Composite materials

for wind turbine blades

Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
1
Outline of presentation
Use of composites in wind turbine blades
Manufacturing processes
Mechanisms of damage and failure in composite materials
Strength analysis and damage tolerance approach
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
2
Composites for delamination resistance
Carbon fibres in wind turbine blades
Summary
Wind turbine blades
Wind turbine blades are complex structures whose design involves the
two basic aspects of
Selection of the aerodynamic shape
Structural configuration and materials selection (to ensure that
the defined shape is maintained for the expected life)
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
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Modern blades
- consist of different kinds of materials (typically composite materials in
monolithic or sandwich configuration)
- use various connections solutions between different substructures
- include many material or geometric transitions
Growth of blade mass with blade length
The growth rate of blade mass with length has been reducing in the past decades
Key drivers for reduction:
Improved manufacturing processes
Introduction of new materials
More efficient use of materials and improved structural configurations
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
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[Lekou, 2010]
Main loads on blades
The main loads on the blades are generated by wind and by gravity.
Wind loads mainly induce both flapwise and edgewise bending.
These loads have both a static and a dynamic component (variations in wind speed and
natural wind shear) that induce fatigue on the blade material.
Gravity loads mainly induce edgewise bending, when the blade is horizontal.
The rotation of the blades cause alternating edge-wise bending and thus fatigue of the
material.
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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Cross-section of a blade
The cross-section of a blade consists essentially of :
- Outer shells (ensure the stability of the aerodynamic shape)
- Internal structural support of the outer shells (longitudinal beam
or webs)
OUTER SHELL
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OUTER SHELL
LEADING
EDGE
TRAILING
EDGE
INTERNAL
STRUCTURAL
SUPPORT
Cross-section concepts: main spar
The two aeroshells are bonded to a load-carrying spar-beam (box-beam)
The main spar and the wing shells are manufactured separately and then
joined in a separate bonding process.
FLANGES : THICK
MONOLITHIC COMPOSITE
(0 fibres)
SHELL: SANDWICH
(0/45 fibres)
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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MAIN
SPAR
ADHESIVE
BONDING
ADHESIVE BONDING
WEBS: SANDWICH
(45 fibres)
Cross-section concepts: Internal stiffeners
The two aeroshells are bonded to two or more internal webs (stiffeners).
The wing shells are manufactured with relatively thick monolithic composite
laminates (spar-caps).
ADHESIVE BONDING
THICK MONOLITHIC
COMPOSITE
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INTERNAL STIFFENERS
ADHESIVE BONDING
Cross-section concepts: Integral stiffeners
The entire blade structure, including internal webs/stiffeners, is
manufactured in one single process (no secondary bonding).
THICK MONOLITHIC
COMPOSITE
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University of Cagliari, Italy
9
INTEGRAL STIFFENER
Key structural design requirements
the blades must be strong to resist the extreme (ultimate) loads;
the blades must resist the time-varying (fatigue) loads through
the entire life of the blade;
the blades must be stiff to prevent collision with the tower under
extreme loads. Local stiffness must be also sufficient to prevent extreme loads. Local stiffness must be also sufficient to prevent
instability of components under compression (to avoid local or global
buckling)
the blade construction needs to be as light as possible to
minimize the cost of generated power
the blades should be stiff and light to avoid resonance
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
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Materials requirements
The structural design requirements translate to the following
materials requirements in terms of material properties:
High material strength is needed to withstand the extreme
loads
High fatigue strength is needed to resist varying loads and
reduce material degradation during service reduce material degradation during service
High material stiffness is needed to maintain aerodynamic
shape of the blade, to prevent collision with the tower, and to
prevent local instability (buckling) under compressive loads
Low density is needed to reduce gravity forces and to
minimize the cost of power
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
11
Why composite materials on blades?
AL m
2 / 1
MATERIAL
INDEX
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
12
AL m
3
L
EI
k
F
S

( )

,
_

,
_

2 / 1
3
2 / 1
12
E
L
kL
S
m

Mass of the beam
Stiffness of the beam
To minimize mass for a given
stiffness S we have to maximize

2 / 1
E
Why composite materials?
Minimize mass for assigned stiffness
Line with constant E
1/2
/ values
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University of Cagliari, Italy
13
Ashby plot
Why composite materials?
Minimize mass for assigned strength
Line with constant
f
2/3
/ values
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University of Cagliari, Italy
14
Ashby plot
Composite materials
A composite material consists of two or more materials combined to
obtain properties different from those of the individual materials.
- Reinforcing fibres (to add strength and stiffness )
- Matrix (holds and protects fibres, and distributes the load)
Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC) materials are typically used in wind
turbine blades.
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Polymer Matrix
Thermoset materials are obtained from a chemical reaction between the
resin and the hardener to form a hard infusible product.
Polyester : easy to process (does not require post curing), inexpensive
Vinyl ester : cost and strength intermediate between polyester and epoxy
Epoxy : best mechanical properties, less shrinkage, expensive
Advantages Disadvantages
Easy toprocess Long curingtimes Limitedtoughness
Exothermduringcuring(thickcomponents)
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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Advantages Disadvantages
High toughness- Recyclability High processtemperature and pressure
Thermoplastic materials soften and melt with heating, then hardening
again with cooling. The softening process can be repeated without any
significant degradation of the material properties.
PP or L-PET: used in film or fibre form and consolidated by heating and vacuum
Reactive thermoplastics (APA-6): suitable for liquid moulding (similar to thermosets)
Strength and stiffness of polymer resins
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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[Gurit, 2012]
Degradation of resin from water ingress
The absorption of water affects the resin and the resin/fibre
interface. leading to gradual reduction of mechanical properties.
Strength
retained: 85%
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
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Short-beam shear strength
test on a glassfibre laminate
[Gurit, 2012]
Strength
retained: 65%
Reinforcing fibres
Typical reinforcement used in composite materials are stiff, strong and lightweight fibres
such as
Glass fibres (good specific strength, low specific stiffness, relatively inexpensive)
Carbon fibres (high specific strength and stiffness, expensive)
Aramid fibres (hygroscopic, low compression strength, few data on fatigue)
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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Properties of reinforcing fibres
Material Tensile
strength
(MPa)
Youngs
modulus E
(GPa)
Density
(g/cm
3
)
Specific
stiffness
E/
HS Carbon 3500 160-270 1.8 90 - 150
IM Carbon 5300 270-330 1.8 150 - 180
UHM Carbon 2000 >440 2.0 > 220
E-Glass 2400 69 2.5 28
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E-Glass 2400 69 2.5 28
S-Glass 3450 86 2.5 34
Aramid LM 3600 60 1.45 41
Aramid UHM 3400 180 1.45 125
Aluminium 7020 400 70 2.7 26
Mild Steel 450 210 7.8 26
HS Steel 1250 200 7.8 25
Comparative fibre cost
Comparison of fibre cost for unidirectional fabrics (300 g/m
2
)
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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Approximative cost of E- glass = ~ 2.5 Euro/m
2
(~ 3.1 USD/m
2
)
[Gurit, 2012]
Final properties of a composite
The final properties of the composite are mainly determined by
Properties of fibres
Properties of matrix
Percentage of fibres (fibre volume fraction, typically ranging from 35% to 65%)
Orientation and geometry of fibrous reinforcement
For example, stiffness properties are strongly dependent on fibre orientation and fibre fraction
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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FIBRE ORIENTATION FIBRE FRACTION
Tensile and compressive properties
of unidirectional composites
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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Reinforcement architecture
Unidirectional fibres
Common geometries of the fibrous reinforcement include
Continuous or chopped
strand mat (CSM)
Unidirectional fibres
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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Fabric type reinforcement
Woven fabrics
Stitch bonded (Non crimp) fabrics
Woven fabrics are obtained by interlacing yarns of fibres with
different orientations (usually 0 (warp) , 90(weft), and 45)
Plain weave
(1 warp yarn
over 1 weft yarn)
Twill weave
(1 warp yarn
under 3 weft yarns)
Woven fabrics
Woven fabrics
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University of Cagliari, Italy
25
Woven fabrics (vs unidirectional layers)
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Higher stability for fibre placement Lower fibre fraction
Laminates have higher resistance to
crack propagation
Lower in-plane properties (crimped fibres
and stress concentrations)
More difficult to infuse with resin
Non crimp fabrics (NCFs) are obtained by stitching together unidirectional
yarns with different orientations, using non-structural threads.
Non Crimp Fabrics (NCF)
NCF fabric
Woven fabric
-45
90
+45
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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Non crimp fabrics (vs woven fabrics)
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Higher fibre fraction Stitching may induce fibre fracture
Higher stiffness/strength (straight fibres)
No stress concentration due to fibre
waviness
Easier lay-up (fewer layers)
Basic structural configurations used in blades
Monolithic laminates
consist of different layers of
multidirectional fabrics or
unidirectional fibres
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Sandwich composites
consist of of a low density core between
thin faces (skins) of composite material.
Polymeric (PVC, PET, PMI) foams with
density in the range 40-200 kg/m
3
Sandwich composites
The insertion of a core increases the thickness of the structure (and thus
flexural stiffness and strength) without increasing its weight.
The core carry
the shear load
The skins carry the
tensile and the
compressive loads
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Weight 1 ~1 ~1
Bendingstiffness 1 ~12 ~48
Bendingstrength 1 ~6 ~12
Manufacturing techniques
for composite blades
Wet hand layup (laminating technique)
Filament winding
Resin infusion
Prepregs
Potential for automation
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WET HAND LAYUP
FILAMENT WINDING
VACUUM INFUSION
PREPREG MATERIALS
Automation
Minimization of cycle times and cost
Reduction of defects
Improved structural performance
Wet hand layup (laminating technique)
Dry fibre material (mats, fabrics or unidirectional tapes) are laid in various
layers into the mould of the component.
The layers are then impregnated with resin and cured at room or higher
temperature (70 to 100 C for epoxy).
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[Brndsted et al., 2005]
Advantages Disadvantages
Production of complex shapes.
Fibres can be oriented along preferred
directions
The process is labor intensive and
time-consuming (handmade)
Large amount of voids and defects
Low fibre fraction
Filament winding
The fibres are passed through a resin bath and are then wound onto a
rotating mandrel.
The process is primarily used for cylindrical components
but can be adapted for blade manufacturing
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
31
[Bussolari, 1983]
Advantages Disadvantages
The process can be carried out in an
automatic way.
Different mandrels must be used to
gradually build the airfoil.
Fibres cannot be easily oriented along
the axis of the blade (0 direction).
Resin Infusion Techniques
Dry fibres (mats, fabrics or unidirectional tapes) are placed in a mould and
encapsulated in a vacuum bag. Liquid resin is then pulled through the
reinforcement by vacuum and allowed to cure at room or higher temperature.
[Grande, 2008]
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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[Ref]
Advantages Disadvantages
Large components can be made in a
single step
Clean and safe process
Good final material quality
Potential for automation
Relatively complex process (especially
for large components)
Low viscosity resins should be used
(resulting in lower mechanical properties)
Blade Infusion
- The two airfoils and the webs or spar are usually manufactured separately
and subsequently bonded tocomplete the blade.
- In some technologies however the full blade is infused in a single step.
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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[Hogg, 2010]
Resin Infusion Techniques
Key issues for final quality of resin infusion are:
Improvement of fibre impregnation (to avoid regions with dry fibres)
Reduction of voids
Possible ways to tackle these issues are
Selection of appropriate fibre coating/sizing to improve wettability
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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Use of low viscosity resins (at room or moderate temperature) to improve
wettability and reduce the process time for large components
Use of fibre fabrics with special architecture (or special resin distribution
meshes) to facilitate flow of the resin
Improvement of resin flow (optimal placement of inlet and outlet lines for
resin by simulation of the flow and data from sensors)
Prepreg technology
Prepreg tapes consist of fibre fabrics pre-impregnated with a resin that is not
fully cured.
The prepregs are laid up onto the mould surface, vacuum bagged and then
heated. The pressure required to consolidate the stacked layers of prepregs is
achieved by vacuum. Process temperatures range between 70C and 120C.
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[Ref]
Advantages Disadvantages
High fibre ratio and low void content
Consistent material properties
Easy control of fibre alignment
Large components can be made in a
single step
Clean and safe process
High cost for prepreg material
Tooling must whitstand process
temperature
It is difficult to correctly cure thick
laminates (temperature not uniform
through-the-thickness)
Typical manufacturing defects
Voids and dry zones
Delaminations
Bonding defects
Foreign inclusions
Fibre waviness
Aerospace quality
Fibre waviness
Wrinkles
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Dry regions and fibre waviness
0 direction
PREPREG
INFUSION
INFUSION
Automation of blade manufacturing
Manufacturing of turbine blades consists of a combination of manual,
labour-intensive operations
Fabrics pattern cutting
Lay-up
Vacuum bagging
Infusion
Demoulding
Secondary bonding
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Secondary bonding
[Black, 2009]
To reduce labour and manufacturing time, and
improve quality the trend is toward automation
Automated Cutting - Bagging
Automated Tape Layup (ATL)
Automated Bonding
MECHANISMS OF FAILURE IN
COMPOSITE MATERIALS COMPOSITE MATERIALS
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Mechanisms of failure in composite materials
Failure in composites can be examined at different scales
(fibre/matrix/interface level; ply level; laminate level, etc.).
Strength analyses of composite structures carried out at the laminate level may
often lead to unsafe predictions.
Most adopted criteria have been developed to estimate failure at the ply level.
First-ply-failure (FPF) is often used as a criterion for laminate strength, but
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First-ply-failure (FPF) is often used as a criterion for laminate strength, but
this is often a very conservative approach and there may be a large
distance between the load for FPF and the collapse load of the laminate
(LPF Last Ply Failure).
Final collapse of a laminate is the result of the accumulation of different
damage modes, which can induce significant degradation of the material
properties during life.
Idealized stress-strain curve
for a [0/+45/-45/90]s laminate
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Main failure modes in composite materials
COMPOSITE LAMINATES
Fibre failure
Matrix failure
Fibre-matrix debonding
Inter-laminar failure (delamination)
Buckling instability
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Buckling instability
COMPOSITE SANDWICHES
Core failure/crushing
Core/facesheet debonding
Fibre Failure
TENSION
Fibres have brittle fracture.
Failure occurs by unstable growth of a
cluster of adjacent broken fibres.
Cluster of
fibre breaks
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COMPRESSION
Fibre failure initiates by instability (buckling)
followed by kinking
Matrix failure
TENSION loading involves failure of the matrix
perpendicular to the tensile load direction
Matrix failure is controlled by tensile or compressive stresses perpendicular to
the fibre direction and by shear stresses.
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COMPRESSION loading involves failure of the
matrix along inclined planes
Out-of-plane SHEAR loading involves failure
of the matrix along a 45 plane
Examples of criteria for ply failure
1

ult x
x

Fibre failure in tension

Fibre failure in compression
1
+
ult x
x

ult y
y

Matrix failure in tension

Matrix failure in compression
Matrix failure in shear
1
+
ult y
y

1
xy

Maximum stress criteria

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University of Cagliari, Italy
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More complex failure criteria include the interaction between the
various stress components.
ult xy

1
2
2 2

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ + + +
ult xy
xy
ult y
y
ult x
y
ult x
x
ult x
x

Tsai-Hill criterion
Delamination (Interlaminar failure)
Delamination is the separation between adjacent plies due to normal (through-
thickness z-direction) or shear stresses at the interface.
It is one of the most common failure processes in laminates, because of the low through-
thickness strength of laminates.
DELAMINATION
DELAMINATION
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Delaminations are typically induced in composite laminates during service
- by out-of-plane loads (impacts) or
- by in-plane loads in the presence of strain concentrations such as at
discontinuities (ply drops, wrinkles, material or geometric transitions) or existing
defects.
Delamination (Interlaminar failure)
Delamination may propagate -under static or cyclic loads- with three
different propagation modes
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Growth of delamination may be modelled with a fracture mechanics
approach, assuming that the crack propagates when the energy available
(strain energy release rate) reaches the fracture energy of the material.
Specific FE approaches include the VCC technique or the use of interface
elements implementing a cohesive law of fracture.
Buckling
Buckling is a mode of collapse occurring under compression, which is
characterized by the appearance, at a critical applied load, of out-of-plane
bending deflections (corresponding to new equilibrium configurations).
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Buckling can significantly reduce the compressive strength and stiffness of
composite structures and can lead to the development of other failure modes
(i.e. fibre failure)
Buckling of delaminated composites
Different buckling modes can be induced in delaminated composite
structures depending on the thickness of the laminate and on the size and
depth location of the delamination.
Local buckling
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Buckling load is reduced in the presence of delamination.
Bending of plies due to buckling results in higher stresses and may promote
the growth of delamination
Mixed buckling
Global buckling
Failure modes in sandwich structures
Sandwich structures show typical damage modes (in addition to
damage in the composite skins).
Failure shear
in the core
Face buckling
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49
Core crushing or
laminate fracture
due to local loads
Global or
shear buckling Face/core debonding
+ buckling
Typical failure modes in blades
- Main spar -
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The most critical failure modes involve interface failure
[Srensen et al., 2005]
Typical failure modes in blades
- Wing shell -
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University of Cagliari, Italy
51
[Srensen et al., 2005]
The most critical failure modes involve interface failure
USE OF CARBON FIBRES
IN WIND TURBINE BLADES
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
52
Potentials for use
of carbon fibres in blades
Carbon fibres have been considered and used in recent years as a way to
reduce weight and increase stiffness in large blades.
Main issues related to the use of carbon fibres
Cost (about 5-10 times more expensive than glass fibres)
Compressive performance of carbon fibres is sensitive to alignment
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University of Cagliari, Italy
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Compressive performance of carbon fibres is sensitive to alignment
(prepreg better than wet process).
Fatigue performance of carbon fibres is strongly degraded by stress
concentrations (ply drops; carbon-glass interfaces, voids, wrinkles,
delaminations)
Infusion of thick carbon fabrics is difficult because of the lower
permeability than fibreglass fabrics (this suggests use of prepregs)
Potentials for use
of carbon fibres in blades
Parametric analyses show potential for significant structural
improvements both for complete and hybrid/selective use of carbon fibres
30% to 40% reduction in mass
20% reduction in tip deflection
for complete replacement of glass with carbon in main spar
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54
for complete replacement of glass with carbon in main spar
50% reduction in root moment
10% reduction in tip deflection
For selective replacement of glass with carbon in the outer span of
the blade
[Griffin et al., 2003]
Carbon/Glass transition and ply-drops
An issue for the use of carbon fibres is the design of the
transition between carbon and glass fibres and of ply-drops.
Critical aspects include
Large difference between stiffness and strain-to-failure of carbon and
glass layers (higher stress in carbon; load is transferred by matrix shear
and high matrix strength is required)
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Stress concentrations at ply drops/transitions may induce
- strong decrease of fatigue strength in carbon structures (high shear
stress in matrix)
- delaminations at relatively low strains under fatigue
Compression strength of carbon plies is strongly reduced by fibre
waviness
Carbon fibres for bend-twist coupled blades
Bend-twist coupling is a form of aeroelastic tailoring in which a
flapwise bending load induces a twist of the blade section.
A change in wind velocity (which induces a change in bending
Carbon layers are especially effective in achieving bend-twist
coupling because of their high orthotropic ratio
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A change in wind velocity (which induces a change in bending
moment and thus in twist) results in a change in the angle of attack.
The change in the angle of attack provides opportunities for load
mitigation.
This passive approach for load mitigation is especially attractive
because of its simplicity and economy (lighter blade, increased
reliability, less maintenance, etc.).
Bending-extension coupling of off-axis composites
The bend-twist coupling may be achieved by exploiting the orthotropic
elastic properties of laminated composite materials (off-axis loading)

'

1
1
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]
1

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]
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2
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66 26 16
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16 12 11
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6
2
1

B B B
B B B
B B B
A A A
A A A
A A A
N
N
N
SHEAR-EXTENSION COUPLING
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
57
BEND-TWIST COUPLING

1
]

1
]

6 66 26 16 6 66 26 16 6
B B B A A A N

'

1
1
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1

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D D D
D D D
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M
M
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BEND-EXTENSION COUPLING
Blade with on-axis laminates
Extension of the laminates does not
induce shear forces
the blade does not twist with bending
The symmetry axis of the composite is aligned with the blade axis.
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University of Cagliari, Italy
58
[de Goeij, 1999]
Bend-twist blade with off-axis laminates
Extension of the laminates induces shear
forces and generates a torsion
the blade twists with bending
The symmetry axis of the composite is not aligned with the blade axis
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University of Cagliari, Italy
59
[de Goeij, 1999]
Bend-twist configurations
Fully (whole span) or
partially (outer span)
Bend-twist coupling in
shell, spar cap, or both
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
60
Parametric analyses suggest partially coupled blades combining off-
axis orientation of fibres both in skin and spar cap as an efficient design
for fatigue load mitigation and mass reduction.
partially (outer span)
coupling.
[Bottasso 2012]
Bend-twist configurations
Main issues associated to coupled design
Large off-axis angle for fibres in the spar caps would reduce significantly the
bending stiffness of the spar (thicker spar caps needed)
Department of Mechanical, Chemical and Materials Engineering
University of Cagliari, Italy
61
The presence of off-axis fibres results in increasing importance of transverse
matrix cracks (stiffness degradation; delamination initiation; reduced fatigue
strength)
Lack of fatigue data on off-axis lay-ups
Trade-off in use of carbon fibres : introduction of bend-twist coupling does not
allow to fully exploit high strength/stiffness of fibres (off-axis orientation)