Unit 1 Introduction

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EE 2201 EE 2201MEASUREMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS AND
INSTRUMENTATION INSTRUMENTATION
Introduction to general instrument system,
error, calibration etc. error, calibration etc.
Emphasis is laid on analog and digital
techniques used to measure voltage,
current, energy and power etc.
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To have an adequate knowledge of comparison
methods of measurement.
Elaborate discussion about storage & display
devices.
Exposure to various transducers and data
acquisition system. acquisition system.
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1.INTRODUCTION
Functional elements of an instrument Static and
dynamic characteristics Errors in measurement
Statistical evaluation of measurement data Standards
and calibration. 9
2. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS
Principle and types of analog and digital voltmeters,
ammeters, multimeters Single and three phase
wattmeters and energy meters Magnetic
measurements Determination of B-H curve and
measurements of iron loss Instrument transformers
Instruments for measurement of frequency and phase. 9
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by V.BALAJI, M.Tech,(P h.D), by V.BALAJI, M.Tech,(P h.D),
AP/EEE ,DCE AP/EEE ,DCE
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3. COMPARISON METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS
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D.C & A.C potentiometers, D.C & A.C
bridges, transformer ratio bridges, self-
balancing bridges. Interference &
screening Multiple earth and earth loops
- Electrostatic and electromagnetic
interference Grounding techniques. interference Grounding techniques.
4. STORAGEAND DISPLAY DEVICES
Magnetic disk and tape Recorders, digital plotters
and printers, CRT display, digital CRO, LED, LCD &
dot matrix display- Data Loggers.
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TRANSDUCERS AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
Classification of transducers Selection of
transducers Resistive, capacitive &
inductive transducers Piezoelectric, optical
and digital transducers Elements of data
acquisition system A/D, D/A converters- acquisition system A/D, D/A converters-
Smart Sensors.
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INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
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FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
Three main functional elements are Three main functional elements are
Primary sensing element Primary sensing element
Variable conversion element Variable conversion element Variable conversion element Variable conversion element
Data presentation element Data presentation element
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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FUNCTIONAL
ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
Primary
Variable Variable
Data
Data
Data storage/
Playback
Element
Measuring
quantity
Primary
sensing
Element
Variable
Conversion
Element
Variable
Manipulation
Element
Data
Transmission
Element
Data
Presentation
Element
quantity
(Measurand)
To
Observer
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Static And Dynamic Characteristics Static And Dynamic Characteristics
Static Characteristics : Static Characteristics :
Static characteristics are those that must be Static characteristics are those that must be
considered when the system or instrument is used considered when the system or instrument is used
to condition not varying with time or vary only to condition not varying with time or vary only
quite slowly. quite slowly.
Main Static characteristics: Main Static characteristics:
i) Accuracy ii) Static error i) Accuracy ii) Static error
iii) Sensitivity iv) Dead zone iii) Sensitivity iv) Dead zone
V) Reproducibility vi) Drift V) Reproducibility vi) Drift
vii) True value vii) True value
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Accuracy: Accuracy:
Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity being measured. approaches the true value of the quantity being measured.
Sensitivity: Sensitivity:
Sensitivity means the ability to feel or realize readily an accurately the Sensitivity means the ability to feel or realize readily an accurately the
slight changes in the input quantity. slight changes in the input quantity.
Sensitivity = change in output signal or measure
change in output signal or measure
Reproducibility:
Reproducibility is the degree of closeness with which a given value
may be repeatedly measured. It may be specified in turns of units for a
given period of time.
Drift :
Drift means that with given input the measured value do not vary
with time. It is undesirable in instruments because it is rarely apparent
and cannot be easily compensated.
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DRIFT CLASSSIFICATION DRIFT CLASSSIFICATION
1. 1. Zero drift: Zero drift:
If entire calibration shifts due to If entire calibration shifts due to
slippage permanent or due to undue slippage permanent or due to undue
warming up of electronic tube circuits warming up of electronic tube circuits
,zero drift occurs as shown in fig 1.1. ,zero drift occurs as shown in fig 1.1. ,zero drift occurs as shown in fig 1.1. ,zero drift occurs as shown in fig 1.1.
Output
Input
Characteristics with zero drift
Nominal
characteristics
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2. 2. Span (or) Sensitivity drift: Span (or) Sensitivity drift:
If there is proportional change in the If there is proportional change in the
indication all along the upward scale, the drift is indication all along the upward scale, the drift is
called span or sensitivity drift as shown in fig 1. called span or sensitivity drift as shown in fig 1.
Characteristics with
Output
Input
Span drift
Nominal
characteristics
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3. 3. Zonal drift: Zonal drift:
If the drift occurs only over a portion of span If the drift occurs only over a portion of span
over a portion of instrument, it is called as over a portion of instrument, it is called as
zonal drift as shown in fig 1.3. zonal drift as shown in fig 1.3.
Output
Input
zero drift
Repeatability
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Precision:
Precision is measure of the reproducibility of the
measurements, i.e. given a fixed value of a quantity; it is a
measure of the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements.
True value:
True value of a quantity to be measured is defined as the
average of an infinite number of measured values when the average of an infinite number of measured values when the
average deviation to the various contributing factors tends to
zero.
Static error:
Static error is defined as the difference between the
measured value and true value of the quantity.
static error = Am Ar
Am = Measured value of quantity
A r = true value of quantity
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Dead zone:
Dead zone is defined as the largest change of input quantity
for which there is no output for the system.
Repeatability:
Repeatability is defined as the variation of scale reading and
is random in nature.
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Dynamic characteristics Dynamic characteristics
Dynamic characteristics: Dynamic characteristics:
The Dynamic characteristics of an instrument refers to The Dynamic characteristics of an instrument refers to
performance of instrument when it is subjected to time varying performance of instrument when it is subjected to time varying
input. The performance criteria based upon the dynamic relation input. The performance criteria based upon the dynamic relation
constitute the dynamic characteristics. constitute the dynamic characteristics.
Some of Dynamic characteristics are Some of Dynamic characteristics are
Speed of response Speed of response
Measuring lag Measuring lag
Fidelity Fidelity
Dynamic error Dynamic error
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1. Speed of response
It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system
responds to changes in the measured quantity.
2. Measuring lag
it refers to retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to a
change in the input signal. The measurement lags are of two types
i) Retardation type:
In this type, the response of an instrument begins immediately In this type, the response of an instrument begins immediately
after a change in measured quantity has occurred.
ii)Time delay type:
In this type response begins after a dead time, after the
application of input. Dead time simply shift the response along the time
scale and causes a corresponding dynamic error.
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3. Fidelity:
Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of a system to reproduce
the output in the same form as the input.
4. Dynamic error:
Dynamic error is difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with the time and the value indicated by the instrument if no
static error is assumed.
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Errors in measurement Errors in measurement
Error: Error:
There is always some difference between the There is always some difference between the
actual value and observed value is called error actual value and observed value is called error..
Errors are mainly classified as Errors are mainly classified as
Gross errors Gross errors
Systematic errors Systematic errors
Random errors Random errors
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Errors Errors
1. 1. Gross errors Gross errors
gross errors are largely due to human gross errors are largely due to human
mistakes in reading instruments and recording mistakes in reading instruments and recording
and calculating measurement results. and calculating measurement results.
This error can be eliminated by This error can be eliminated by
1. Great care should be taken in reading 1. Great care should be taken in reading
and recording the data. and recording the data.
2. Taking number of readings of same 2. Taking number of readings of same
quantity and by number of observers. quantity and by number of observers.
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2. Systematic errors:
They are classified as
a. Instrumental errors
b. Environmental errors
c. Observational errors
a. Instrumental errors:
These errors are due to the following:
i) Due to inherent short comings in instrument
ii) Due to misuse of the instruments
iii) due to loading effects
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INHERENT SHORT COMINGS IN INSRUMENT INHERENT SHORT COMINGS IN INSRUMENT
These errors are inherent in instruments because of their These errors are inherent in instruments because of their
mechanical structure. mechanical structure.
They may due to: They may due to:
Construction Construction Construction Construction
Calibration or operation of instrument or measuring Calibration or operation of instrument or measuring
devices devices
Example: Example:
If the spring used for producing controlling torque of If the spring used for producing controlling torque of
permanent magnet instrument has become week, the permanent magnet instrument has become week, the
instrument will read high. These errors are eliminated by instrument will read high. These errors are eliminated by
careful planning and recalibration. careful planning and recalibration.
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Misuse of instruments Misuse of instruments
These errors are due to the fault of the These errors are due to the fault of the
experimenter than that of the instrument experimenter than that of the instrument..
Example: Example:
An experimenter may fail to adjust the zero An experimenter may fail to adjust the zero An experimenter may fail to adjust the zero An experimenter may fail to adjust the zero
of instrument, poor initial adjustments. of instrument, poor initial adjustments.
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Due to loading effects Due to loading effects
These errors are committed by beginners, These errors are committed by beginners,
is the improper use of instrument is the improper use of instrument
Example: Example:
A well calibrated voltmeter may A well calibrated voltmeter may A well calibrated voltmeter may A well calibrated voltmeter may
give a misleading voltage when connected give a misleading voltage when connected
across a high resistance circuit. Same across a high resistance circuit. Same
voltmeter when connected across a low voltmeter when connected across a low
resistance circuit may give a more resistance circuit may give a more
dependable reading. hence the voltmeter dependable reading. hence the voltmeter
is said to have loading effect. is said to have loading effect.
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Environmental Errors Environmental Errors
Errors which are introduced due to using an Errors which are introduced due to using an
instrument in different conditions than in which instrument in different conditions than in which
it was assembled and calibrated are called it was assembled and calibrated are called
environmental errors. environmental errors.
These may due to These may due to
Temperature Temperature
Pressure Pressure
Humidity Humidity
Dust Dust
Vibration Vibration
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These can be eliminated by
Using instrument in controlled conditions of temperature
and pressure
If above condition is not possible then deviation in local
ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS
If above condition is not possible then deviation in local
condition must be determined and suitable correction to
instrumental readings applied.
Automatic compensation employing devices for such
deviation is also possible.
Although new calibration may be made in the new
conditions.
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Observational Errors Observational Errors
The errors which occur due to improper The errors which occur due to improper
observation made by the observer are called observation made by the observer are called
observational errors. observational errors.
Example: Example: Example: Example:
The pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly The pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly
above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on
account of parallax will be incurred unless the account of parallax will be incurred unless the
line vision of the observer is exactly above the line vision of the observer is exactly above the
pointer. pointer.
To minimize parallax errors , highly To minimize parallax errors , highly
accurate meters are provided with mirrored accurate meters are provided with mirrored
scales. scales. 27 27
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RANDOM OR RESIDUAL ERRORS RANDOM OR RESIDUAL ERRORS
Errors which occur due to the multitude of small Errors which occur due to the multitude of small
factors which change or fluctuate from one factors which change or fluctuate from one
measurement to another and are surely to measurement to another and are surely to
change. The happenings or disturbances about change. The happenings or disturbances about
which we unaware are lumped together and which we unaware are lumped together and which we unaware are lumped together and which we unaware are lumped together and
called random or residual. called random or residual.
These are unpredictable errors. These are unpredictable errors.
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LIMITING ERRORS LIMITING ERRORS
All components are guaranteed by the All components are guaranteed by the
manufacturer have nominal value and a specified manufacturer have nominal value and a specified
percentage of deviation (from the nominal value). percentage of deviation (from the nominal value).
the limiting of these deviations from the marked the limiting of these deviations from the marked
value are known as limiting errors. value are known as limiting errors. value are known as limiting errors. value are known as limiting errors.
Fractional limiting error: Fractional limiting error:
The ratio of the error to the specified The ratio of the error to the specified
(nominal) magnitude of a quantity is called (nominal) magnitude of a quantity is called
fractional error. It is expressed as, fractional error. It is expressed as,
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Statistical evaluation of measurement of data Statistical evaluation of measurement of data
This is necessary to obtain the probable true value of the This is necessary to obtain the probable true value of the
measured quantity. measured quantity.
Systematic way of specifying this uncertainty is the Systematic way of specifying this uncertainty is the
systematic method systematic method
The most probable value of a measured value can be The most probable value of a measured value can be
estimated by following different methods are: estimated by following different methods are:
a) Arithmetic mean a) Arithmetic mean a) Arithmetic mean a) Arithmetic mean
b) Median b) Median
c) Mode c) Mode
d) deviation from the mean d) deviation from the mean
e) Average deviation e) Average deviation
f) Standard deviation f) Standard deviation
g) Variance g) Variance
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ARITHMETIC MEAN ARITHMETIC MEAN
Arithmetic mean is the average number of values taken. Arithmetic mean is the average number of values taken.
The best approximation will be made when the number of The best approximation will be made when the number of
readings of the same quantity is very large. readings of the same quantity is very large.
The Arithmetic mean is given by the following expression The Arithmetic mean is given by the following expression
X= X1+X2+X3+.+Xn = X= X1+X2+X3+.+Xn = XX
n n n n n n n n
Where X = Arithmetic mean
X1,X2,X3. = Readings taken
n = number of readings
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Median Median
Median is also indicate the most probable value Median is also indicate the most probable value
of the measured quantity when a set of readings of the measured quantity when a set of readings
taken. taken.
When the readings are arranged an ascending When the readings are arranged an ascending When the readings are arranged an ascending When the readings are arranged an ascending
and descending order of magnitude , the middle and descending order of magnitude , the middle
value of the set of readings is taken as the value of the set of readings is taken as the
median. median.
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MODE MODE
Mode is the value which occurs frequently in a set Mode is the value which occurs frequently in a set
of observations and around which other readings of observations and around which other readings
of the set cluster densely. of the set cluster densely.
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DEVIATION FROM THE MEAN DEVIATION FROM THE MEAN
Deviation is the departure of a given reading Deviation is the departure of a given reading
from the arithmetic mean of the group of from the arithmetic mean of the group of
readings. If the deviation of first reading X1 is readings. If the deviation of first reading X1 is
called d1 , and that of second reading X2 is called called d1 , and that of second reading X2 is called
as d2 and so on , then the deviations from the as d2 and so on , then the deviations from the as d2 and so on , then the deviations from the as d2 and so on , then the deviations from the
mean can be expressed as,
d1 = X1 d1 = X1 XX
d2 = X2 d2 = X2 X , etc. X , etc.
Deviation from the mean may be positive or Deviation from the mean may be positive or
negative. But sum of the deviation is zero. negative. But sum of the deviation is zero.
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Average Deviation Average Deviation
Average deviation is defined as the sum of the Average deviation is defined as the sum of the
absolute values of the deviation absolute values of the deviation
D= D= |d1| +|d2|+|d3|+|dn| |d1| +|d2|+|d3|+|dn|
nn
D = D = |d| |d|
nn
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STANDARD DEVIATION STANDARD DEVIATION
Standard deviation or root mean square Standard deviation or root mean square
deviation is a very valuable aid in statistical deviation is a very valuable aid in statistical
analysis of random errors. analysis of random errors.
The standard deviation or root mean square The standard deviation or root mean square
deviation of an infinite number of data is the deviation of an infinite number of data is the
square root of the sum of all the individual square root of the sum of all the individual
deviation squared ,divided by number of deviation squared ,divided by number of
readings. readings.
It is expressed as o = It is expressed as o = d1 d1
2 + 2 +
d2 d2
22
+d3 +d3
22
+.+dn +.+dn
nn
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Standard deviation for a finite number of data (less than 20) Standard deviation for a finite number of data (less than 20)
O = O = d1 d1
2 + 2 +
d2 d2
22
+d3 +d3
22
+.+dn +.+dn
22
nn--11
0 = 0 = dd
22
0 = 0 = dd
nn--11
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VARIANCE VARIANCE
The variance is the mean of square deviation The variance is the mean of square deviation
,which is same as standard deviation, except that ,which is same as standard deviation, except that
square root is not extracted . square root is not extracted .
variance ,V = d1 variance ,V = d1
2 + 2 +
d2 d2
22
+d3 +d3
22
+.+dn +.+dn
22
nnnn
= = dd
22
nn
When number of observation less than 20, V = When number of observation less than 20, V = dd
22
nn--11
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STANDARDS STANDARDS
A standard is a physical representation of a unit of A standard is a physical representation of a unit of
measurement. The term standard is applied to a measurement. The term standard is applied to a
equipment having a known measure of physical quantity. equipment having a known measure of physical quantity.
They are used for the purposes of obtaining the values of They are used for the purposes of obtaining the values of
the physical properties of other equipment by the physical properties of other equipment by
comparison methods. comparison methods.
Standards of Measurement Standards of Measurement Standards of Measurement Standards of Measurement
classified by their function and application in the classified by their function and application in the
following categories: following categories:
i. i. International standards International standards
ii. ii. Primary standards Primary standards
iii. iii. Secondary Standards Secondary Standards
iv. iv. Working Standards Working Standards
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STATIC CALIBRATION OF INSTRUMETS STATIC CALIBRATION OF INSTRUMETS
CALIBRATON:
Calibration is defined as the
comparison of an instrument with a primary
or secondary standard of an instrument of or secondary standard of an instrument of
known accuracy.
STATIC CALIBRATION :
It is defined as the process by which all
the static performance characteristics are
obtained in one form or another.
Calibration is used to find errors and
accuracy.
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Calibration procedure may be classified as Calibration procedure may be classified as
Primary calibration: Primary calibration:
Instrument is calibrated against primary Instrument is calibrated against primary
standards . standards . standards . standards .
Examples: standard resistor and standard Examples: standard resistor and standard
cell cell
After calibration, that instrument s called After calibration, that instrument s called
as secondary calibration. as secondary calibration.
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Secondary calibration Secondary calibration
Secondary calibration instrument is used for Secondary calibration instrument is used for
further calibrating another instrument of lesser further calibrating another instrument of lesser
accuracy. accuracy.
Widely used in laboratory practice as well as in Widely used in laboratory practice as well as in Widely used in laboratory practice as well as in Widely used in laboratory practice as well as in
industry. industry.
Example: Example:
Standard cell may be used for calibrating a Standard cell may be used for calibrating a
voltmeter or ammeter with a suitable circuit. voltmeter or ammeter with a suitable circuit.
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Direct calibration with known input source Direct calibration with known input source
Same order of accuracy as primary Same order of accuracy as primary
calibration. calibration.
Instruments which calibrated directly are Instruments which calibrated directly are
used as secondary calibration instruments. used as secondary calibration instruments. used as secondary calibration instruments. used as secondary calibration instruments.
Example: Example:
flow meter flow meter
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Indirect calibration Indirect calibration
Equivalence of two different instruments Equivalence of two different instruments
used for measurement of certain physical used for measurement of certain physical
quantity. quantity.
Consider two flow meters having similarity Consider two flow meters having similarity Consider two flow meters having similarity Consider two flow meters having similarity
Reynolds number i.e., Reynolds number i.e.,
D1 D11V1 = 1V1 = D2 D22V2 2V2
1
2
Where,
D - diameter of the
pipe
density of the fluid density of the fluid
V V velocity of fluid velocity of fluid
stream stream
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ROUTINE CALIBRATION ROUTINE CALIBRATION
periodically checking the accuracy and
proper functioning of the instrument with proper functioning of the instrument with
standards. standards.
Usual steps of calibration: Usual steps of calibration: Usual steps of calibration: Usual steps of calibration:
1. 1. Visual inspection of the instrument for Visual inspection of the instrument for
the obvious physical defeats. the obvious physical defeats.
2. 2. Checking the instrument for proper Checking the instrument for proper
installation in accordance with the installation in accordance with the
manufacturer specifications. manufacturer specifications.
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3. 3. Zero setting of all the indicators. Zero setting of all the indicators.
4. 4. Leveling of instruments which needs this Leveling of instruments which needs this
precaution. precaution.
5. Recommended operation tests to detect to 5. Recommended operation tests to detect to
major defects. major defects.
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LIMITING ERRORS LIMITING ERRORS
Limiting of these deviations from the marked Limiting of these deviations from the marked
values are known as limiting errors or guarantee values are known as limiting errors or guarantee
errors errors
Fractional or relative limiting error: Fractional or relative limiting error:
fractional error. fractional error.
r = r = A = Aa A = Aa As (or) As (or) A = A = r As r As
As As As As
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Actual value of the quantity , Aa =As + Actual value of the quantity , Aa =As + A A
= As + = As + r As r As
= As (1 + = As (1 + r ) r )
Percentage limiting error % Percentage limiting error % r = r = r x 100 r x 100
Where Aa = Actual error Where Aa = Actual error Where Aa = Actual error Where Aa = Actual error
As = specified value As = specified value
A = A = limiting error limiting error
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Problem 1 Problem 1
Two resistors having the following ratings: Two resistors having the following ratings:
R1= 36 R1= 36 + 5% and R2 =75 + 5% and R2 =75 + 5%. Calculate the limiting error + 5%. Calculate the limiting error
when the resistors are connected in series and connected in when the resistors are connected in series and connected in
parallel. parallel.
Solution: Solution: Solution: Solution:
R1= 36 R1= 36 + 5% + 5%
Rl = 36+1.8 Rl = 36+1.8 (max) and (max) and Rl = 36 Rl = 36--1.8 1.8 (min) (min)
Limits of R1 are 37.8 Limits of R1 are 37.8 and 34.2 and 34.2
Limits of R2 are 78.75 Limits of R2 are 78.75 and 71.25 and 71.25
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Series connection: Series connection:
R = R1 + R2 R = R1 + R2
= 37.8 +78.75 = 37.8 +78.75
= 116.55(max) = 116.55(max)
or or or or
R = R1 + R2 R = R1 + R2
= 34.2+71.25 = 34.2+71.25
=105.45(min) =105.45(min)
Rated value =36 +75=111 Rated value =36 +75=111
Limiting error = 116.55 Limiting error = 116.55--111 111
= 105.45 = 105.45
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Parallel connection Parallel connection
R = R1R2 / (R1 + R2) R = R1R2 / (R1 + R2)
= 78.75 x 37.8 /(78.75 + 37.8) = 78.75 x 37.8 /(78.75 + 37.8)
= 25.54 = 25.54
Rated value of parallel resistors = 75x36 /(75+36) Rated value of parallel resistors = 75x36 /(75+36) Rated value of parallel resistors = 75x36 /(75+36) Rated value of parallel resistors = 75x36 /(75+36)
= 24.32 = 24.32
Limiting error = 25.54 Limiting error = 25.54 --24.32 24.32
= 1.22 = 1.22
51 51
by V.BALAJI, by V.BALAJI, M.Tech M.Tech,(P ,(P h.D h.D), ),
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Problem no:2 Problem no:2
A 0 A 0 10 A ammeter has guaranteed accuracy of 1.5% of full 10 A ammeter has guaranteed accuracy of 1.5% of full
scale reading. The current measured by the instrument is scale reading. The current measured by the instrument is
2.5 A. calculate the limiting values of current and the percentage 2.5 A. calculate the limiting values of current and the percentage
limiting error. limiting error.
Solution: Solution: Solution: Solution:
Given: Given:
Full scale reading = 10A Full scale reading = 10A
limiting error limiting error r = 1.5% of full scale reading r = 1.5% of full scale reading
specified value As = 2.5 A specified value As = 2.5 A
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Magnitude of limiting error of ammeter is Magnitude of limiting error of ammeter is
A=1.5x10/100 A=1.5x10/100
=0.15A =0.15A
Relative error, er = Relative error, er = A = 0.15 = 0.06 A = 0.15 = 0.06
As 2.5 As 2.5 As 2.5 As 2.5
Limiting value of current = As (1 + Limiting value of current = As (1 + r ) r )
= 2.5(1 + 0.06) = 2.5(1 + 0.06)
= 2.5+0.15A = 2.5+0.15A
Percentage limiting error % Percentage limiting error % r = r = r x 100 r x 100
=0.06x100 =0.06x100
=6% =6%
53 53
by V.BALAJI, by V.BALAJI, M.Tech M.Tech,(P ,(P h.D h.D), AP/EEE ), AP/EEE
,DCE ,DCE
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