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University of Toronto
slide 1 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Introduction
Two main types of converters Nyquist-Rate Converters Generate output having a one-to-one relationship with a single input value. Rarely sample at Nyquist-rate because of need for antialiasing and reconstruction filters. Typically 3 to 20 times input signals bandwidth. Oversampling Converters Operate much faster than Nyquist-rate (20 to 512 times faster) Shape quantization noise out of bandwidth of interest, post signal processing filters out quantization noise.
University of Toronto
slide 2 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
D/A
V out
V ref
+ b2 2
N + + bN 2
(1)
b i equals 1 or 0 (i.e., bi is a binary digit) b 1 is MSB while b N is LSB Assume B in is positive unipolar conversion
University of Toronto slide 3 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
+ b2 2
+ + bN 2
)
(2)
Multiplying DAC realized by allowing V ref to be another input signal Ideal DAC has well-defined values (not same for A/D )
University of Toronto
slide 4 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
2-bit DAC
and
1 1 LSB = ----N 2
University of Toronto
slide 5 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Example
An 8-bit D/A converter has V ref = 5 V . What is the output voltage when B in = 10110100 ? B in = 2 Find V LSB . V LSB = 5 256 = 19.5 mV
(5) 1 3 4 6
+2
+2
+2
= 0.703125
(3) (4)
University of Toronto
slide 6 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
A/D
B out
V ref
V ref ( b 1 2 where
+ b2 2
N + + b N 2 ) = V in V x
(6)
(7)
University of Toronto
slide 7 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
1/4
1/2
V in ----------V ref
V 01 V ref V 11 V ref
A range of valid input values produces same digital output word quantization error. No quantization error in D/A converter case.
University of Toronto
slide 8 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
University of Toronto
slide 9 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Quantization Noise
B V in
A/D
D/A
V1
+
VQ VQ
Quantization noise
(Time)
(Time)
T (8)
V Q = V 1 V in or V 1 = V in + V Q
University of Toronto
slide 10 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Quantization Noise
VQ V in V1 V in V1
Quantizer
V1
=
V in + V Q
Model
Above model is exact approx made when assumptions made about V Q Often assume V Q is white, uniformily distributed number between V LSB 2
University of Toronto
slide 11 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Quantization Noise
Average of quantization noise is zero. Power of quantization noise can be shown to equal V LSB V Q ( rms ) = ----------12 Each extra bit results in noise power decrease of 3dB Noise power is independent of sampling frequency If assume input signal is a sinusoid of peak amplitude of V ref 2 V in ( rms ) V ref ( 2 2 ) SNR = 20 log ------------------ = 20 log ------------------------------ V Q ( rms ) ( 12 ) V
LSB (9)
Quantization Noise
60 SNR (dB) 50 40 30 20 10 0 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
10-bit
Best possible SNR
( V pp = V ref ) V in ( dB )
SNR reaches max when input signal is max (might improve SNR if oversampling used)
University of Toronto
slide 13 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Example
A 100-m V pp sinusoidal signal is applied to an ideal 12-bit A/D converter for which V ref = 5 V . Find the SNR of the digitized output signal. First, find max SNR if full-scale sinusoidal waveform of 2.5 V applied SNR max = 6.02 12 + 1.76 = 74 dB
(10)
Since input is only 100- mV it is 28 dB below full scale, so SNR of digitized output is SNR = 74 28 = 46 dB
(11)
University of Toronto
slide 14 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Signed Codes
Often need converters for both positive and negative signals signed codes Sign Magnitude Neg numbers simply invert MSB 1s Complement Neg numbers invert all bits Offset Binary Assign 000... to most negative number and count up 2s Complement Invert MSB of offset binary case or ... Neg numbers are 1 LSB larger than 1s complement
University of Toronto
slide 15 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Signed Codes
Number
+3 +2 +1 +0 (0) 1 2 3 4
Normalized number
Sign magnitude
1s complement
Offset binary
2s complement
University of Toronto
slide 16 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
2s Complement
111 000 -4 001 -3 -2 010 011 -1 0 100 110 111 3 2 1 101 101 110 100 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 000 3 2 1 001 011 010
2s Complement
University of Toronto
slide 17 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
2s Complement Benefits
Addition of both positive numbers is done with simple addition (nothing extra needed) Subtraction of A B done by complementing bits of B and adding LSB into carry-in of adder Can go above max as long as final result is within range (no overflow hardware needed) Example 2+3+(-4) = 1 010 + 011 + 100 = 101 + 100 = 001 Final result of 1 correct though temp result of -3 obtained
University of Toronto
slide 18 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Performance Limitations
For D/A measure, use output voltage levels For A/D measure, use transition points (easier than midpoints)
B out
11 10 01 00 3/4 1
1/4
1/2
V in ----------V ref
V 01 V ref V 11 V ref
University of Toronto
slide 19 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Ideal
Gain error
00
01
10
11 (100)
B in
University of Toronto
slide 20 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
A/D converter deviation of V 0 01 from 1 2 LSB E off ( A D ) V out = ---------- V LSB V 0 01 1 = -------------- -- LSB V LSB 2 V out ----------V LSB N ( 2 1) 00
(12)
11
E gain ( A D )
(14)
University of Toronto
slide 21 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
University of Toronto
slide 22 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
University of Toronto
slide 23 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
University of Toronto
slide 24 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
INL Error
After both offset and gain errors removed, integral nonlinearity (INL) error is deviation from a straight line. Can use endpoint or best fit straight lines endpoint more conservative INL plotted for each digital word
INL 0.5LSB
max INL
00
01
10
11 (100)
B in
University of Toronto
slide 25 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
max DNL
00
01
10
11 (100)
B in
step size between 00 and 01 is 1.5 LSB step size between 10 and 11 is 0.7 LSB
University of Toronto slide 26 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Monotonicity
Monotonic D/A Converters Where output alway increases as input increases no negative slope in transfer-response Important for some control loop applications If max DNL < 1 LSB, converter is monotonic Can be monotonic and have DNL > 1 LSB If max INL < 0.5 LSB, converter is monotonic Missing Code A/D Converters Similar to monotonic but for A/D converter Increasing analog input skips some digital codes If max DNL < 1 LSB or max INL < 0.5 LSB, no missing codes
University of Toronto slide 27 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Converter Speed
A/D Conversion Time and Sampling Rate Conversion time time for a single measurement Sampling rate max sampling rate (typically inverse of conversion time) Note that converter might have latency due to pipelining D/A Settling Time and Sampling Rate Settling time time for converter to settle to within a specified resolution (typically 0.5 LSB) Sampling rate max rate (typically inverse of settling time)
University of Toronto
slide 28 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Sampling-Time Uncertainty
Error due to variations in sampling time V ref Consider full-scale sine wave: V in = -------- sin ( 2 f in t ) 2 Rate of change is max at zero crossing If sampling time has variation t , then to keep V less than 1 LSB, require that V LSB 1 t < ------------------ = --------------N f in V ref 2 f in Example 250 MHz sinusoidal signal must keep t < 5 ps for 8-bit accuracy Same 5ps for 16-bit accuracy and 1 MHz sinusoid
(15)
University of Toronto
slide 29 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Dynamic Range
Ratio of rms value of max amplitude input sinusoid to rms output noise plus distortion Can be expressed as N, effective number of bits SNR = 6.02 N + 1.76 dB
(16)
Often a function of freq of input signal (lower SNR as freq increases) more realistic than only using INL and DNL Note, distortion of some converters not a function of input signal level Other converters (such as oversampling), distortion decreases as signal level decreases (similar to other analog circuits)
University of Toronto
slide 30 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Example
3-bit D/A converter, V ref = 4 V , with following values { 0.011 : 0.507 : 1.002 : 1.501 : 1.996 : 2.495 : 2.996 : 3.491 } 1 LSB V ref 2 = 0.5 V Offset voltage is 11 mV resulting in 0.011 - = 0.022 LSB E off ( D A ) = -----------0.5 Gain error 3.491 0.011 3 E gain ( D A ) = -------------------------------- ( 2 1 ) = 0.04 LSB 0.5
(18) (17) 3
For INL and DNL errors, first remove both offset and gain errors
University of Toronto slide 31 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Offset error removed by subtracting 0.022 LSB Gain error removed by subtracting off scaled values of gain error. Example new value for 1.002 (scaled to 1 LSB) given by 1.002 2 - ( 0.04 ) = 1.993 ------------ 0.022 + - 7 0.5 Offset-free, gain-free, scaled values are { 0.0 : 0.998 : 1.993 : 2.997 : 3.993 : 4.997 : 6.004 : 7.0 } INL errors Since now in units of LSBs, given by difference between values and ideal values
(20) (19)
{ 0 : 0.002 : 0.007 : 0.003 : 0.007 : 0.003 : 0.004 : 0 } (21) DNL errors difference between adjacent values and 1 LSB { 0.002 : 0.005 : 0.004 : 0.004 : 0.004 : 0.007 : 0.004 }
University of Toronto
(22)
slide 32 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997
Example
A full-scale sinusoidal is applied to a 12-bit A/D If fundamental has a normalized power of 1 W and remaining power is 0.5 W , what is the effective number of bits for the converter? SNR = 6.02 N eff + 1.76 In this case, SNR given by 1 = 63 dB SNR = 10 log ---------------------- 6 0.5 10 resulting in 63 1.76 N eff = --------------------- = 10.2 effective bits 6.02
(25) (24) (23)
University of Toronto
slide 33 of 33
D.A. Johns, K. Martin, 1997