poly6ether6ether6Ietone2
##S 1polyphenylene sulfide2
#%I 1#olyetherimide2
Co*rtesy$ Co+posites)orl,
Stork-Fokker
.3-0 /eadin" 0d"e
Composites
-repreg
Comining the fier and matrix in a consistent

repeatale manner can e challenging"
#re6impregnated 1prepreg2 material comines the

fier and matrix prior to farication
#repreg product is typically

a 7lamina8 or single layer of
matrix impregnated fier
5ultiple layers 1lamina2 are

comined to produce a
laminate"
12003 .irtec2 3nternational 3nc4
Composites
-repreg orms
@nidirectional
- *o!pre"
- 12, 24,356 !ide rolls
- 7ias (i4e4 845 pre-plied)
- *ape (1, 26+ !ide)
- Slit-tape (041256 &ide)
Cloth
- &o'en (t!ill, 4,S)
- 7ias clot2 (845 pre-plied)
>raid D =nitted preforms
Copyri"2t 1 2005 .d2erent *ec2nolo"ies, 3nc4
Composites
Composite "dvantage
90:S3*;
.#...
.#/..
.#0..
.#1..
D%!SI4L
2

(
l
b
/
i
n
3
1
)
Composites
Composite "dvantage
&,0: *.<3:= .9>.:*.=0 # #370? 93?0C*3:
2, 3, 4+ S*3##0?, S*?:=0? *,.: @0*.//3CSA
.
/..
0..
1..
4..
5..
S#%CIFIC 4%!SI3% 50D@3@S
(
*
s
i
)
/
(
l
b
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i
n
3
1
)
.
0...
4...
6...
S#%CIFIC 4%!SI3% S4?%!A4H
(
*
s
i
)
/
(
l
b
/
i
n
3
1
)
A
Specific Stren"t2 only - tensile stren"t2 of 300@ B =rC0poDy, !it2
considerable yieldE
Composites
Composite "dvantage
WH%! 4A=I!A ADJA!4AA% 0F FI>%? DI?%C4I0!
+$ )$ ,M S4IFF%?$ S4?0!A%? 4HA! 5%4A33ICS
.
05
5.
75
/..
/05
S#%CIFIC SH%A? 50D@3@S
(
*
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i
)
/
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l
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.
05.
5..
75.
/...
/05.
/5..
S#%CIFIC SH%A? S4?%!A4H
(
*
s
i
)
/
(
l
b
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i
n
3
1
)
Composites
Composite "dvantage
SF%0?3? :*C,09 .:9 #.*3=F0 S*?0:=*,
S#%CIFIC FA4IA@% S4?AI!
.
5
/.
/5
0.
05
1.
15
4.
45
5.
55

e
e
/
r

(
/
/
(
l
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n
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)
)

,

/
.
.
.
.8 &'()
O)&(%+"+&O%
Composites
Composite 9isadvantage
Increased complexity$ design and farication may e

consideraly more expensive than metallics
5ay e unsuitale for certain environmental

considerations 1i"e" temperature$ moisture$ erosion2 or
reFuires significant additional measures to correctly
apply composites in place of metallics"
5ulti6axial 1)D2 load conditions 1i"e" !o significant

load ias2 and/or interlaminar loading may e more
suitale for isotropic materials 1metallics2"
#reliminary composite designs often suggest large

weight savings" 4he reality of connections 1olted
Hoints2 and load6orientation often reduce weight
savings significantly"
Composites
.
5.
/..
/5.
0..
S#%CIFIC E@ASI6IS04?0#IC
4%!SI3%/SH%A? 50D@3@S
(
*
s
i
/
(
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i
n
3
1
)
)
.
05.
5..
75.
/...
/05.
/5..
S#%CIFIC E@ASI6IS04?0#IC
4%!SI3%/SH%A? S4?%!A4H
(
:
s
i
/
(
l
b
/
i
n
3
1
)
)
@nder multiaxial loading$ @sing a Euasi6Isotropic laminate$ the advantages
of composites are significantly reducedN
1especially accounting for cost$ complexity$ and other factors2
Composites
11
Composite strength is more sensitive to
impact than for metals"
Small
+ools
;ail
*etals 9ent <
%o (ffect
Composites
9elaminate
<9egrade
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
s
t
r
a
i
n
)

"
f
t
e
r

&
m
p
a
c
t

(
i
n
#
/
i
n
#
)
Composites
.
5.
/..
/5.
S#%CIFIC 4?A!SJ%?S%
4%!SI3% 50D@3@S
(
*
s
i
/
(
l
b
/
i
n
3
1
)
)
@nidirectional transverse properties are poor

compared to metals
.
05.
5..
75.
/...
/05.
S#%CIFIC 4?A!SJ%?S%
4%!SI3% S4?%!A4H
(
:
s
i
/
(
l
b
/
i
n
3
1
)
)
Composites
5oisture Asorption D %levated 4emperature
1Hygrothermal %ffects2 can significantly degrade
composite performance
=

)
o
o
m

+
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
Service +emperature> 8
-100 0 ?* 100 200 300
150
100
50
=rap2iteC0poDy
Composites
Composite act
Coefficient of
4hermal %xpansion
1C4%2
ADJA!4AA%&
Can e tailored for specific
applications 1smart$ optics2"
DISADJA!4AA%&
Composite structural designs can
e compromised due to
unintended C4% mismatch
etween metals and
composites"
4ooling Selection can e
critical
Composites
Composite act
#oissonGs ?atio
#oissonGs ratio can vary dramatically depending on ply
orientation
=rap2iteC0poDy
Composites
Summar!
Composites depend upon myriad forms of fier and matrix

to provide the desired material characteristic"
Composites can range from relatively inexpensive low6tech

products to state6of6the6art Aerospace Arade primary
structure and eyond"
Composites$ with appropriate consideration 1design$

analysis$ and cost2$ can afford impressive gains in
performance in comparison to metallics"
Composites$ when designed and analy;ed inappropriately$

can result in a poor sustitute for a perfectly good metallic
structure"
Composites
Composite Analysis
Composite Analysis
(Part 1)
Section Overview
Micromechanics
Materials Characterization
Laminate Analysis Methods
Static Analysis
Micromechanics
2-D SOM Calculation
Classical Lamination Theory
Sandwich/Honeycomb Panels
Handbook Methods
inite !lement Methods
Composites
Composite Analysis
"
Micromechanics
Analysis of composite material based upon the

material properties of the individual components (i.e.
Fiber and Matrix
Allo!s prediction of the composite properties !ith

minimal testin"
Statistical distribution of defects (voids# interfacial

defects# fiber defects ma$es failure prediction
difficult
Most composite structural data is based upon

empirical test
Composites
Composite Analysis
Micromechanics
Rule of Mixtures
%&uations to Calculate 'roperties of Laminae

from constituents
Micromechanics is a field of study in its o!n

ri"ht( interfacial stresses# defect distributions...
Composites
Composite Analysis
Macro mechanics
Smallest structural element is a ply (layer of material.
Fiber and Matrix properties are )smeared* treated as

a homo"eneous material
Composites re&uire different analysis approach than

metals(
Isotropic # Material uni$orm in all directions% inde&endent o$
coordinate direction 'metals% some sandwich cores(
ransversely Isotropic # Material in one direction is distinctly
di$$erent than other 2 directions% which are indistin)uishable $rom
each other '*nidirectional com&osite lamina(
Orthotropic # material has directional &ro&erties in three mutually
&er&endicular 'ortha)onal( &lanes o$ symmetry 'com&osite wo+en
broad)oods(
Anisotropic # material has uni,ue &ro&erties in each and e+ery
coordinate direction% irres&ecti+e o$ the coordinate $rame o$
re$erence-
Composites
Composite Analysis
Anisotropic Material
+, experimentally obtained material constants (non-

Hoo$ean material relatin" stress and strain# in
compliance form(
For Linearly-%lastic (Hoo$ean material relationship is

symmetric# reducin" number of constants to t!enty-
one (./
t
xx
t
yy
t
zz
t
yz
t
zx
t
xy
C
//
C
/.
C
/+
C
/0
C
/1
C
/,
C
./
C
..
C
.+
C
.0
C
.1
C
.,
C
+/
C
+.
C
++
C
+0
C
+1
C
+,
C
0/
C
0.
C
0+
C
00
C
01
C
0,
C
1/
C
1.
C
1+
C
10
C
11
C
1,
C
,/
C
,.
C
,+
C
,0
C
,1
C
,,
|
u
xx
u
yy
u
zz
u
yz
u
zx
u
xy
Composites
Composite Analysis
Orthotropic Material
For fully orthotropic materials there are 2

experimentally obtained material constants
3sin" the Lamina Coordinate System for a sin"le ply#

in )on-axis* en"ineerin" notation(
t
x
t
y
t
z
y
yz
y
zx
y
xy
/
%
x

v
xy
%
x

v
xz
%
x
4 4 4
v
xy
%
x
/
%
y

v
yz
%
y
4 4 4
v
xz
%
x

v
yz
%
y
/
%
z
4 4 4
4 4 4
/
5
yz
4 4
4 4 4 4
/
5
zx
4
4 4 4 4 4
/
5
xy
|
u
x
u
y
u
z
f
yz
f
zx
f
xy
z
z
y
x
Composites
Composite Analysis
ransversely Isotropic Material
For unidirectional composites# the in-plane and out-

of-plane directions are identical# reducin" the number
of material constants from 2 to 1.
t
x
t
y
t
z
y
yz
y
zx
y
xy
/
%
x

v
x6
%
x

v
x6
%
x
4 4 4
v
x6
%
x
/
%
6

v
6
%
6
4 4 4
v
x6
%
x

v
6
%
6
/
%
6
4 4 4
4 4 4
.(/+v
6
)
%
6
4 4
4 4 4 4
/
5
x6
4
4 4 4 4 4
/
5
x6
|
u
x
u
y
u
z
f
yz
f
zx
f
xy
%
y
=%
z
=%
6
v
yz
=v
6
5
yz
=5
6
=
%
6
.(/+v
6
)
v
xy
=v
xz
=v
x6
5
xy
=5
xz
=5
x6
Subscri&t .T/ denotes
trans+erse direction
Composites
Composite Analysis
Isotropic Material
7sotropic material reduces the number of material

constants to .# % and v
t
x
t
y
t
z
y
yz
y
zx
y
xy
/
%

v
%

v
%
4 4 4
v
%
/
%

v
%
4 4 4
v
%

v
%
/
%
4 4 4
4 4 4
.(/+v)
%
4 4
4 4 4 4
.(/+v)
%
4
4 4 4 4 4
.(/+v)
%
|
u
x
u
y
u
z
f
yz
f
zx
f
xy
%
x
=%
y
=%
z
=%
v
xy
=v
xz
=v
yz
=v
5
xy
=5
xz
=5
yz
=5
5=
%
.(/+v)
Composites
Composite Analysis
"
Static Structural Analyses
.-8 Stren"th of Materials (S9M Calculation of :lade

Sectional 'roperties for composite rotor desi"n
Classical Lamination 'late 6heory (CL'6
8esi"n Handboo$ Methods (Semi-empirical
.-8 ;umerical Methods(
<ariable Asymptotic :eam Section (<A:S
9pen Hole 6ension=Filled Hole 6ension

(9H6=FH6 > Compression After 7mpact (CA7
:olted ?oint Stress Field Model (:?SFM
Finite %lement Methods

Composites
Composite Analysis
PROJECT A8761-100 S-61 MOD C TAIL ROTOR
!"# Calculation
of $la%e Section &lastic Properties
3ses !ei"hted composite area method
Allo!s rapid estimation of section properties.
Can be used effectively to estimate most section properties
Areas can be easily implemented usin" simple analytical

"eometry or via .-8 CA8=Finite %lement representation.
;ote - Follo!in" e&uations depend on element size such that 7
o

contribution is ne"li"ible.

A
i
# p
i
# x
i
# y
i
Composites
Composite Analysis
!"# Calculation
of $la%e Section &lastic Properties
Axial Stiffness(
;eutral Axes(
:endin" Stiffness(
%A=
%
i
A
i
@
;A
=
x
i
%
i
A
i
%A
i A
;A
=
y
i
%
i
A
i
%A
%7
FLA'
=
%
i
A
i
(
y
i
A
;A
)
.
%7
CH9B8
=
%
i
A
i
(
x
i
@
;A
)
.
%7
FC
=
%
i
A
i
(
x
i
@
;A
) (
y
i
A
;A
)
Composites
Composite Analysis
!"# Calculation of
$la%e Section &lastic Properties
'rinciple Stiffness=Axes(
Shear Center(
%7
//#..
=
/
.
(
%7
FLA'
+%7
CH9B8
)
!
.
/
0
(
%7
CH9B8
%7
FLA'
)
.
+%7
FC
.
0=
/
.
tan
/
(
. %7
FC
%7
CH9B8
%7
FLA'
)
@
SC
=
%7
FLA'i
x
i
%7
FLA'
A
SC
=
%7
CH9B8i
y
i
%7
CH9B8
Composites
Composite Analysis
!# Calculation of
$la%e Section Mass'Inertial
Properties
Bunnin" Mass C C5(
@
C5
=
x
i
p
i
A
i
pA
pA=
p
i
A
i
A
C5
=
y
i
p
i
A
i
pA
Composites
Composite Analysis
!# Calculation of
$la%e Section Inertial Properties
7nertias(
;ote( these are .-8 )section* inertias (lbm-in# $"-m
7
FLA'
=
(
p
i
A
i
) (
y
i
A
C5
)
.
7
CH9B8
=
(
p
i
A
i
) (
x
i
@
C5
)
.
7
FLA'CH9B8
=
(
p
i
A
i
) (
y
i
A
C5
) (
x
i
@
C5
)
7
00
=
(
p
i
A
i
) ((
y
i
A
C5
)
.
+
(
x
i
@
C5
)
.
)
Composites
Composite Analysis
!# Calculation of
$la%e Section Inertial Properties
'rincipal 7nertia=Axes(
7
//#..
=
/
.
(
7
FLA'
+7
CH9B8
)
!
.
(
/
0
(
7
CH9B8
7
FLA'
)
.
+7
FC
.
)
0=
/
.
tan
/
(
.7
FC
(
7
CH9B8
7
FLA'
)
)
Composites
Composite Analysis
!"# Calculation of
$la%e Section orsional Stiffness
. cell Shear flo!(
(:etter to use nonlinear methods
A
o
=A
/
+A
.
a
/
=
(
s
5t
)
/
a
.
=
(
s
5t
)
.
a
+
=
(
s
5t
)
+
5D=0
(
A
/
.
a
.
+A
o
.
a
/.
+A
.
.
a
/
a
/
a
/.
+a
/
a
.
+a
.
a
/.
)
&
/
6
=
(
A
/
a
.
+A
o
a
/.
)
.
(
A
/
.
a
.
+A
o
.
a
/.
+A
.
.
a
/
)
&
.
6
=
(
A
.
a
/
+A
o
a
/.
)
.
(
A
/
.
a
.
+A
o
.
a
/.
+A
.
.
a
/
)
&
/.
6
=
(
&
/
6

&
.
6
)
y
i
=
(
&
i
6
)(
/
5t
)
i
6
Composites
Composite Analysis
!# Calculation of $la%e C( (orces
9nce blade Section properties are calculated# CF load may

be calculated easily via se"mentin" the blade into n
discreet se"ments. For the i
th
se"ment
e

E blade rotational speed
A
i
E se"ment runnin" !ei"ht
L
i
E se"ment len"th
r
i
E se"ment radial c" location
Cumulative sum "ives
total blade CF distribution
CF
i
=u
.
pA
i
L
i
r
i
0123
)
1)))
!)))
*)))
+)))
,)))
-)))
.)))
/)))
1)0) !)0) *)0) +)0) ,)0) -)0) .)0) /)0)
SA (in0)
C
(

(
l
1
f
)
Composites
Composite Analysis
!"# Calculation of
Section Strains'Stresses
'lane Sections remain 'lane
'oissonFs Batio# v E 4
Stren"th of Materials calculation of Stress due to

asymmetric beam bendin"
7nertial CF force acts throu"h section c"
:endin" Moments resisted about section neutral axis
;on-coincident C5 and ;A result in constant bendin"

moments both flap and chord-!ise
Composites
Composite Analysis
!"# Calculation of Section Strains
Strain due to CF (applied axial force(
Strain due to bendin" Moment(
;ote( Ghen %7
FC
E 4 (symmetry# c E My=%7
t
CF
=
CF
%A
t
i
FLA'
=
M
FLA'
(
y
i
A
;A
)
%7
CH9B8
(
x
i
@
;A
)
%7
FC
|
%7
FLA'
%7
CH9B8
%7
FC
.
t
i
CH9B8
=
M
CH9B8
(
x
i
@
;A
)
%7
FLA'
(
y
i
A
;A
)
%7
FC
|
%7
FLA'
%7
CH9B8
%7
FC
.
Composites
Composite Analysis
!"# Calculation of
Section Strains
Comparison of .-8 calculation to fully +-8 Finite
%lement Analysis of a Composite Main Botor Spar
+
:eam is Fixed H inboard-end
+
SubIected to Fli"ht Condition CF C :endin" Moment
Loads
Composites
Composite Analysis
F
CF
E 0/#2+J lbf M
FLA'
E /.#.14 in-lbf
M
CH9B8
E -.4#J++ in-lbf M
69BS
E -/0#K4/ in-lbf
Besultin" (linear Strain 8istribution# L
@@
Strain H 6railin" %d"e# Spar Heel# L
@@
E 22+ Ms
Composites
Composite Analysis
Axial Stress 8istribution#

@@

Axial Load 6a$en 'rimarily
by 3nidirectional (4N
5raphite C Fiber"lass
plies
O01N 5raphite :ias 'lies
%xhibit Alternatin" Ptive C
-tive Stresses due to
torsional loadin"
+(01
c
/01
c
)/ 1 .(4
s
/4
c
)/ 01
c
/01
c
| 0(01
c
/01
c
)|
Composites
Composite Analysis
!#"Calculation of Section Strains
3sin" Section properties calculated
via .-8 beam e&uations(
(note( %
FC
Q 4
s
E EA
P
CF
c 1171
6 827 . 35
41937
= = =
s
CF FE
c 1194
_
=
( ) ( )
s
E EI
Y Y M
FLAP
D NA FLAP
FLAP
c 529
6 730 . 22
) 168 . 1 187 . 0 ( 12250
=
=
( ) ( )
s
E EI
X X M
CHORD
D NA CHORD
CHORD
c 346
6 079 . 220
) 994 . 7 320 . 4 ( 20733
=

=
=
s
FLAP FE
c 534
_
=
s
CHORD FE
c 333
_
=
c
!
4 556s
c
2-D
4 577s
Composites
Composite Analysis
Classical 2amination
Plate heory (C2P)
Laminate is )thin* - plane stress assumption
Combines individual laminae into laminate

(smearin"
'rovides &uic$ and easy calculation of

laminate stresses=strains under in-plane
loadin"
Several laminate failure criteria available

Ref: Introduction to Composite Materials Stephen
W. Tsai, H Thomas Hahn
Composites
Composite Analysis
C2P
Ply (2amina) #efinition
x - directed alon" the fiber
y - directed in-plane# transverse
z - directed throu"h thic$ness# transverse
8
y
9
Composites
Composite Analysis
!"# simplification
'lane Stress Assumption( Stresses in the thic$ness
direction are ne"li"ible (not necessarily true.
For orthotropic material(

R
=
zx
=
yz
=4
t
x
t
y
t
z
y
yz
y
zx
y
xy
/
%
x

v
xy
%
x

v
xz
%
x
4 4 4
v
xy
%
x
/
%
y

v
yz
%
y
4 4 4
v
xz
%
x

v
yz
%
y
/
%
z
4 4 4
4 4 4
/
5
yz
4 4
4 4 4 4
/
5
zx
4
4 4 4 4 4
/
5
xy
|
u
x
u
y
u
z
f
yz
f
zx
f
xy

t
x
t
y
t
s
/
%
x

v
xy
%
x
4
v
xy
%
x
/
%
y
4
4 4
/
5
xy
|
u
x
u
y
u
s
Contracte% notation3
Composites
Composite Analysis
C2P
2amina (Ply) Stiffness
%n"ineerin" constants defined in terms of stiffness
and compliances
t
x
t
y
t
s
/
%
x

v
xy
%
x
4
v
xy
%
x
/
%
y
4
4 4
/
5
xy
|
u
x
u
y
u
s
S
xx
S
xy
4
S
xy
S
yy
4
4 4 S
ss
|
u
x
u
y
u
s
u
x
u
y
u
s
= S|
/
t
x
t
y
t
s
S
xx
S
xy
4
S
xy
S
yy
4
4 4 S
ss
|
t
x
t
y
t
s
Composites
Composite Analysis
C2P
Off"axis ransformation
7ndividual plies are oriented in various directions to maximize

stiffness# stren"th.
)9n-axis* lamina (ply properties (stiffnesses or compliances -

x#y#z are transformed to )9ff-axis* (/#.#+
6ransformed ply properties can then be combined into Laminate

properties
S
//
S
..
S
/.
S
,,
S
/,
S
.,
m
0
n
0
.m
.
n
.
0m
.
n
.
n
0
m
0
.m
.
n
.
0m
.
n
.
m
.
n
.
m
.
n
.
m
0
+n
0
0m
.
n
.
m
.
n
.
m
.
n
.
.m
.
n
.
(m
.
n
.
)
.
m
+
n mn
+
mn
+
m
+
n .(mn
+
m
+
n)
mn
+
m
+
n m
+
nmn
+
.(m
+
nmn
+
)
|
S
xx
S
yy
S
xy
S
ss
m=cos(0) n=sin(0)
----Similar com&liance relationshi&
Composites
Composite Analysis
C2P
2aminate Stress 'Strain %istri1ution
#ue to &xtension
Composites
Composite Analysis
C2P
Summation of Off"axis 2amina Stiffness
Assumin" that the laminate is symmetric means that the

laminate !ill only extend under in-plane loadin" (no out of
plane bendin"
7ndividual 9ff-axis lamina (ply stiffness TS
/#.#..
Umatrices
may then be summed
6he extensional strain can then be related to the applied in-

plane loadin"
)N* indicates in-plane extension onlyV
A
//
=
S
//
dz
A
..
=
S
..
dz
A
/.
=.... etc

;
/
;
.
;
,
h u
/
h u
.
h u
,
A
//
A
/.
A
/,
A
./
A
..
A
.,
A
,/
A
,.
A
,,
|
t
/
o
t
.
o
t
,
o
Composites
Composite Analysis
C2P
2aminate Stress 'Strain %istri1ution
%ue to curvature
Composites
Composite Analysis
C2P
Out of plane $en%in4
A similar derivation is employed to determine strain

due to bendin"
Assumin" linear bendin" throu"h the thic$ness

8
//
=
S
//
z
.
dz
8
..
=
S
..
z
.
dz
8
/.
=.... etc

M
/
M
.
M
,
8
//
8
/.
8
/,
8
./
8
..
8
.,
8
,/
8
,.
8
,,
|
$
/
$
.
$
,
M=%7 $
t
i
b
=z$
i
Composites
Composite Analysis
C2P
5eneral 2aminate $en%in4
:endin"=%xtensional Couplin" due to unsymmetric

laminates (discussed momentarily
for symmetric laminates(
:
//
=
S
//
zdz
:
..
=
S
..
zdz
:
/.
=.... etc
:
iI
=4
;
/
;
.
;
,
M
/
M
.
M
,
A| :|
:| 8|
|
_
A:8 Matrix

t
/
o
t
.
o
t
,
o
$
/
$
.
$
,
t
/
=t
/
o
+$
/
z
t
.
=t
.
o
+$
.
z
t
,
=t
,
o
+$
,
z
:ote; Com&liance
$orm is re$erred to
as .o|o matri9/
Composites
Composite Analysis
2aminate erminolo4y
Symmetric( 6here is an e&ual and opposite ply across
the laminate mid-plane
:alanced( For every Pu ply# there is a matchin" -u ply
Symmetric C :alanced(
3nsymmetric C :alanced(
Symmetric C 3nbalanced(
3nsymmetric C 3nbalanced(
O 01 /4
.
/+4
.
/++4
.
|
S
< im&lies $abric=
4
.
/24
.
/,4
.
/+,4
.
|
4
.
/24
.
/+4
.
/+,4
.
|
S
4
.
/24
.
/01
.
/+,4
.
|
Composites
Composite Analysis
6uasi"Isotropic 2aminates
n ply "roups oriented H W=n intervals (n > +
nE +
nE 0
7n-plane stren"th uniform in all directions
5ood startin" point for most laminate desi"n
5raphite )&uasi* laminates# a$a- :lac$ Aluminum

mo%ulus approximately e7ual to aluminum with typically *)"
+)8 wei4ht savin4s0 9owever: practical ;oint consi%eration
can re%uce wei4ht a%vanta4e consi%era1ly to 1,"!)8 or less0
&nvironmental consi%erations may even further re%uce the
a%vanta4e an% ne4ate its usa4e0
4/,4/,4|
s
4/ 01/01/24|
s
Composites
Composite Analysis
Other 2aminate ypes
3nidirectional > entirely 4N fiber orientation (can
be multiple materials# very susceptible to
micro-crac$in"# almost !ithout exception
re&uires a biased scrim in practical
applications (fishin" rodsV
Cross-'ly > fiber orientation is only 4N or 24N
:ias (An"le 'ly > fiber direction is Pu/u
Composites
Composite Analysis
San%wich Panels
Composites
Composite Analysis
San%wich Panels
2t
7t
%7 =
%b(.t )
+
/.
=
.
+
%bt
+
%7 =.%
bt
+
/.
+bt
(
+t
.
)
.
|
=
/0
+
%bt
+
%7 =.%
bt
+
/.
+bt
(
Jt
.
)
.
|
=
J0
+
%bt
+
!< thic=ness > .< (lexural Stiffness
+< thic=ness > *.< (lexural Stiffness
>t
Composites
Composite Analysis
San%wich Panels
Sand!ich 'anel Loadin"
6ension=Compression Carried by face-sheets
Shear carried by core (ribbon direction can be

important
Analysis must account for proper core behavior

Composites
Composite Analysis
San%wich Panels
Simple Stren"th of Materials :eam
Analysis(
Stiffness(
Strains(
)f* indicates face-sheet# )c* indicates core.
h E t
f
P t
c

%7 =
%
f
bt
f
h
.
.
5A=bh5
c
t
f
=
M
%
f
bt
f
h
y
c
=
F
5
c
bh
Composites
Composite Analysis
San%wich Panels
Structural Modelin" of Honeycomb
core(
%
L
E %
G
~ 4
LG
~
Lt
~
Gt
~ 0
5
LG
~ 4
5
Lt
E Shear modulus in ribbon direction
5
Gt
E Shear modulus in ribbon direction
%
t
E %
C
E Compressive modulus
Composites
Composite Analysis
San%wich Panels
Honeycomb can be treated as Iust another ply in CL'6
methods (usin" appropriate material definition
9ther Analysis Methods(
8esi"n Handboo$s (empirical
F%A
Static analysis relatively simple... Failure modes
(discussed later can be considerably different than
simple composite (fiber tensile=compression failure
and must be carefully analyzed
Composites
Composite Analysis
Analysis ools
Handboo$ Methods
?sually 1ase% on empirical (test) %ata @ simple SOM
?oein) Desi)n Manual
McDonnell Dou)las
@endor Manuals
Composites
Composite Analysis
"
Composite Analysis
Section Summary
Analysis of composite structures extends from the

same theory as isotropic material
6he level of complexity is multiplied by the necessity

to evaluate for each material and ply orientation
Careful consideration must be "iven to prevent

un!anted structural responses
Commercially available numerical methods have

become commonplace and enable a relatively simple
analysis for &ualified persons.
Composites
Composite Analysis
Composite Analysis (Part 2)
Section Overview
Environmental Considerations
Temperature
Moisture
Corrosion (Galvanic)
Erosion (Rain, Sand)
Lightning
Strength / Failure
Laminate Strength/Failure
Sandich Failure
Fatigue Analysis
Damage/Impact Tolerance
Composites
Composite Analysis
Glass Transition
Temperature T
g
Below T
g
, material is in a
hard glass-like state,
exhibiting elastic
structural behavior.
Above T
g
, material is
rubbery, pliable.
!rimarily a""ects resin#
$evlar absorbs moisture#
! " #$% F (M&L'()*!'+,)
Composites
Composite Analysis
T
g
! Test methods
"T#A$ Thermal #echanical Analysis!
#easures change in CTE vs
Temperature as material goes from
glass to ru%%er state
"D#A$ Dynamic #echanical Analy&er
applies oscillatory load to specimen
measuring lag %et'een stress and
strain to determine (storage
modulus) vs temperature
)M-
TM-
T
g
T
g
Composites
Composite Analysis
#oisture
A%sorption
#oisture upta*e "typically +!
,-$
Dependent on %oth moisture
type "'ater. salt'ater. oil.
etc$ and laminate "matri/ 0
fi%er$1
2educes the material
operational limits1
Composites
Composite Analysis
Temperature 0 moisture
"Hygrothermal$ primarily affect
matri/ properties
Composites
Composite Analysis
Heat A%sorption3
Selection of E/terior coatings
should consider heat
a%sorption1 Dar* finishes
e/posed to direct sunlight may
approach T
g
of many
composite materials. light
colors and reflective finishes
can significantly reduce
temperatures1
45lac* 6 ,789F. :hite 6 +;79F <
Composites
Composite Analysis
In a typical multi!directional
laminate3
Elevated temperature and moisture lead to high
compressive stresses in matri/1 #atri/ is restrained
%y fi%ers1
=o' temperatures lead to high tensile stresses in matri/
"#atri/ contraction$1
Composites
Composite Analysis
Strain Due to Temperature3
... is laminate CTE, T the change in temperature
Strain Due to #oisture3
... is the moisture e/pansion coe00icient, c the moisture
concentration (0raction o0 dr1 mass, 2 moisture)
c
A T
i
o
=o
i
o
AT o
i
o
=
A
i%
|
+
&
%k
o
k
d'
c
(
i
o
=
i
o
c
i
o
=
A
i%
|
+
&
%k
k
d'
Composites
Composite Analysis
2ain/Sand Erosion3
Typ1 rotor tip speeds #
TI>
6 81?
>aint. Composite erodes
>olyurethane tapes "(%lade

tape)$0 coatings "Aero@retA$
#etallic "Electroformed
Bic*el. Stainless$ Shields
often used1
Composites
Composite Analysis
=ightning >rotection3
!Astrostri*e
!>!static
!Grounding Straps
3ote
strap...
Composites
Composite Analysis
Static Failure Analysis
#any Failure theories have %een
proposed. a fe' are commonly
accepted3
#a/ Stress Failure Criteria
#a/ Strain Failure Criteria
Tsai!Hill
Tsai!:u
Composites
Composite Analysis
#a/ Stress Failure "ply coordinates$

Tensile Stress3

Fi4er 4rea5age 6 Matri/ crac5ing
Compressive Stress3

Fi4er 6 Matri/ crushing
Shear Stress3
Shear Crac5ing
u
X
F
XT
1 ,
u
Y
F
YT
1
u
X
F
XC
1 ,
u
Y
F
YC
1
u
XY
F
XY
1
Composites
Composite Analysis
#a/ Strain Failure "ply coordinates$

Tensile Strain3

Fi4er 4rea5age 6 Matri/ crac5ing
Compressive Strain3

Fi4er 6 Matri/ crushing
Shear Strain3
Shear Crac5ing
t
X
t
XTU
1 ,
t
Y
t
YTU
1
t
X
t
XCU
1 ,
t
Y
t
YCU
1
y
XY
y
XYU
1
Composites
Composite Analysis
Tsai!Hill Failure criteria3

"Bote3 must account for tension or compression$
F
C
D a/ial allo'a%le stress. tensile or compressive
F
E
D transverse allo'a%le stress. tensile or compressive
F
CE
D shear allo'a%le
u
X
2
F
X
2
+
u
Y
2
F
Y
2
u
X
u
Y
F
X
2
+
f
XY
2
F
XY
2
=1
Composites
Composite Analysis
Tsai!Hill Com%ined Factor of

Safety "Stress 2atios$3
R
2
u
X
2
F
X
2
+
R
2
u
Y
2
F
Y
2

R
2
u
X
u
Y
F
X
2
+
R
2
f
XY
2
F
XY
2
=1
u
i
allow
=Ru
i (
i.e. u
X
allow
=Ru
X )
FOS
COMBINED
=
1
.
( R
X
2
+R
Y
2

R
XY
2
+R
XY
2
)
,

R
XY
2
=
u
X
u
Y
F
X
2
FOS
i
=1/ R
i
Composites
Composite Analysis
Sand'ich Structural Failure3
#any Failure modes are
possi%le for sand'ich
structures!
General 5uc*ling
Shear Crimping
Face :rin*ling
Intra!cell 5uc*ling
Facing Failure
Core Crushing
7anel eight " +. 8 l4
Failure Load " +9$ l4
Composites
Composite Analysis
+
Fatigue Life Analysis
Testing of materials and components under real or simulated
operating environment at realistic loading is essential for
Fualification1
The analysis reFuired to define Fualification testing must consider
=o'!cycle "=CF$. Ground!Air!Ground "GAG$. and High cycle
"HCF$ fatigue regimes1
Testing has sho'n that. for composites designed for adeFuate
static strength. the fatigue strength for in!plane loading for
cyclic lives up to + million cycles. is greater than 78- of the
static strength1 This o%servation is valid for all environmental
conditions investigated1
Composites
Composite Analysis
Fatigue Analysis
=oads Estimation3
"Guantify significant loading events in terms of lifetime$
Ta*e!offs
>ullups
>ushovers
Turns
Control reversals
Clim%s
Descents
Hne Engine Inoperative "HEI$
Auto!rotation
Flares
=andings
Consider variations in3
Speed
Gross :eight
CG
Altitude
Fatigue loads may then %e
applied to components using
simple analytical SH#
approach. Bumerical #ethods
"FEA$. or empirical data to
determine Stress/Strain levels
Composites
Composite Analysis
Fatigue Analysis
Fatigue Data3
Composites
Composite Analysis
Fatigue Analysis
Construct Goodman Diagram to determine Fatigue FHS
for a given condition3
Linearied !oodman "iagram
#$% !& ' C(CO$ )*+ +,*FA- ./
9$9:
9#::
';,+< +9+$;
8$#: ':<#8
++<9
$
+$$$
9$$$
<$$$
:$$$
#$$$
8$$$
'+$$$$ '#$$$ $ #$$$ +$$$$ +#$$$
Steady Strain (ms)
A
l
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
n
g

S
t
r
a
i
n

(
m
s
)
Mean '<s )ata 7oint +$=> C1cles, R"$.+
Mean ' <s )ata 7oint +$=> C1cles, R" '+
Composites
Composite Analysis
Fatigue Analysis
Determine component life used %y
load event3
)*+,=
(
n
-
)
i
=+
Composites
Composite Analysis
"amage 0olerance
#ain 2otor Accelerated

Fatigue testing 'ith fla's
Delaminations
>roIectile damage
Joids
2epair damage
FHD Impact
Damage
Composites
Composite Analysis
+
"amage 0olerance
&denti01
Critical
Structure
&denti01
7otential
)e0ects
&n'service
)e0ects
M 6 7
Related )e0ects
&denti01 largest
potential si?e
not detected 41 @C
)e0ine Service
ReAuirement
9 B Li0e C Limit
3on'detecta4le
in'service damage
)e0ine Service
ReAuirement
9B Li0e C Limit
)etecta4le
&n'service )amage
)e0ine &nspection
&nterval
+$$ Flights C Limit
3on'
)etecta4le
)amage
Composites
Design for Fabrication
Section Overview
General Design:
Material Selection
Ply Arrangement
Tolerances
Ply Drops
Corner Radii
Drilled Holes
Bolted Joints
Bonded Joints
Rotor Blade Design:

Geometry
Blade Attachment
Stiffness Matching
Maintenance/Balancing
Composites
Material Selection
Unidirectional Tape
asily Tailored to Match !oads
"cellent S#rface finish
Diffic#lt to form conto#rs $darting%
Splice &/fi'ers parallel
()* higher allo&a'les $typ%
!o&er Ra& Material Cost
oven Fabric
!ess Material Handling Damage
asier to form on conto#rs/corners
More Damage tolerant
Composites
Material Selection
!"!!
!"#$
!"$!
!"%$
&"!!
&"#$
&"$!
Strengt' Stiffness Strain Fatigue Densit(
Carbon
Glass
)evlar
Boron
Carbon often selected*

but ot'er materials
ma( offer improved
performance
* Cost
* Availability
* Toughness
* Strain capability
Composites
Ply Arrangement Guidelines
Use S(mmetric +aminates
Use Balanced +aminates
,inimi-e pl(.to.pl( angle difference
+imit number of ad/acent plies 0it'

e1ual orientation 23 4 plies5
Composites
Surface Finish
Composites
PreCuringCocuring
6recuring:
Allo0s part surfaces to be
consolidated 2good surface
finis'5 and provide rigid
surface for internal structure
secondar( bonding"
Cocuring:
Can provide significant savings
in reducing cure c(cles" ,a(
re1uire additional
mec'anisms 2bridge strips5 to
ac'ieve good results
Composites
Tolerances
Tolerances in composite product
must be considered:
Resin Content 2prepreg5: 789 2b( 0eig't5
Fiber Areal eig't 2FA5 7#9
6l( 6attern 6rofile Tolerance 7!"!8 in"
6l( 6lacement 2,anual5 7!"!: in"
6l( Drops 2,anual5 7!"&! in"
Composites
Ply !rop Taper "ates
PA"#$T MAT#"%A&
PA"#$T MAT#"%A&
S;<G+= SH=AR
D>UB+= SH=AR
D>UB+= SH=AR
PA"#$T MAT#"%A&
PA"#$T MAT#"%A&
&!!9 !? U<;
S;<G+=
SH=AR
D>UB+=
SH=AR
S;<G+=
SH=AR
D>UB+=
SH=AR
S;<G+=
SH=AR
D>UB+=
SH=AR
FAT;GU= #!"$ &!"8 @"A 4"4 &:"! @"!
+;,;T &#"$ :"8 &$"% %"A &:"! @"!
Fiberglass =poB( )evlarC=poB( Grap'iteC=poB(
Composites
Corner "adii
,ale Tooling:
Female Tooling:
+se R , )-). min/
*considered minimum processing limit
and does not negate possibility of fiber
breakage
Tooling
Tooling
Tooling
Fiber Bridging D Resin
Ric' Areas"
Define >,+ Radius
Use R E !"!@ F t'icGness
Composites
Contours
!arting'Slitting
Compound curvatures can
maGe placement of
unidirectional material
impractical:
.use darting D remove
material to fit concave
surfaces
.use slitting D splices to fitCfill
conveB surface
.use aligned discontinuous
uni
. use fabric 26 to t0ill5
Composites
(ole !rilling
Drilling 'oles in composites can be
c'allenging:
Use GrC=p fabric face plies to minimi-e surface

damage"
;f face.plies are uni. tape* entrance ma( be

acceptable* use bacGup tooling on eBit to prevent
damage"
Composites
0(
Mechanical )oint !esign
Composites
Corrosion Prevention
Composites
0)
Mechanical )oint
Failure Modes
Composites
*onded
)oints
Single Scarf Hoint
Double Scarf Hoint
Single +ap Hoint
Double +ap Hoint
Stepped Single +ap Hoint
Stepped Double +ap Hoint
Composites
&ap )oint &ength
vs
Adhesive Shear Stress
+engt' of Hoint 'as minimal effect on end stress
concentrations 2not a function of 6CA5
Composites
Single &ap )oint
Fillet #ffects +F#A,
Composites
*onded )oint Failure
Composites
*lade !esign
Considerations
Geometr( 2retrofitting5
Airfoil +pgrade 1s Drag red#ction
T&ist Distri'#tion
Planform $S&eep2 Anhedral%
lastic/inertial properties
3lap2 Chord2 Torsion
Mass/CG distri'#tion
Composites
*lade !esign
Considerations
Blade Attac'ment
To0pacGsCindings
Single
Tandem
Drill D Bolt
Series $do#'le2 triple%
M#ltiple
4ario#s Blade Root Attachments2 $AT5%
Composites
-
*lade !esign
Considerations
=nvironmental
!ightning Protection pro1isions
Gro#nding straps
Astrostri6e
!eading dge rosion protection
3retting Protection
Carson S7.( Main Rotor 8 !ightning Stri6e Test
Composites
*lade !esign
Considerations
,aintenance
9eight increase d#e to Paint / Repair
Re7'alancing / Accessi'ility
S7.( Tail Rotor Comp#ter Balancing $AT5%
Model Rotor Teeter Balancing $AT5%
Composites
Summary
Design based on t'eor( and intuition is not

sufficient b( itself"
Hands.on eBperience in t'e design of rotor

blades is a prere1uisite to good composite
design"
A good t'eoretical design is immaterial if it

cannot be practicall( implemented
Composites
Fabrication Methods
Section Overview
Fabrication Preparation
Fabrication Methods:
Hand Layup
Resin Film Infusion
Resin Transfer
Molding
Filament Winding
Tow Placement
Curing Methods
Oven
VacuumOven
!utoclave
!"#$ Humming%ird &!V Helicopter
Composites
Fabrication Methods
Preparation
Pattern cutting
Kitting
Ply 'utting Ta%le( 'ourtesy )er%er Tec*nology
Ply +itting ,!TI-
Composites
Fabrication Methods
Preparation
Molds:
Material Selection of Molds
Can be Critical (CT!
"raphite Part # "raphite mold$ %nvar
Fiberglass Part # Stainless Steel (not
carbon steel!
(Aluminum Tools ma& be
used$ but must be
considered carefull& to
avoid CT problems!
.teel /lade Mold( !TI
)rap*ite mold( 'ourtesy0 Process Fa% Inc1
!luminum /lade .par Molds( !TI
Composites
Fabrication Methods
Fabrication
Methods
Hand'(a&up ()et or prepreg!:
*sed almost e+clusivel& in protot&ping ,

development
Still )idel& used in industr&
-e.uires s/illed0trained personnel
(abor intensive
Prone to human error (1A re.uired!
Prepreg sub2ect to e+piration

Composites
Fabrication Methods
Fabrication
Methods
-esin Film %nfusion (-F%!
*sed for small part production
+cellent for thin panels (nacelles$ s/ins access

doors$ secondar& structure!
Ref0 Megan Mac2onald( &niversity of +ansas
!34$ Wing Trailing 5dge Panels( )+6 !erospace
Composites
Fabrication Methods
Fabrication
Methods
-esin Transfer
Molding (-TM!
SC-%MP03A-TM
.eemann
'omposite Resin
Infusion Molding
Process
Vacuum !ssisted
Resin Transfer
Molding
Wind Tur%ine /lades 7 .'RIMP Process( 'ourtesy0 TPI 'omposites
'omanc*e Helicopter Floor Plate
Resin Transfer Mold ,RTM-
'ourtesy0 Reut*er Molds 8 Manufacturing
Composites
Fabrication Methods
Fabrication
Methods
Filament 4inding
Wet-layup
Towpreg
sandwich
construction
Pressure Vessels
(accumulators
!uel tan"s#
$ontainment shields
%rive& 'otor sha!ts
tension-torsion straps
,&niv1 of Te9as 8 !ustin-
Composites
Fabrication Methods
Fabrication
Methods
5raiding0Knitting
6r& Fiber
To)preg
Cores
5lades
(anding "ear
Pressure 3essel
*A3 fuselage
Missile bod&
Trailing !rm Fi%er /raiding( 6ational !erospace La%oratory( 6LR
Hart:ell Propeller;s !dvanced .tructural
'omposite( !.'II Propeller
Composites
Fabrication Methods
Fabrication
Methods
To)0Fiber Placement
Main -otor Spar

(AH'78!
Tailboom
Fuselage
(5ell 9:; Tiltrotor!
mpennage
(3'<<!
=acelles
/ell Helicopter Tail%oom development program 'ourtesy0 !utomated 2ynamics
!H"<( 2o2
Composites
Fabrication Methods
Fabrication
Methods
Table -olling
Mandrel$ Straight
or Tapered
Applies *niform
pressure
Struts (Fishing
-ods , "olf
Shafts!
Pol&urethane
Shrin/ Tape
>ven Cure
M=>$ !dvanced Rolling Ta%le
'ourtesy0 'entury 2esign Inc1
Composites
Fabrication Methods
$ure Process
Conventional Curing involves:
Temperature
-oom Temp (?<@F!
(o) Temp (7<:'7?:@F!
Conventional (<A:0BA:@F!
High Temp (CA:@F!
3acuum (consolidation!
+ternal Pressure
'onventional Oven 'ure ,!TI-
Composites
Fabrication Methods
$ure Process
-oom Temperature0(o) Temp Cure
(o) cost
Secondar& Structure
(o) tooling costs
Freestanding post'cure
!H#? !pac*e
!P& Filter
Housings ,!TI-
Wind tunnel model V>> /lade Root 'uffs ,!TI-
Composites
Fabrication Methods
$ure Process
>ven Cure03acuum 5ag
%nternal 5ladders
Trapped rubber
Vacuum /agging 8
/lade Internal /ladder ,!TI-
Composites
Fabrication Methods
$ure Process
Autoclave Cure
Pressure
Temperature
3acuum
!utoclave( 'ourtesy0 Rayt*eon !ircraft
6H=$ delivery 2ec( >$$@0 !gustaWestlandA5urocopterAFoBBer ,6H-
Composites
Laboratory Testing
Introduction
Despite significant advancements in analytical methods,
specimen and full-scale testing will always be the final
word
As !aterial and "rocess developments advance, testing
will follow
DERA 4-Blade hub & Blades (ATI)
Hover Testing (Blades, ATI)
Composites
Laboratory Testing
Section Overview
!aterials Characteri#ation
$ull-Scale Component Testing
Test Considerations
Calibration
Inertial Calibration
ti!!ness Calibration
"re#uen$% Calibration
Testing
tati$ Test
"atigue Test
Composites
Laboratory Testing
Composite (Lamina)
%nia&ial Longitudinal 'a&ial, fiber direction(Test-

Apply stress in the longitudinal direction, measure
longitudinal and transverse strain
)*btains longitudinal +oung,s !odulus -
.
, !a/or
"oisson,s 0atio
.1
, Tensile Strength $
T.
&
y
train gage
&
Composites
Laboratory Testing
Composite (Lamina)
%nia&ial Transverse 'matri& direction( Test-

Apply stress transverse to fiber direction, measure
)*btains transverse +oung,s !odulus -
1
and !inor
"oisson,s 0atio
1.

y
train gage

&

Composites
Laboratory Testing
Composite (Lamina)
Shear Test-
Apply stress in 234 fiber direction, measure
)*btains in-plane Shear !odulus 5
.1
, and Shear
strength $
.1
&
y
train gage

Composites
Laboratory Testing
Material Characterization
Test Specifications (examples)
American Society for Testing and !aterials
6AST! D7879 : D7879! - 8; Standard Test !ethod for Tensile "roperties

of "olymer !atri& Composite !aterials<
6AST! D72.8 : D72.8! - 87 Standard Test !ethod for Compressive

"roperties of "olymer !atri& Composite !aterials with %nsupported
5age Section by Shear Loading<
6AST! D37;9 : D37;9! - 83 Standard Test !ethod for Shear "roperties

of Composite !aterials by the =->otched ?eam !ethod<
!any similar tests defined by other organi#ations@
SA- A Society for Automotive -ngineers 'SA- B1137(
DC> '->, CS*(- 5erman institute for Standardi#ation
SAC!A A Suppliers of Advanced Composite !aterials Assoc
Composites
Laboratory Testing
Stiffness Calibration
$lap, Chord, Torsion
Shear Center
>eutral A&is
Torsional ti!!ness Testing (ATI) &eutral A'is Testing, (ATI)
Composites
Laboratory Testing
Inertial Calibration
Deight
Center of 5ravity
"itch Cnertia 'rotor(
Lead-Lag Cnertia 'rotor(

(ass)C* e$tions, -+, ()R (ATI)
Tri-!ilar -it$h
inertia testing (ATI)
Composites
Laboratory Testing
re!uenc" Calibration
E0ap TestF
$orced $reGuency 0esponse
?oundary Conditions '$ree-$ree(

-140
-130
-120
-110
-100
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
P
o
w
e
r

(
d
B
)
Frequency (Hz)
Low Twist SN004 Free-Free Frequency Response
20!-0"-"
Composites
Laboratory Testing
Test
Considerations
$ull-Scale Testing "rovides@
$ailure !odes
$law 5rowth 0ates
Time from $ailure Cnitiation to Loss of Load

Carrying Capability
*n Condition 0eplacement A derived from flaw

growth rate and time to final failure
Composites
Laboratory Testing
Test
Considerations
Specimens 0epresentative
$ailure Location
$ailure !ode
-nvironmental -ffects
Corrosion
Abrasion
Temperature
Humidity:LiGuids
*perational $laws
!anufacturing Defects
Cn-Service Damage 'impact- hail, tools, lightning(

Composites
Laboratory Testing
Static Testin#
Static Load testing
Centrifugal 'C$( Testing
Dhirl Testing
.hirl testing -+, Tail Rotor Blades, (ATI)
Chord /oad Calibration Test, -+, ()R, (ATI)
Composites
Laboratory Testing
ati#ue Testin#
0oot $atigue Testing

Root "atigue Test Rig, AATD "t0 Eustis, 1A (ATI)
Composites
Laboratory Testing
ati#ue Testin#
0esonance Testing
(id-Blade Resonan$e Testing, AATD, "t0 Eustis, 1A (ATI)
Composites
FAA Certification
Introduction
FAA
Responsible for the advancement, safety and regulation of
civil aviation.
FAA Chief Scientific Technical Advisors (CSTA)

chartered to understand understand all of the technology
and to propose legislation to ensure public safety.
Aircraft Certification Offices (ACO)
Flight Standards District Office (FSDO)
Manufacturing Inspection District Offices (MIDO)

responsible for production approval and certification
Composites
FAA Certification
Rotorcraft
Directorate
The otorcraft Directorate is

responsi!le for"
FAA regulations and policy related to engineering
certification of rotorcraft and powered-lift aircraft
FAA certification of rotorcraft worldwide, and both fixed and
rotary wing aircraft within the FAA Southwest Region
Approving the design and production for all fixed and rotary
wing aircraft manufactured or modified within the FAA
Southwest Region.
Composites
FAA Certification
FAA
Representatives
Designated #ngineering epresentative (D#)" an individual, appointed
in accordance with 14 CFR 18.!", who holds an engineering degree or
e#uivalent, possesses technical $nowledge and e%perience, and meets the
#ualification re#uirements of &rder 81''.8.
Designated Air$orthiness epresentative (DA)" an individual,
appointed in accordance with 14 CFR 18. who may perform
e%amination, inspection, and testing services necessary to the issuance of
certificates.
Designated Manufacturing Inspection epresentative (DMI)" an
individual appointed in accordance with 14 CFR 18.1 who may issue(
original airworthiness certificates, e%port certificates of airworthiness,
e%perimental certificates, and special flight permits for e%port of aircraft) and,
conduct inspections of prototype and production products and related parts
necessary to the issuance of certificates. * +,-R must possesses
aeronautical $nowledge and e%perience, be employed by a .roduction
*pproval /older 0.*/1, or a .*/2s approved supplier, and meet the
#ualification re#uirements of &rder 81''.8.
Composites
FAA Certification
Definitions
T%pe Certificate (TC) & FAA Certification of an airframe design' TC

Holders are authori(ed to produce a vehicle in accordance $ith the TC'
Supplemental T%pe Certificate (STC) & issued $hen a ma)or design

change is approved to an original TC'
T%pe Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS)* The TCDS is a formal description of

the aircraft+ engine or propeller' It lists limitations and information
re,uired for t%pe certification including airspeed limits+ $eight limits+
thrust limitations+ etc'
-arts Manufacturer Approval (-MA) * is an FAA com!ined design and

production approval for modification and replacement parts' It allo$s a
manufacturer to produce and sell these parts for installation on t%pe
certificated products'
-roduction Certificate (-C) * A production certificate is an approval

(document) to manufacture duplicate products under an FAA*approved
t%pe design (i'e'+ t%pe certificate or supplemental t%pe certificate)'
Composites
FAA Certification
FAA Online
http"..$$$'faa'gov.
FAA and Industr% /uide

to -roduct Certification
0isting of ACO1s FSDO1s

2 MIDO1s
0isting of D#1s 2 DA1s
0isting of FA1s and AC1s
#*forms (i'e' 3445*6)

Composites
FAA Certification
FAR's & Advisory Circulars
FAA Certification is dictated !% Federal

Aviation egulations (FA) and Advisor%
Circulars (AC)
otorcraft are dictated !% the follo$ing"
Title 47 Code of Federal egulations

Part !, Airworthiness Standards" #ormal $ategory
Rotorcraft %&'() *!+++ lb, *, passengers-
Part ,, Airworthiness Standards" 'ransport $ategory
Rotorcraft %&'() . !+++ lb-
Advisor% Circulars (AC)

!-/, $ertification of #ormal $ategory Rotorcraft
,-, $ertification of 'ransport $ategory Rotorcraft
Composites
FAA Certification
Advisory Circulars
(cont)
Man% AC1s e8ist for
guidance on rotor
s%stem and airframe
components"
AC 95*:6A * -rotection of
Aircraft Fuel S%stems Against
Fuel ;apor Ignition Caused !%
0ightning
AC 95*45<A & Composite

Aircraft Structures
AC 9< Miscellaneous /uidance

(M/) 3 Su!stantiation of
Composite otorcraft
Structure
Composites
FAA Certification
Certification Team
FAA and Applicant=s Management+ -ro)ect Manager"
Ma>es commitment to the -S- (-artnership for Safet% -rogram) and provides
leadership and resources'
?ointl% orchestrates the -SC- (-ro)ect Specific Certification -lan) and appl% the
-S- agreements'
FAA Standards Staff -ro)ect Officer"
-rovides timel% standardi(ed polic% and guidance'
FAA #ngineers and Designees"
Appl% regulations and polic% to find compliance including the determination of the
ade,uac% of t%pe design and su!stantiation data'
FAA Inspectors and Designees"
Determine conformit% and air$orthiness'
FAA Flight Test -ilots and Designees"
Conduct FAA flight tests'
FAA Chief Scientific and Technical Advisor (CSTA)"
-rovides e8pert advice and technical assistance'
FAA Aircraft #valuation /roup (A#/)"
#valuates conformance to operations and maintenance re,uirements'
Composites
FAA Certification
FAA/Industry
Certification
Certification consists of a five
phase !uilding !loc> process"
Conceptual Design
I e,uirements Definition
II Compliance -lanning
III Implementation
I; -ost Certification
Composites
FAA Certification
FAR
Reuirements
(FAR !"/!#$%&')
4) Develop @A s%stem to AC 94*9A
B@ualit% Control for the Manufacture of
Composite StructuresC
defines allowable defect limits %)aviness, fiber
defects, porosity, delaminations, disbonds etc.-
0endor 1ualified Parts 2ist %1P2- $ontrol
Receiving 3nspection and 3n-process 3nspection
&aterial $omponent Storage and 4andling
&aintain &aterial5$omponent 2ife 4istory
Composites
FAA Certification
FAR
Reuirements
(FAR !"/!#$%&( & !"/!#$%)()
9') Dasic Constituent Material
Acceptance and a$ Material -roperties
Determination
Properties $haracteri6ation Re7uirements documentation
&oisture $onditioning of 'est $oupons, Subcomponents
8etermination of &aximum in-service 'emperature
8etermination of 'g %wet, 9+: over &aximum in-service
temperature-
Analysis and5or 'est on point designs %including S$F;s,
discontinuities-
<stablish &aterial and $omponent Strain Allowables
Composites
FAA Certification
FAR
Reuirements
(FAR !"/!#$%&#)
6') Structural -rotection * Sho$ via
Anal%sis.Test+ protection against
(not all*inclusive)"
Thermal effects
Moisture effects
E; Damage
A!rasion
Fretting
Impact
0ightning
Composites
FAA Certification
FAR
Reuirements
(FAR !"/!#$(&' & !"/!#$(&")
7') Static Strength #valuation"
Onl% Conservative+ proven methods of

anal%sis and failure criteria should !e
emplo%ed
Strength demonstrated in increments

through anal%sis+ coupon tests+ and
component ultimate load tests
esidual strength after pre*determined

length of service should !e esta!lished
Composites
FAA Certification
FAR
Reuirements
(FAR !"/!#$(&' & !"/!#$(&")
7') Static Strength #valuation (cont)"
In*service damage+ production varia!ilit%+

failure modes+ and environmental effects
$ill !e considered
The ma8imum dis!ond of all critical

!onded )oints $ill !e esta!lished !% test
and.or anal%sis'
For Critical components * A*!asis

allo$a!les+ Fon*critical failsafe
components & D*!asis allo$a!les
Composites
FAA Certification
FAR
Reuirements
(FAR !"/!#$'"))
:') Fatigue Strength #valuation"
Fatigue evaluations should use fla$

tolerance.safe*life approach
Flight !% flight spectrum testing
#nvironmental degradation 2 in*service

damage to !e included
The method of generating S*F curves

using approved ra$ fatigue test data
should !e demonstrated and approved
Composites
FAA Certification
FAR
Reuirements
(FAR !"/!#$%)))
A') Special epair and Continued
Air$orthiness e,uirements"
epairs according to an approved

structural repair manual
epairs to !e permanent
estore original strength and function
Have negligi!le $eight penalt% and !e

aerod%namicall% sta!le
Composites
FAA Certification
Fli*+t ,rofile
Operatin* -nvelope
FAA Re*ulations &
Advisory Circulars
.aterial
/election
-nvironmental
-0posure/Dama*e
Specifications
2 Criteria
Test 2
#valuation
Fla1s &
Defects
Continued
Air1ort+iness
Fli*+t 2oads
/urvey
/tatic & Fati*ue
2i*+tnin*
Dama*ed Full3/cale
/pecimens
/tatic &
Fati*ue
RTD Coupons
/tatic & Fati*ue
-T4 Coupons
Coupon &
Full /cale
/pecimens
Repairs /tatic &
Fati*ue
Ac,uired
Data
2oadin*
/pectrum
Component
Failure .odes5
-ndurance 2imits
& Fail /afe
C+aracteristics
/tren*t+ & /tiffness
//6 Curve /+ape
/tren*t+
De*radation
,ropa*ation
C+aracteristics
Repair
-ffectiveness
Anal%sis 2
Design
2ife5 .T7R5 .T7O
& Operatin*
2imitations
-nvironmental
8noc9do1n
Factors
Coeff's of
:ariation
.aterial Desi*n
Allo1a;les
7lade Desi*n &
,reliminary
Analysis
2oad ,redictions
/tren*t+/2ife -ffect
Defect Criteria
Repair .anual
Fa!rication.
-roduction
,rototype
Fa;rication
,rototype
Fa;rication
,roduction
Fa;rication
Service
7lade <ualification ,lan
Composites
Examples
Typical Blade Process
Root Spar Core Inbd Spar Main Core Main Spar Core
Spar Tip Core Inbd Weight Mold
Cast a Weight
Cast Weight Tip Weight Fitting Spar Cores Assembled
Composites
Examples
Inner Torsion Wrap Wedges & Root Filler Plies Tows
Trimming Tows Assembled Spar Cap Lower Spar Cap Installed
Tip Core Installed Upper Spar Cap Installed Spar Cap Root iew
Composites
Examples
Spar Caps L! iew L! Uni Root L! Uni Tip
"#ter Torsion Wraps C#red Spar C#red Spar Root iew
T! Core Sto$% T! Core Ma$hined "#ter Film Adhesi&e Installed
Composites
Examples
Astrostri%e Installed F' Plies Installed 'raphite Plies Installed
Root (o#blers Installed Inner Film Adh Installed Spar Installed
T! Core Installed T! Core Tip iew T! Core ) Root iew
Composites
Examples
T! Uni Installed Read* to Print First Print
Read* to Coo%
Composites
Examples
Composite Blades / Props / Fans
Ultrasport Ultrasport Ultrasport Ultrasport
+aw% , +aw% , +aw% , +aw% ,
Persi#s Persi#s Persi#s Persi#s
-ASA TRAM -ASA TRAM -ASA TRAM -ASA TRAM
.ell ,/0 .ell ,/0 .ell ,/0 .ell ,/0
S S) )12 12 S S) )12 12
-ASA -ASA -ASA -ASA
Aerosphere Aerosphere Aerosphere Aerosphere
Atlas Atlas Atlas Atlas
3 3) ),4A ,4A 3 3) ),4A ,4A
Composites
Examples
Composite Airframe Structure
Atlas Atlas Atlas Atlas
Ultrasport Ultrasport Ultrasport Ultrasport
S%*dis$ S%*dis$ S%*dis$ S%*dis$
C*pher C*pher Ringtail Ringtail C*pher C*pher Ringtail Ringtail
MAL! MAL!) )UA Wings UA Wings MAL! MAL!) )UA Wings UA Wings
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Pullman - Structures

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Pullman - Structures

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Copyright:

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Presented by: David Pullman Presented by: David Pullman

A complex material in which two or more structurally

!o chemical mixing process occurs in individual

Highly directional properties

5ay have undesirale properties that must e

#recursor 7pulled8 from a die to produce fiers

Individual fier diameter 9 ("(((+6("(((:8

Fiers processed into 7tows8

4ow si;es ased on fier count

Alass 1%6glass$ S6glass2

Caron 1#A! B I5C D #itch ased B 4hornel #6<((2

Aramid 1=evlar$ 4waron2

Euart; 1High #urity Si(+ 6 AstroFuart;2

#olyethylene 1 @H5W#% B Spectra2

Silicon Caride 1metal6matrix composites 55CGs2

#A! precursor 1i"e" rayon2 spun and

5aHority of commercial marIet

High Strength D Stiffness

#etroleum ased pitch heated$ spun

#otentially higher stiffness$

High ductility$ strain6to6failure

5ay have undesirale properties 1similar to fier$ i"e"

4wo primary categories

%CC) B toughened epoxy 1)-(KF Cure2

%M<-(- B Cyanate %ster$ 3ow oservales

CLC05-+-( B >5I$ ,((KF High64emp$ ismaleimide 1>5I2

>4+-(%6< B +-(KF curing epoxy

##S 1polyphenylene sulfide2

Comining the fier and matrix in a consistent

#re6impregnated 1prepreg2 material comines the

#repreg product is typically

5ultiple layers 1lamina2 are

Increased complexity$ design and farication may e

5ay e unsuitale for certain environmental

5ulti6axial 1)D2 load conditions 1i"e" !o significant

#reliminary composite designs often suggest large

@nidirectional transverse properties are poor

Composites depend upon myriad forms of fier and matrix

Composites can range from relatively inexpensive low6tech

Composites$ with appropriate consideration 1design$

Composites$ when designed and analy;ed inappropriately$

Laminate Analysis Methods

Analysis of composite material based upon the

Allo!s prediction of the composite properties !ith

Statistical distribution of defects (voids# interfacial

Most composite structural data is based upon

%&uations to Calculate 'roperties of Laminae

Micromechanics is a field of study in its o!n

Smallest structural element is a ply (layer of material.

Fiber and Matrix properties are )smeared* treated as

Composites re&uire different analysis approach than

+, experimentally obtained material constants (non-

For Linearly-%lastic (Hoo$ean material relationship is

For fully orthotropic materials there are 2

3sin" the Lamina Coordinate System for a sin"le ply#

For unidirectional composites# the in-plane and out-

7sotropic material reduces the number of material

.-8 Stren"th of Materials (S9M Calculation of :lade

Classical Lamination 'late 6heory (CL'6

8esi"n Handboo$ Methods (Semi-empirical

.-8 ;umerical Methods(

<ariable Asymptotic :eam Section (<A:S

9pen Hole 6ension=Filled Hole 6ension

:olted ?oint Stress Field Model (:?SFM