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!<= >?@AB3= +=-C%D!BC3 E=!7==3 @=FD%?+B@A ?3G B@%?ABF
HD3G?A=3!?%B@AI
!<= F?@= CH !D3B@B? ?3G !<= B@+?=%BJK?%=@!B3B?3 FC3H%BF!

Abuelwahab Bechiche*

!"#$%&'$
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3;4%<%7 => 5=C7DH


B3!+CGDF!BC3
The implieu iuea of "waves" initiateu by the }asmine Revolution in Tunisiathe instigatoi
of what woulu latei become known colloquially as the "Aiab Spiing"is all the moie
peitinent as social obseiveis began associating it with a "tsunami," oi an unexpecteu
change of uictatoiial anu oppiessive iegimes in the Naghieb anu the Niuule East. Euiope
seems to have iesponueu to the pieceuing with shoit teims inteiests, in the name of a
conseivative iealpolitik, without a ieal stiategic vision, noi a ieasonable concein foi the
will of the peoples who achieveu that eaily change in the Naghieb. Some scholais
unueilineu the fact that the uifficulty confionting Westein poweis was the uichotomy in
theii analysis between uemociatic values anu uiffeientiateu political fiamewoiks. "By
iepeating |.j 'It's bettei to have Ben Ali anu Nubaiak than the Nuslim Biotheis', many
leaueis anu obseiveis entiappeu themselves in a contiauiction: Those who uefenueu
human iights |.,j concomitantly weie suppoiting Aiab uictatois unuei the pietext of
combating teiioiism."
1



1
Fieueiic Toulon, Linua Piince, Beinaiu Teiiany, anu Negai Youssefian, "Nutations uu
Nonue Aiabe," T7B$6"N0T7#$6"@, (No. 2u9, Automne 2u11,) 97.
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



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The choice of Tunisia as a case stuuy may be justifieu by the fact that, aftei a biief moment
of appeaiing as a potential mouel foi the iest of the Aiab woilu, Tunisia took a uiastic anu
iegiessive oiientation towaiu extiemist funuamentalist Islamism. The most uiamatic sign
of such a uiamatic iesuigent iueology was maikeu by a new contenuei to Ennahuathe
so-calleu "moueiate" local Islamist paity. The new challengei in question was Salafism.
This new extiemist Islamist iueology shockeu the Tunisian people in theii majoiity anu
causeu viviu public anu piivate uebates about the essence of Tunisian iuentity: Although
piouu of theii Aiab-Islamic heiitage, Tunisians have always been conscious of the
specificity of theii "Tunisianity." Although eaily violent acts committeu by Salafist weie
quickly conuemneu by Racheu uhannouchi, the leauei of Ennahua, he nevei succeeueu in
putting an enu to them. Fuitheimoie, uhannouchi anu his paitneis appeaieu to have not
even tiieu haiu enough to pievent moie violence unleasheu within the Nanouba 0niveisity
against jouinalists anu women. Salafist violence was to be suspecteu of two political
assassinations, theii victims being opposition membeis: Bosni Belaiu, anu Nohameu
Biahmi. Natuially, some obseiveis hau enough ieason to suspect that Racheu uhannouchi's
timoious iesponse may be hiuing a uouble Nachiavellian scheme: Let the Tunisian people
see how moueiate Ennahua is, anu show some tacit unueistanuing with Salafists foi the
next elections. In such a context, Tunisians hau to assess the ieal chances foi a genuine
"uemociatization" because this new extiemism, alien to Tunisia's political cultuie, was not
uiffeient fiom what was iepoiteu by the Ameiican piess iegaiuing the ongoing effoits of
the Nuslim Biotheis to eiauicate any civil iight foi women, uepiiving them even of the
iight of complaint, not to mention any legal iecouise against sexual violence, on the pietext
that "maiital iape" was a Westein notion.
2


The cential impetus of this papei was the "un-Tunisian-like" hostile slogans emitteu in
eaily 2u12 in honoi of Bamas leauei Ismail Banya, then on an official visit to Tunisia. The
slogans in question, among them "Kill the }ews!" weie piotesteu by many Tunisians anu
weie uenounceu as an insult to }ews of the woilu. But moie impoitantly peihaps, they
weie ueciieu as an affiont to Tunisia's own }ewish chiluien. 0pon his histoiic ietuin fiom
exile anu fiom jail, one of Bouiguiba's fiist acts was to visit the pooi }ewish quaitei of
"Bafsya", a gestuie that ieminueu us of the Bey of Tunis, anu the King of Noiocco, who,
couiageously, uuiing WWII, ueclaieu theii total anu unconuitional commitment to the
uefense anu piotection of theii }ewish subjects. Piesiuent F.B. Roosevelt wiote to both
leaueis in oiuei to expiess his appieciation.


+=%BLBC3 ?3G KC%B!BF@ B3 3C+!< ?H+BF?M

2
Baviu Kiikpatiick anu Nayy El Sheikh, "Nuslim Biotheihoou's Statement on Women Stiis
Libeials' Feais," 3$" *"L W=6@ 3%9"<, Naich 14, 2u1S.
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!<= =A=+L=3F= CH B@%?AB@A B3 !D3B@B?

! )*+,&%&$-./ !,,%*&'01 20/ ,%/34&#+-5/ 6/.*78$-*5 9%&
S

The twilight of the twentieth centuiy has expeiienceu one of its stiangest paiauoxes: The
iise of ieligious fanaticism in paiallel with some of the gieatest human achievements in
teims of libeiation fiom colonialism, anu an enu of authoiitaiianism. This paiauox may
even be moie stiiking when one iemembeis that ieligion has playeu a majoi iole in
libeiation theology. Accoiuing to Richaiu Neuhass, shoitly befoie passing away, Anui
Naliaux saiu that the twenty fiist centuiy woulu be ieligious oi it woulu not be at all. It was
in that context that men anu women of goou will began to iecommenu an uigent anu
impeiative uialogue between ieligions. Although }ewish-Chiistian uialogue hau alieauy
been fiuitful since vatican II, }ewish-Nuslim uialogue iemaineu to this uay embiyonic.
4

Paul Knittei explains how, in uiging a pluialistic, libeiative uialogue, he came to piefei a
"ulobally, Responsible, Coiielational Bialogue Among Religions." Foi him,

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9;5;78F N7#@ 74C >=65$ #=06"875%=4<$%:F => <:"7@%4B 74C 8%<5"4%4BF 5"7#$%4B 74C
8"764%4BF L%54"<<%4B 74C N"%4B L%54"<<"C.
S


Accoiuing to Nilton R. Kionviz, the teims "ieligion", anu "ieligious" appeai in the 0S
Constitution but aie not uefineu. This lack of uefinition is confiimeu in a case involving the
Noimon Chuich in 1878. Twelve yeais latei, in anothei case involving again the Noimon
Chuich, the couit uefineu the teim "ieligion" as having "iefeience to one's views of his

S
This pait essentially boiioweu fiom a papei piesenteu in ueimany, "Politik Nit Religion:
Instiumente uei Konflikts, Instiumente zui Neuiation", Locum, 6S99
4
I am giateful anu I give full cieuit to the leaueis of the 0S Inteiieligious Committee foi
Peace in the Niuule East foi having inviteu me to join the Fiist 0S }ewish-Chiistian-Nuslim
Belegation foi Peace in the Niuule East in 1992 with the full suppoit of foimei Piesiuent
}immy Caitei.
S
Paul F. Knittei, ]4" ^765$F T74D V"8%B%=4<+ T;85% _7%5$ `%78=B;" a b8=N78 V"<:=4<%N%8%5D,
Pieface by Bans Kung 0RBIS Books, (New Yoik, 199S,) 1S-16, quoteu by A. Bechiche, U$75
K"L< )$=;8C J4=L XN=;5 (<879 74C T;<8%9<+ V"9"9N"6%4B X c=99=4 !"6%57B", (Paiis:
Euitions Publisuu, 2uu2,) x-xi.
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"$$
ielations to his cieatoi."
6
Two yeais latei, the couit founu itself compelleu to go a step
fuithei, anu, piactically iuentifieu ieligion with Chiistianity, saying "we aie a ieligious
people," anu that "this is a Chiistian nation."
7
These intiouuctoiy iemaiks might be
misleauing if we uiu not auu that the 0S Supieme Couit nevei misseu a chance to stiess the
sepaiation of Chuich anu State, the famous }effeisonian wall. Foi instance, in 1961, the 0S
Supieme Couit consiueieu the piovision of Naiylanu Constitution that iequiieu a
ueclaiation of belief in uou as a qualification foi public office. 0nanimously, the couit
maintaineu that such a qualification was an invasion of fieeuom of ieligion anu a violation
of the Fiist Amenument.
8
Speaking foi the couit, }ustice Black saiu: "We iepeat anu again
ieaffiim that neithei a state noi the Feueial uoveinment can constitutionally foice a
peison to piofess a belief oi uisbelief in any ieligion."
9
To that effect, Samuel Kiislov aigueu
that "The funuamental uifficulty in aiiiving at a stable balance is quite simply that state anu
ieligion have unstable bounuaiies."
1u
Noie explicitly, Kiislov auus:

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5$74 #=9:8"5"H YZ[ b=C 74C c7"<76 C= 4=5 4=69788D #=4G"4%"458D 8%9%5 5$"%6 #87%9<
;:=4 5$" %4C%G%C;78 %4G=8G"C.
11


Such an ambiguity was maue moie peitinent when Bis Boliness Pope }ohn Paul II visiteu
Polanu in 198S, "uiamatically unueiscoiing the message that what is a ieligious uuty anu
neeu to one entity may emeige emphatically political to anothei."
12
The moie iecent
explicit humility of Bis Boliness Pope Fiancis who, when askeu about homosexuality, saiu
"Who am I to juuge."

The question oi the issue of the sepaiation of state anu ieligion becomes moie acute foi
some ieligions, which aie supposeu to be political, intiinsically political. Nuslim states fall
within that categoiy, all the moie so as the essence of the iuea of sepaiation of state anu

6
Nilton Kionvitz, 3$" \6=N8"9 => c=4<5%5;5%=478 `">%4%5%=4 => V"8%B%=4 74C )575"F ^<<7D< %4
!=4=6 => d"= \>">>"6, euiteu by }ames E. Woou, (Waco, Texas: Bayloi 0niveisity Piess,
198S,) anu Bavis vs. Beason, 1SS 0S SSS (189u), 147.
7
Kionvitz, 147.
8
Samuel Kiislov, "Alteinatives to Sepaiation of Chuich anu State in countiies outsiue the
0S," in V"8%B%=4 74C )575" (Waco, TX: Bayloi 0niveisity Piess, 198S,) 42.
9
Kiislov, 42.
1u
Kiislov, 422
11
Kiislov, 422-2S.
12
Kiislov, 422-2S.
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



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chuich has been geneially peiceiveu as an impoiteu iuea fiom the West. Foi Beinaiu
Lewis, the thiee majoi monotheistic ieligions aie significantly uiffeient in theii ielations
with the state anu theii attituues to political powei. Foi him, compaiatively speaking,

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;46"<=8G"CH c$6%<5%74%5DF C;6%4B 5$" >%6<5 >=6975%G" #"45"6< => %5< "Q%<5"4#"F L7<
<":7675" >6=9F 74C %4C""C 7457B=4%<5%# 5= 5$" )575" L%5$ L$%#$ %5 =48D 875"6 N"#79"
%4G=8G"CH (<879F >6=9 5$" 8%>"5%9" => %5< >=;4C"6F L7< 5$" <575"F 74C 5$" %C"45%5D =>
6"8%B%=4 74C B=G"649"45 %< ;4C"4%7N8D <579:"C =4 5$" 9"9=6%"< 74C 7L76"4"<< => 5$"
>7%5$>;8 >6=9 5$"%6 =L4 <7#6"C L6%5%4B<F $%<5=6DF 74C "Q:"6%"4#".
1S


ueneially speaking, the aiguments given by Beinaiu Lewis explain how the iuea of non-
sepaiation of State anu Religion evolveu in Islamic thought. But they uo not necessaiily
piove it eithei histoiically oi contextually. In 198S, scholais coulu believe that with the
exception of Tuikey, "In almost all countiies wheie its membeis constitute a majoiity,
Islam ietains much of its iigoious anu tenacious holu on the State."
14
But, in actuality, the
piocess of seculaiism (87%#%e75%=4 in Fiench) intiouuceu by Kemal Atatuik as the sine qua
non foi moueinization, was to be initiateu by many Nuslim leaueis, befoie anu aftei WWII,
in Iian, Egypt, anu in Noith Afiica, specifically in Tunisia.

2*:&%; )0&5</1 =%*+ >*8%<8-"& $* >/5 !7-
"Buman beings engage in conflict. |.j Equally, humans have sought, as long as theie has
been conflict, to hanule the conflict effectively, by containing oi ieuucing its negative
consequences."
1S
In inteinational ielations, histoiians, uiplomats anu inteinational law
specialists have agieeu that the mouein state was the iesult of the enu of the Religious
Wais (Tieaties of Westphalia.) It may also be useful to say that the two Bague Confeiences
of 1899 anu 19u7 weie the beginning of the humanization of waifaie that fuithei tieaties
anu conventions, especially the 1949 Foui Conventions confiimeu. This is why Tiuwell
aigues that "Paities anu inteiveneis must ask whethei the necessaiy anu sufficient

1S
Beinaiu Lewis, "The Retuin of Islam," in V"8%B%=4 74C \=8%5%#< %4 5$" T%CC8" ^7<5, euiteu by
Nichel Cuitis (New Yoik: West view Piess, 1981,) 11-12, quoteu by Kiislov, p. 42S, notes S
anu 4.
14
Kislov, 42S.
1S
Allan C. Tiuwell, c=4>8%#5 V"<=8;5%=4f X c6%5%#78 X<<"<<9"45 => c=4>8%#5 V"<=8;5%=4, (Lonuon
anu New Yoik; Pintei, 1998,) 1. This iuea may be coiioboiateu by the hesitant anu cautious
appioach of the West iegaiuing an eventual militaiy inteivention in Syiia, especially aftei
it has been confiimeu that "chemical weapons have been useu against innocent civilians on
August 21, 2u1S.
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conuitions exist, oi to what uegiee they exist, to facilitate iesolution," "these conuitions
being oppoitunity, capacity, anu volition."
16


In ietiospect, any keen obseivei of the Naghieb coulu not ueny the fact that the ueclining
health of Piesiuent Bouiguiba,
17
his clinging to powei foievei, anu the coiiuption of
membeis of his close innei ciicle incluuing some membeis of his family, in paiticulai, his
Niece, Nauame Saiua Sassi, may have justifieu a neeu foi "Change." Change was the tienu in
woilu affaiis, anu the Tunisian people wanteu it. Nembeis of the young geneiation who
hau not known the colonial peiiou, went as fai as to consiuei the Bouiguiba eia as a
paienthesis in Tunisian histoiy. In the case of the Naghieb, Nichel Camau iaiseu thiee
issues iegaiuing change in the ielationship between State anu Society:

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:=8%5%#78 =6C"6
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9=N%8%e75%=4 74C #=4<"45H
gH 3$" #=4#%8%75%=4 => 4"L %9:"675%G"< => 8"B%5%975%=4 L%5$ 5$" >=;4C75%=4< => 5$" "Q%<5%4B
:=5"45%78 =6C"6.
18


Fiom this tiiple peispective, Nichel Camau aigueu that

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8755"6 ND =>>%#%78 5$"=6DF %H " :6=>74" 5$"=6D+ *"=0:756%9=4%78%<9F 6%=5<F #%G%8 <=#%"5DF
C"9=#675%e75%=4F C"9=#675%#05674<%5%=4Z
19


What was impoitant in the collective stuuy on change in the Naghieb, as iefeiieu to by
Nichel Camau, was the emphasis on "civil society" which, like "ieligion," was peiceiveu as
"coming back." Aftei asking whethei civil society meant moie state oi less state, Camau

16
Tiuwell, 4.
17
I witnesseu it when he inauguiateu the new Tunisian Embassy, uuiing his last official
visit to Washington in 1986, one yeai befoie the "meuical-constitutional coup"
oichestiateu by his then Piime Ninistei, Zine Al-Abiuine Ben Ali.
18
Nichel Camau, "Changements Politiques et Pioblmatique uu Changement," X44;7%6" C"
8OX>6%I;" C; *=6C, (Paiis: Euitions CNRS, Tome XXvII, 1989,) 9.
19
Nichel Camau, "Changements Politiques en Afiique uu Noiu-Tiansfoimations Sociales et
Rgulations ues Conflits," X44;7%6" C" 8OX>6%I;" C; *=6C, (Paiis: Euitions CNRS, Tome XXvI-
II, 1989,) S, note 1S.
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



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"$(
stiesseu a uistinction between two uimensions of state, one mateiial anu one ethical: The
buieauciatic appaiatus which uistinguishes itself fiom society in oiuei to contiol it, anu
the pole of collective iuentification, which as a set of symbols, leaus to mobilization of
consent beyonu the peison of the iulei. In a moie convincing way, Camau auus: "Between
the appaiatus anu society |.j civil society uesignates a thiiu component: A meuiation
thiough voluntaiy associations aiticulating the uefense of special inteiests, anu social
conflicts."
2u
But, wheieas Westein Euiope was ie-uiscoveiing civil society, othei iegions
like Cential Euiope anu the Naghieb weie ie-appiopiiating it.

Foi the Tunisian sociologist, Abuelkauei Zghal, this ie-appiopiiation of the notion of civil
society was "concomitant with two seiies of facts: The uenunciation of the absolute state
(3=;50h575) anu the emeiging social uisengagement of the State inspiieu by the non-
oithouoxy of uevelopment."
21
Thus, it becomes cleai that the centiality of the tension
between Religion, Politics, anu the State is insepaiable fiom the social, cultuial, ieligious,
anu economic factois that affect all societies, in paiticulai, societies which aie still
stiuggling with iuentity issues, especially with actual oi mythical ioots of theii authenticity.


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Babib Bouiguiba
,,

?@& A*7-$-B8/ ;/# 9$&,/#C 20/ A*7-'D *E F$&</#
Even befoie inuepenuence, Tunisia's political chaiactei was alieauy shapeu anu nuituieu
by what became Bouiguibism oi "The Politics of Stages" (d7 \=8%5%I;" C"< ^57:"<). When
WWII, by necessity oi by choice, hau to involve Noith Afiica foi the ciitical "0peiation
Toich," Bouiguiba caught the oppoitunity to show his wisuom anu luciuity to the emeiging
Woilu Powei, the 0SA: Be iesisteu Bitlei's offei, anu siueu with the Allieu Foices leu by the

2u
Camau, "Changements Politiques en Afiique," 1u.
21
Quoteu by Camau, "Changements Politiques en Afiique," 11.
22
Quoteu by A. Bechiche, "Woilu Wai II anu the ulobalization of Tunisia's Stiategic Role in
the Neuiteiianean," X#5"< C; c=88=I;" (45"6475%=478 <;6 8O!%<5=%6" C" 87 `";Q%"9" b;"66"
T=4C%78"+ d7 c79:7B4" C" 3;4%<%" *=G"9N6" -i/,0T7% -i/g, c=9%5j *75%=478 3;4%<%"4
CO!%<5=%6" C" 87 `";Q%j9" b;"66" T=4C%78", 12-1S-14 0ctobei, 1982, Tunis.
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



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"$)
0S anu uieat Biitain. It is beyonu any uoubt that the histoiy of twentieth centuiy Tunisia is
anu will always be the histoiy of Bouiguiba as "the supieme combatant," anu as the
libeiatoi of Tunisia fiom Fiench colonialism, anu above all peihaps, as the Aiab-Nuslim
leauei who libeiateu Tunisian women fiom cultuial-ieligious shackles.
2S
Any ciitical
analysis of Tunisia's stiuggle foi inuepenuence, any specific phase of that stiuggle, must be
constantly ielateu to Bouiguiba's own unueistanuing of that paiticulai moment anu its
enviionment at home anu in woilu affaiis. In one of his many famous speeches, he saiu:

3= 5$" "Q5"45 5= L$%#$ 5$"<" B"4"675%=4< <5;CD 475%=478 $%<5=6DF B7%4 7 :6"#%<" %C"7 =>
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4"#"<<76D "Q5"4<%=4 => 5$" <56;BB8" >=6 8%N"675%=4.
24


Bouiguiba hau the pieiequisite intelligence anu sense of iealism to use the authoiity of
otheis oi the foice of unique ciicumstances to channel them into the uiiection of the
national cause.
2S
An excellent illustiation of his tactical anu stiategic skills is to be founu in
the alliance Bouiguiba foigeu with the nationalist Bey of Tunis, Siui Noncef Bey, who like
the Sultan of Noiocco, ueclaieu his unconuitional piotection of his }ewish subjects.
26
0n
the othei hanu, Bouiguiba, as a juiist, knew that the Bey of Tunis embouieu whatevei was
left of Tunisia's soveieignty.

2S
See the Coue uu Statut Peisonnel: Piohibition of polygamya Woman's Right to Choose
Bei husbanuEqual Right foi Euucation anu Employment. But Bouiguiba uiu not uaie
touch the question of inheiitance in Islamic Law oi Shaiia. In "Killing the Aiab Spiing in the
Ciauule," Kaiima Bennoune, iefeiiing to the two political assassinations of 2u1S, wiites:
"But Ennahua itself beais much of the blame. It shoulu be iecognizeu, anu conuemneu, foi
being the iauical paity that it is: a paity that has cieateu a climate foi escalating
funuamentalist violence that thieatens the lives of libeial anu seculaiist activists." The New
Yoik Times, }uly Su, 1u2S, p. A19.
24
Babib Bouiguiba, "This Lanu Shall Remain Foievei Fiee," a speech following the
complete evacuation of Bizeita, Tunis, 0ctobei 1S, 196S. Secietaiiat of State foi Cultuial
Affaiis Infoimation, Tunis.
2S
Foi instance, aftei accepting full autonomy fiom Fiance, he manageu to justify the
necessity foi acceleiating the contiol of the piocess foi full soveieignty to piotect foieign
embassies aftei iight wing Fiench uemonstiations attackeu the 0S Cultuial Centei. I was an
eye witness of such events.
26
The 0S Libiaiy of Congiess has copies of the letteis sent to these two Noith Afiican
leaueis fiom Piesiuent F.B Roosevelt.
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In his analysis of the colonial uialectic in Noith Afiica, Clement B. Nooie unueilines the
impoitance of the nationalist elite as being "The ciitical inteivening vaiiable." veiy
piecisely, he explains how "Bepenuing paitly on the colonial situation, paitly on theii own
sense of puipose, they |the nationalistsj coulu be the motoi of uialectic, of positive
confiontation oi the peipetiatois of unieasoning violence, oi the passive inheiitois of the
colonial oiuei."
27
Foi the geneiation of Tunisians who may have witnesseu Bouiguiba's
ietuin fiom exile on a veiy hot }une 1,

19SS, may also iemembei that one of his fiist majoi
political acts was to visit the pooi }ewish Quaitei of Bafsya, to ieminu Tunisians of the
cultuial anu ieligious specificity of theii society, at a time when Aiab-Isiaeli ielations weie
maikeu by seiious militaiy confiontations. As a mattei of fact, the Palestine Question anu
Pan-Aiab piopaganua uiu not pievent Bouiguiba fiom appointing uistinguisheu }ewish
leaueis to uiffeient ministeiial cabinets.
28
That uniqueness of Bouiguiba's Tunisia was
inteipieteu by Clement B. Nooie as follows: "0nly in it, uiu the uialectic unfolu giauually,
each moment oi mouel of consciousness being the contiibution of a uistinct geneiation of
leaueis to an emeiging political cultuie."
29
Yet, one can also asseit that since the eaily
19Sus, anu foi many yeais aftei inuepenuence, Allah, histoiy, oi both hau ueciueu that
Bouiguiba was to be, not only a link between two phases, but the motoi anu the
consciousness of a nationalist movement, the uynamics of which hau to be tianscenueu
fiom national to iegional, anu even to global uimensions. The Campaign of Tunisia uuiing
WWII was to be the oppoitunity anu the challenge foi Bouiguiba's emeigence as a woilu
class Aiab-Afiican leauei. Twenty yeais befoie }ohn F. Kenneuy, Babib Bouiguiba alieauy
knew how "not to feai to negotiate," anu "not to negotiate out of feai." In a iathei moving,
yet ambiguous, peisonal iemembiance of the man who libeiateu Tunisia anu maue
Tunisians iegain a sense of piiue anu self-esteem, the man who, touay, occupies the
Piesiuential Palace of Caithage, thanks to the }asmine Revolution, wiote veiy iecently:

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C%#575=6F N;5 74 7;5=#675F 74C #=45676D 5= S"4 X8%F $" L7< 4=5 7 5$%">H !" %< 7 974 =>

27
Clement B. Nooie, \=8%5%#< %4 *=65$ X>6%#7+ X8B"6%7F T=6=##=F 3;4%<%7, (Boston, NA: Little
Biown Seiies in Compaiative Politics, 197u,) S4-SS.
28
Albeit Bessis anu Anuie Baiouche, in ^4#D#8=:"C%7 => K"L< %4 5$" (<879%# U=68CF No. SuS
anu S9S, "))OMPP,,,QR.ST).SQS.1PR.STP99U22VVW8P%*T)J.XJ=()5*#TJ=(SYS/.O#R*'J.XJ
>#,TJ*(J)"#JBT/'QQQ92PWP289:
29
Nooie, \=8%5%#< %4 *=65$ X>6%#7, S7.
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7#5<.
Su


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Zbigniew Biezinski was ieasonably coiiect when he saiu that the longei a peaceful solution
lingeis, the moie the inhabitants of the West Bank will be iauicalizeu in theii uemanus.
This is noimal, anu it constitutes the natuial histoiy of any people aspiiing to ieach any
foim of political consciousness. Abiaham Ashkenazi ieuuces the histoiy of the twentieth
centuiy to two types of confiontation. 0ne is of social natuie, the othei is essentially ethnic.
Ashkenazi's analysis is veiy peitinent anu useful foi the compaiative unueistanuing of
Zionist anu Palestinian militaiy movements.
S1
Ashkenazi sees a tiansfei of ethno-political
paiticulaiism of the Balkans (befoie Woilu Wai I) to the Niuule East between Woilu Wai I
anu Woilu Wai II. It is inteiesting to notice that foi Ashkenazi, at the beginning of the
twentieth centuiy, Palestinian nationalism was iathei a consciousness of being "a southein
Syiian." 0n the othei hanu, Ashkenazi consiueieu Zionism as a non-Neai Eastein
phenomenon. Piogiessively, aftei the Nakba of the 1948 Aiab-Isiaeli Wai, the Fatah
leaueis will piogiessively ieject any assimilation of Pan-Aiab iueology. Yet, willy-nilly,
fiom its veiy beginning, Palestinian Resistance befoie anu even aftei the cieation of the
Palestine Libeiation 0iganization at the 1964 Caiio Summit, became intimately
inteitwineu with Aiab states politics. The simple fact that bianches of the PL0 woulu
become vectois of conflicting Aiab states iueologies, will also unueiline the suboiuination
of the vaiious Palestinian gioups to vaiious Aiab states. "0ften uesciibeu as a thieat
against piecaiious states |. thej Palestinians weie often ieciuiteu in laige numbeis to
seive |Aiabj iegimes."
S2
If inueeu, Palestinians began to iesist anu then, even to confiont
Aiab iegimes (197u in }oiuan, 197S-199u in in the Lebanese Civil Wai anu Bafez Al-Asau's
Syiia,), Bouiguiba coulu not be accuseu of being "plus ioyaliste que le Roi" foi having uaieu
to call the Palestinians to sit uown anu to negotiate with Isiael, in his famous }eiicho
Speech of 196S, offeiing them the mouel of his successful expeiience baseu on the "Policy
of the Stages." While the iesponse to his invitation was uttei conuemnation fiom
Palestinians anu the piomoteis of Pan-Aiabism, it was also iegiettable, that some Isiaeli
ciicles felt thieateneu by Bouiguiba's iueas, seeing in them a scheme foi the stage by stage
implementation of the PL0 Chaitei, i.e. the elimination of Isiael. It woulu take the PL0

Su
Noncef Naizouki, dO%4G"45%=4 CO;4" Cj9=#675%"+ d"< 8"k=4< C" 8O"Q:j6%"4#" C" 87 3;4%<%",
(Paiis: La Bcouveite, 2u1S,) SS.
S1
Quoteu by A. Bechiche, dOX;5=Cj5"69%475%=4 \78"<5%4%"44" ^456" 8" `6=%5 "5 87 _=6#" _7#"
7;Q =N<57#8"< X9j6%#74=0%<67j8%"4<, Piface ue Bominique Chevaliei, (Paiis: Euitions
Publisuu, 1991,) 11u.
S2
Rosemaiy Sayigh, Quoteu by Belen Cobban, 3$" \78"<5%4%74 d%N"675%=4 ]6B74%e75%=4+
\"=:8"F \=L"6F 74C \=8%5%#<, (New Yoik: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess, 1984,) 197.
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



())*+ ,-./0..12


"$#
about thiity yeais to iealize the wisuom anu the luciuity of Bouiguiba's piophetic
suggestion. It was also Bouiguiba's Tunisia which openeu its uoois to the PL0 aftei being
expelleu fiom Lebanon aftei "0peiation Peace in ualilee," when no othei Aiab state wanteu
to offei them iefuge. It was also thanks to Tunisiaalbeit unuei Ben Alithat seciet
contacts between the PL0 anu Isiael woulu open the path to the 0slo Agieements of
Septembei 1S, 199S, uiamatically shown to the woilu fiom the White Bouse anu hosteu by
Piesiuent Clinton.
SS



!<= >?@AB3= +=-C%D!BC3I 2898J9899

20/ 6**$#
Although Piesiuent Zine Al-Abiuine Ben Ali initiateu his "Change" with fieeing many
political piisoneis, anu with saving the life Ni. Racheu uhannouchi, the founuei of the
Islamist Paity, Ennahua, who hau been conuemneu to ueath unuei Piesiuent Bouiguiba, he
woulu emphasize the Islamist thieat in oiuei to justify his authoiitaiian iule. 0ne must also
take into account the fact that Piesiuent Ben Ali uiu offei amnesty to Ni. uhannouchi. But
the lattei electeu to flee the countiy anu to take iefuge in the 0niteu Kinguom. That may
have been a cause foi sinceie concein foi the piesiuent who, on occasion, pioclaimeu that
as long as he liveu, the Islamists woulu nevei iule in Tunisia. The tuining point was the
iumoi that Islamists weie planning to bomb the Piesiuential Palace of Caithage.

0ccasionally, some leaueis of Ennahua woulu be ieleaseu anu then sent back to piison as it
happeneu to Sauuiq Chouiou.
S4
The cential political ueteiioiation in Tunisia woiseneu
fiom the last yeais of Bouiguiba's autociatic iule to Ben Ali's incieasingly uictatoiial
stifling of all expiessions of uissent.
SS
The best miiioi of such a loss of political anu

SS
Thanks to a visit to the Niuule East with the fiist }ewish-Chiistian-Nuslim Ameiican
Belegation foi Peace, suppoiteu by foimei Piesiuent }immy Caitei, anu leu by the 0S Intei-
ieligious Committee foi Peace in the Niuule East, in the fall of 1992, in Naich 199S, I hau
the piivilege to be ieceiveu by Chaiiman Yassei Aiafat in Tunis. Aftei asking him about the
uiastic change fiom the "maximalist" uemanus of the PL0 Chaitei, anu his new moueiate
position accepting a Two-States solution, he explaineu to me how he came to unueistanu
bettei the balance of powei.
S4
Alexis Aiieff, "Tunisia: Recent Bevelopments anu Policy," c=4B6"<<%=478 V"<"76#$
l;765"68D )"6G%#", (RS 21666, }anuaiy 18, 2u11,) S.
SS
I coulu shaie of fthe iecoius the case of the infiltiation of an Ameiican univeisity by
Palestinian Islamists anu its impact on Tunisia because uuiing a confeience helu on the
campus of that univeisity, the Tunisian scholais weie attackeu, anu books anu pamphlets
ciiticizing Tunisia weie uisplayeu thioughout all the pioceeuings.
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"&%
acauemic fieeuom is to be founu in the weakening of the Tunisian League of Buman Rights
(LTBR.) Although chaitei items of the LRBR weie taken almost veibatim fiom the 1948
0niveisal Beclaiation of Buman Rights, Tunisian uelegates quickly uiviueu in two camps
ovei two paiticulaily contioveisial issues: Aiticle 8, evolving fiom the 0BBR's fieeuom of
maiiiage, causeu a ciitical uebate with iegaiu to Nuslims women's iight to maiiy non-
Nuslim men. "Libeials fought anu won by a single vote language that woulu explicitly
uisallow maiiiage iestiictions on the basis of iace oi ieligion, uefeating a pioposal foi
moie vague language put foith by a coalition of 'nationalists' basing theii aiguments on the
Aiab-Nuslim heiitage of Tunisia."
S6


Foi a while the Aiab Spiing was compaieu with some of the gieatest woilu ievolutions
(e.g. 1848, 1989) befoie scholais anu analysts began to wonuei whethei the Aiab Spiing
was a ievolt oi a ievolution. Beniy Lauiens saiu "we histoiians aie veiy stiong foi
pieuicting the past. Aftei a while, the events appeai eviuent foi us. |.j This ieminus us of
something essential: Any event has something funuamentally mysteiious, in paiticulai
when it is about a ievolution."
S7
Wheieas Sylvie Apiile saw some socio-economic
similaiities in 1848 Fiance anu 2u11 Tunisia anu Egypt, Beniy Lauiens agieeu but saiu
that such causes weie not sufficient to explain the explosion. Foi him, it is impeiative that
"The peoples be motivateu by the uemanu of uignity anu fieeuom fiom feai."
S8
Lauiens
quoteu an expiession by one of the giants of Fiench Romanticism, Lamaitine, who spoke of
the "ievolution of uisuain." Foi Lauiens, Lamaitine's "expiession is peitinent foi Ben Ali
anu foi Nubaiak as it was foi Louis-Philippe: Theii iegimes weie toppleu because they no
longei inspiieu feai but uisuain, thus becoming illegitimate."
S9


Naiwane ben Yahya encapsulateu the phenomenon even bettei when he wiote that "the
Aiab woilu was coming out of a coma."
4u
Less than one yeai befoie the self-immolation of
Ni. Nohammeu Bouazizi in Siui Bouziua uiamatic suiciue full of symbolism which,
appaiently, became the catalyst of the Aiab Spiing in Tunisia anu beyonu Noith Afiica

S6
Susan Waltz, "Tunisia's League anu the Puisuit of Buman Rights," 3$" T7B$6"N V"G%"L,
(vol. 14. Nos. S-4, 1989,) 22u.
S7
"Tiois Bistoiiens, Sylvie Apiile, Beniy Lauiens et Pieiie Bassnei, Analysent les
Evenements en Couis uans le Nonue Aiabe et Bciyptent les Similituues et les Biffiences
Entie Tiois uianues vagues ue Soulevements Populaiies: 1848, 1989, 2u11," "Il Etait une
Fois La Rvolution," d" T=4C", Bimanche-Lunui 21 fviiei, 2u11.
S8
Beniy Lauiens, "Il Etait 0ne fois La Rvolution."
S9
Ibiu. See also, Benjamin Stoia, Le 89 Aiabe, Bialogue avec Euwy Plenel, Rflections sui
les ivolutions en couis, Stock, Paiis 2u11.
4u
Naiwane Ben Yahya, "Rvolutions: 0n Nouveau Nonue Aiabe," K";4" X>6%I;", (Paiis: No.
262S-2624, Apiil 17-Su, 2u11,) Su-S1.
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



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"&"
the aiiest of a Tunisian jouinalist, Ni. Taoufic ben Biik, became a cause clebie in Fiance
among jouinalists, membeis of the goveinment, anu in paiticulai the Nayoi of Paiis, Ni.
Belano, a native of Tunisia.
41


20/ !%&" F,%-5< &5; $0/ G/#$
Westein poweis, in paiticulai Euiope, seem to have been taken by suipiise. A meeting
oiganizeu in Washington on 0ctobei 27-28 by the Euiopean 0nion's Institute of Stiategic
Stuuies to piepaie a common iesponse to the Aiab Spiing ievealeu the suipiise anu
woiiies among Euiopean anu Ameiican leaueis. This, in itself, coulu be sufficient to ignoie
those who, as we will see, spieau the iumois that eveiything hau been well planneu fiom
the outsiue. Foi instance, Philippe uoiuon, a ueputy to Billaiy Clinton was iepoiteu to have
saiu "The Aiab movement began without us. We have neithei chosen the place noi the
timing, but we woulu be bauly mistaken if we thought that we coulu contiol it."
42
vali Nasi
echoeu the same suuuen conceins. "What aie Ameiican inteiests in the Niuule east. Bow
will we piotect them as olu iegimes fall anu new ones tiy to take shape. Can we influence
outcomes. Bow shoulu we piepaie foi the iise of Islamism."
4S
As foi the iepiesentative of
the E0 Foieign Ninistei Catheiine Ashton, Pieiie vimont noteu that the questions at hanu
aie about the immeuiate futuie: "What goal shoulu we follow. Bow uo we ueal with the
uiffeient opposition movements, the emeiging leaueis. Aie we well positioneu to act
collectively, Euiopeans anu Ameiicans."
44
Coulu all these statements fiom uistinguisheu
uiplomats silence those who believe in a conspiiacy. Eiic Benc, foimei intelligence
affaiis analyst, sounus categoiical when he wiites: "It is impoitant to notice that in these
two countiies |Tunisia anu Egyptj uuiing the week pieceuing the tioubles, the highest
iepiesentatives of the aimies went to Washington to get the gieen light foi the toppling of

41
Laibi Chouikha, Piofesseui la Facult ue la manouba, vincent ueissei, Chaig ue
Recheiche L'Institut ue iecheiches et u'Etuues sui le Nonue Nusulman (IRENANS), Aix-
en-Piovence, "La Fin u'un Tabou: Enjeux Autoui ue la succession u'un pisiuent, et
ugiauation uu climat social," dOX44j" C; T7B$6"N, (Paiis: Euitions CNRS, 2u1u,) S88-S92.
42
Sylvie Kauffmann, "Piintemps aiabe, Automne occiuental," d" T=4C", (Paiis: Bimanche-
Lunui, Su-S1 octobie 2u11,) 8. This aiticle contiauicts a publication by a Tunisian weekly,
!"NC=, 16-22 }anuaiy 2u12 entitleu "La Nain Amiicaine" (The Ameiican Banu) which
liteially expiesses a conviction that ".The West, unuei the Ameiican locomotive, is the
actual aichitect of this vast movement, piepaieu foi a long time, anu which was waiting foi
the fiist spaik foi an explosion anu its piopagation in the iegion."
4S
vali Nasi, 3$" `%<:"4<7N8" *75%=4+ X9"6%#74 _=6"%B4 \=8%#D %4 V"56"75F 3$" _7C%4B => 5$"
X67N ):6%4B, (Boubleuay, 2u1S,) 1S9.
44
Sylvie Kauffmann, "Piintemps aiabe, Automne occiuental," 8.
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



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"&$
the leaueis."
4S
In auuition, this authoi iefeis to Beinaiu 0wen to say that "Since the 197us,
eveiything has been meticulously piepaieu. The inteinational tiaining of oui activists
incluues what must be saiu, anu the attituues to exhibit in fiont of foieigneis who aie
visitois. |.jIn actuality, it is moie a mattei of moial foimatting than foimation |that is to
say 'tiaining'.j"
46



!<= >?@AB3= +=-C%D!BC3I B!@ BAK?F! C3 !<= B@+?=%BJK?%=@!B3B?3 K=?F=
K+CF=@@

H-%/'$ &5; I5;-%/'$ I+,&'$ *5 I#%&/7- F/'8%-$D
It is obvious that the uestabilization of the political iegime of one of the most moueiate
Aiab states towaiu the Aiab-Isiaeli conflict must have been peiceiveu if not as a thieat,
then at least as a cause, foi seiious conceins foi Isiaeli secuiity. 0ne of the thoiniest issues
in public uebates ovei the Aiab-Isiaeli conflict peitains to the contioveisy between
"Palestinian Rejectionnism" anu "Lanu foi Peace."
47
The Aiab Spiing anu its giowing anu
explicit ieligious oiientation justify Isiaeli feais anu those of Aiabs anu Nuslims committeu
to a just anu lasting Aiab-Isiaeli peace. Wheieas foi many yeais, the Sinai Peninsula
contiibuteu to Egyptian-Isiaeli Peace as a natuial buffei zone, the iecent attacks by
Islamist gioups against Egyptian militaiy anu police posts in that aiea nullifieu the
aigument that "The Sinai Beseit in the south buffeis Isiael fiom Egypt, the most poweiful
of its immeuiate neighbois."
48
This is also tiue of the eastein boiueis with }oiuan. Shoulu
the }oiuanian iegime be ieplaceu by an extiemist Islamist one, Isiael woulu ceitainly
stiffen its secuiity uemanus to extenu its militaiy piesence as close as possible on that
fiont. A veiy goou anu inteiesting point is maue by two scholais when they look at Isiael's
secuiity befoie anu aftei the Aiab Spiing. In compaiing the many majoi anu limiteu
conflicts opposing Isiael anu its Aiab neighbois, }effiey S. Noiton anu Nicole Shoitt
unueiline a ciitical uiffeience: The pie-Aiab Spiing conflicts weie


4S
Eiic Benc, "La uianue Illusion ues 'Rvolutions' Aiabes," in d7 _7#" c7#$j" C"<
VjG=8;5%=4< X67N"<, (Paiis: Centie ue Recheiche sui le Renseignement, Euitions Ellipses,
2u12,) 1S.
46
Beinaiu 0wen, (Bii) d7 )=#%j5j c%G%8"F P4 c$"G78 C" 36=%" |Civil Society, a Tiojan Boise,j
(Paiis: Stuuyiama, 2u12,) 14.
47
Yosef Kupeimann anu Shalom Lipnei, "The Pioblem is Palestiinian Rejectionnism, Why
the PA must iecognize a }ewish State," _=6"%B4 X>>7%6<, (Novembei-Becembei 2u11,) 2-9.
48
}effiey S. Noiton anu Nicole Shoitt, "The Aiab Spiing: Implications foi Isiaeli Secuiity,"
T"C%5"6674"74 l;765"68D, (2S:S, Summei 2u12,) SS.
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



())*+ ,-./0..12


"&&
B"=B67:$%#788D #=457%4"CH U$75 %< $%<5=6%# 7N=;5 5$" #;66"45 X67N ):6%4B %< %5<
5"4C"4#D 5= #=44"#5 74C 5= =G"687: L%5$ <%9%876 ;:6%<%4B< 57@%4B :87#" 7#6=<<
%45"6475%=478 N=6C"6<H U$"6"7< 7< 7 6"<;85 => <=#%78 4"5L=6@ 5"#$4=8=B%"< YZY =6 7< 74
7##%C"45 => $%<5=6DF 5$" <%9;8574"=;< ;:6%<%4B< %4 5$" X67N L=68C #6"75" 7 4"L
C%9"4<%=4 %4 5$" 6"B%=4 74C 7 <%B4%>%#745 5$6"75 5= (<67"8% )"#;6%5D.
49


0n the othei hanu, the success of Islamist paities in the Naghieb anu beyonu, was not only
a thieat to Isiael but also to Aiab-Nuslim states whose seculaiist leaueis hau aujusteu anu
accepteu "a geostiategic position as status quo states, piefeiiing the cuiient configuiation
of iegional oi inteinational powei ovei what coulu iesult if iauical shifts in powei weie to
occui."
Su


I+,&'$ *E $0/ !%&" F,%-5< J5 285-#-&K# F*'-/$&7 =&"%-'
When the Aiab Spiing was still unfoluing fiom Tunisia to Egypt, then back to Libya, some
scholais wonueieu how "Niuule East Stuuies" misseu the Aiab Spiing.
S1
Ny own answei
hau alieauy been piesenteu uuiing a Fellowship at the Baivaiu Centei foi Niuule Eastein
Stuuies, in 1989-199u. Anothei eloquent anu timely answei came fiom Lisa Anueison.
S2

Alieauy in the Niu 199us, some obseiveis saw the Aiab woilu as a laboiatoiy wheie
political alliances anu political changes weie at the centei the sociological uebate. "The
seculaiization of societies seemeu to be ieplaceu by a geneializeu ietuin to cleiicalism: A
univeisal phenomenon, maue iemaikable by the fusion of nationalism anu ieligious
uogma."
SS
In tiying to auuiess the specificity of the emeigence anu evolution of Tunisia's
Islamism, Abuellatif Beimessi iaiseu a seiies of impoitant questions, which iemain vital in
the touay's uebate about the futuie of the place of Islamic law oi )$76%7 in the new
constitution.
S4
Among the scholais who paiu attention to the Islamic Revolution of Iian,
Yvonne Bauuau unueilineu the fact that one of Sayeu Qutb's followeis was Ali Sheiiati who

49
Noiton anu Shoitt, S8-S9
Su
Noiton anu Shoitt, Su.
S1
uiegoiy uiause, "Why Niuule East Stuuies Nisseu the Aiab Spiing. The Nyth of
Authoiitaiian Stability," _=6"%B4 X>>7%6<, (}uly-August 2u11,) 81-9u.
S2
Lisa Anueison, "Bemystifying the Aiab Spiing: Paising The Biffeiences Between Tunisia,
Egypt, anu Libya," _=6"%B4 X>>7%6<, (Nay-}une 2u11,) 2. Quoteu by A. Bechiche, Fiom the
Aiab Spiing to the Islamist Spiing, }oinata Tematica: The 0S anu the NiuulEast, Insituto Be
Estuuos Economicos e Inteinacionais, 0niveisity of Sao Paulo, Apiil 2u12.
SS
Laiiy Foitis et Chiistine Passevant, X%6"< "5 c;85;6"< \=8%5%I;"< 7; T=D"4 ]6%"45F dO!=99"
"5 87 )=#%j5jF ^575 `"9=#675%I;" =; ^575 c=4>"<<%=44"8f X;5=;6 C; c=4>8%5 (<67"8'\78"<5%4"F
(Paiis: L'Baimattan, No.114, 19944,) S.
S4
Abuellatif Beimassi, dO(<879%<9" "5 8O^575 "4 3;4%<%"F dO!=99" "5 d7 )=#%j5j, (Paiis:
L'Baitman, No. 114, 19944,) 7S.
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



())*+ ,-./0..12


"&'
helpeu topple the Shah of Iian. Bichem Bjait went even fuithei in giasping the hiuuen
objectives of the Iianian Revolution. "In the case of Iianian political Islam," he wiote,

L" 76" >7#%4B 7 C%6"#5 #=456=8 => :=L"6 YZ[ 74C 5$%< 6"8%B%=;< (<879 %< #=9%4B N7#@ 4=5
5= 6">=69 %5<"8>F N;5 5= 6">=69 5$" B8=N78 <=#%"5D 74C 5= %9:=<" %5<"8> 5= %5H 3$"
6"#;:"675%=4 => :=8%#%"< 7< 7#5%=4F 74C 4=5 =48D 7< 5$=;B$5F ND 5$" 6"8%B%=;<F YZ[ 74C 5$"
%45"B675%=4 => 5$" 6"8%B%=;< %4 74 "9%4"458D :=8%5%#78 :6=#"<<F L" $7G" $"6" L%5$=;5 74D
C=;N5 <=9"5$%4B 6":6"<"45%4B 7 97R=6 :$"4=9"4=4 5$" 4=G"85D => L$%#$ C"<"6G"< =;6
>;88 755"45%=4.
SS


In the case of Tunisia, unuei Bouiguiba,

L$"4 %4C":"4C"4#" L7< C"#876"CF 9"4 => 6"8%B%=4F ?;8"97 74C <$"%@$<FA %979< 74C
<#$=876< L"6" :7<<"C =G"6 ND 5$" 475%=478%<5<H YZ[ 3$;<F 5$=<" L%5$ 5$" 8"B%5%97#D 5$75
C"6%G"< >6=9 5"#$4=8=B%#78 <@%88 L"6" 7N8" 5= ;4%5" L%5$ 5$=<" L$=<" 8"B%5%97#D L7<
:=8%5%#78 %4 475;6"H 3$"D #6"75"C 7 9=C"64%<5 "8%5" "Q%<5%4B <=9"L$75 7:765 >6=9 5$"
(<879%# 8"B7#D.
S6


0nuei Ben Ali, the thieat of Ennahua's Islamist oiientation
S7
befoie anu aftei the bloouy
Algeiian civil wai, leu the goveinment to piogiessively ie-appiopiiate ieligion.
S8
0pening
the Confeience on Religion anu Politics, Piofessoi Nohammeu Aikoun pioposeu two
methouologies to appioach this issue: "The ielationship between Islam anu Politics coulu
be envisageu eithei in a iecapitulative anu uesciiptive peispective, oi with the concein of
thinking the vaiious anu uifficult pioblems, that such a confiontation has piouuceu fiom
the oiigin."
S9



SS
Bichem Bjait, d7 c6%<" C" 87 c;85;6" (<879%I;"F (Paiis: Fayaiu, 2uu4,) 196.
S6
}.C vatin, "Revival in the Naghieb: Islam as an Alteinative Political Language," in (<879%#
V"<;6B"4#" %4 5$" X67N U=68C, euiteu by Ali Bessouki, (Piaegei, 1982,) 221.
S7
The oiiginal name of the paity was "Paity of Islamic Tenuencies. "
S8
It was iathei spectaculai foi those who liveu in Tunisia, anu foi native Tunisians on
piofessional visits to see the inteiiuption of RauioT.v piogiams being inteiiupteu by
official. State calls foi piayeis. Copies of the Boly Book, the Quian weie conspicuously
uisplayeu on the uesks of goveinment officials. I saw one at the Ninistiy of Foieign Affaiis,
anu the builuing of mosques, incluuing the Zine Al-Abiuine Nosque between Caithage anu
Siui Bhiif.
S9
Nohanneu Aikoun, "Religion anu Politics", ACTS 1S
th
Inteinational Confeience on
Sociology of Religion, (Paiis: Centie National ue la Recheiche Scientifique (CNRS) anu
Piesses 0niveisitaiies ue Fiance, 198u,) 11.
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



())*+ ,-./0..12


"&(
Accoiuing to Ali Abueiiaziq, the question of the Caliphate hau been a majoi concein in his
stuuies anu ieseaich foi seveial yeais befoie publishing his woik in 192S. It woulu be
inteiesting to know if Kamal Atatuik knew about it. Foi Abueiiaziq, Caliphate was
synonymous of Imamate.
6u
The implieu unueistanuing between Abueiiaziq anu Ibn
Khaluun is that powei coiiupts. By becoming monaichs, attacheu to theii thiones anu
piivileges, caliphs tuineu into sanguinaiy enemies of anyone who woulu uaie iesist them,
even with the aiu of scientific ieseaich. Abueiiaziq saw in this challenge the

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3$"6">=6"F %5 %< 475;678 5$75 @%4B< N"#=9" %5< L=6<5 "4"9%"<F 74C 5$75 5$"D ;<" 788
7G7%87N8" 9"74< 5= C"5"6 :"=:8" >6=9 :;6<;%4B %5.
61


Noie uiiectly , anu moie auuaciously, Abueiiaziq auus: "Piophet Nohammeu was nothing
but an apostle of uou, like his biotheis who pieceueu him in that function; he was neithei a
king, noi a founuei of empiie."
62


It is also faii to aumit that Islam is not the only monotheistic ieligion to face the
:6=N8"975%I;" of the tension between ieligion anu state. In the 199us, a simple but
theologically anu iueologically explosive question "Who is a }ew." uiviueu the Knesset anu
thieateneu millions of Ameiican }ews until it was tableu. Touay, we have a similai situation
when one coulu ask "who is a Nuslim." in paiticulai since Sayeu Qutb coineu the concept of
"Neo-}ahiliyya," meaning that all existing seculai Aiab-Nuslim states iepiesenteu a new
veision of paganism. Is it the ieason why Beibeit Spencei vieweu the state as always
pieseiving some of the chaiacteiistics of the chuich, even at the enu of a long piocess of
seculaiization. "It is the natuie of powei to maintain, eithei an oveit oi a maskeu foim, of

6u
Ali Abueiiaziq, aftei uefining the teim Khilafa-the ieplacement of someone foi uiffeient
ieasons, he boiiows two uefinitions: 1. Fiom Al-Bauawi "The Imamate is the inteiim of the
Piophet helu by a peison with the objective of ensuiing that the ieligious law (Shaii'a) be
iespecteu, anu to uefenu the integiity of the faith..2. Fiom Ibn Khaluun: The caliphate was
to be the leaueiship of the Community accoiuing to the Shaii'a, foi the sake of the
Community's salvation anu its tempoial inteiests, because the affaiis of this woilu aie
linkeu with those of the heieaftei. dO(<879 "5 8"< _=4C"9"45< C; \=;G=%6, (Paiis: La
Bcouveite ccuej, seiies Islam et Socit, 1994.)
61
Abueiiaziq, 8u.
62
Abueiiaziq, 114-11S, quoteu by A. Bechiche, U$75 K"L< )$=;8C J4=L XN=;5 (<879 74C
T;<8%9<+ V"9"9N"6%4B X c=99=4 !"6%57B", (Paiis: Publisuu, 2uuS,) 181.
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



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"&)
political ieligion."
6S
In the same context, Naix also hau to ueal with the same
:6=N8"975%I;" of State anu Religion. Foi him, the two weie similai in theii essence, even
when the state is sepaiateu fiom the chuich anu in opposition to it. This essential similaiity
is uue to the fact that the State is situateu (oi appeais to be) beyonu ieal life, in a spheie
whose uistance is ieminiscent of that of the uou of gous.
64



FC3F%D@BC3
When ueoiges Balanuiei iefeiieu to Luc ue Beusch's foimula that "Political Science ueiives
fiom the compaiative histoiy of ieligions," it alloweu him to complete his analysis with
Buikheim's iueas about the ielation between the Austialian totem anu the clan. "This
ielationship is essentially imbueu with sacieuness, foi eveiy society links its own oiuei to
an oiuei beyonu itself. Powei is sacieuness because eveiy society affiims its uesiie foi
eteinity."
6S
Like a synthesis of Balanuiei anu Bassam Tibi's cential iuea about Islam as a
"uefensive cultuie," Piofessoi Yauh Ben Achoui's analysis was piobably the most
peiceptive of the ieal uynamics of the unuei-cuiient confiontation between seculaiism
anu Islamism in Tunisia. Be aigueu that

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74D >%<<;6" %4 5$" #=$"6"4#" 74C %4 5$" ;4%5D => 5$" <D<5"9 %< 7 <%B4 => $"6"<D.
66


By extenuing his analysis to the notion of "statism" as it appeaieu in Chiistian Euiope in
the sixteenth anu seventeenth centuiies, Yauh Ben Achoui
67
ieminus us of Spinoza's view

6S
Beibeit Spencei, \6%4#%:8"< => )=#%=8=BD, iefeiieu to by ueoige Balanuiei in \=8%5%#78
X45$6=:=8=BD, tianslateu fiom the Fiench, by A.N Sheiiuan Smith, (Paiis: Panthon Books,
197u,) 1uu, quoteu by A. Bechiche in U$75 K"L< )$=;8C J4=L XN=;5 (<879, 212.
64
Bechiche, 212
6S
ueioges Balanuiei, 1uu.
66
Yauh Ben Achoui, *=69"<F _=% "5 d=%F "4 \765%#;8%"6 C74< 8O(<879, (Paiis: Euitions Cis,
1994,) 242-4S.
67
Yauh Ben Achoui has occupieu the ciitical post of Piesiuent of the Bigh Bouy foi the
Realization of the 0bjectives of the Revolution, of Political Refoims, the Bemociatic
!"#$%#$" ' !"# %#&'()*(# +#&*#, -./01# 2 3014#5 2 67*()#5 289:;



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"&*
that "Religion acquiies legal authoiity on the basis of the ueciee of those who aie entitleu
to iule the state, that uou's ieign on men is establisheu only by those who holu powei."
68

This leaus Ben Achoui to consiuei that Islam, ieligion of the State, becomes the cieuo of
statism in the lanu of Islam. It uoes not mean at all the intiouuction of ieligion into politics,
but iathei its exit.
69
Noie specifically, the confiontation that staiteu unuei Bouiguiba, anu
then, unuei Ben Ali, anu which is continuing touay aftei the 0ctobei 2S, 2u11 legislative
elections in Tunisia with a leauing laige numbei of votes foi the so-calleu moueiate
Islamist paity Ennahua, gives moie authoiity to Yauh Ben Achoui's pie-Aiab Spiing
analysis of "statism" as "the submission of Religion to the State, |.j meaning that the
believei, in hishei conviction iemains peifectly fiee to ueteimine hishei belief uisbelief.
|.j In this aiea, neithei the State, noi the Community may inteifeie. But this believei
uelegates to the State anu only to it, public anu collective ieligious manifestations. The
believei keeps the ieligion of the law, but leaves political ieligion to the State."
7u





*Abuelwahab Bechiche is Piofessoi of uoveinment anu Inteinational Affaiis at the
0niveisity of South Floiiua. Be holus giauuate anu post-giauuate uegiees fiom the
0niveisity of Paiis, Soibone, the Institute of Auvanceu inteinational Relations of the
Faculty of Law-Panthon, anu the Ecole Piatique ues Bautes Etuues. Aftei being a Fiench
Fulbiight Scholai fiom the 0niveisity of Paiis at viiginia Polytechnic Institute anu the
0niveisity of South Floiiua uuiing the late 196us, Bechiche was also a 0.S. Fulbiight
Scholai in Algieis in 2uu6-2uu7.

Tiansition. See Bis Inteiview, "la Rvolution, et Apies." |The Revolution, anu Then What.j
in T=4C"<, (Paiis: Les Cahieis uu Quai u'0isay, No. 8, Automne 2u11,) 27-S2.
68
Baiuch Spinoza, 367%5j C" 3$j=8=B%" \=8%5%I;", quoteu by Y. Ben Achoui, 2S8.
69
Ben Achoui, 2S9.
7u
Ben Achoui, 2S9.