A Qualitative Investigation Into The Characterists - Priest - Karageoghis

European Physical Education Review http://epe.sagepub.
com/
A qualitative investigation into the characteristics and effects of music accompanying exercise
David-Lee Priest and Costas I. Karageorghis European Physical Education Review 2008 14: 347 DOI: 10.1177/1356336X08095670 The online version of this article can be found at: http://epe.sagepub.com/content/14/3/347
Published by:
http://www.sagepublications.com
On behalf of:
North West Counties Physical Education Association
Additional services and information for European Physical Education Review can be found at: Email Alerts: http://epe.sagepub.com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://epe.sagepub.com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsReprints.nav Permissions: http://www.sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Citations: http://epe.sagepub.com/content/14/3/347.refs.html
>> Version of Record - Jan 9, 2009 What is This?
Downloaded from epe.sagepub.com at EBSCO Electronic Journals Service (EJS) on September 3, 2013
EUROPEAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION REVIEW [DOI: 10.1177/1356336X08095670] Volume14(3):347366:095670
EPER
A qualitative investigation into the characteristics and effects of music accompanying exercise
David-Lee Priest and Costas I. Karageorghis
UK Brunel University,
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to identify the characteristics of music used to accompany physical exercise and investigate the effects of such music using a qualitative approach. This work underpins the further development of a theoretical structure that is still relatively new. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of exercise participants (N = 13), seven males and six females, all with at least two years experience of exercising to music. An inductive content analysis of the interview data was undertaken and results contrasted with the conceptual model developed by Karageorghis et al. (1999) which describes the effects of musical and cultural factors with reference to psychophysical outcomes. The ndings demonstrated the importance of musical (e.g. rhythm, lyrics, bass), contextual (e.g. time of day) and individual factors (e.g. background, personality) in determining both shortterm (e.g. mood, imagery) and long-term (e.g. heightened work-rate, endurance) outcomes. The ndings point towards a more expansive conceptual framework. In particular, facets of the response to music such as ow state, cognitive responses, rhythm response and anticipation are discussed. Music perceived to be motivating could lead to increases in exercise intensity and endurance during performance of self-regulated tasks. These ndings have implications for the use of music in physical education settings.
Key-words: exercise psychology interviews motivation psychophysical responses
The potential effects of music on exercise performance and experience during a single session may, over time, lead to increases in adherence (Karageorghis et al., 1999; Schwartz et al., 1990). In a broader context, music use can prove benecial in healthcare (e.g. Batt-Rawden et al., 2006) and physical education (e.g. Ha and Wong, 2002). One of the primary benets in the physical education (PE) domain is an increase in pupils enjoyment. There is now accumulating evidence that carefully selected music improves exercise performance (Atkinson et al., 2004; Elliott et al., 2004; Karageorghis and Lee, 2001; Matesic and Comartie, 2002; Simpson and
Copyright 2008 North West Counties Physical Education Association and SAGE Publications (Los Angeles, London, New Delhi, Singapore and Washington DC) www.sagepublications.com Downloaded from epe.sagepub.com at EBSCO Electronic Journals Service (EJS) on September 3, 2013
348
E U RO P E A N P H Y S I C A L E D U C AT I O N R E V I E W
14(3)
Karageorghis, 2006; Szabo et al., 1999), elevates mood (Hayakawa et al., 2000) and reduces ratings of perceived exertion (Nethery, 2002; Potteiger et al., 2000). Karageorghis et al. (1999) presented a conceptual model (Figure 1) that predicts the effects of asynchronous motivational music in the context of exercise and sport. The term asynchronous refers to the absence of conscious synchronization between physical movement and the accompanying musical rhythm. They dened motivational music as that which stimulates or inspires physical activity. Through psychometric work which stemmed from a review of literature, four factors were identied that contribute to the motivational qualities of a given piece of music: rhythm response, musicality, cultural impact and association. Rhythm response pertains to the response to the rhythmical elements of music, which has been identied as the key characteristic of music in terms of eliciting a bodily response (e.g. Gaston, 1951; Karageorghis and Terry, 1997; Karageorghis et al., 2006; Lucaccini and Kreit, 1972). In the context of the model, the term musicality refers to the response to the pitch-related elements of music such as harmony and melody. Cultural impact refers to the pervasiveness of the music within society while association reects the personal extra-musical associations that music may evoke. The four factors differed in the extent to which they contributed to the motivational qualities of music; rhythm response was found to exert the greatest inuence and association the least. Based on a review of theoretical and experimental work (see Karageorghis and Terry, 1997), it was proposed by Karageorghis et al. (1999) that the application of asynchronous motivational music leads to three psychophysical responses: arousal control, reduced ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and improved mood. Such responses within the context of a single bout of exercise may lead to the longer term behavioural outcomes of increased adherence to exercise, or in a sport context, the preevent routine. Of the short-term responses, both mood and arousal may be inuenced by music which is played before as well as during a bout of exercise, whereas perceived exertion is affected by music that is played concurrently. Reductions of perceived exertion are particularly important in an educational context, and the impact of music on student mood is also signicant in terms of the benecial effect it may exert on
Hierarchy 1 Rhythm Response Arousal Control Musicality 2 Motivational Qualities 3 Personal Factors 4 Cultural Impact Improved Mood Association Reduced RPE Pre-event Routine Exercise Adherence
Music Factors
Figure 1 Conceptual framework for the prediction of responses to motivational asynchronous music in exercise and sport (adapted with permission from Taylor & Francis; Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 713724)
P R I E S T & K A R A G E O R G H I S : M U S I C A C C O M PA N Y I N G E X E R C I S E
349
learning. Indeed music has been used as a skill-learning aid to great effect in educational contexts (see e.g. Chen, 1985; Spilthoorn, 1986). The importance of the framework lies in the fact that it provides practitioners with guidelines to facilitate the prescription of music that may ultimately impact upon exercise adherence. In addition, researchers require a conceptual structure to focus their investigations into the effects of music in exercise and sport settings. Hence, the rationale underlying the present study centred upon the need to evaluate and further develop the conceptual framework that underpins this area of study. Karageorghis (1998) suggested that research into the psychophysical effects of music in exercise and sport has been characterized by a positivistic and experimental approach. The positivistic nature of the conceptual framework represents a limitation that should be addressed. Music is an art form and the subjective nature of music perception and preference appear to require subtle methods of investigation (Reimer, 1985). Further, it has been argued that qualitative research methods are particularly benecial in the development and extension of theory (Hayes, 1997; Karageorghis, 2008; Miles and Huberman, 1994; Smith, 1995). Within the sphere of music research in the sport and exercise sciences, both Bishop et al. (2007) and Gluch (1993) have adopted a qualitative approach to investigating musical response. In these studies, the methodology of open-ended interviews proved particularly effective in elucidating the subtle relationships which obtain in a eld of study that inevitably revolves around individual perceptions. Bishop et al. developed a grounded theory of precompetitive music use in young tennis players which conrmed several facets of the generalized conceptual model advanced by Karageorghis et al. (1999). Notably, Bishop et al.s work elicited information on responses that were not featured in the conceptual model such as ow and imagery. These encouraging results in a sport context invite the extension of this naturalistic work to an exercise context, which is the main focus of the present study and one that is particularly pertinent to health and physical education. Qualitative methods have also been employed to good effect in music research outside the sport and exercise sphere. For example, Sloboda (1991) utilized an interview technique incorporating music listening to score emotional responses to individual segments of music: a good marriage between the research question and the methods employed. Although the motivational qualities of music appear to have been largely identied (see Karageorghis et al., 1999), the consequences of manipulating individual musical components (e.g. rhythm) are not well understood. Further, the factors that are thought to comprise the motivational qualities of music have been identied only by those with experience as exercise leaders (Karageorghis et al., 1999). In the present study the perspectives of exercise participants have also been included. The purpose of the study was to identify and describe the motivational qualities of music and their effects (both immediate and long-term) in the context of gymnasia, using a qualitative methodology. It was felt that to impose a conceptual framework a priori might inhibit detail stemming from participants perspectives (see Gillett, 1995). Hence, the specics of the existing conceptual model were not tested. Instead,
350
14(3)
the interview data were subjected to an inductive content analysis, the results of which were then contrasted with the tenets of the conceptual model. This approach was deemed to be the most robust method of critically evaluating Karageorghis et al.s (1999) model. Method Participants The sample 13 participants were selected according to their experience of exercising to music; the population of interest were members and staff of health clubs and sport centres in London and Norwich, United Kingdom. Each participant had at least two years experience of exercising to music and engaged in exercise to music in a gymnasium setting at least three times per week; four of the participants also had experience as exercise leaders. However, the main focus of the interviews was on the experience of exercise participation rather than exercise leadership. The exerciserelated experience of the participants was diverse, encompassing exercise-to-music classes (n = 9), cardiovascular training (n = 13) and resistance training (n = 9). Seven of the participants often self-selected music for use during exercise (typically using a personal audio device) rather than exercising to the selections provided for them. In terms of the exercise intensity that the participants generally worked at, six described their training as intense or very hard whereas the remaining seven used terms such as moderate or fairly light. The sample comprised six women and seven men, whose mean age was 33.2 years (S.D. = 11.62 yr). The distribution of ethnicity within the sample was as follows: White UK or Irish (n = 9), Black Afro Caribbean (n = 3) and Black Maori Australasian (n = 1). Participants were active predominantly in exercise as opposed to sport contexts. The sample size is justied by theoretical guidelines concerning the acceptability of smaller sample numbers for qualitative research of this type (Patton, 1990). Interviews Having provided written informed consent, participants were interviewed by the rst author at a location in which they reported that they felt comfortable: either at their place of study (n = 3), their health club (n = 3) or at their home (n = 7). Ten of the participants were interviewed twice, whereas, owing to drop-out, the remaining three participants were interviewed only once. During the second interview the participants were given the opportunity to listen to and discuss their preferred musical accompaniment for exercise. The rationale for this was that specic examples might cue detailed and insightful explanations of the function of music in relation to physical activity. The duration of the interviews was between 45 and 120 min. The rst interview was open-ended in nature and semi-structured. The structure was
351
derived from a schedule of topics that was specied a priori (see Ct et al., 1995). The general themes of the schedule were drawn from a review of relevant literature (e.g. Gfeller, 1988; Gluch, 1993; Karageorghis and Terry, 1997; Szabo et al., 1999) and consisted of the following aspects: (a) the properties of music that elicit responses in the exercise setting; (b) factors relating to individual perception that moderate the response to music in the exercise setting; (c) contextual factors; (d) responses to music in the exercise setting; and (e) the behavioural outcomes of listening to music during exercise. To elucidate a rich description of the subject matter, participants were also asked to envisage and describe memorable incidents that related to their experience of music in exercise and sport-training settings. Notably, the specic concepts that prevail within the relevant literature, such as the term motivational music, were not imposed upon the participants lest their own perspectives should be inhibited. Indeed, the epistemological position that underlies the present study is one of multiple realities. Hence, a piece of music is not seen as being motivational per se, that is, in an absolute sense; rather, music is perceived as motivational by an individual at a given time in a specic context (see North et al., 2004). A largely open-ended approach was adopted to questioning (see Marshall and Rossman, 1999). Hence, framing questions (Spradley, 1979) were used to identify key areas which presented the opportunity for elaboration. Leading questions that implied their own answers were avoided. During the course of the interview, the researcher recorded in a notebook any new themes as they emerged. This procedure ensured that certain avenues of questioning were fully explored during the present interview and also provided a repertory for future reference and consideration. To clarify semantic discrepancies between musical terms, the participant was asked to clarify a term that they had used (e.g. tempo) and contrast it with similar terms. At the close of each interview, participants were asked if any information had been omitted or if they would like to make additional comments or elaborate on any aspect of what they had said. Interviews were recorded using a dictaphone. The protocol for the second interview involved the participant and researcher listening to music together. The participant selected music to exemplify their preferred/motivating musical accompaniment for gymnasium-based exercise. Specically, the participants were asked to select three pieces of music (either on CD or cassette tape) which you would choose to workout to in the gym/pieces which you nd motivating during exercise, and bring these pieces to the interview session where we will listen to them and discuss their qualities from your perspective. Each participant was asked to select three different pieces. Participants chose a variety of music, which they described as follows: dance (n = 13), popular (n = 4), rhythm and blues (n = 4), rap (n = 5), soul (n = 2) and ethnic (n = 2). The selfselection procedure ensured that the music possessed motivational qualities from the perspectives of the interviewees. The pieces of music were delivered by either a highdelity music system in the home of the participant or a portable compact-disc player provided by the researcher. During presentation of the music, participants were able to draw attention to elements of the piece that they felt were salient. Following each
352
14(3)
piece of music, the researcher inquired as to the aspects of the music that evoked a response. Apart from the change in protocol, the schedule used and the process of questioning was similar to that of the rst interview. In accordance with the naturalistic objectives of the study, the rst author sought to nullify any perceptions that he was an expert or somebody who had all the answers. However there was a certain degree of reexivity present in that he drew on his own experience of working in a health club environment and exercising to music in order to demonstrate his afnity with the participants and his sensitivity to their perspectives. At the commencement of each interview, he emphasized that anything the participant said was valid and of interest; hence, there were no right or wrong answers. Data analysis The inductive analysis of the data was based upon the methods and techniques described by Ct et al. (1995), which were, in turn, derived from the recommendations of textbook authors such as Miles and Huberman (1994), Strauss and Corbin (1990) and Tesch (1990). First, the interviews were transcribed verbatim by the rst author, who began to appraise content and identify tentative themes. At this point, the data were screened and references to the identity of the participants were removed to promote condentiality. Second, each interview transcript was read in its entirety to provide a global appraisal of each participants perspective. Third, the transcripts were broken down into meaning units: bracketed statements from the transcript that are indivisible and contain sufcient information to be interpreted on their own (Tesch, 1990). Fourth, the meaning units were grouped into properties according to common features. For example, meaning units that contained reference to the rhythmical elements of the music were grouped into a rhythm property. Fifth, the properties were further grouped into categories at a higher level of abstraction. For example, the properties pertaining to rhythm and harmony were added to the music category, which contained properties that were related to the perceived motivational attributes of the music. At this juncture, it was felt that it was not possible to further group the categories to form categories at a higher level of abstraction. Microsoft Access 2000 served as a platform to develop a database of the transcripts, which permitted all the meaning units from a certain property (e.g. rhythm) to be ltered and viewed concurrently. The data were coded as they emerged rather than at the conclusion of all data collection. Hence, during the analysis of the data from each interview, the properties were subject to continual readjustment and cross-referencing; Brody (1992) suggested that reexivity is an essential aspect of qualitative data analysis. Critical challenging (searching for alternative explanations) and the exploration of bias (Marshall and Rossman, 1999) were considered to be integral aspects of the analytical process. Thus, it was felt that the analysis would be facilitated by the involvement of a second researcher. The second author, a music psychologist, took part in the analysis of the data as a form of external audit (see Lincoln and Guba,
353
1985). Following the analysis of the data by the rst author, there was a series of three meetings between the rst and second authors, each lasting approximately 90 minutes. During these meetings, the emergent properties and categories were discussed at length. The second author questioned and challenged the rst authors coding of a number of the properties and the formation of two of the categories (the individual category and the environmental category that was subsequently replaced by the contextual category). To reconcile the issues that the second author raised, both authors referred to the data. In some cases, it was agreed to retain a disputed property because it was appropriately qualied by reference to the data. In the case of other properties, a recoding was agreed upon. Subsequently, the rst author reviewed all the meaning units that related to such properties and recoded them as agreed upon during the meetings. Hence, a consensual validation was achieved. Results The results are presented for each category that was elicited from the analysis. In the text, the names of the categories and properties have been italicized. Owing to the nature of the subject matter, some of the properties are inevitably interrelated. For example, to present ndings relating to feelings of stimulation, it was in some instances necessary to outline which musical qualities were felt to promote stimulation. However, every effort was made in the analysis to distinguish and delineate the various properties. Table 1 contains a list of the categories and properties that emanated from the data analysis. Music category The music category comprises properties that relate to perceived attributes of the music. The salience of rhythm was expressed by all of the participants. It was felt that
Table 1 Properties that emerged from the content analysis in order of response frequency Music category Rhythm Lyrics Artist Speed Style Bass Segmentation Variety Harmony Contextual category Social factors Time of day Individual category Attitude to exercise Personality Background Music preference Familiarity State category Stimulative Motivation Distracts attention Associations Mood Imagery Self-expression Altered state of awareness Sedative Perception of time Outcomes category Work-rate Attendance Endurance
354
14(3)
strong rhythmical features characterize music that is suitable for exercise. The following statement is typical: It shouldnt really matter what music is playing, if its got a good beat . . . if its rhythmical then you can train to it. A young male exercise leader described the tendency to synchronize ones movement with a rhythm: There is a natural human characteristic that if someone has a rhythm and has a beat then the desire is to keep up with that and to, er, work with that as opposed to sort of pulling against it. A property was formed using meaning units that referred to the resonance or perceived strength of the rhythm. The resonance is an aspect of the rhythm that evoked negative reactions from four of the participants: If the beat is too heavy, it pulls me down rather than lifts me up. However, three of the younger male participants from a sports background reported that they responded positively to the resonance of the rhythm: I like the beat to be really driving, hard, a real booming sound. The speed or tempo of the music was referred to by 11 of the participants. Generally, a fast or upbeat tempo was considered to be motivational during exercise: When a slow song is replaced by a fast one then you can denitely see a big improvement in effort and speed. Further, it was suggested by a number of the participants that the musical tempo should be in synchrony with the movement tempo. Five of the participants referred to harmony to describe a motivational segment of a musical piece. For example, during her second interview, a female recreational exercise participant was able to identify a key-change in the nal chorus of a musical piece that inspired her. On occasion, the participants used the artist of a piece of music as a reference point to illustrate which music they preferred for exercise. However, the artist may become synonymous with the gestalt perception of the music, for example, Stone Roses-type music. Through their voice, an artist can express emotional character that is important to the listener: the sound of the voice, the way they articulate the lyrics, it brings a certain attitude to the music that I can relate to. A property closely related to both the artist and their voice was lyrics. All of the interviewees suggested that lyrics could be highly motivational. A sense of personal meaning can be generated by the lyrics. For example, a participant who had forged a successful career in exercise leadership reported that she responded to lyrics which reminded her of her own ambitions: The words are very important to me, especially when it says something like moving up to your destination, because I think about my own career. Lyrics can be literally related to physical activity: This morning in the, er, the spin class theres a song which goes push, push, push, just a little . . . a little bit further and its very, very motivating. Lyrics may prove irrelevant in some cases. For example, a female exercise participant reported that English is her second language; consequently, she said that she was not focusing on the lyrics for the most part. Four interviewees proposed that a piece of music may possess character; for example, human qualities such as attitude or aggression. Two of the male sport participants reported their preference for rap music that conveyed attitude; during his second interview, one of these participants commented that I feed off what I have distinguished as an attitude and I take this attitude into my exercises.
355
The three group exercise leaders felt that familiarity was an essential component of music used in the exercise studio setting: If the people in my class dont know the music, they dont like it, they nd it hard to motivate themselves irrespective of what Im doing to try and motivate them. Six participants referred to the variety of the music programme. For example, an experienced aerobics instructor described the negative effects of repetition in a group exercise setting: For 45 minutes there was no variation, the same beat, no lyrics, no changes in mood . . . it was just awful. Participants made considerable reference to their preferred segment of musical pieces, such as the introduction or the chorus. It was reported that a piece of music has a motivational contour; for example, there may be a sense of increasing excitement, which is resolved by a climax or motivational zenith: You can feel it kind of building, energy, y know, were getting ready to take off here and this is the controlled little bit: Going up the hill, up the hill, were now at the top, bam! Several participants reported coordinating a burst of increased effort with their preferred segment of a given piece of music. Contextual category The contextual category contains properties that represent aspects of the exercise or training environment that may interact with the music to inuence the psychophysical state of the participant. Music can motivate a person indirectly through the medium of a third party. References to this effect were grouped into a property named social factors. An exercise leader described this process: Its not guaranteed that theyre gonna like the same music as you do, but I think if you like the music it helps to motivate you, which helps you to motivate them. Music may have different motivational effects at different times of the day. For example, a recreational exercise participant described her preference for gentle music early in the morning. In the evening, her preference changed to music with a strong rhythm. Individual category The properties within the individual category constitute various dispositions and psychological characteristics of the individual. An individuals personality may inuence their choice of music; for example, one participant who worked as a motivational speaker expressed a preference for what she termed uplifting or positive music during exercise. One particular aspect of the participants personalities that may have affected their response to music was their attitude toward exercise. The interviewees demonstrated various approaches to their exercise: I wanna be as bloody-minded as the next person, if you want to achieve your goal when youre training you aint letting anything stand in your way, and this is the attitude of the music. Alongside these highly motivated individuals were people who exhibited lower levels of motivation: Im a bit lazy for exercise, I have to be stimulated. References to age were grouped
356
14(3)
into a property. There was general agreement among those interviewed that a persons age inuences their response to music during exercise. On several occasions, the participants expressed an afnity with the music of their teenage years or their early twenties, a time in their lives when they felt most affected by popular culture. Two of the group exercise leaders emphasized the importance of selecting music from an appropriate era when teaching older exercise participants. The participants made reference to the role of their background in determining preference for music during exercise. However, this inuence was not always in the expected direction. A male exercise participant in his twenties developed a preference for listening to rap music during exercise, a musical idiom that was not representative of his cultural background. However, the rap music did reect in some ways his tough upbringing. Some of the participants suggested that a specic type of music preference is developed for exercise: I wouldnt want to sit down and listen to gym music at home, its just not my music. This specic preference seems to be attributable to the particular function of music during physical activity: Gym music is not the sort of thing that youd sit down of an evening and listen to; I suppose you might say it gets the adrenaline going. State category The state category contains properties that reect the psychophysiological state of the individual. Music typically plays a stimulative role during exercise. Participants said that music could get me going, stimulate me, get me up for it, kick me up, rev me up, spur me on, excite me and push my buttons. In particular, it was felt that the rhythmical and resonant properties of music lead to an increase in excitement. A property that relates to the stimulative role of music is a sense of anticipation: I feel quite nervous when I hear the intro . . . I go through the introduction and then I think oh, here we go, I can feel her getting ready to start really singing and it starts to make the butteries come because thats when I start to work. Music is not always cast in a stimulative role; ve participants stated that music could also serve in a pacifying or sedative capacity. Eleven of the participants made reference to the role that music played in improving their mood or evoking a positive emotional response. A group exercise leader was able to describe an incidence of strong positive emotion that she had experienced during exercise accompanied by dance music: You feel so high, almost like youre ying. It was found that mood states prior to the initiation of exercise exerted an inuence on the response to music during exercise. A female exercise participant suggested that activities engaged in prior to exercise (i.e. work) make a substantive difference to the receptivity of an individual to the music in the gymnasium. Music may lead to feelings of motivation or inspiration. In particular, the music may bring about a change in the cognitive approach to the task: The music enhances your will to achieve something, but it doesnt change your perception that its tough.
357
Three of the participants remarked that music may provide inspiration for those who are engaging in resistance training; a very experienced recreational exerciser described how music led to a shift in her attitude during a bout of exercise: If they put on a piece of music that I really like, I can get positive from that music and all of a sudden my whole attitude towards my work-out has changed, and therefore I leave the gym in an entirely different frame of mind. Motivational music may also alter the evaluation of the self: You feel good about yourself, like you could go on for ever and ever. Hence, music may alter ones perceived ability to meet the demands of a given task: It (music) gives you a feeling that youre capable of working harder and achieving more. Typically, the participants suggested that music distracts attention away from exercise: If the music is motivating, Im very distracted by it, I dont think about my body or . . . or the fatigue, I can switch off from my body and get on to that next level. However, there were contrary examples. One participant, a martial artist who engaged in intense and frequent training, felt that music did not inuence him during very intense activity. Three of the participants described their experience of an altered state of awareness. A female exercise leader related her experience of a trance-like state characterized by absorption and detachment: It just feels totally effortless and the music is just taking your body wherever it needs to go. There were six references to an altered perception of time and these were formed into a property. Music was thought to make time appear to speed up. The participants spoke of the response to music during exercise as a form of self-expression or disinhibition: If I know a tune, and I hear it, I suddenly think oh wow! I know this tune and I want to show off to it, I want to dance to it and express myself to the full, I suppose in the gym Im not dancing, but I suddenly run faster and think, oh I love this tune. Associations were reported to contribute to the motivational qualities of music. The interviewees frequently reported that they associated a certain piece of music with particular life events or memories. Hence, music may function as a conditioned stimulus or trigger: If a song comes on that I remember having an absolutely great time to in a [night] club, then positive memories will come back, my moods gonna change completely toward the positive and Im gonna feel inspired again. A martial artist explained how he had conditioned himself to experience an arousal response to a certain piece of music prior to ghting. He had learnt to associate the piece with his pre-event routine. Associations may be mediated by imagery, for example, a male participant with a varied background in exercise and sport training referred to the well-known Rocky motion picture series: Rockys training through the snow and trying to overcome this obstacle to get to ultimately beating a guy whos sort of like nearly twice his size, that kind of like inspires the way I approach my training. In particular, the lyrics can promote a specic association.
358
14(3)
Outcomes category The nal category contains properties that describe the outcomes or behavioural consequences of listening to music during exercise. Music may lead to increased endurance: If a great song will come on and Im about to leave, Ill think oh no, right Ill work-out to this because I love it and Ill do another 25 minutes on the pure strength of that. Conversely, two of the participants referred to incidences in which they had curtailed bouts of exercise because they found the music to be demotivational: If the music tends to irritate you I think you quickly get through the routine and get out. Eight of the participants referred to the music increasing their work-rate: You could see the transformation as soon as they put the music on for the lesson, everyone was working much more, and you know it was amazing and I would work even more. However, two of the participants reported that music might also serve to reduce exercise intensity or impair physical coordination. It was reported by six of the participants that music may inuence exercise attendance. For example, an exercise leader described the effect of music on her class attendance gures: Well Ive noticed that since Ive deliberately tuned the music to them, and them to the music, that my classes have become a lot more popular. It is also possible that music may prompt a decrease in attendance. A recreational exercise participant remarked that demotivational music might lead her to consider leaving an exercise facility on a permanent basis. Discussion Participants emphasized the importance of rhythm in determining the response to music in exercise contexts, a nding that supports suggestions made by several researchers (e.g. Gaston, 1951; Karageorghis et al., 2006; Karageorghis and Terry, 1997; Lucaccini and Kreit, 1972). The effects of rhythm are often presented in terms of a synchronization effect linking the periodic distribution of notes with patterns of physical movement (Karageorghis and Terry, 1997; Simpson and Karageorghis, 2006). However, the present ndings indicate that a strongly accented rhythm may heighten activation. Hence, the dynamics of a musical piece (the relative intensity of different notes) may prove to be a stimulative quality that warrants future research. Relative to rhythm, the participants made few references to the pitch-related qualities of music such as melody and harmony. However, this dearth may have been due to the participants lack of familiarity with musical terms or to them taking a gestalt perspective to music. All of the references to harmony were made during the second set of interviews, in which the participants were able to use music they had chosen as a reference point and thus draw attention to the motivational qualities of music that they were previously unable to verbalize. Participants exhibited a tendency to attach signicance to certain segments of musical pieces. This facet of musical response has been reported extensively by researchers investigating the emotional effects of music (e.g. Sloboda, 1991, 1992; Waterman, 1996). Indeed, there is evidence that both emotional responses, such as
359
feelings of elation, and psychophysical responses, such as crying and tachycardia, can be located to exact reference points on a musical score (Sloboda, 1991). Within the realm of exercise and sport, Szabo et al. (1999) reported that a music condition, which included a switch from a slow tempo to a fast tempo, promoted the accomplishment of greater work in a graded cycle ergometer test than music conditions that consisted purely of either fast or slow music. Karageorghis (1998) reported that the motivational qualities of music used during an exercise-to-music class were moderately correlated with post-exercise reports of relatedness, one of the building blocks of intrinsic motivation (see Reeve and Sickenius, 1994). The ndings of the present study indicated that music might create a shared experience within a gymnasium setting, particularly in an exerciseto-music class. With reference to the ndings regarding personality, McCown et al. (1997) found that psychoticism, male gender and extraversion were all positively associated with a preference for exaggerated bass in music. In the present study, the three participants who reported a strong preference for a pronounced rhythm and bass frequencies were men and engaged in relatively intense training. It is plausible that those training at a higher intensity level require musical accompaniment that is higher in its simulative qualities that those who exercise at a lower intensity. Accordingly, those who exercise at a recreational level may require the presence of music merely as a comfort factor. Factory owners have often used music in an attempt to blur the distinction between work, domesticity and leisure in the minds of workers, particularly women ( Jones and Schumacher, 1992). The importance of sociocultural background in determining music preference for exercise and sport has been established (Karageorghis and Terry, 1997). Although the present ndings lend partial support to this assertion, a more complex and subtle picture has emerged. For example, two participants described how they developed a music preference that was antithetical to their backgrounds. It is possible that music preference in exercise settings is less strongly related to sociocultural factors than music preference per se. North and Hargreaves (1997) have suggested that contextspecic music preferences develop owing to the effects of music on arousal. As posited in the conceptual framework (see Figure 1), a key response to music in the exercise context is arousal. Indeed, it was testied that the mounting expectancy occasioned by music was exacerbated by the anticipation of a motivational segment of music and its effects on exercise intensity. Karageorghis and Terry (1997) suggested that improved mood is one of the psychophysical consequences of motivational music. The present study has yielded evidence suggesting that music may elicit a positive mood response during physical activity. Indeed, two of the participants suggested that a positive mood state induced by music might encourage them to remain in the gymnasium for longer. It has been proposed that the affective responses to music might contribute directly to improved exercise adherence (Karageorghis et al., 1999), which is an issue of paramount signicance for both physical educationalists and exercise leaders.
360
14(3)
Music can be used to evoke mental imagery that is relevant to physical activity. In a sporting context, Karageorghis and Terry (2001) reported that the Great Britain bobsleigh team owed part of their medal success in the 1998 Winter Olympic Games to the conditioned effects of music. The Whitney Houston ballad, One Moment in Time, was used in the team bus prior to competition to trigger powerful event-related imagery. Similarly, in the present study, a martial artist reported his use of a specic musical selection to accompany his pre-ght routine. As with previous research (e.g. Gluch, 1993), the ndings of the present study indicate that the lyrics that accompany music play a particularly signicant role in eliciting motivational imagery. However, contrary to the established conceptual position (e.g. Karageorghis and Terry, 1997; Karageorghis et al., 1999), such lyrics need not refer explicitly to physical activity. Examples include unleash the dragon, one moment in time, and moving on up to your destination. A number of the descriptions given of exercising to music point toward the experience of ow state (see Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). For example, the property altered state of awareness refers to a condition in which movement feels effortless and the participant feels absorbed in a trance-like state. White and Potteiger (1996) noted that affective stimuli such as music have the propensity to heighten awareness of physical sensations. In the present study, two of those engaged in relatively intense resistance training noted that it is possible to be aware of the activity and the music concurrently: a heightened state of awareness. However, it was more typical that the participants referred to music as a distraction from the sensations of fatigue as proposed in the conceptual framework (see Figure 1). These ndings corroborate the theoretical predictions of Rejeski (1985) and Tenenbaum and Hutchinson (2007) insofar as music served to divert the participants attention from unpleasant fatigue-related sensations when exercising at low-intensity levels (see also Karageorghis, 2008). Karageorghis and Deeth (2002) found that motivational music led to increases in reported ow state during a multi-stage tness test, whereas Pates et al. (2003) reported a similar nding in relation to a netball-shooting task. Descriptions of time appearing to speed up, disinhibition and elation also relate to the ow construct. Music has been shown to affect the perception of time in the context of a gymnasium (North et al., 1998). In addition, Lowe (1973) reported on the use of stimulative rock music to disinhibit an individual who had a public speaking phobia. It is possible that motivational music may inuence individuals on a cognitive level, leading them to evaluate themselves more favourably and their own ability to meet the perceived demands of tasks. It has been reported that music may increase the self-esteem and condence of exercisers (see Lampl, 1996, as cited in Tenenbaum et al., 2004) and the self-condence of inter-collegiate athletes prior to competition (Lanzillo et al., 2001). The frequency with which the participants used the term gym music indicated that there might be a conditioned expectation of the type of music that is appropriate in the exercise context. North and Hargreaves (1997) posited that this conditioning process plays a strong role in determining contextual music
361
preference. Similarly, Lucaccini and Kreit (1972) wrote that music might function as a conditioned stimulus within an exercise and sport environment. Thus, the motivational effects of music would become amplied over time owing to a gradual reinforcement process. Limitations Although more than sufcient in terms of precedents set by previously published researchers in this eld of study (e.g. Gluch, 1993; Pates et al., 2003), the sample size is acknowledged as a minor limitation. However, the signicance of this limitation is lessened by the fact that the interviews carried out were multiple and in-depth. In light of the possibility that age inuences the response to motivational music (see Priest et al., 2004), the fact that the age range of the sample was broad (2065 years) also constitutes a minor limitation. Finally, a possible limitation in the procedure used for the second interviews was that the listening environment might have inuenced the responses; that is, listening to music at home using portable equipment may not elicit the same responses as when listening in a gymnasium setting. Conclusions and recommendations The present ndings suggest that where work-rate is self-determined, particularly at submaximal levels, music is a stimulus that leads exercise participants to exert themselves at a higher intensity and for a longer duration. The evaluation of a piece of music in a physical activity or PE setting is highly complex, involving an interaction between musical, personal and contextual factors. Indeed, an important nding that stems from the present study is the signicance of context to the relationship between musical characteristics and motivational responses. Among the music factors, rhythm is the most salient and should be considered to be the main prerequisite when selecting a piece of music for exercise. The present ndings indicate that a specialized form of music preference develops within the context of exercise and point towards the need for similar work in a PE context. Hence, for some individuals, general music preferences do not dictate the preferred choice of music for exercise. Various personal characteristics inuence the response to music during exercise. Hence, personality, sociocultural afliations and attitude towards exercise should all be considered when selecting a music programme to accompany exercise. Personal characteristics are of particular importance when prescribing music for an individual as opposed to a group. From a PE perspective, it is important to acknowledge the quandary that, while musical preferences are individually different, they are also somewhat similar across groups of similar sociocultural backgrounds. Hence, the pedagogic goal must be to select music which has the greatest chance of appealing to the greatest number of pupils, based on the principles that are being elucidated in
362
14(3)
the research literature. In particular, the variable of age is one that might be further investigated as there is tentative evidence here to suggest that age may play a part in determining responses to music in the exercise setting. Physical educationalists should be advised to study carefully the demographics of their pupils, their attitudes and music preferences, and to use such information in the construction of music programmes to accompany PE classes. These programmes should vary in accordance with the type of activity they are accompanying (low vs high intensity) and with periods of the day (e.g. mornings vs afternoons). Indeed, future researchers may employ a tool such as the Preference for and Tolerance of the Intensity of Exercise Questionnaire (PRETIE-Q: Ekkekakis et al., 2005) to further investigate the relationship between preference for exercise intensity and musical response during exercise. The ndings from the present study offer naturalistic support for the tenets of the conceptual model (see Figure 1). However, the restricted scope of the model, coupled with its simple structure, minimized the possibility that the present ndings would prove contradictory. Based on the present ndings, several potential additions may be made to the existing conceptual framework. First, motivational music may inuence individuals on a cognitive level, leading them to more favourably evaluate themselves and their own ability to meet the perceived demands of tasks. Second, music may function as a conditioned stimulus within an education setting. Third, music may demotivate exercise participants/pupils and negatively affect their performance and eventually their adherence. Fourth, the model does not account for the effects of personal variables such as personality and attitude towards exercise or contextual variables such as the time of day. Fifth, music may lead exercise participants/pupils to experience an altered state of attention comparable to ow state. Sixth, the current ndings indicate that exercise participants vary the intensity and duration of their physical activity as a result of music listening. This is a phenomenon that is difcult to demonstrate in tightly controlled experimental conditions and might be better examined in a class setting. Seventh, the strength of musical rhythm may be linked to arousal. Eighth, exercise participants/pupils may exhibit a heightened response to individual segments of musical pieces; this response may be exacerbated by anticipation. Ninth, music may promote relatedness amongst exercise participants or pupils. The foregoing list includes entirely new ndings within this eld of study (e.g. segmentation), concepts that have been mooted, yet not researched (e.g. cognitive response to motivational music) and hypotheses which have been supported by research but are not represented within the conceptual model (e.g. motivational music and ow state). In summary, the present study has yielded factors beyond the present conceptual framework that may be further researched or used as potential bases to extend this framework. Notably, naturalistic evidence to support various concepts within the motivating music literature was conspicuously absent prior to the present study. Insight has been gained into the specic processes and experiences that characterize listening to motivating music in the exercise setting.
363
Those interested in promoting the social and health benets of exercise should regard music prescription as an area of pivotal importance. Presently, it could be argued that music is a largely untapped resource within exercise or PE contexts and the responses to music in such contexts are highly individualized. Hence, further research in this domain utilizing qualitative and idiographic designs appears warranted. Moreover, to maximize the motivational effects of music, physical educationalists and exercise leaders should aim to facilitate the self-selection of music by those in their charge where possible.
Acknowledgement The authors are indebted to David Lloyd Leisure Ltd. for supporting this research. References Atkinson, G., Wilson, D. and Eubank, M. (2004) Effects of Music on Work-Rate Distribution During a Cycling Time Trial, International Journal of Sports Medicine 25: 61115. Batt-Rawden, K.B., DeNora, T. and Rudd, E. (2006) Music Listening and Empowerment in Health Promotion: A Study of the Role and Signicance of Music in Everyday Life of the Long-term Ill, Nordic Journal of Music Therapy 14: 12036. Bishop, D.T., Karageorghis, C.I. and Loizou, G. (2007) A Grounded Theory of Young Tennis Players Use of Music to Manipulate Emotional State, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 29: 584607. Brody, H. (1992) Philosophic Approaches, in B. Crabtree and W. Miller (eds) Doing Qualitative Research, pp. 17485. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE. Chen, P. (1985) Music as a Stimulus in Teaching Motor Skills, New Zealand Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation 18: 1920. Ct, J., Salmela, J.H. and Russell, S. (1995) The Knowledge of High Performance Gymnastic Coaches: Methodological Framework, The Sport Psychologist 9: 6575. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990) Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper & Row. Ekkekakis, P., Hall, E.E. and Petruzello, S.J. (2005) Some Like it Vigorous: Measuring Individual Differences in the Preference for and Tolerance of Exercise Intensity, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology 27: 35074. Elliott, D., Carr, S. and Savage, D. (2004) Effects of Motivational Music on Work Output and Affective Responses During Sub-Maximal Cycling of a Standardized Perceived Intensity, Journal of Sport Behavior 27: 13447. Gaston, E.T. (1951) Musical Factors Inuencing Social Behavior, Kansas Welfare Digest 10: 24. Gfeller, K. (1988) Musical Components and Styles Preferred by Young Adults for Aerobic Fitness Activities, Journal of Music Therapy 25: 2843. Gillett, G. (1995) The Philosophical Foundations of Qualitative Psychology, Psychologist 8: 11114. Gluch, P. (1993) The Use of Music in Preparing for Sport Performance, Contemporary Thought 2: 3353. Ha, A.S.C. and Wong, S.H.S. (2002) Comparison of Traditional and Alternative Fitness Teaching Formats on Heart Rate Intensity and Perceived Enjoyment, Journal of the International Council for Health Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, and Dance 38: 1114.
364
14(3)
Hayakawa, Y., Miki, H., Takada, K. and Tanaka, K. (2000) Effects of Music on Mood During Bench Stepping Exercise, Perceptual and Motor Skills 90: 30714. Hayes, N. (1997) Theory-Led Thematic Analysis: Social Identication in Small Companies, in N. Hayes (ed.) Doing Qualitative Analysis in Psychology, pp. 93114. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. Jones, S.C. and Schumacher, T.G. (1992) Muzak: On Functional Music and Power, Critical Studies in Mass Communication 9: 15669. Karageorghis, C.I. (1998) Affective and Psychophysical Responses to Asynchronous Music During Submaximal Treadmill Running, unpublished doctoral dissertation, Brunel University, London. Karageorghis, C.I. (2008) The Scientic Application of Music in Sport and Exercise, in A.M. Lane (ed.) Sport and Exercise Psychology, pp. 10937. London: Hodder Education. Karageorghis, C.I. and Deeth, I.P. (2002) Effects of Motivational and Oudeterous Asynchronous Music on Perceptions of Flow [Abstract], Journal of Sports Sciences 20: 667. Karageorghis, C.I. and Lee, J. (2001) Effects of Motivational Music and Imagery on Isometric Muscular Endurance, in A. Papaioannou, M. Goudas and Y. Theodorakis (eds) Proceedings of the 2001 World Congress on Sport Psychology, Skiathos, Greece, vol. 4, pp. 379. Thessaloniki: Christodouli. Karageorghis, C.I. and Terry, P.C (1997) The Psychophysical Effects of Music in Sport and Exercise: A Review, Journal of Sport Behavior 20: 5468. Karageorghis, C.I. and Terry, P.C. (2001) The Magic of Music in Movement, Sport and Medicine Today 5: 3841. Karageorghis, C.I., Jones, L. and Low, D.C. (2006) Relationship between Exercise Heart Rate and Music Tempo Preference, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 77: 24050. Karageorghis, C.I., Terry, P.C. and Lane, A.M. (1999) Development and Initial Validation of an Instrument to Assess the Motivational Qualities of Music in Exercise and Sport: The Brunel Music Rating Inventory, Journal of Sports Sciences 17: 71324. Lampl, H. (1996) Turning Notes into Music: An Introduction to Musical Interpretation. Annapolis, MD: Scarecrow Press. Lanzillo, J.J., Burke, K.L., Joyner, A.B. and Hardy, C.J. (2001) The Effects of Music on the Intensity and Direction of Pre-Competitive Cognitive and Somatic State Anxiety and State Self-Condence in Collegiate Athletes, International Sports Journal 5: 10110. Lincoln, Y.S. and Guba, E.H. (1985) Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE. Lowe, J.C. (1973) Excitatory Response to Music as a Reciprocal Inhibitor, Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 4: 2979. Lucaccini, L.F. and Kreit, L.H. (1972) Music, in W.P. Morgan (ed.) Ergogenic Aids and Muscular Performance, pp. 2405. New York: Academic Press. McCown, W., Keiser, R., Mulhearn, S. and Williamson, D. (1997) The Role of Personality and Gender in Preference for Exaggerated Bass in Music, Personality and Individual Differences 23: 5437. Marshall, C. and Rossman, G.B. (1999) Designing Qualitative Research. London: SAGE. Matesic, B.C. and Comartie, F. (2002) Effects Music Has on Lap Pace, Heart Rate, and Perceived Exertion Rate During a 20-Minute Self-Paced Run, Sport Journal 5 (Spring), URL (consulted June 2003): http://www.thesportjournal.org/2002Journal/Vol5-No1/ music.htm Miles, M.B. and Huberman, M.A. (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Source Book. London: SAGE. Nethery, V.M. (2002) Competition between Internal and External Sources of Information During Exercise: Inuence on RPE and the Impact of the Exercise Load, Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 42: 1728.
365
North, A.C. and Hargreaves, D.J. (1997) The Musical Milieu: Studies of Listening in Everyday Life, Psychologist 10: 30912. North, A.C., Hargreaves, D.J. and Hargreaves, J.J. (2004) Uses of Music in Everyday Life, Music Perception 22: 4177. North, A.C., Hargreaves, D.J. and Heath, S.J. (1998) Musical Tempo and Time Perception in a Gymnasium, Psychology of Music 26: 7888. Pates, J., Karageorghis, C.I., Fryer, R. and Maynard, I. (2003) Effects of Asynchronous Music on Flow States and Shooting Performance among Netball Players, Psychology of Sport and Exercise 4: 41527. Patton, M.Q. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. New York: SAGE. Potteiger, J.A., Schroeder, J.A. and Goff, K.L. (2000) Inuence of Music on Ratings of Perceived Exertion During 20 Minutes of Moderate Intensity Exercise, Perceptual and Motor Skills 91: 84854. Priest, D.L., Karageorghis, C.I. and Sharp, N.C.C. (2004) The Characteristics and Effects of Motivational Music in Exercise Settings: The Possible Inuence of Gender, Age, Frequency of Attendance, and Time of Attendance, Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 44: 7786. Rejeski, W.J. (1985) Perceived Exertion: An Active or Passive Process?, Journal of Sport Psychology 75: 3718. Reeve, J. and Sickenius, B. (1994) Development and Validation of a Brief Measure of the Three Psychological Needs Underlying Intrinsic Motivation: The AFS Scale, Educational and Psychological Measurement 54: 50615. Reimer, B. (1985) Toward a More Scientic Approach to Music Education Research, Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 83: 122. Schwartz, S.E., Fernhall, B. and Plowman, S.A. (1990) Effects of Music on Exercise Performance, Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation 10: 31216. Simpson, S. and Karageorghis, C.I. (2006) Effects of Synchronous Music on 400-Metre Sprint Performance, Journal of Sports Sciences 24: 1095102. Sloboda, J.A. (1991) Music Structure and Emotional Response: Some Empirical Findings, Psychology of Music 19: 11020. Sloboda, J.A. (1992) Empirical Studies of Emotional Response to Music, in M.R. Jones and S. Holleran (eds) Cognitive Bases of Musical Communication, pp. 3346. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Smith, J.A. (1995) Qualitative Methods, Identity and Transition to Motherhood, Psychologist 8: 1225. Spilthoorn, D. (1986) The Effects of Music on Motor Learning, FIEP Bulletin 56: 219. Spradley, J. (1979) The Ethnographic Interview. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1990) Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE. Szabo, A., Small, A. and Leigh, M. (1999) The Effects of Slow- and Fast-Rhythm Classical Music on Progressive Cycling to Voluntary Physical Exhaustion, Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 39: 2205. Tenenbaum, G. and Hutchinson, J.C. (2007) A Social-Cognitive Perspective of Perceived Exertion, in G. Tenenbaum and R. Eklund (eds) Handbook of Sport Psychology, 3rd edn, pp. 56077. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Tenenbaum, G., Lidor, R., Lavyan, N., Morrow, K., Tonnel, S., Gershgoren, A., et al. (2004) The Effect of Music Type on Running Perseverance and Coping with Effort Sensations, Psychology of Sport and Exercise 5: 89109. Tesch, R. (1990) Qualitative Research Analysis Types and Software Tools. New York: Falmer Press. Waterman, M. (1996) Emotional Responses to Music: Implicit and Explicit Effects in Listeners and Performers, Psychology of Music 24: 5367.
366
14(3)
White, V.B. and Potteiger, J.A. (1996) Comparison of Passive Sensory Stimulations on RPE During Moderate Intensity Exercise, Perceptual and Motor Skills 82: 81925.
David-Lee Priest completed his PhD at Brunel University, West London, in 2004. Costas I. Karageorghis is academic area leader for Psychology and Coaching at Brunel University, West London. Address for correspondence: Dr. Costas Karageorghis, School of Sport and Education, Brunel University, West London, Uxbridge, Middlesex UB8 3PH, UK. [email: costas.karageorghis@brunel.ac.uk]

A Qualitative Investigation Into The Characterists - Priest - Karageoghis

Cargado por

Información del documento

Título original

Derechos de autor

Formatos disponibles

Compartir este documento

Compartir o incrustar documentos

Opciones para compartir

¿Le pareció útil este documento?

¿Este contenido es inapropiado?

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

A Qualitative Investigation Into The Characterists - Priest - Karageoghis

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

European Physical Education Review http://epe.sagepub.

>> Version of Record - Jan 9, 2009 What is This?

EUROPEAN PHYSICAL EDUCATION REVIEW [DOI: 10.1177/1356336X08095670] Volume14(3):347366:095670

También podría gustarte