--

4. AlternativeCycles *!
A. Introduction
4.01 are a number ofpossible cycles for refrigeration besides the vapor compression
cycle described in detail in the precedingchapteL The first part ofthis chapter\1,ill deal
with heat operated cycles. The Carre cytle will be treated and briefcomments will be
made on different "sorption" cycles. Following this, we \\111 discuss other options for
refrigeration: Expansion cycles suchas the Joule ("cold air cycle") orStirling cycles and
finally also \vewill brieflyreviewthePeltiercycle-
B. On heat operated and mechanically driven cycles
4.02 Thedesign ofheat operated systems can be based on different principles. a starting
point \ve can use the combination ofa (heat operated) power station + an electrically
operatedvaporcompressionsystemfor refngerationorair conditioning, seeFig402
a whole this combination represents a heat operated the primary energy source
foroperationis the heatsuppliedinthepowerstation.
CJr:10ressor
J U{!Hr:e,
Steam
4.02. A vapor compression refrigerating plant is equivalent to a heat
operated ::,ystem if the system boundary is extended to include a (thermal)
pOl-Fer generating plant.
Fromthe
D refrigerating process"
separated from
(via
4.02 it is obviousthatthereis one generating process"
these two
and t\VO is
electricgenerator,transferiines
c
and
one
*i
Author: Granryd
4
..
REFRIGEPI.ATLVG
combination (from Fig 4.02) is to
or to integrate processes to one
a loop based on
hvo Rankine cycles. the most COIlli"'110n example on a heat operated system is
the absorption based on the pnnciple of Carre. The only moving pa.rt such a
system is (in principle) a liquid pUInp. Another interesting development is the Platen
andl0'untersrefrigerator-aunit where the pump IS avoided so that it operates without
any moving parts. Also there are possibilities to "upgrade" waste heat to higher
temperatures by using a ''heat transformer". There are still other heat operated cycles to
create and maintain lower temperatures than the environment: intermittent absorption
and ejector cycles and we will in this chapter briefly describe principles behind these.
The systems mentioned will later on be described in more detail. As an introduction,
however, some general comments are given on the coefficient of performance, COP
h
, of
heat operated systems. We can defme the COP
h
as the ratio between the achieved
refrigeration capacity, Q2, and the necessary heating energy for its operation, Qh,
compare Fig 4.01:
4.02a
Notice that this relation differs from what is used for the definition of the COP
2
of the
regular vapor compression cycle by the fact that it defines the ratio between two terms
expressing "heat energies". Returning to the example defined in 4.01, the COP!:
includes not only the refrigerating system but also the efficiency of the power station.
Let us use the symbol Tlt for the overall power station thermal efficiency fu'1d the symbol
COP
2
for the coefficient ofperforrnance of the refrigerating system. It is obyious that the
following relations must prevail:
COP =_Ql
4.02b
n O.
~
The COPf.: of a heat operated system can thus always be expected to be smaller than the
COP
2
of a system which for the operation is based on mechanical (electric) energy.
This observation also implies that, for a given cooling capacity, the heat operated system
must be equipped with heat exchangers of larger capacities tha.l1 a mechanically operated
system. This is also an indication that a heat operated system may become more costly
to build than a.."1 electrical system of the same capacity (although this comparison is
sensitive for the ratio between the cost of an electric motorcompressor in comparison
to the cost of heat exchangers). Some further comments on economic comparisons are
given in point 4.27.
CH4PTER 4. AL1ERNATlVE
C. The Carre absorption cycle
C1. Principle of operation
4.03 The most common principle ofoperation for simple absorption systems is based on
principles first developed by the French scientist Ferdinand Carre (about 1860). A
scheme ofthe system is shown in Figure4.03. More details on absorption systems are
given by Nibergall (1959), Backstrom (1970) and ASHRAE (1996) (References are
givenattheendof thechapter.)
~ n absorption system ofthis type consists, justas a vapor compression system, ofthe
fonowingcomponents (numbersreferto Fig4.03):
condenser,(l) wheretherefrigerantis condensedtoliquid
expansiondevice,(2) where the pressure ofthe refrigerant liquid is reduced
from condensing pressure to the pressure the
evaporator
evaporator,(3) where the refrigerant evaporates, for which process heat
issupplied-fromtheobjecttobecooled
Instead ofthe mechanically operated compressor in the vapor compression cycle the
absorptionsystemhasa "thermal compressor" involvingthefollowingcomponents:
absorber,(4) where the refrigerant vapor is absorbed, and forms a
liquid solution. DtIrhig this process heat is released,
whichmeans thatthe absorbermustbe cooled. The heat
released is equivalentto the heat ofcondensation plus a
heat ofsolution(ormixing) pertinentto the combination
ofrefrigerantandtheabsorptionmedium.
pump,(5) by which the solution leaving the absorber is given a
pressureequivalenttothepressurcinthe generator(sfu"'1le
as inthecondenser).
generator, (6) where the refrigerant is separated from the solution bya
distillation process-which in the simplest case is done
just by "'boiling" offthe refrigerant from the solution.
Heat (equal to the operating energy ofthe system) must
besuppliedforthisprocess.
regulatingvalve, (7) where the "poor" solution from the generator is passing
on its wayfrom the generator to the absorber. The valve
is necessfu-Y sincethepressures inthese two components
are different.
todecrease
heal, thusto the it
is beneficialto usea:
heat
fromtheabsorberbeforeit entersthe
ammonia being the
valve
;\
1\
: . ~
)1
Q ~ lJ
t.
Heat exchanger
Absorber
Figure 4.03. Simple scheme ofan absorption system by Carre.
4 04 In a system the refrigerant formed in the evaporator is absorbed (by
chemical affinity) to liquid form. The refrigerant is thus transferred to the condenser
pressure in liquid form, simply by means ofa pump. The power demand for operation
this pump is only ci fraction of that which would be neceSSGlY for a cOn1pressor in a
vapor compression system (since the liquid volume is much smaller than the vapor
volume). It remains to separate the refrigerant from the liquid solution. This is, in the
absorption system, accomplished by a "distillation" accomplished in the generator. For
this process high temperature is necessary. From the generator the refrigerant-
solution is returned to the absorber and the processis repeated. In a Carre system
there are two closed circuit loops in which the two working media are circulated-one
for the refrigerant and one for the absorption solution.
C2. Working media
the preceding it is obvious thatweneed apair ofmedia for the Carre cycle.
traditional combination is the pair of arruTIonia and water; the
refrigerant and water the absorption medium. The essential reasons why this
suitable to use are the fact that ammonia is a good refrigerant and that the
vapor pressure ofammonia in water solutions is considerably lower than that
One
in the generator contains not only ammonia, also to certain ex1:ent water
water content in
large plants the
ammonia. Thisis illustratedin 405.
The pairofamIIlonia properties: -- Both
good heat isthatthevapor
orderto decrease separator", a
installed after the is designed as a
column.
44
i
r
p 20 [7/////1//V/Vv/.Iv/ /1

bar
//V/j///V
7
( y// VVV
-- //, ./ /'// 1/17//
..7 /' / .I"
V ( ?1
V/ /

rf-- -f-.
'
1-
--
-1--" I'
..-.,.,.. ,-,
"-".
-v/l7 '-;f+t7-----r''.f--1..-1[-
..-.-. '0' - 0 ,
--- -
,-1
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-----+-1-1--1
, . - -,
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-
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--

H
--i- ---',-i
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5
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--- -.-- .. 7/ /.'" " /
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IVaporpressure
Inixturesof
'....1
arnUlonUlaue
water
__.. o
I I
,
1. 0 -li----;
+--,----1-
.... -t r--z -.
/
;7 7
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.1 ./ /' -/
-- ./ l/./
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-..
,
_ /,;7 /' /' / --7" 7 ... //
/ / / /// / V ; / / / /.7 :_L
- 7////7 /-/ / /
Op2- __ l7 / 7L(L, ./'/-'///" )7--/, /'7_//
W/</-j'V,7,>/ / V / /7/ / V 11--
0,1 -LrC".-.....L // 7 7 . / - - / /"-'" .
r" 7' - ./ 7 ..L. _L 1-. -.-. / 7 7 - 7 -.-
/ 7 ['L ---[:I.. .--
.. /" / / j- / /' / :/ /
I/,/ L / / ./ / / .. / __
. 'T-/'--'- + -/-- --'/ -r- / - . ._L. - ----- - -- -
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. /./ 7._ /' 7 .1'./ / . '/ !/- /
/ / / / L--L.. / / -/ / 7=:Z / . - --- .-- ....,.- .. -
0, / -; / 1/ .. 7 7" / / /"--7.'--- . --.--'--..' .
.. - -7 / / '. / 7' V / -l.L-- -- .-- --'---,--i'-'
o02 JL....L- - /1 / '----1 I - _. f- - ___ ....L__
.60 -50
_IW -30 -20 .10 20 40 60 80 iou
150 DC

- a
u,
t.
1
if
,
REFRIGERATIXG
most common are those
conditioning ammonia is not regarded as a
suitable safety conside;:ations. working media
cOITLTf'cercial air conditioning absorption on the US market
scale around 1 -- is instead }vaterandlithium bromide(H20 - LiBr), wateris
therefrigerant lithium bromide is a hygroscopic which easily absorbs water.
Since water has a very low saturation pressure' will expect that the
absorption of this type will be extremely low. This affects the way the plant will
be designed-the low pressure means that volumes of water vapor must be
the evaporator and the absorber. Naturally the operation is limited
to evaporating temperatures higher than O'T-limited by the freezing temperature of
The of the LiBr-salt the saturation vapor of the
solution so that over pure waler. The saturation
pressureofH20 LiErsolutionsaregiven in thediagraminFigure4.06.
Due to the fact that LiBr is a salt (with a vapor pressure almost zero) vapor fanned
in the generator contains only "vater vapor. Of this reason the generator not have to
be equipped with any rectification to remove LiBr-vapor. This simplifies the design
(compared to that in a NH3 - H20 HO\vever the pair H20 exhibit a
problem of crystallization: This is to the fact that the salt crystals may fonn in
solutions high salt concentration relatively low temperatures. limits \vhere
salt will form are indicated in 4.06.
The concentrations and temperatures where crystallization can occur must be avoided in
a real The critical part of the is the process in exchanger where
refrigerant-poor (salt-rich) solution is circulated from the In the heat
this sohition is cooled and the crystallization may occur at a point in the heat
exchanger where the temperature has lowered so that the conditions fall in the area
where crystallization my occur-compare the diagram in Figure 4.06. If this occur the
heat exchanger may be blocked so that the circulation is stopped. (Restarting the
involves heating the exchanger, from outside, so the salt crystals
dissolved in the solution. is a time consuming may a long
to a unit running again.)
Solutions of H20 - LiBr in concentrations that prevails in an absorption system is
quite corrosive and this may be a problem especially in the Materials as steel
copper, preferable used in bundles for heating the solution in the generator, are
to corrosion. Corrosion inhibitors must be used cromate has been used
successfuJly--although the use of cromates are subject to due to health
if persons are exposed.)
en
--
P
1
("
bar

(::.:
0,5
0,)
0,2
0,1
0,
0,0
,
o 0')

+-
Saturation vapor pressure
or(11
2
0- LiBr) -solutions.
-
,'"
-k f- .
-

-----f---.--
T I
I
.....
I / / // - -
,I c. / /v / /v //VT/v //V
/ 7 /' V/ --' 1----+-----+-
o ././ 7,;/h.// 1--:--'
p ./ /' /' /'/' /"77 '7 '7 [7 go--------- .. ,-- ..--1---..--
.. / / /' /" /// -7-717277/'''''(, -'---r' -_...
.. /" / 7 ./ / /'/'/" /'/ j /' l?". .v - -- . --'
.. L / / - / / / /7/ 77// /. -- --
0, .;./ /'/'./ 7-7-'
/ L' / /' - /'/' /' 7 7 /' /' /' /' /' - _ "'-'-1
y /' /'
.
-7'
-T'-",
7
/ / /' / / /V/ . / /iLZ' .. -"-. .
. . 7 ./ '7 --v / 1/ /V/ -7/7/ -
-----./ ./ ./ /- "7'7" ./ >" :_..../..-1 -- .__.->----
/ 1/ 7 / /" / ./'//'1/ i----.r-------
7-/ / r/;- .---
7/ "7 17 ./ i-
'---'777/// .._-
/. / / 17/ / /.-:......L / 7 7
..... 77//'///
0,
)- / / L
rrn
'/'/ / 77/' 7
..... ;'V// / /// / / /,V'o
o

.J::.
-.l -20 -10 0 +10 +20 +)0 +40
1
v 77/ 7 r7i'//I/
/' /'//7/7/ / "//
l' 0 '\
3r / -vo////a
/
/' /' Z / //'7 /' 7 lZ 7--:=f-f==
/' /' /' i//'
.L L-// /.///V/
\----1
-
-_. .-. -1--..
._----
1r-f-tj -1--
+50 +60 +80 +100 +120 +140 +16
t, c
I
'j
.'-'-
I
------ 'I'
C3. The cycle in avapor pressure diagram
4 pressure as and the absorption can
traced a way demonstrated in 1407 The scheme in diagram gives us a
possibilitytoestimatewhichtemperaturesthatcanbe obtained, with agiven temperature
for the heat supplied to the generator (or vice versa which generator temperatures are
required).
Pressure
,
+ Temperature, vC
Evaporating Condenser and
temperature,t
2
absorber
temperature t1 ;::: tabs
Generator
temperature, tgen
Figure 4,07. 171e absorptlOn cycle represented in a saturation vapor diagram jar
nzedia pair used
The cycle can be traced in the following way: The desired condensing and evaporator
temperatures defines the conditions for the pure refiigerant in the condenser and
evaporator as given in the picture by points 1 and 2. This defines the pressures in the
condenserandevaporator, andP2
pressurem absorberis the same as that in evaporator(disregarding
losses) Thetemperatureforthe solution the absorber,
then 3 of
This is the highest concentration
limited
exchange areas.
4:8
b
1
CHAPTER 4.
4,
possible concentration,;p the refrigerant-poor the
and m the
It is obviously necessary that refrigerant concentration is higher in the soiution
leaving the absorber than the solution entering. With symbols this can be written as ;r
The smaller the difference in conce!1tration (;. .; p), the larger mass flow of liquid
must be circulated between the generator and the absorber. To describe this the
concept of a "pumping factor" can be used. Let us use the symbol y for the pumping
factoL This factor is important in order to define the capacity of the pump in the
Figure 4.03) as well as the load of the heat exchanger in the Figure 4.03).
pumping jactor, y, tells us the mass (number of kg) of mixture that must be
circulated between the generator and absorber in order to have 1 kg of refrigerant
absorbed If the concentrations ';r and ';p are knov:n the factor y can be estimated by the
following simple relations based on a mass balance for the absorber:
_------"'1 (y -1) kg solution, refrigerant cone sp
1 kg refrigerant -
...
Absorber
from evaporator
-
....
Y kg sol t o r ~ refrigerantconc. ~
-
-
FIgure 4.07. IVfedia balance of the absorber
Refrigerant mass balance gives: 1 + (y-l)';p Y';r from which the following relation is
obtained:
Example: Assume a H20 - LiEr-system where the temperatures in the condenser and
the absorber are tJ = 35C, in the evaporator t2 -'-SOC and the
generator, 90C.
The condensing and evaporating temperatures will correspond to pressures ;::;
0,056 and P2:;::; 0,0087 bar. The diagram in Fig 4.06 gives with these data:
;::! 0, and ;.. ~ 0,
y = (I-O, 43-0,34) 7,3.
This is the minimum pumping factor for ideaJ processes in the absorber
the conditions. In reality it is necessary to circulate more than
kg refrigerant due to the fact that we to allow certain
concentration differences. A pumping factor is favorable, since it gives a
on the and to
..
4.07
C4. Coefficient ofperformance
of one gIve a
is
equivalent to r2 more precisely - (J )'2
Xir: vapor quality of the refrigerant after the throttling). For stationary
conditions, 1kg ofrefrigerantmustbedelivered from the generatorto the condenserfor
each kg fed to the evaporator. This gives usarelation to calculate the necessaryheat
input to the generator. Energymust be supplied equivalent'to the latent heat of
vaporization ofthe refrigerant at generator conditions (approx. rh) plus allY heat of
solution (L). From this simple reasoning we can deduce that the COPh rougt11y canbe
estimatedas
where r=the latentheatofvaporizationofthe refrigerant(index2 for conditionsin
theevaporator, indexhfor conditionsinthegenerator)
Xlr: =the vapor content in the refrigerant entering the evaporator from the
condenser
L - heatofmLxing for 1 oftherefrigerarltin absorbersolution.
Sincetheheat ofmixing is positive for all knOV.l1 substances suitable as workingpairs
for absorption systems, and since the variation in latent heat is small for most media
used (r2 '" it is easy to deduce that the COPh for the simple Carre cycle cannot
exceed1.
Example: The heat ofmixing is about 460 kJ/(kg H20) for H20 LiBrsystems with
water concentrations of35 to 40 (as given byNiebergall (959)). With the
latent heat ofvaporization for water at about +5C ofr2 == 2500 kJikg and at
+90C (assumed generator temperature) about rh == 2290 kJ/kg and with XiI'! ==
0,05(1- Xm) == 0,95 we will,fromequation4.08 getanideal COPf; == 0,86.
Forarealsystemthereare, however" severallossesthatwilldecreasetheperformanceto
lowervaluesthanthe ideal ones. Oneofthe mostprominent influence is the loss due to
incompleteheatexchangebetweenthe richandpoorsolutioninthe heat exchanger. For
large absorption systems using f120 LiBras working pair normal values are COP
h
==
0,7-- 0,75.Insystems usingNH3 H20 therearealsoadditionallosses occurring to
theinfluenceof watervaporleavingthegenerator(incompleterectification).
4.09 The following table give some numbers which may be considered as normal for good
(singleeffect)systems:
Temperatures, COP;,
Pair Generator Coolingwater Evaporator
to 30
.,5to
0,65 NH3-H20 120to 1
105 to 140 to 25 -5 to -10 0, to 0,62
105 to 140 to iO 0,
160 to 1 15 to 18 AD to -
to 1 15 to 8 to 55
30 to +2 0, 5lO 0,7
4:1
4.08
CHAPTER 4.

It is ofinterest to L"1at COP
h
absorption system does not seem to
decrease as rapidly the evaporating tenJpe:rat as is the case a mechanical
t
vaporcompressionsystem.
CS. Examples of designs
4.10 The practical designs ofabsorption systems are quite different for different working
mediapair(NH3 - lhO andH20-LiEr). The season for this is mainlythe differences in
pressures-- andtheconsequencesofthis interms ofvaporvolumes.
Figure4.1Oa shows a scheme ofaNH3 H20 - systemand Figure 4.10b gives a photo,
ofa systemwith acapacity ofabout Q'2 =580 kW coolingcapacityfor anevaporation
temperature of-55C. There are plants ofthis type built for quite large capacities and
alsofor lowtemperatures.
For H20 - LiBr -systems the scheme is quite different. Figure 4.10c illustrates a
common way ofdesign of such systems used for air conditioning applications. As
mentioned earlier the pressures of the system will be very low: For an evaporator
temperature of the pressure in the evaporator and absorber will be about P2 ==
0,0087bar(abs),seediagram inFigure4.06.
Also in the generator and condenser the pressures will be low if condensing
temperature is -35Cthe pressure will bePi == 0,056 bar (abs). The pressure difference
bet\veenthe highandlowpressuresidesareonlyabout0,047barequivalenttoabout0,5
ill'.'latercoltmm!
Comment: Thanksto the smallpressure differencethere 1S actuallyapossibilityto avoid
a mechanical pump and h"1stead rely on natural' circulation based on a
"thermosiphon" pump (utilizing the difference .in density of the liquid in a
"downward"-tube and of liquid with vapor bubbles in a "riser"-tube). Such
systemshavebeenbuiltbutmainlyfor relativelysmallcapacitysystems.
Dueto the fact that the pressures are so extremely small there are huge vaporvolumes
thatmustflow betweenthe evaporatorand theabsorber. (Theevaporation of1kg water
at +5C will create about 147 m
3
vapor giving a coolingcapacity ofslightly less than
2500 kJ. For a cooling capacity of 100 kW the vapor flow is hence about 6 m
3
/sec.)
With this in mind it is easvto understandwhyit is beneficialwith a design (as the one
..' "" '"-' ,
illustrated in Figure 4.l0c) where the evaporator and absorber are combined in one
pressure vessel (vacuum vessel). Similarly the generator and the condenser are
combinedin vesseL Figure4.10 d shows aphotoofsucha plant. There are also
designs where onlyone cy'lindricai enclosure is used for an four components (where an
internalwallis usedto separatethe n;vo pressurelevels from eachother).
Oneofthemostcrucial components ofanabsorption systemis the absorber. To
a largearea for the vapor absorptionprocess the liquid is sprayed in a fashion that
small droplets are created. However it is also important to have an efficient heat
exch3..tlge so the temperature of the liquid is as low as possible
capability to absorb refrigerant. The cooling is 2.ccomplished
lOco
11
4.10a. Schematiclayoutofanabsorptionsystemusing H
2
0 (by York).
A: system; B: Vapor separator; C: Distillation D: Condenser; E: Ammonia
receiver; F: Evaporator; G: Absorber (three parallel); H: Solution receiver, 1: Solution pump
(with motor, K: Heat L: Liquidlevelcontrolvalve.
4.10b. ofanabsorptionsystem NH3 - H
2
0 (Borsig).
CoolingcajDa(:;z about580 atan evaporatingtemperature ofabout
b
4
--
-------
p
4 ALTERNATTflE'

"'. .
'
c
,2.
::
0

'-
0
0
a..
Heat
exchanger
...... onaer.ser
Water
Steam fer
Evaporator
pump

.2
:;
0
<n
-=
0
0:
V
COO!inJ
pump
'vvater I
Figure 4. JOc. Example ofschematiclayoutofanabsorptionsystemusingH
2
0-LiBr.
4.JOd Photo ofan absorplion systemusing - LiBr
airconditioning. IS pressure steamor
4
ENGIlvEERING
generator
The condenser and absorber cooling of most plants is arranged by means of cooling
water. A cooling tower is usually used for water cooling if lake or river \V-ater are not
available_ absorption plant has about twice the cooling water demand compared to
vapor compression plants_ (The cooling load of the condenser is approximately equal to
the evaporator cooling capacity-and in addition to this we have the cooling demand for
the absorber which is about the same as the heat L'1put to the generator.) A result of this
is the cooling tower must designed to handle larger capacity than for vapor
compression plants_ Backstrom (1970) recommends that it is suitable to use about 1,7
times larger temperature differences on the condenser side w-hen using absorption
systems compared to vapor compression systems. Since the heat transfer coefficient in a
cooling tower increases with temperature difference the net result is that it appears
economic to use a 30 to 40 % larger cooling tower than for a vapor compression pla..'1t of
same cooling capacity_
The pressure in lL.'1its with H
2
0-LiBr is . If is not
sealed and tight, outside will leak into it If this occurs the capacity will deteriorate
rapidly_ The oxygen in the air will also increase the risk of corrosion and there is a risk
of crystallization of the LiBr salt since the rate of absorption is decreased and the
solution circulating between the generator and the absorber contains less and less water.
One of the problems in manufacturing LiBr absorption systems is to make them truly
air tight. In spite of the fact that the solution purnps have hermetical designs (with the
electric motorenc3sed) and that great efforts are devoted to all joi;1ts tight one must
design for the case that a certain leakage may occur. In order to remove non-
condensable gases in the system (which also may be products'from internal corrosion)
units are normally equipped with a purging system. In principle the purging system
consist of vacuum pumps, sometimes of piston types, but also other types are used.
In order to enhance the process in absorber it is found that certam additives have a
beneficial effect by which for instance the surface tension can be influenced. This is a
field that recently has attracted the interest of several researchers. Examples are Rush et
aL (1994) a..'1d Nordgren and Settervall (1996). ~ n extensive overview is given by
Ziegler and Grossmarm (1996)- Improvement in heat and mass transfer coefficients are
explained due to different phenomena_ One such is by virtue of concentration
instabilities in a liquid film creating a "Marangoni convection"_
Absorption systems with H
2
0 - UBr are normally manufactured as factory made
complete package units. This is the case for - H
2
0 units - although
large such systems are built on place.
C60 Capacity modulation and system operation
4.1 1 used to
applications
4:14
>
CH4PTER 4. ALTERSATIVE CYCLES
-
.t
tochange the generatortemperature decreasingthe flow ofhotwaterorthrottling
r
the steamsupply)
r
bymeansofashuntcircuitbywhlch acertainportion ofthe rich soiution leaving the
absorber is mixed with the flow ofthe poor solution coming from the generator. In
this waythe amount ofrefrigerant that canbe absorbed inthe absorber is decreased
-- as is the amount ofrefrigerantcomingto the generator. A similarfLlIlction can be
reachedbyreducingthepumpcapacity.:
The latter methods are the most economical and seem to give quite an effective modu-
lation all the way down to 10 % ofnominal capacity, with reasonably well maintained
COPh.
4.12 In systems with H
2
0-LiBrthe risk ofcrystallization must be observed-inoperation as
well as when the system is shut down. The solution leaving the generator often has a
water concentration ofonly 35 - 40 %. Salt crystals will, with such salt-rich solutions,
start to form in the solution as soon as the temperature ofthe liquid is approaching
below 30 to 15 cC (see the diagram in Fig 4.06). Before the plant is shut off it is
importantthatthis solutionis diluted with more water, especially ifthe plant is located
in a surrounding where the temperature may drop to the temperatures mentioned in
standstill. Crystallization in the heat exchanger may also occurduring operation if, for
instance,thegeneratortemperature is increased.It is easytounderstandthattheeffectof
such a temperature increase in the generator may be that the solution leaving the
generatorbecomestoopoorin water- creatingconditionsforsaltcrystalsto beformed
intheheatexchangerwherethe solutionis cooled.
Modem absorption units are equipped with automatic centrols for aVOlc1mg the
problems ofcrystallization. On older plants it is a time consuming task to get the salt
dissolved ifcrystallization has occurred. The method is simplyto try to heat the parts
whereone suspectsthatthesaltcrystalshaveformed so thattheyeventuallydissolve.
D. Multiple effect cycles
4.13 Thereare a large numberofdifferentmultistagecycles for absorptionsystems described
in the literature. Many ofthese alternatives was described by Altenkirch (1954), \vho
developed an ingenious methodology for different schemes ofprinciples for multistage
systems.
Theaim ofmultistagearrangementcallbedifferent:
6l to improvethe COPofthesystem
tomake it possibleto increasethetemperature"lift"ofthe cycle (increaset: - t2) or
to maintaina desiredtemperamre lift batusing low temperature (waste) heat input
for operatingthe system.
are a nU1Tlber ofdiffereflt svsterrJ, alternatives beSIdes the single effect s:/stern
described so far: "double effi:ct" or "triple effect"; "absorber heat exchanger" (AHX)
and "generatorabsorberheatexcharrger" cycles to mentionafe'N b generalthey
achieve better performaIlce by adding components like absorbers 3...l1d heat exchangers
4:15
....
an to also cost and complexity. Figure 4.1
this (from Sum,.'uerer, 1996)
achieve improvements in COP the prinGiple is to arrange heat exchangers so that
can be used at different temperature levels and that the "same heat energy is used several
times" To increase the temperature lift two (or multi-) stage arrangements can be used
in the cooling cycle in a similar way as in vapor compression systems. Figure 4.13b
shows for such a case a temperature, pressure- diagram of a cycle for a two
evaporator system at 1:\1,'0 temperature levels. We will not go into details here - the
interested reader is referred to for instance Niebergall (1959), Ziegler and Alefe1dt
(1987) or Cheung et al (1996).
OJ
2
o
o
.s.
CL
o
()
usual
0.15
double effect
---------
singleeftect
0.25
0.30 035
te;ta! area of heat exchangers per k'N cooling capacity
Figure 4.13a. "Realistic" COPh for single and double effect Systems in AC-
applications v,'ith H20-Libr-systems versus total heat exchanger area (from
Summerer (1996).
1: generator;
2: condenser;
3: medium pressure
evaporator;
4 low pressure evaporator,
5. low pressure absorber:
6 medium pressure
absorber.
F(,?u.re 4. 13b. Temperature, pressure-diagram of a
('tIO evaporalOrs lvorking at d?Uerent temperature levels,
Niebergall, 1959)
hr
416
I
--
-
Absorber
Solution PUr.lP
Con.denser
-
CHAPTER 4 ALTERNATIVE CYCLES
414 We here only gIve one more example of a double effect cycle: .A.lrhough the
principles for mUltiple effect systems for increased COP
h
have been known for a long
time it is only very recently that unfts have beenintroduced to the market. Figure 4.14a
show a scheme ofa unit (from Meacham et al 1990) and Figure 4.14b give the cycle
principles in atemperature, pressure- diagram (fromNiebergall 1959).
In the first effect generator (1) in Figure 4.14a, operating at high temperature, vapor is
driven out from the solution. The vap'or flows to a heat exchanger (6) where it is
condensedwhile the heat released is usedto drive offvaporfrom the solution forming a
"second effect generator" (6). This generator is hence working at an intermediate
temperature and pressure (lowerthanwhat is prevailing in the firsteffect generator) and
thesolutionleavingthesecondgenerator(6)is veryweakonrefrigerant (as shown inthe
diagram to the right). The refrigerant vapor is condensed in the condenser (3), and
merged with the liquid from the second generator, before the liquid is fed via the
throttlingvalvetotheevaporator(4). Thevaporformed in the evaporatoris absorbed in
absorber (5). The solution is pumped to the first effect generator via the two heat
exchangers, HXl andHX2. Theremaining partofthe schemeshouldbeeasy to follow
1steffect
generator
-
-
2['IC effect
I
i
I
I
,
.1
iI
Ig P I
I
p
li-
Figure 4.J4a and 4.14b. Scheme ofdouble effect absorption unit (to the right; and
the cycle illustrated in a temperature pressure diagram (to the left)
In this scheme ex1ernal heat for driving the operation is introduced to the first effect
,.. l' ." rl .", h h 1 rl 1 1
generator - ~ anu tp.JS energy 15 'use,..... t\:V1C-e' Slnce tHe Heat re:.cease'J "vvne:1 tne V2.PQf is
condensedfurnishing heat mput to the second generator. Hence, since we obviously make
use ofthe external heat input twice, the limit ofa maximum theoretical COP
h
should be 2
- instead of1 as for the single effect system. In practice the COP
h
is more modest, but
values approaching and somev,:hat abOVe COP
h
= 1 can be reached (compare for instance
Figure4.13a).
417
bt
E. The Platen Munters cycle
4,15 t\\'o inventors Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters to develop a
any solution pump in the Carre system, They developed a classical
unit 'without any moving parts which has the intriguing capability to perform the task of
moving heat from a low temperature to a higher- by using (high temperature) heat as
operatingenergy,
The original work begun in the year 1 asa graduation thesis work at the Royal
InstituteofTeclmology(KTH) Stockholm, at thedepartmentwhichtoday is the division
ofApplied ThermodynamicsandRefrigeration, Lateron, the developmentwascontinued
and commercializedby Electrolux- and sometimes the system is called the Electro)ux
refrigerator. This scheme this scheme has attracted many scientists, As a matter of
curiosity it might be mentioned that, in 1926, the famous scientists Albert Einstein and
Leo Szilard filed a patent on a competing scheme, An interesting recent description
aboutthedevelopmentis publishedbyDannen (1997),
E1. Principle of operation
4,16 Thesecret ofthePlaten-Munters unjt is thatthe (total) pressure is the same trsoughout
the whole unit while, in the process the partial pressure of the refrigerant varies in
different parts ofthe cycle, The principle ofoperation is shown in Figure 4.16 (from
Backstrom, 1970), The system permits thepartial pressure ofthe refrigerant to be at a
suitably lowlevel in the evaporator to achieve the desired low temperature for cooling
This is achieved by means ofan inert gas - a third component besides the t','vo media
used a conventional absorption system. As working media, ammonia is used as
refrigerant, wCfter as absorbing medium and hydrogen is used as an mert gas. These
fluids werechosenfrom the beginning by Platen and Munters and no better has been
found later on
l
C
1
2 CO,idenser
-vapcr
" '.:;:,;:.:..
','1 :
removal
Tela! pressure i 2har:

5
0 f20ar
t)iguids)
\
RiCh
4
!: +0
..:- 0 + f) = j 2bar
- 0 = 1:: Dcr
1': taT
1.5 12
4, Schernatic Bdckstrom J9
4:18
\Vith 4.16 the
generator driving CllLUll'JHJ";l
water solution. vapor (after passing a water separator) is
condenser where off. From the condenser in
flo\l/ing (by gravity) evaporator section of the unit. in the
condenser determines the .':l ___vstem. Assuming the
to be 30C then will be Il,/; bar (abs) \vhlch is the
ammonia at that (or about 12 bar as for simplicity IS indicated for the
-
in the lower part of the generator
\\'hen they are raising they drag with
level in the generator. The arruTlonia

bet\;veen the absorber
as m a Carre-system. The system is
absorber will flow into the generator
When heat is applied to
ammonia yapor) is formed in the
liquid, which thus is "pumped"
water solution \vi11 then be able to
pst
CHAPTER 4 ALTERNA
------
example in Figure 4.16).
\Vhen the ammonia liquid comes into the evaporator it is exposed to an of
hydrogen. The partial of ammonia becomes suddenly quite low, this will
make the ammoma evaporate into the hydrogen atmosphere at quite 10Vi
Let us assume that the partial of the hydrogen in the first part of the evaporator
(where the hydrogen gas is ammonia-free) is 11 bar. This will then a
partial pressure for the ammoma of only 1 bar (for the total pressure of 12 bar <L:l;}LU1.1,",U
in the example f). Thus evaporate at a temperature of about
(saturation temperamre at 1bar) In part ofthe evaporator.
The partial pressure of NH3 in the hydrogen gas will increase as a consequence of
ammonia evaporating into the Thus the evaporator temperature will
increase along the direction of the flow of the liquid ammonia and hydrogen-ammonia
gas in the evaporator. At the end of the evaporator all fuTilllonia liquid is evaporated.
NO\:v the ammonia-hydrogen gas mixture will flO\", (\'ia a heat exchanger, see
4.16) into the absorber where the mixture wili meet a liquid stream containing
mainly water. Here the ammonia hydrogen-alThllonia gas mixture) \';ill be
absorbed in the \vater solution. At the top of the absorber' a relatively arnmonia
hydrogen gas \vill raise (by gravity) and flow into the (back via the
exchanger): the hydrogen gas is circulating between the evaporator <L'1d absorber. This
inert gas thus compensates for the differential between the high and low
pressure side of a conventional Carre exchanger arranged between the
relatively warm hydrogen ga.<; from the the cold strea..'11 of gas mixture
from the evaporator is important in to Increase the cooling capacity.
The absorber must be cooled to the outside
so that the ammonia-rich liquid
we are then at the same point as this
circulation of the ammonia-water solution
"thermos)phon pump" is arranged integral with
closed loop of water
It IS
same v;ay as in a regular
at remperamres
and up to 180::-C, depending on Operaltlflg condenser,
absorber. They are mostly heated flame. Materials
type usually have
' .1Q
4.1"
the
__
are ordinary steel which, for normal temperatures, is compatible
alnmopja (and water). At the temperatures in the generator, however, a corrosion
inhibitor is necessary in orderto protect,the materials. One effective substance is
potassiumchromate, whichis added to thewatersolution(2,8% is reported to beused)
Such an inhibitor has been proven very effective. Units ofthis type seem to be able to
operatewithoutproblemsformanydecades.
In theof'j the Platen Munters refrigerators are limited by similar rules as the Carre
absorptionsystemsforattainableCOPo. Howeverin practiceCOP
h
in the orderof0,2 to
are achieved for the small units which arecommonlybuilt ,:vith 25 to 100 W cooling
capacity. It seems to be difficult to build units ofthe Platen-Munters type for larger
capacities.
Examples of developments
4,17 Figure 4.17showthescheme ofanElectroluxrefrigerator unit working accordingto the
principledescribedinadesignas manufacturedin recentyears.
lOW TEMPERATURE
EVAPORATOR
Weak SOhJtfOI".
;&r.-ttnon:a seh.ltlo('
_ llQI..i!d amrnoni.
_ AmmQnI2; vaz:.o..tt
L ! nyC-roger-. ;as

. .1mmcni.a
Figure 4.17. Schemeof anabsorptionunitforsmallrefrigerarors. Courtesy
4 18 figure 4.18 an advanced schemeis shown a
heat the streams
(1968). Thefigureindicateadesignwhere more orless only"'""'IJ'
II
----
CHAPTER 4. ALTERNAITVE
this design a heat
atnrTIorua to the condenser and the two streams
poor water solutions flmving e t w ~ e n the absorber and the generator.
exchanger was introduced in modern designs by the Swiss inventor Stierlin, although the
first patent describing the principle was issued to S. A.S. Dahlgren already 1931
(Swedish patent no 74 727).
A large number of improvements on details have been patented. Very good descriptions
are given by Matts Backstrom (1970).
hEA:
iNPUT
Figure 4.18. Simple schematic diagram ofa heat driven refrigerating unit (Reistad,
1968)
4.
F. Sorption units of different types
F1. Discontinuous operating units :
4. 9 A simple discontinuous operating unit for achieving refrigeration is described already by
Carre. The unit is hennetically closed and contains a given amount ofrefrigerant and
absorbingmedium.
Figure4.19 illustrates the operation: In the first time sequence the charge ofthe unit is
"regenerated" - heat is applied to so that the refrigerant and absorbent is separated
(Figure 4.19a). In the scheme shown ammonia and water are used. Thus during the
regenerationphaseammoniais "distilled" outofthe solution and condensing in the other
part ofthe unit. In the next phase refrigeration is achieved by using the liquid arrunonia
asrefrigerant. In this phasethe ammoniavaporis absorbed in the watersolution(Figure
419b). Hencethe four component present in the can be seen also in this
scheme although it is accomplished by two components shifting function in different
time sequences (the condenserbecomes the evaporator and the generator turns into the
absorber).
Coolingwater
Liquid N
a b
Figure 4.19. Schematic diagram a/intermittent operating units (Backstrom 1970);
Systems ofthis type have also in recent time been built. One such scheme use for
instancewateras refrigerant and ahygroscopic salt(orazeolite)for absorbingthe\vater
vapor. Interesting applications may be to utilize solar energy for cooling purposes.
"Regeneration" ofthesalt(orthezeolite)is achieved by solar heat during the day-and
the refrigeration canbeused in the night tocreate astorageofice. Figure 4.20illustrate
two alternativesforsuchascheme. Theschemeto the leftis directly an analogy tofigure
4.19 but with a zeolite material to adsorb the \vater vapor. There are such units on the
market for refrigerated boxes for use on e.g. sailing boats. The other scheme ofFigure
is also an intermittent operating unit, but in this case the condenser and the
evaporatordoes not change place. The refrigerant vapor (water) from the evaporator is
adsorbed in the zeolite during the adsorption phase, when refrigeration is accomplished
phase can continue until the zeolite is saturated. lJlerthat it must be regenerated,
v;hich is donebyheatingthezeoliteup to relatively temperatures. Thevapor
as thezeolitecondensesin
on \Vas
capacities
named
energy storagesystem(using asalt(NaS)as abssorption
A
waIer-vapo:- so veheMen:ry, tt"'12t
t:-le of the ie.s: C7
e\.iapOianng water freezes to "Ice.
Phase a): Adsorption=Refrigeration
Phase a) Phase b)
Refrigeration
INare, va;:)Cy' tree:"': c;:)r:censes
Phase b): Desorption= zeolite regeneration
Figure 4.20. Thefigures to the right, show an example of a solar powered refrigerator
(for instance suitable for a sailing bOff,t.j. The figures to the left show an
alternatIve scheme, 'y9ith separate heat exchangers as evaporator and condenser.
A check valve controls the flow direction of the vapor.
material and \vater as "refrigerant"). In summertime the salt storage is regenerated
("dried") by means offor instance solar heat In wintertime, (or vihen there is a heat
demand)watervaporfroman evaporator(fromfor instancein theground) is absorbedin
the salt. During the absorption process heat is released in the salt, and this heat energy
canbe usedforheatingpurposes.
F2. Open systerns-desiccant cooling
421 A.Il Interesting open systemfor air conditioning was first described Carl Munters and
was calledthe "Lizzy" system. Figure 4.21 shows the principle. In principlewateris the
refrigerant in an open system where the ambient air plays a similar role as theinert
(hydrogen) in aPlaten-r.'1untersrefrigerating unit. Thecycle involves one drying process,
one heat exchange and one process In figure 1
arecarried outin a (with ahygroscopic salt ora
in "saturatorpads"'.
\!,;'aler Vapor
ZeO(ite !Jed
wa:e: out Jf
423
....
at wet air ,\-vas
pad it is even cooler after (in
conditioned space, air" is
a Condition (6) has the same enthalpy: lower temperature but
higher humidity than in This low temperature air is now used to cool the
exchanger wheel After passing this the "return air" has conditions as indicated in point
7 A portion the is heated (for instance by means of a gas burner) and is used to
regenerate drying wheel air leaving the drying wheel to the outside carnes
away also the humidity that was adsorbed from air in the process (1) to (2) in
drying wheel.
This cycle has attracted considerable interest world \vide and many research projects
have devoted to development of such so called "dessicant cooling" systems.
r WATER
II
\ -
r---'.i ;-;::;\3 I 1"c" i n
iii i j vU..... v \ !
I I '\:::J ) ! SAT
HOT I d ! COOL i I Ai R
Ui
a:::
DRY d
8
l51
Q
Z

.' I r ,W, ! :; I
v 1 I\! I cr: I 'ZI W ... \
WET Z '8" I 0 I HOT WARM i
.. <:: I I -- 'CD! - u..; - It- ---
AI R
\ i "M""'I<::T I r I SAT I,:::", IRE''' uRN
OUT .1" I I' I '(./)1 .\j ., I I. 0,1 v, A!R0
0u I,;! '0
U \ .
Ir
(A) (8) (el (0 ) (E l
Figure 4.21. Schematic diagram the 'Lizzy" system by Carl A1unters
Partial pressure
WARM
MO!ST
AiR
IN
n
the system in a air.
b
G. Heattransformers
G1. General
4 22 In some applications there are available ample amounts ofwaste heat at a
temperature leveL the same time there is a demand for heat at a highertemperature.
The absorption also can, operatedin an inverse way, used for such applications
Thisis called anAbsorptionHeatTransformer(sometimes shonenedART).
illustrated in Figure 4.22a heat is applied at an intermediate temperature level One
partof theheatinputis permittedto"fall" in temperatureand is rejected from thesystem
at a low level The exergy that can be generated during this process is used to "pump"
anotherpartof thewasteheatinputtoahighertemperaturelevel, at which itis delivered
from the process. Perhaps it IS easier (for a mechanical engineer) to understand a
mechanicalarrangementofcycles based onvaporcompression processes as illustrated In
Figure4.22a. In practice, however, only systems based on an absorption cycle have so
farbeenbuilt.
Heat ~ p u
----II..... Heat transformer
Heat tc amble;)!
Mechanical analogy
1
t
TE
Figure 4.22a. ThepUlposeofaheattransformeristo "upgrade"wasteheatto a
temperature levelwhere itcanbe usedforinstance in anindustrialprocess.
A scheme a heat transformer system is given in Figure 4 The same components
are used as in the conventional Carre absorption system, but the tlow is "backwards".
Theoperationofeach componentis hence reversed compared to \.vhat \:ve are used to in
conventional absorption system: generatorbecomes the absorber, the condenser
becomestheevaporatoretc.
Let with reference to Figure 4.22b, follow the operation more in detail ofa heat
transformer based on a reversed Carre process. The system operates at two pressure
--- the generator and the condenser are here at a iow pressure and the evaporator
and the ata higher
is appliedtotnegeneratoras well astothe
arnbient
Allotherpart (Qe:)
Thevapor
b
vapor (in meets
is led to the where vapor is
by means of waste heat input at intermediate temperature level -- and now we
are back to the point where we started
Fig'dre 4.22b. A heat transformer based on the reversed Carre process.
~ bar
0,2 -l----'-.. -...;..
Fig'clre 4.22c, Heat transformer cycle in a t,p-diagramjor H20-LiBr
in a conventional absorption the
generator via a heat exchanger and a
flow around
IS
at a high
temperature
4
CliAPTER 4. ALTERNATTVE CYG,ES
Theoretically
ca.'1 be
for
4.22c an example. In order to reach about 120"C in the absorber a heat
input of65 to about 80C is required to the generator and evaporator aIld an fu!1bient
lo\\'temperatureofabout 30::C forheatrejectionin thecondenser.
A limited number ofinstallations have'beenbuilt, especially in Japan (about 15 plants
werein operation 1990 withcapacitiesinthe range 500to 3000kW). Theseuse 1120-
LiBras \vorking fluid. The experiences are good, howeverthe corrOSlon with H20-LiBr
is presentL.T1g adifficultproblemattemperatures of140
C
Corhigher. In Swedenoneheat
transformerplanthasbeenbuiltwithacapacity about 150k\V.
G2. "Cold transformers"
4.23 A similarfunction but at differenttemperamre levels is alsopossibleto arrange order
to "multiply" a given amount of"cold" As proposed by 0:olken <Ll1d Maiuri
patentno 1018 820) anabsorption unitsimilarto thePlatenMunters apparatus may
beused. The operating this was proposedto be which sublimatesat
about -80e. The apparatus makes it possible to achieve about tv.;ice the cooling
capacity ofthe CO
2
-ice at a temperature of-20"C, while heat is released at arnbient
roomtemperatureabout-'-20
G
e.
A schemeofthe systemisgivenin Figure4.23
In the "generator" (Fl) ammonia is evaporated from an ammonia-rich water solution
intoaninertgas (hydrogen).Thegas mixture pdssesthroughthe connectit''1g line toa
condenser, "K", where ammonia vapor is condensed. The inert gas (hydrogen) is
circulating bet\'veen the absorber and the "generator" "desorber" F1) a.l1d the
condenser(K). Thecooling(Qc) ofthe condenserisachievedbysublimatingCO
2
-iceat
-80C. This process is performed in an arnmonia-h,ydrogen atl)1osphere at a total
pressureequivalentto the saturationpressureofammoniaat aboutthe sametemperature
as in the space to be cooled (say -20C). The pure ammonia liquid is drained into
evaporator "F2" where it is evaporated. The ammonia vapor passes through to an
absorber"A"where the arnmoniavaporis absorbed in a water-a..'1lII1onia solution.
arrullonia-rich solution is fed into the generator (F1) where we started the description,
b
Alcohol + COriee
I
I
-SO'
cr +20" t .. C
Figure 4.23. "Cold transformer" as proposed Nolken and lvfaiuri (from
Backstrom 1970). The p,t-diagram to the right indicates schematically the cycle.
Notice that the pressure indicated is the partiai pressure of the ammoma) the
total pressure is constant as in the Platen "\funters scheme.
Thus for each cycle the scheme indicates that the refrigerant (ammonia) is evaporated
twice (first in "FI" and then In "F2") at temperatures where we want to create "cold"
it is absorbed once (in "A") and condensed once (in "K"). In this way it is possible
to "multiply" the energy released when the CO
2
-ice is sublimating at the
temperature - and \-'ie can achieve twice as much "cold" at an intenuediate
temperature
It is not known to the author if this scheme has used in practice- it
might some ideas as to possibilities to use temperature energy in an effective
, decreasing the irreversibility of a process - and saving costs. .
4
to
..
-
H. Ejector cycles
H1. General
424 another heat operated cycle for refrigeration or comfort cooling is
by means ofan ejector cycle. This type ofsystem has, however, not
wide use, in ofconsiderable development efforts. However, for small
tifts", should be possibilities'for interesting applications in practice, where
low heat is available at lov,, cost.
principleis indicated in Figure4.24. Thecycleis very similartotheoneusedin a
conventional compressionrefrigerating butthe compressoris nmvin the
fonnofan ejector. Inthis device thevaporfrom theImv temperatureevaporatoris
'induced' into ahighvelocityvaporstream. Thevelocityoftnefluid must behigh
enough so thatthedecelerationin thediffuserafterthe mixing section mcrease
from evaporatortocondenserleveL
Generator
Condenser
Evaporafor
Figure 4. Scheme oj an ejector air conditioning or refrigeration
drivingfluid operatingtheejectorishigh vapor in the
The ejector same timction as an arrangement ofaturbine driving a compressor
such a the turbine is driven by high vapor, and pmver
generated the turbine is used to drive the compressor. vapor at exit ofthe
turbine as well as compressor flows to a common condenser. With this as a
an ejectorefficiency as the product
It seems as the
4
proposed as medium,
as
goodperformance.Normally same fluid is used in both cycies- the
weIl as refrigeratring cycle - but proposals are to use
different fluids. the ejectorcycle it appears that it would be advantageous to use a
fluid with ahigher molecularweightin thepowercyclethaninthecooling cycle.
As example can be mentioned a patent by Neumann and Lustwerk proposing to use
mercuryinthe powercycleandwater in the COOlLl1g cycle. In thecondensertheset\VO
media w11I be easyto separatesincethey do not mix in liquid form. Ofcourse to use
mercury in a common machine would not be permitted today, due to tile healili
hazardswlthmercury.
H2. Simple theory for ejectors
4.25 A few simple equations for a first degree analysis can be established to describe the
phenomenon in an ejector. For a more in depth analysis reference is made to the
treatmentbyWahl (1966).
Figure 4.25 gives a scheme ofpressures prevailing in an ejector. The operating vapor is
expanding in the nozzle from the high pressure in thegeneratorto a pressurelower than
thatin theevaporator. Thismakes it possible to entrainthevaporfrom thegeneratorinto
thehighvelocitystream. Theentrainmentis occurringinthemixing section oftheejector
after which the t\VO streams are assumed to be perfectly mixed_ The stream of is
compressedtocondenserpressureinthefollowing diffuser sectionwherethestreamsare
decelerated
T
Vapo" of lOW
pressure. p2
man the right are
:0
, 2
s
I'
"t.
by using
no work
schematic
..
4. ALTERN:ATI1tE
Basic
For the the la\v
. c == +m
2
) 4.25a
where IIlo- mass flow of driving
of drivina fluid "'\"H,'rn-;
b
m2 mass flow of entrained
velocity of entrained
C
m
of the fluids
section
If we for simplicity aSSUIne that area from the "'"Q1"'\rvr'n".r is large we can set
=0 and then equation 4.25a gi"l/es mass entrainment ratio:
-1 4.25b
The can be expressed terms of enthalpy
equation for the nozzles adiabatic conditions
neglecting influence on gravity \Vith '-PT;>1",''','P
shown in 4.25, <h'1d introducing an efficiency of the
\ ~ h e r e is the isentropic of the nozzle
=isentropic change in the UULLl''''
In to give the necessary pressure rise il1 the '-'-HLU..:,,, velocity em must
. '1' .
IS tne IsentroplC of the diffuser
=isentropic increase for the compression iT). the
Introducing these into equation 4.25b the ratio as: U... 'LV1.LW
4.25e
(from \Vahl, vlith. 4.26 illustrates entramment ratio
s the cooling IS
for tI-te the necessary
426b
3
Entrainment ratio versus enthaply ratio
in the
the ",,'rTfH
the
as
4.
+-
fosilr Jil7f.l!!/,
" Ross Htaflt
o
7 8
Wahl, 1966)
to In2 used here; similarly G
successfi.tliy Figure4.27
systems are assumed to
lines'} Three sets
0, I and 0,2 SEK/(KV/h,
...
-' ~
I. Comments on the economy ofheat operated systems versus
electrically driven.
for an absorption systemis lowerthan the COP for a vapor
price ofthe heat energy used operation must be lower than
mechanical) energy in order absorption system to have a
relationsthatmmtprevail
for heatingand electricenergyfor achievingasituationwherethe
willbeequalfor thetwosystems. Thedata shmvnarebased onassumptions
forthen.evo systemsa& indicated.
Ofthe diagram it can be seen that the potential for the absorption systems is somewhat
for low temperature applications. The reason for this is as has been
mentioned - thattheCOP2 ofa compression systemis decreasingmorerapidlywhenthe
evaporatingtemperatureis loweredthantheCOPh for absorption '",,'",,"''''
~
0,5
~
~
lJ..J
0,4
C/)
:::;,
2
0.3
Q)
r-
-Q)
......, 0,2
ct:i
Q)
.c:
"-
0,1
0
Q)
l)
't: .
Q

;
0 0,5
1
,
1 2
Price of electricity! SEKlk1lv17
Figure 4.2 . Approximate relations between
which operating costs are
compreSS'IOn systems. Elr?ctric operated
and
COP2h 1
parameter
The
a correcr econorruc compansGn one [nust not
a

more and more interest in orderto avoid the peak cost
may be
where peak
high.
Relarions: Forasimple economic comparisonlet us consider the total annual cost,
of a refrigerating systemwithagivencoolingcapacity 02 which canbe written.
demand
\vhere a = annuityofinvestment, interestand depreciation, [
1 = investment[SEK]
r=am1Ual operatingtime [h/year]
K priceof operatingenergy input[SEKlkWh]
COP; CoefficientofPerformance
Ie= sumofconstantcostsofsystem operation(maintenanceetc)(SEK]
Equivalentexpressionscan besetup for differenttypes ofsystems
To find conditions for equal costs ofheat operated systems (index and electrically
operated (index"er) wecanwrite:
4.27b
which can besimplified to thefollmving conditions in terms oj energy prices for having
thetotal cost ofaheatoperated systemlowerthanthat ofaelectricallyoperated:
-2 with x afln-
where It IS assumed that the 02, a and ,are equal for both types of systems. The
parameter X signifies the difference in capital and maintenance costs bet\veen an electric
anda heatoperatedsystem in SEKlk\vncoolingcapacity.
The diagraminFigure4.27 exemplifiestheinfluence ofthe parameterX (the values
0, 0,1 and 0,2) areused Thecurvesfor x = 0 correspondtoa casewheretheinvestment
andfixed costsfor the operationareequaL

PRiME MOVERS
...
J. Expansion cycles.
J1. General
4 28 different types cycles exist using expansion of a as the phe-
nomenon for achieving low temperatures. Of a speciai interest is course to use air as a
working substance, since this can permit cycle to be open to the atmosphere -
also potentially make it possible to bmit one the heat exchangers the cycle..
T\vo cycles will especiaily be mentioned in this chapter the Joule or louIe-Brayton
cycle (which with minor modifications also is equivalent to the Ericsson cycle) and the
Stirling cycle.
All these cycles their counterparts as power generating cycles. The Joule cycle can
be characterized as a reversed gas turbine cycle. For refrigerating applications it is
sometimes called a "cold air cycle n. Similarly the Stirling cycle can be as an
However its applications refrigerating engineering for cryogenic applications
actually developed into a much larger market than engine-applications for Stirling
machines. Stirling refrigerator is suited for large temperature hence for
low
Generally the expansion have more successfhl handling large temperature
than vapor compression cycles in its different forms. An illustration to this is shown
in Figure 4.
1.0,---------------------------------------,
u
0:-
r
u
z
0.5
w
Q
RANKINE (6)
:....
:....
w HZ I TEMPERATURE
I AT WHICH HEAT
\-
lis REJE::TED
0
Z
/
c::
<::
u
0
0
REVERSED (4]/--
f,..
01(3)
I,D
I r
I
; ' '/
ST!RLlNG(I) V

-400 -200 o 400 1000 i2.00
4
J2. The Joule cycle
this case
Coder m
d \ L;J c
machine
Compressor
"",-__E
air has a
of a simple arrangement ofa Joule cycle a "cold air Figure 4.29.
The Joule cycle consists theoretically four processes; t\..vo
(compression expansion) and two' (cooling and heating)
.
be described asfollows \vithreferenceto the in Figure429:
to becooled is sucked into the compressor. l\fier compressorthe
pressure, but also a higher temperature. In the heat (cooler)
heat is from thehigh pressure air to an exiemalheat sink (i.e. air). The
process air IS expanded in the expansion machine (or "turbine '') to pressure in the
space to and internal energy of air in this expansion is transferred
to work and the air temperature drops. work extracted is used to supplement the
drive ofthe compressor. The net powerto operatethe systemis the between
thepower thecompressorandthe
The cycle is attractive several points ofview. Of course is a great
advantage touse air as working substance in an open arrangement so the air of
spaceto cooled canbeused in the Foran ideal, casethe COP of
cycle is identical to that ofa cycle (see point 2.13). , the COP drops
rapidly as soon as the irreversibilities ofpractical machinery are introduced Tl-lis is easy
to understand if we consider that the net work to operate process being the
betweenthe work of and that extracted in expansion. The work
in theturbine are proportional to the gas volume
to absolute
on the same If:stance
internal heat
:3

pressure
usingthis
its inlettothe
USlDg a heat eXCha!lger rlprlUF'F'n
coid the compressor Inlet to
Aschemeof thistypeis shovm in
It is also possibleto design the system withaclosed loop for such a casethe room
"cold figure 4.29 would replaced \vith a heat exchanger
anoLl-Jer medium on the 10\,,/ temperature side Closing the loop make it possible to
the pressure level (by higher pressures volume flow rates can bedecreased)
and to useothergasesthanair(e.g. \\1thbetterheattransferproperties)
430 Figure 4.30 shows a schematic s,T-diagramofthe simple cycle, \vhere the ideal cycle is
representedbythedottedlines ofisentropic compressionand expansion.
Heat
source
Figure 4. The simple louIe
cycle inas, T-diagram
Entropy. s
Thefollowing equationscan be derived as abasis for further analysis ofthecycle:
capacityof thecycle is
The
m
".Cr'(T T) 4.30a
r D "
where m IS themassflow ofairinthecycle
= thespecificheatoftheair
1'0 and aretemperaturesofthecycleas shownin
Noticethat temperature canbe determinedif'iNe knov, 1d andthe powerextracted
in theexpansionmachine, as:
me
ofthe compressor as
IS
Hl
43
...
T
a,IS
Let us for simplicity in equations, instead the pressure ratio (pj P2), use the symbol 1:
for the isentropic temperature ratio, defined as:
(which is equivalent to the ratio .-
The isentropic power to drive the compressor can be expressed as
liz cp . CT:is )=me Tb . (1-- r). Introducing an isentropic efficiency 17K, of the
compressor we can \\trite the follmving relation
I .
--m
.r. .(r
/;
1)
!
430d
17K.
In a similar v:ay the power extracted by the an isentropic expansion machine or turbine
can be written m - . (Td ) m . c . (I 1! r) and taking into account an
isentropic efficiency T/Ex) of the expansion machine we have:
. TIl \\
E - rflc,
d
,
430e
Ex --
- I
r)
Finally the net power to operate the system is by:
4.30f
and the coefficient of performance:
4.
The heat rejected form the system is
OJ 02 j;
4.3
Results are exemplified in Figure 430b The diagram of this figure the as a
function of the pressure ratio for a simple Joule cycle 'with curves for different
efficiencies of the compressor and the expansion machine (which for the
are assumed to have the same value) Notice that the COP2 is extremely
isentropic efficiencies!
the compressor
pressure)
to
4:38
4 ALTEP,NAT/VECYCLES
3,0
2,5
2,0
0J
Q
o 1,5
()
1,0
0,5
0,0
--1,00
--0,98
-L'-0,95
0,90
---..."..-0,85
--0,80
-0-0,75
--0,70
1 2 3 4 5 6
Pressure ratio, p1/p2
Figure 43Gb. Estimated Coefficient ofPerformance, COP2 a simple
operating with (K - J,4) andfor temperctures to 3 G ~ C and td +20
G
C, see
definitions infigure 4.30a. Curves are givenJor different isentropic efficiencies the
compressorandthe expansion machine, assumedto equal, 17K
b
The HiIsch tube give
the expansion was done in a
EVGLVEERING
J3. The Hilsch tube / Ranque vortex tube
4J 1 unconventional method
it is cycle- should also be
more correctto nameitthe vortex tube) for expanding a onecan "separate"
a stream ofcompressed gas into one hot and one cold stream a device without
anymoving parts I This sounds and when the principle \vas presented by
in 1933 many were skeptical to the phenomena However the scientist
demonstrated a workingmodel duringthe second world war. schemeof
a is showninFigure 4.
is furpjshed to a radial in a tube and the flow will create a strong
vortex in the tube. It is shmvn that the temperature
itis easytoachieve- woeonthe
in the center is the
periphery In the vortex tube cold alr the center ofthis vortex IS
through an orifice \'lhile the rest ofthe air exits the other way, as shown. With
air (typically7 barand at
onthehotside
the efficiency ofthe-the processes
temperature drop that
turbine, extracting work from
tubehas cometo use special applications, such as local
cooling objects, especially' in an environment where there is pressurized
available at low cost Other examples ofapplication are for cooling suits of
hot environments (like in a steel mill) or for the cabin ofa large
machine latteris a simplebutenergy AC- unit
Compr-.ssed ai:r
I
t
INPUT
l?Liflque vOrtex

4
.:; ALTERNA.
J4. The Gifford-McMahon refrigerator
4 a special be mentioned, at extremely
The Gifford-McManon refrigerator is a unit developed cooling
infrared detectors This unit is actually an expansion device for a pressurized gas ')';-ith a
built in regenerator arrangement so that very low temperatures can be achieved 1I1 a
simple way. A scheme such an expansion device is shO\vn in Figure 4.32.
The unit consists of a relatively long thin
walled cyiinder sleeve (1) forming a
"cold end" (sometimes called "a cold
finger") Inside the cylinder is a piston
(5) with a regenerator (2), through
which gas can enter and exit the
cylinder. The unit operates as follO\vs:
Let us foIl 0',v the operation starting in a
position when the space in the cylinder is
filled with gas of a high pressure and
when the piston is at a "top" position.
Inlet and outlet valves are closed. \Vhen
the piston moves down in the cylinder
the gas 1S expanding, and the
temperature the gas drops. a
chosen position piston the exit
valve opens and gas flm.vs out (external
pressure is lower than that in the
cylinder). The temperature of the
has dropped during its expansion. The
cylinder is in the next step "emptied"
when the piston is moving up to its
"top" position in the cylinder In the
Figure 4.32. Schematlc ofa Gifford-
next phase, just before the piston has
A1dviahon expansionunit
reached its top position, the inlet valve
Coldend
opens and the high pressure
2' Regenerator
into the cvlinder through the regenerator
~ - "-'"'
throughpiston
matrix The material in the regenerator
Inletvalve
wiil now "pre-cool" the gas during its
valve
pa3sage to the top the cylinder A
) Piston with on warm end
new cycle starts and the processes are
repeated.
3
room temperature and
:41
b
4
aja
The cycle in
toa
compressIon
320
280
240
200
160
12Q
80
J5. The Linde- and Claude-cycles for liquefaction of gases.
the of air. It is based on so
effect as a consequence certam circumstances)
the process ofthrottling a from a high pressure to a lower will cause
temperamre the gas to drop. An (irreversible) throttling process is, as we kI10W
thennodynamics; characterized by the fact thatthe enthalpies; h, ofthe fluid before
the process arethe same For a perfectidea! the enthalpy is independent ofthe
pressureand for such casestheThomson-Joule is zero. However, for realgasesat
r.igh pressures the enthalpy is a function of as can be seen
Figure 4.33 givingah,T-diagramfor air.
Example: Considerthrottling a stream ofairfrom a state 200 bar and 27
(300 K) downtoatmosphericpressures(l bar). FromFigure4.33 we see
following a line ofequal enthalpy from inlet to outlet conditions, 'Nil! up
with an outlet temperature about 35C lower (or about 265K). This is the
effect thatis utilizedin theLinde-cycle.
TO K
100 200 350
h
Figure 4.33. Enthalpy- Temperature
diagram ofair (]rom Pierre
Figure 4.34.
simple
.,
__ ~ .... ~ 0 1 1
larger is
as can be seen in the diagra;m of in steady state operation
air at point reaches the wet region acertain fraction ofthe air (ofcondition c') will
be in liquid state. liquid can be drained offfrom the vessel as indicated in Figure
434.
4.35 interesting figure ofmerit IS what fraction ofthe compressed air that can be drained
offin liquid form Let us use the symbol y for tris ratio. simple energy balance for
stationaryconditions will give the necessary reiations to estimatethe fractiony
Enclosing the heat exchanger, the throttiing device and the vessel in the
considered we canwrite:
nJ:h
a
= mch:, (ni mc)hd 435a
'Nhere illis the mass flowthrough the compressorand
n1c'is the airmass flow drainedoffinliquidfonn
ha,hdand he' arethe enthalpiesin points"a", "d"and
Introducingy = me/Ii]wefind from 5.35athat
hd - ha
Y=
4,35b
s
hd he
an ideal isothermal compression at ambient temperature the compression is
by the following equation (the exergy difference ofthe air after and before the
compressor):
4.35c
and the work to condense one mass unit ofair, Eri/(y Iil), can now be estimated eq
4.35b and c.
It is obvious that the compressor work per mass unit ofair is afunction ofthe pressure
ratio,Pc/Pc. \Vith po ;:::;: 1bar, experienceindicatethat pa 200 baris close to optimal
4 36 relationsare sufficientto estimatehow much airthathas to compressed and
thework neededto produce 1kgofliquidair.
Example: -/ fu'1 ideal Pb = 200 bar high pressure In ambient
conditions pc produce y == liquid aIr kg
compressed air and 70 ideal (isothermal)
workperkg liquid air which is equivalentto 1,44kV/hlkg.
See
- 9.24
4
b
components) for
(with
example 170 k:."hn/kg). It
15 obvious that
improvements.
is a large potential for
7 Improvements ofthe Linde-cycle involves closing the
cycle using a two stage throttling ("high pressure
circulation") with pre-cooling by a conventional
refrigerating machine at a mid section of the heat
exchanger. A process scheme such a cycle is given
in Figure4.37. Bysuch a theenergy demand per
kg liquid air can be decreased to about 113 ofthat for
the simple scheme(datafonnPierre, 1982)
438 main irreversibility of the Linde-cycle is the
throttling ofgas with large pressure differentials. It
\vould natural to instead use an expansion turbine
as in a Joule-cycle, The expansion of a to
lowtemperaturesrequiredfor liquef'):ing the
ho\vever practical problems several
reasons - which ofcourse was the background to the
success of thesimpleLinde-cycle
arises
Conven!;onal
refn'-geratlng
urit
Figure 4.37Arnproved cycle 11m
throttling and pre-cooling
the Claude -process a combination ofan expansion
machine (as in the Joule cycle) and a throttling (as in
the Linde cycle) is, used A scheme ofthe Claude
cycle is shown in Figure 4.38. A typical high pressure
is about 40 bar, hence considerablylower than for the
Linde-process (Still another cycle, the Claude
Heylandt process, use aboutthe same pressures as
Linde-process). Originally Claude piston
expansion machines - which he with ingenuity
managedto to function well evenat extremely low
temperatures Kapitza, ina developmentfirst described
used turbines for the expansion ofthe air.
is the prevaiiing technique large plants.
performance of components
per
the Linde process
4.
------... ...---- _. __...-.__._..... ---------------------
p
has systems capableto achieve extremely temperatures
::>UI.UUv, capacities for Hydrogen as weB as Helium. Expansion machines
are of type, but arranged 'Nith long "sleeves" so that the expansion takes place in
the "cold" end a long cylinder, with seals on the warm side (compare Gifford
MacMahonprinciple, Figure 4.32).
J6. The Stirling cycle
4.39 The Stirling cycle has been paid a large attentionand interestby scientists and use for
engines as well as for low temperature refrigeration has been studied extensively. A
numberofdifferent schemes have been exploredfor different purposes and applications,
electrically driven as well as heat driven. We will here only very briefly touch upon the
principle ofoperation and the use as a cryogenic refrigerator. The interested reader is
referred to Lundqvist (1993).
Afew ofthe different possible mechanical arrangements are shownin Figure 4. (from
Lundqvist, 1993). The working medium is a gas, normally at an elevated pressure
is enclosed in amadlinecomprisingpistons for volume changes and heat exchangers
for transferring heat into and out ofthegas. Animportant heatexchangingdeviceis also
the regeneratorby which aninternal heat exchange and heat storage between phases
ofthecycletakesplace.
H Heater
R-
C", Cooler
!-crm
Beta Form
P;stcn
Twin Piston
ofStirling engines or refrigerators
-t-
I
I
Gar"1cna Ferrn
-
m
when the unit continuesto rotate mthe same
take heat the heat exchanger temperature on
makesthe to operateas an engine thetemperature is not
the heat exchanger indicated
an
in the
now "pump" heaUrom a
and reject it at a temperature
439 It is thus operating as a refrigerating unit
The cycle of an ideal Stirling cycle consist offourbasic processes:
1. isothermal expansion
2. heating the gas in the cycle at constant volume
3. isothennal compression
4. cooling the in the at constam volume.
The heat exchange during the processes "2" and "4" are perfonned by means of a
regenerator in which heat energy is stored over cycle External heat is exchanged to
and from the gas in the process 1 and 3. In Figure 4.40 a schematic description is
step by The cylinder arrangement is simplified. The working is enclosed in the
between two opposing pistons and with a regenerator matrix in the middle
2. Heating the gas in the at constant
v
. Isothermal expansion PIston P 1 moves to volume. Both pistons PI and P2 moves
the and the enclosed gas expands. Heat simultaneously and the gas is transferred
Q2 (refrigeration) IS applied so that the gas through the regenerator matrix (where it is
maintains its temperature heated)
v
4 . . Piston P2 moves to
and l1e
(ejecred at
at constant
in a 4.40. (Jllustrations from

--
4 41 the Stirling cycle is It becomes
real processes are taken Into account.
spaces are for instance not as m the
idealized analysIs. is exemplified in 4Al a. is seen the temperatures m the
warm side and on the cold side varies when the piston moves over the cycle. Tr..is \vill
intluence the heat transfer in the (on the cold side) and in the cooler (on
warm side) The heat exchange in the. regenerator is large compared to the cooling
capacity and it is important for the performance to have small temperature differences in
the regenerator. A good regenerator efficiency
is thus important, which is further exemplified
in Figure 4Alb (from Lundqvist, 1993) where
an example is given of results in terms of
overall cycle efficiency (a "Camot efficiency")
of optimized Stirling configurations base on a
simulation program. The figure gives data for
different regenerator efficiencies in a "low tem-
perature lift" Stirling refrigerator with helium
as working substance.
40
'''to
250 280
Figure 4.41a. Schematic
temperatures In
space of5'tirling freezer.
99?:
- 98.57-
. 9Sr.
." 97.57-
. - sn:
96.57-
'" 96r.
- 95.57.
v
,
o
I
,
'0
\1
,
K
Examples of from simidation a Stirling
The diagram shows total Carnot efficiency
the temperature on
b
Small refrigerators have also been developed for other spec:ial purposes. The
A,mencancompany Sunpowerhas developed adesign based onpistons driven by a
electric motor and with a free oscillating displacer in order to avoid complicated
mechamcal arrangements and lubrication. Figure 4.42b shows an externai view such a
design and also someperformancedata.
Figure 4.42a Design oja 5'tirling refrigerator by Philips for liquefying air. (Courtesy
Philips Company)
1: Pistons; 4: Compressionspace; 5: EX'Pansion space; 13: WatercooledHeatExchanger;
14: 15. Cold side heatexchanger"ithfins (18) for condensing 16+17
for collecting 20 Outletof air.

00'111
4
.P
4. ALTERNA
K. Electricandmagneticcycles.
K1. General
4.43 Two phenomena possible to utilize for refrigeration were mentioned in Chapter 2
Peltier effect and phenomena in lvfagnetic processes. The latter one ofthese has its
applications in extremely low temperatures, although some experiments have been done
recently also for more moderate temperature levels using extremely strong magnetic
fields (requiring supraconducting magnets). We v,:i11 not deal more with the magnetic
processesin thistex1
The Peltier process, however, has merits for normal temperatures and it has found
practical applications in special niches. One ofits advantages is that it has no moving
parts. Thedevelopment of sern.jconductors, especiallyinthe60tiesgavegreat hopes fora
breakthroughforthetechnology, but it seems as ifthere are lirn.jts forthe possibilities to
tailor the properties of semiconductors, and further improvement seem difficult to
achieve Ashortdescriptionand simple relationswill begiven.
K2.. ThePeltierprocess
4.44 In a thennocouplethere is, as weknow, an electric potential difference ifthe"cold" and
the "hot"Junctions ofthe thennocouples are atdifferent temperatures. Peltier, a French
watchmaker detected (already 1834) that also the reverse phenomenon occurs; if an
electric current is forced through the conductors the junctions v"ill strive for different
temperatures Thisis theso called Peltier effect. Figure4.44 gives a schematic picture of
howaPeltierrefrigeratorcanbearranged. Theperfoffilance ofaPeltier cooleris, as we
will see, strongly depending on the properties ofthe materials of the Peltier pairs,
indicated"N"and"P"in thefigure.
~ e a r2iecting surface
Hot side
Heat absorbing sLr:ace
4 1 2 3 4.
t
IlNG ENGIA'EERING
in a thermocouple a difference
The Seebeck coefficient the dimension VoltiK (in SI-
units).
Materialssuitablefor Peltierelements shouldpossessa high Seebeck coefficient butit is
easytounderstandthattheyalso musthave
alowthermal conductivity, }"" inordertoavoidlarge lossesduetoheatconduction
betvveenthehotandcold
a low electric resistance, Pei, in order to avoid large electric losses or inother
wordstheyshouldbe good electric conductors.
Most electric conducting materials are also good thermal conductors, and versa
(which for pure metals follows from the Wiedeman-Franz law, and in a more general
form by the Lorenz' law (from 1881), which states that 1,'Pel is proportional to the
absolute temperature, T.) It is hence difficult to find suitable materials. Those selected
are alwayscompromisesandthemostinterestingmatenals aresemiconductors. Itcanbe
shown a,'1 import..aIlt paran1eter how well a materia! meets the demands
for a Peltierelement is the so calledJoffes parameter orJoffes number after aRussian
scientist. The maximum achievable COP (later the text denoted ofa Peltier
elementthatcanbeobtainedis a functionoftheJoffes number. Itis defi.l1ed as
Z 4.45a
RK
where e isthe Seebeckcoefficientof pair[InSl-.:units: voltslK or ];
R is the electricresistanceofapair[ohm,n=volt/ampere] and
Kisthe conductivityofapair[W/C].
Insertingthe dimenSIOns of e, R and K (noticingthatvolt 'ampere is equivalentto
m Tf) wefindthat'Zhas thedimensionof
The most interesting materials for use in Peltier coolers arc, as already mentioned,
semiconductors. Foruse at "normal" temperatures (around room temperature) these are
based on Bi2Te3 with small additions (of Br and eu) order to have the matenal
"doped" so that and"P"-materialsare formed, suitable for a
been possible to develop materials ""'ith in the
This was reached in the mid 60-ties and 1Il spite ofconsiderable research efforts one
'10.
3
have not been able to increase the Z-value more than to 41 [1
scientistsbelievethatthere is a theoreticallimit that
1.5 l/Tm (with Trn denoting the average benveen the hot and cold side absolute
1to
Itcan current
4:
-
-
IS can be
possible
in order to
m would compete successfJlly with regular vapor compression
systems in tenus energy efficiency (compare Figure 2.1 6). This is at least six times
higher Z-values than what the best available materials have today.
05
OA
0.3
Q.
0
U
tU
G
0.2
0.1
0.0
--<>--t11t2=40/"'-10
Q
C i
~ ~ ~
-0-40/0 C
-t!t!- 40/-1 0 C
0 0.005 001 0.015 002 0025
Assumed value for Z, 1f"C
4.0
3.0
.....
0...
0
C"\I
2.0
Q
0
0
1.0
0.0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 o. 0.025
Asumed value for Z,
51
thermal,",v11uu'v.
REFPJGERATlNG ENGINEERING
4.46 and nplc"tnrrn
L'-'UCUu'"" we assume and "P" the
samepropertiesintem1S
electric resisitvity: p [0.m]
them1al conductivity: I. [ff?(m'oC)]
a...'1d togetherthey"Vi!ill formathermocouplewiththe
Seebeckcoefficient: e
We assume that the bars ofthe thermocouple each have an cross sectional area ofA
[m
2
] a.'1d alengthofL [m]. Hencefor eachpair(oftwobars)we have:
Theelectricresistance: R=2pL/A [D.} 4.46a
Totalthennalconductance: K 2 AlL [W;CCj
4.46b
Wecanherealsoestimate JoffenumberfromZ = K) = 4.46c
A set ofn thermo-pairs operating betvieen temperatures and Tj and with an
electriccurrentofI, willrequire:
Electric powerinput, [W]: E-n +R ] 4.46d
wherethe first term in the parenthesisis the necessaryto overcome
potentialdifferencedue to the Seebeckeffect for one andthe secondone
is thatdue to the electricresistance.
Coolingcapacity, [\V]:
Seebeckeffect for one pair, the second one is the heat caused by the electric
resistance inthe thermopairs ofwhich halfis conducted to the coldside, and
finally
.
thethirdtermis the loss causedbvthethermalconduction
.
Finallythe"heatingcapacity"\\'illbe
4.46f Of E (h =nlelT
J
Rf
andtheCOP
z
oftheunitoperatingas arefrigeratoris achievedas
- 021E.
The current, I, canbe chosen and the capacity as well as the COP
l
IS
dependingonwhichvalueis used. Thedependence is illustratedin 4.46.
Nerice thatifa material could be found with R -10 and K -1 0 the the
electnc
bet:xeen the ternperatures Tl and
alSO nave
4.46e
where the first term in the parenthesis is the ideal capacity due to the
------
CHAPTER 4. TERNA TlVE CYCLES

=+40C;
L =O,-Q05 . AlL"'2 =1
C'\i
Q
0
u
10.0
9.0 ts
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0
o
10
10 20 30
Electric current, I, A
t1 = +40
c
C;
L=O,005 m; AlL"2=1
20 30
Electric
40 50
40 50
Figure 4.46. Performance pair for an example "vith hot
available materials
(giving Z - 0,
COP
2
is

References,"
F.
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4:54
.,