A Brief History of Rome

The founding of Rome goes back to the very early days of civilization. It is so old, it is today known as 'the eternal city'. The Romans believed that their city was founded in the year 753 BC. Modern historians though believe it was the year 625 BC. Early Rome was governed by kings, but after only seven of them had ruled, the Romans took power over their own city and ruled themselves. They then instead had a council known as the 'senate' which ruled over them. From this point on one speaks of the 'Roman Republic'. The word 'Republic' itself comes from the Latin (the language of the Romans) words 'res publica' which mean 'public matters' or 'matters of state'. The senate under the kings had only been there to advise the king. Now the senate appointed a consul, who ruled Rome like a king, but only for one year. - This was a wise idea, as like that, the consul ruled carefully and not as a tyrant, for he knew that otherwise he could be punished by the next consul, once his year was up.

A speech in the Roman senate

Rome knew four classes of people. This division was very important to the Romans. The lowest class were the slaves. They were owned by other people. They had no rights at all. The next class were the plebeians. They were free people. But they had little say at all. The second highest class were the equestrians (sometimes they are called the 'knights'). Their name means the 'riders', as they were given a horse to ride if they were called to fight for Rome. To be an equestrian you had to be rich. The highest class were the nobles of Rome. They were called 'patricians'. All the real power in Rome lay with them. The Roman Republic was a very successful government. It lasted from 510 BC until 23 BC - almost 500 years. In comparison the United States of America only exist since 1776 - less than 250 years.

The greatest challenge the Roman Republic faced was that of the Carthaginians. Carthage was a very powerful city in North Africa which, much like Rome, controlled its own empire. The fight between the two sides was a long one and took place on land and on sea. The most famous incident came when the great Carthaginian general Hannibal crossed the mountain chain of the Alps to the north of Italy with all his troops, including his warelephants !, and invaded Italy. Hannibal, the great Though Rome in the end won and Carthage was completely Carthaginian general destroyed in the year 146 BC. Rome's most famous citizen was no doubt Julius Caesar. He was a Roman politician and general who, without having any orders to do so, conquered the vast territory of the Gauls to the north of his province in France. In the year 49 BC Caesar crossed the small river between his province and Italy, called the river Rubicon, and conquered Rome itself which he then ruled as a dictator. His military campaigns also took him to Egypt where he met the famous Cleopatra. His life though was ended as he was infamously murdered in the senate in Rome. Julius Caesar Museo della Civilta So famous and respected was Caesar that a month of the year is still named after him and his heirs today, July (after Julius Caesar). Also Rome the great English poet Shakespeare wrote a famous play called Julius Caesar about his famous murder.
After Caesar followed the many emperors of Rome - and there were truly very many of them. So, here are some of the most famous ones. Rome's first emperor. He also added many territories to the empire. Augustus Claudius Nero Titus Trajan Hadrian Diocletian He conquered Britain. He was insane. He murdered his mother and his wife and threw thousands of Christians to the lions. Before he was emperor he destroyed the great Jewish temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. He was a great conqueror. Under his rule the empire reached its greatest extent. He built 'Hadrian's Wall' in the north of Britain to shield the province from the northern barbarians. He split the empire into two pieces - a western and an eastern empire.

Constantine Romulus Augustus Justinian Constantine XI

He was the first Christian emperor. He united the empire again chose his capital to be the small town Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. He was the last emperor of Rome, nicknamed Augustulus which means 'little Augustus'. He was the last 'great' emperor. He conquered many territories, created the 'Justinian Code' and built the fantastic church Santa Sophia. The last emperor of Constantinople. He died defending his great city against the Turks.

The Roman empire in the end was overrun by millions of barbarians from the north and east of Europe. It is believed to have happened two or three times in history that huge migrations took place across Europe, where peoples moved to settle in new territories. The great migration proved too much for the Romans to stem. Their armies were designed to defeat other armies, not entire folks and peoples flooding toward them. The collapse was completed when Rome itself was conquered by the Visigoth Odoacer and his men in the year AD 476. But what is generally referred to as 'the Fall of Rome' doesn't include the eastern empire. This, with its centre in Constantinople, managed to cling on for almost another thousand years until it was eventually conquered by the Turks under their leader Mohammed II in the year AD 1453.

HISTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Augustus to Domitian
Augustus Caesar The Julio-Claudian emperors Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Year of the four emperors The Flavian emperors

Trajan to Constantine Christian Rome

HISTORY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE Timeline

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The empire: 27 BC - AD 14 By a coincidence of history the Roman empire, at its start, has recently achieved a new geographical completeness. The campaigns of Pompey have led to the annexation ofSyria in 64 BC and the capture of Jerusalem in 6 . !ith "ctavian#s defeat of Cleopatra at $ctium in % BC, &gypt too 'ecomes a province. (ust in time for the start of the empire, the eastern pieces of the )igsaw are in place. The *editerranean, centre of the +nown world ,as its name states-, has 'ecome what it will remain for the next four centuries . a Roman sea. $nd during the same period, until Constantine gives the city a new Christian role, the story of Rome itself 'ecomes su'merged in that of the wider Roman empire. The rule of $ugustus Caesar 'rings an unprecedented forty years of peace in /taly. !ith few set'ac+s on distant frontiers, Rome and its territories en)oy a steady increase in prosperity and trade. The frontiers of empire are slightly extended. *ore important, they 'ecome sta'li0ed and properly defended. Professional careers are now possi'le in the army ,recruits sign on for sixteen years, later increased to twenty- and in the civil service. Improve roa s ma+e it easier to +eep in close touch with distant parts of the Roman world, and to move troops wherever they are needed. 1ew towns, 'uilt to Roman design, are esta'lished in areas where there was previously no administrative structure.

The region in which $ugustus ma+es the most effort to extend the empire is 'eyond the $lps into 2ermany. By %4 BC the 2erman tri'es are su'dued up to the 3anu'e. /n the next five years Roman legions push forward to the &l'e. But this further 'order proves impossi'le to hold. /n $3 4 $rminius, a 2erman chieftain of great military s+ill, destroys three Roman legions in the Teuto'urg 5orest. The Romans pull 'ac+ ,though they return 'riefly to avenge what seems a shameful defeat-. The conclusion, 'e6ueathed 'y $ugustus to his successors, is that the Roman empire has some natural 'oundaries7 to the north these are the Rhine and the 3anu'e. !ithin these 'oundaries the reign of $ugustus introduces what 'ecomes +nown as the Pax Romana, the Roman peace. 5or those within the empire this represents a real and unprecedented 'enefit. 8omehow, after the death of $ugustus in $3 %4, this fortunate state of affairs survives even the grotes6ue 'ehaviour on the imperial throne of the descendants either of $ugustus himself or of his second wife 9ivia. The !amily li!e o! the Caesars, recorded in dramatic detail 'y Ta"itusand others, has fascinated su'se6uent generations. But ama0ingly the empire not only survives this first dynasty of emperors ,$3 %4.6:-. /t even grows. The Julio-Clau ian emperors: AD 14-#$ The four su""essors o! Au%ustus are +nown as the (ulio. Claudian emperors 'ecause they descend either from $ugustus ,whose mother was a niece of (ulius Caesar- or from his second wife, 9ivia, who is a mem'er of the Claudii, another great Roman clan. $ugustus and 9ivia, married for fifty.two years, have no children of their own. The candidates for the succession are their children 'y previous marriages. $fter the death of three favoured heirs ,pro'a'ly from natural causes, though Roman gossip invaria'ly suspects poison-, the eventual successor is Ti'erius, a son of 9ivia. "n 'eing ac+nowledged as the heir apparent, in $3 4, he 'ecomes +nown as Ti'erius (ulius Caesar. Ti&erius: AD 14-'7 Ti'erius, inheriting in $3 %4, continues the policies ofAu%ustus. ;e +eeps firm control of the army while showing due respect to the senate in Rome, and he 'ehaves with personal modesty. ;e accords his predecessor divine status, 'ut discourages any cult of himself as the living emperor. But in the later years of his life his 'ehaviour 'rings him a different reputation.

5or reasons which are not clear, he withdraws from Rome in $3 <6 to live on the island of Capri. Ruling now as a remote figure ,and decreeing the deaths of any who seem to challenge him, including several mem'ers of the imperial !amily-, he comes to seem a monster. ;is death is welcomed in Rome. But his successor is worse. Cali%ula: AD '7-41 By the time of Ti'erius#s death, in $3 =, 2aius Caesar is the only living male descendant of the emperor $ugustus. ;is two elder 'rothers and his mother have 'een put to death in prison as a result of complex plots over the succession. 2aius Caesar himself is widely +nown 'y a nic+name. $s a small child, on campaign with his father against the 2ermans, he was often dressed in a miniature soldier#s uniform. The soldiers called him Cali%ula, #little 'oot#, and the name has stuc+. /t is pro'a'ly the most charming thing a'out him. Caligula#s short reign is mar+ed 'y wild extravagance and 'rutality. $ serious illness in $3 = leaves him more than a little mad ,though it is not true that he ma+es his horse a consul-. The result is the first of many occasions in which the army directly intervenes in the imperial su""ession. $t an athletics contest in Rome, the Palatine games of $3 4%, Caligula is murdered 'y a tri'une of the (raetorian %uar . The next incident is one of the most famous in Roman imperial history. $ soldier finds Caligula#s supposedly pathetic uncle, Claudius, hiding in terror in the palace. ;e expects to 'e +illed. /nstead the praetorian guards force the senate to accept him as emperor. Clau ius: AD 41-)4 $ physical infirmity of some +ind ,it has 'een suggested that he may have had cere'ral palsy- has caused the imperial family to consider Claudius a nonentity. ;e has 'usied himself with scholarly studies, writing 'oo+s in 2ree+ on such varied topics as the &truscans and dice.playing. But when thrust into po*er, he proves a surprisingly effective emperor. The empire is extended during his reign, with new provinces in northwest $frica ,*auretania-, northern 2reece ,Thrace- and southern Britain. Claudius himself ta+es part in the British campaign, crossing the Thames and capturing what is now Colchester. ;e is so pleased with this achievement that he names his son Britannicus. /t is an understatement to say that Clau ius+s private li!e is dramatic. ;is promiscuous third wife, *essalina, the mother of Britannicus, plots against him with one of her lovers. ;e executes them in $3 4: and marries his niece, $grippina. This is for'idden in Roman law, so he changes the law. The niece, li+e everyone else in the family, has a scheme. ;er son 'y a previous marriage is )ust three years older than Britannicus. 8he persuades Claudius to adopt this 'oy as his heir. !ith this agreed she poisons the old man, according to

Roman gossip with toadstools. /n $3 >4 her %6.year.old son is proclaimed 'y the (raetorian %uar as the emperor 1ero. ,ero: AD )4-#$ /n the early years of 1ero#s reign he is guided 'y wise counsellors, particularly his old tutor 8eneca. But soon he feels free to follow his own inclinations. !ithin a few years his riotous personal 'ehaviour is deeply offending the Romans, who are also unimpressed 'y his insistence on performing in pu'lic . as charioteer, lute.player, poet and actor. $nd once again, in the !amily li!e o! the Caesars, relationships are far from exemplary. The murder in $3 >> of his young step'rother Britannicus is hardly surprising in the context of the time7 the 'oy is inevita'ly a threat as the son of the previous emperor. *ore unusual are the deaths of 1ero#s mother and wife. /n >: 1ero falls passionately in love with a married woman, Poppaea, the wife of -tho. $grippina critici0es her son#s liaison and is murdered in >4. "ctavia, as his wife, is an unfortunate impediment7 1ero divorces her, on a false charge of adultery, and then has her +illed. ;e marries Poppaea in 6<. 1ero 'ecomes so unpopular that many 'elieve he started the great .ire o! Rome in 64, so as to give himself the grandiose pleasure of re'uilding the city. The accusation ,which leads to the first persecution of the Christians- is un)ust. 8o is the legend that the histrionic emperor plays his fiddle while Rome 'urns. But the stories reflect more genuine grievances. 1ero#s extravagances have drained the imperial coffers. ;is inattention to affairs of state is reflected in serious re'ellions at 'oth extremes of the empire, in Britain in 6? and (alestine in 66. 8oon even Romans are in revolt. /n $3 6: Roman officials and legions in 2aul and 8pain declare themselves against the emperor. /n Rome the praetorian guards follow suit. The senate passes a vote of censure on 1ero. Recogni0ing the inevita'le, he slits his throat. There is no living male mem'er of the (ulian or Claudian families to claim the imperial crown. But the legions in various parts of the empire have their own ideas. 5or the first time it is reali0ed, as Tacitus later writes, that emperors can 'e made elsewhere than in Rome. /n the resulting clash of interests, $3 64 'ecomes the year of the four emperors. /ear o! the !our emperors: AD #0 Re'ellion against 1ero first comes to a head in 8pain, where the governors of two neigh'ouring provinces have particular fears or grievances. "ne of them, 2al'a, 'elieves that 1ero is planning to assassinate him7 the other, "tho, has lost his wife Poppaea to the emperor. /n $3 6: "tho supports 2al'a in mounting a re'ellion, 'ut events run ahead of them. $fter,ero#s suicide the senators adopt 2al'a as emperor. ;e ta+es the name Caesar and marches to Rome. ;e then ma+es the serious tactical mista+e of adopting

someone other than "tho as his official heir. "tho su'orns the (raetorian %uar . &arly in 64 2al'a is assassinated in the forum. "tho is proclaimed emperor. *eanwhile the army on the Rhine has a different idea, acclaiming its own commander, @itellius. ;is forces move south, meeting and defeating those of "tho near Cremona in $pril. "tho commits suicide. /n (uly @itellius enters Rome as emperor. But the soldiers in the east are e6ually reluctant to accept, unconsulted, the candidate of another section of the army. /n (uly the legions at $lexandria acclaim @espasian, now commanding the campaign to put down the Je*ish revolt in (udaea. Their choice is rapidly endorsed 'y troops throughout the *iddle &ast and then 'y the legions on the 3anu'e . )ealous opponents in this matter of their colleagues on the Rhine. @espasian#s instinct is to 'ide his time, meanwhile perhaps withholding the important shipments of grain from &gypt to Rome, 'ut his hand is forced 'y the 3anu'e legions. They march south in his name, entering Rome in 3ecem'er. /n a fren0y of destruction they murder many of the defenders, among them the emperor @itellius. "n 3ecem'er <% the a'sent @espasian is adopted 'y the senate, as the fourth emperor of the year. The traumas of $3 64 remain a cautionary tale to succeeding generations. /t is more than a century 'efore the death of an emperor is again followed 'y civil war. $nd with @espasian, as it turns out, the year has ended well. @espasian is unusual in the line of Roman emperors to this date in 'eing an experienced and hard.'itten old general, non. patrician in his 'ac+ground and already sixty when he comes to power. ;e has distinguished himself in campaigns stretching 'ac+ to the invasion of Britain in $3 4 . &ven a past threat to his career might 'e considered a case of critical )udgement7 accompanying ,ero to 2reece, he is so incautious as to fall asleep while the emperor is singing. ;e narrowly escapes severe punishment. ;e is the ideal man to re'uild Roman confidence, and to replenish the treasury, 'y tough and sensi'le measures after the chaos of civil war. The .lavian emperors: AD #0-0#

@espasian has the great advantage, on coming to power, of having two adult sons. The elder of the two, Titus, already has considera'le military experience. 5or the first time, in almost a century since the 'eginning of the empire, the 6uestion of the succession need not 'e a pressing affair of state. /n the event 'oth sons follow @espasian on the throne, the three of them 'eing +nown ,from their family name of

5lavius- as the 5lavian emperors. !hile frugal in his own life, and unflinching in his raising of taxes, @espasian also +nows how to please the Romans. ;is most lavish underta+ing is the 'uilding of the 5lavian amphitheatre, +nown to history as the Colosseum.

"n his accession @espasian entrusts the important Je*ish *ar, previously his own concern, to his son Titus. /n $3 =? Titus captures and sac+s (erusalem, destroying the Temple and 'earing off its treasures . including the sacred menorah, or seven.'ranched candela'rum, as depicted in the triumphal $rch of Titus in Rome. "ther frontier districts are forci'ly pacified in a similar manner, with the result that after ten years of rule @espasian 'e6ueaths to his son a Roman empire in 'etter order than at any time since the early part of the century. /n a short reign of only two years, from =4 to :%, Titus ma+es himself extremely popular. Part of the reason is lavish expenditure in the capital, 'ut the same generosity is applied to two disasters which fall in this period. (ompeiiand the surrounding district is 'uried under the ashes of @esuvius in =4, and Rome suffers another ma)or fire in :?. "n 'oth occasions Titus responds with prompt and effective support. ;is 'rother 3omitian, in a longer reign ,:%.46-, leaves a less glowing reputation. "ne reason is an inclination towards an oriental style of divine monarchy. ;is effigy 'egins to appear among those of the gods, and he insists on 'eing addressed as dominus et deus ,master and god-. The later years of 3omitian#s reign are also mar+ed 'y unpredicta'le and cruel acts which amount, 'y the end, to a reign of a terror. They provo+e a response from commanders of the (raetorian %uar in league with the emperor#s wife, 3omitia. /n 46, having secured the compliance of a safe successor ,the elderly statesman 1erva, certain to 'e accepta'le to the senate-, they arrange for the emperor#s assassination. 1erva, entering office as an elderly careta+er, has one overriding responsi'ility . to find a worth successor. ;e does so, triumphantly, in Tra)an.

Tra1an: AD 0$-117

!hen Tra)an is selected 'y 1erva as his heir, in "cto'er 4=, he is in command of the province of upper 2ermany. 9ess than three months later, 1erva is dead. But this time there is no crisis. The Roman empire has ac6uired a new maturity. Thirty years earlier, after the death of 1ero, thesu""ession was decided 'y armies marching on Rome. 1ow Tra)an is a'le to spend the first year of his rule on a tour of inspection of the Roman legions on the Rhine and the 3anu'e. /t is an area in which he plans an important campaign. Tra)an is in his element among soldiers. Born in 8pain ,he is the first Roman emperor of non./talian descent-, his career has 'een spent with legions in 8yria, 8pain and 2ermany. But he proves himself a 'rilliant politician as well. !hen Tra)an returns to Rome, in 44, he enters the city without pomp, on foot, and immediately esta'lishes an excellent relationship with the senate. ;e ma+es his imperial intentions and re6uirements perfectly plain, 'ut at least he consults the senators. /t is an approach which wins him the title "ptimus ,#'est man#, with its implication that he leads on the 'asis of merit rather than ran+-. Characteristically, he refuses to adopt this description officially until many years later, in %%4. /n %?% Tra)an is ready for the campaign which he was plotting 'efore his return to Rome. ;e marches north and east, towards the region +nown to the Romans as 3acia . north of the 3anu'e, 'ordering the Blac+ 8ea. There are two good reasons for Tra)an#s interest in su'duing this area. "ne is revenge7 the 3acians, led 'y a powerful ruler, 3ece'alus, inflicted a ma)or defeat on a Roman army sent out 'y 3omitian in :6. The other is greed7 the territory includes some famous gold mines. /n two campaigns ,%?%.<, %?>.6- 3acia is crushed and 'rought firmly within the empire7 the modern name of the region, Romania, reflects Rome#s success. 2reat wealth is 'rought 'ac+ to the capital to fund Tra)an#s 'uilding programme. /t is the 3acian wars which are depicted in such vivid detail on Tra1an+s "olumn. The emperor#s pu'lic wor+s in Rome, mainly carried out in the years after the 3acian wars, include practical amenities such as 'aths and a6ueducts. But the centrepiece is ancient Rome#s largest pu'lic space, the rectangular 5orum of Tra)an which includes along its sides a great assem'ly hall, two li'raries and a temple, and which has at its centre the ?.metre.high mar'le column of Tra)an. The forum is dedicated 'y Tra)an in $3 %%<. /t turns out to 'e his last full year in Rome. 1ews comes that the Parthians, violating a treaty, have interfered in the affairs of $rmenia. /n %% , at the age of sixty, the soldier emperor heads east again.

The eastern "ampai%n: AD 11'-117 !ithin two months Tra)an is in $ntioch, )oining the Roman legions stationed in the *iddle &ast. &arly in %%4 $rmenia, until now a vassal +ingdom of Rome, is annexed as a Roman province. The purpose of the campaign has 'een achieved, 'ut Tra)an decides to press on . welcoming the challenge of a confrontation with Rome#s rival empire to the east, Parthia. 9i+e $rmenia, the territories along the &uphrates are +ingdoms, 'ut these are undenia'ly vassals of Parthia. Tra)an#s marching against them is an act of war. They all capitulate. The region is annexed as another new Roman province, *esopotamia. Tra)an#s reputation in Rome reaches new heights, and he formally accepts . at last . the title of #'est man#, "ptimus. The following year, %%>, he is tempted to go even further. ;e captures the Parthian capital at Ctesiphon and advances down the Tigris to the Persian 2ulf. This is the furthest that the empire has ever extended, and it is a province too far. $n uprising in his rear, in support of Parthia, causes Tra)an to withdraw . leaving his cousin ;adrian in command of *esopotamia. Tra)an is on his way 'ac+ to Rome in %%= when he dies, in southern Tur+ey. ;e names ;adrian as his successor. 2a rian: AD 117-1'$ "nce again the imperial crown is passed on without civil war, though ;adrian#s excution of four of Tra)an#s senior colleagues on a charge of conspiracy implies a degree of opposition. 8trategically, ;adrian decides that Tra)an#s new additions to the empire are untena'le. ;e a'andons the provinces of $rmenia and *esopotamia, restoring the &uphrates to its previous role as Rome#s eastern 'order. /t is almost a year 'efore ;adrian returns to Rome, where he 'uys popularity 'y cancelling all personal de'ts to the state. But his real interest remains in the distant provinces of the empire. ;e is not involved in any ma)or wars, 'ut he is away from Rome for no less than twelve of his twenty years in power.

;adrian#s interest in securing the frontiers of a via'le empire is demonstrated in the%reat *all which 'ears his name. ;e orders its construction when visiting Britain in $3 %<<. ;e also commissions another great defensive wor+, a fortified palisade stretching more than <>? miles to lin+ the two great natural 'arriers of central &urope, the Rhine and the 3anu'e. /n this policy of strengthening outlying areas of empire, one of ;adrian#s underta+ings has disastrous results. /n the *iddle

&ast, in % ?, he gives orders for a strong new Roman city, $elia Capitolina, to 'e 'uilt on the site of (erusalem, which was devastated sixty years earlier when captured 'yTitus. "n the ruined Temple mount there is to 'e a shrine to (upiter, in which ;adrian himself will 'e honoured. (ewish opposition to this sacrilege is led 'y 8imon Bar.Coch'a, calling himself the prince of /srael. 8imon#s prestige increases dramatically when a leading ra''i recogni0es him as the 3essiah. /n % < his (ewish forces defeat a Roman legion and capture (erusalem. 1ot till % >, after a large army has 'een sent to regain control, is (erusalem recovered 'y the Romans. /n a 'itter campaign, fought village 'y village throughout the region, half a million lives are lost. The whole area of Palestine is devastated. $elia Capitolina 'ecomes, for the moment, an unimportant provincial town. ;adrian#s efforts at 'uilding are more successful nearer home. Three great architectural monuments, in and around Rome, are connected with him. The magnificent domed Pantheon derives entirely, in its present form, from his re'uilding of an earlier temple on the site. ;is mausoleum, 'egun in % > and completed )ust after his death, now forms the great circular 'ase of the Castel 8ant#$ngelo. 1ortheast of Rome, near Tivoli, are the remains of the complex of 'uildings, vistas and gardens which ;adrian spends ten years constructing ,%<>.% >-. /t is the outstanding example of one of the characteristic architectural delights of the empire, the Roman villa. Antoninus (ius an 3ar"us Aurelius: AD 1'$-1$4

There are two more rulers in a group later +nown as the #five good emperors#. ;adrian has no children. ;e selects as his successor a respected senator, $ntoninus Pius, insisting at the same time that $ntoninus designate 3ar"us Aurelius, a talented young mem'er of the ruling class who is as yet only %=, as next in line of succession. Both men assume power without unrest, in $3 % : and %6%. The e6uestrian statue of *arcus $urelius on the Capitol, one of the first of its +ind, has a confident air of 6uiet authority. But his rule is interrupted 'y constant warfare on the northern and eastern 'orders, and in %6>.6 a Roman army 'rings 'ac+ from *esopotamia a devastating plague. $lmost as damaging, *arcus $urelius . unli+e his predecessors . has a young son. Commo us an the lapse into anar"hy: AD 1$4-2$4

"ver a span of eighty years four successive emperors . Tra)an, ;adrian, $ntoninus Pius and *arcus $urelius . have 'een selected on merit. Commodus, in the more normal manner of royalty, is his father#s son. !hen he succeeds *arcus $urelius,

in $3 %:?, he is eighteen years old. The recent years of plague and warfare ,including even a 'rief invasion of northern /taly 'y 'ar'arian tri'es- have left the empire in an unsettled state. The reign of Commodus would anyway have 'een difficult. /t is made more so 'y his own 'ehaviour, which scandali0es Rome as nothing has done since the rather similar ha'its of 1ero. The death of the emperor is in +eeping with his life. 3uring the last night of $3 %4< Commodus is strangled in his sleep 'y a wrestler. ;is violent end is not surprising, since the emperor has recently 'een spending much of his time in the company of gladiators and he li+es to dress as ;ercules. /ndeed on the very next day Commodus was intending to proclaim himself consul, wearing the outfit of a gladiator. &veryone recogni0es that the man is mad . even his mistress, *arcia, who arranges access for the assassin. The senate is standing 'y to proclaim a new emperor, a veteran soldier 'y the name of Pertinax, 'efore the praetorian guards wa+e at dawn. The assassination, involving the emperor#s consort and with the senate ready for prompt action, closely echoes the last occasion when an emperor was murdered. Domitian was then the victim, and his death introduced the century of sta'ility which the present murder ends. This time it is only three months 'efore the unfortunate Pertinax is himself +illed, in *arch %4 . The pattern is set for the rapid decline of the Roman empire into anarchy in the rd century $3. 3uring a spell of fifty years in the middle of that century ,< >.:4- there are more than twenty emperors. $ll 'ut one of them die 'y violence. The *ea5ness o! Rome: 'r "entury AD

The chaos at the centre of the empire is reflected in a decline of imperial control. This 'rings certain 'enefits to the provinces ,in $3 <%< Caracalla drastically reduces the special prestige of /taly 'y granting Roman citi0enship to all free'orn inha'itants of the empire-, 'ut it also exposes the frontier regions of the empire to ever.increasing incursions from &ar&arian nei%h&ours. &ven where the 'ar'arians are +ept at 'ay, there is a loss of central authority. Commanders in the more remote provinces 'egin to 'ehave almost as independent rulers, paying scant attention to Rome. "ne response to this decline is an attempt to reinvigorate the empire 'y a return to traditional Roman values. /n $3 <>? the emperor 3ecius decrees that every citi0en is to perform a religious sacrifice to the Roman gods in the presence of a commissioner, who will issue an appropriate certificate of compliance. Christians, refusing on principle to comply, find themselves in a direct clash with the state and suffer accordingly. The emperor @alerian maintains the same religious policy 'ut also introduces, in <> , an adminsistrative reform which will

have lasting effects. ;e splits the empire into two 0ones of responsi'ility, east and west. @alerian appoints his son 2allienus as co.emperor. 2allienus is put in charge of the western empire, with responsi'ility for holding the frontiers on the Rhine and 3anu'e. @alerian marches east to tac+le the permanent threat from Persia. @alerian has little success ,in <6? he is captured 'y the Persians and dies a prisoner-, and his solution of shared rule is not followed 'y his immediate successors. But it is adopted 'y 3iocletian, the man who restores the Roman empire to sta'ility. Thereafter it 'ecomes the normal arrangement for the 'est part of two centuries. The re!orms o! Dio"letian: AD 2$4 3iocletian, commanding an army near the Bosphorus, is proclaimed emperor 'y his own troops when news comes in $3 <:4 that his predecessor has 'een murdered. ;e marches west, +illing a rival claimant in 'attle in <:>. The se6uence of events reflects many previous occasions in this century, when usurpers, supported 'y their own armies, have laid claim to the throne. But 3iocletian 'rea+s this pattern of anarchy. ;e is fortunate in that the frontiers of empire have recently 'een pushed 'ac+ to their well esta'lished lines in the north and the east. ;e uses an unusual period of sta'lity to introduce a 'old and 'ut highly schematic reform in the administration of the empire. ;e not only divides the empire geographically into east and west ,following the example of 6alerian-. ;e even divides the traditional imperial title, Augustus Caesar, into two ran+s . a senior one, $ugustus, and a )unior Caesar. ;e appoints his friend *aximian as co.emperor, giving him the western empire and the title $ugustus. "fficially 3iocletian and *aximian are to 'e e6ual, 'ut a su'tle addition to the title ma+es plain who is in charge. 3iocletian in the east is now $ugustus (ovius, representing (upiter on earth. *aximian in the west is $ugustus ;erculius, standing in for ;ercules. $s any Roman +nows, ;ercules is a muscular hero7 'ut the supreme god is (upiter. 8even years later, in $3 <4<, each $ugustus ac6uires a Caesar as a lieutenant. 2alerius is appointed to serve with 3iocletian in the east, Constantius with *aximian in the west. &ach Caesar marries the daughter of his $ugustus. &ach has the status of co.emperor. !ith 3iocletian himself at the head of the team, this 6uartet . 'ased on friendship and marriage . succeeds admira'ly in holding together the empire ,though as late as ? theChristians suddenly suffer a new and extreme wave of persecution-. $ll four men, li+e nearly all the emperors of this period, come from hum'le or peasant 'ac+grounds. They are leaders of strong practical experience, who have proved themselves in military campaigns. But 3iocletian is over.optimistic in expecting this 'lueprint of government to survive his own departure. /n $3 ?> he falls ill and resigns as $ugustus. ;e insists that *aximian does the

same, ena'ling him to promote the two Caesars to the ran+ of $ugustus and to appoint two more Caesars. "n paper it loo+s logical, 'ut in the remaining years of his life 3iocletian sees his careful edifice crum'le. /n ?6 Constantius, the $ugustus of the west, suddenly dies. ;is troops proclaim his son Constantine as $ugustus in his place. But others, elsewhere, have other ideas. By ?: no fewer than six men are claiming to 'e $ugustus. $ familiar pattern of the Roman empire is recurring. Civil war is inevita'le. Constantine: AD '4#-''7 Constantine is pro'a'ly in his twenties in $3 ?6 when his father, Constantius, dies at Aor+. 5or most of the past ten years the young man has 'een at the court of 3iocletian. But he has )oined his father#s camp in the previous year, ?>, after the promotion of Constantius to the post of $ugustus in the west. Constantine is therefore +nown to the legions in Britain. /n ?6, contrary to orders from the centre of empire, they proclaim him $ugustus. Compromises are made, giving Constantine rule over Britain and 2aul. But as more claimants emerge, Constantine gam'les on a 'igger share of power. /n %< he marches south and invades /taly.

attle o! the 3ilvian Bri %e: AD '12 $ mysterious decision 'y Constantine in "cto'er %< can 'e seen now as one of the great turning points of history. ;e is camped )ust north of Rome, a'out to do 'attle with his rival for control of the western empire. ;e decides that his men shall wear on their shields a Christian sym'ol . the monogram +nown as the Chi-Rho, formed from the first two 2ree+ letters of the word Christ. Constantine wins the 'attle of the *ilvian Bridge. ;is rival dies fleeing 'ac+ over the Ti'er when a 'ridge of 'oats collapses. /n Constantine#s mind he has won this crucial engagement in alliance with the god of the Christians. The results are dramatic. 5ormally ac+nowledged 'y the senate as the $ugustus of the west, Constantine immediately ta+es steps to favour the persecuted Christians. ;e restores confiscated church property and offers pu'lic funds to churches in need. /n $3 % he arranges a meeting in *ilan with 9icinius, one of two claimants to the title o! Au%ustus in the east. ;e persuades him to follow the same policy. 9ater in that year 9icinius defeats his rival in the east. ;e too now proclaims a policy of religious toleration, offering compensation to the Christians for the wrongs done to them. !ithin a year or two of suffering severe persecution, the Christians suddenly find themselves a favoured group within

the empire. They win tax concessions, and Roman 'asilicas are constructed for their use as churches. There are career advantages within Constantine#s administration if one is a professing Christian. Conversions follow. But 9icinius is less fully committed to the cause. /n <? he reverts to a mild persecution, dismissing Christians from the army and the civil service. Constantine marches against him, in <4, and again the Christian 'anner is victorious. 9icinius surrenders after a defeat near By0antium. $ year later he is executed on a charge of attempted re'ellion. A ne* Rome: AD ''4

Constantine, now in firm command of the entire Roman empire ,the first man for a long while to 'e in that position-, is planning another initiative as significant as his adoption of Christianity. /mmediately after the defeat of 7i"inius he sets a'out re'uilding By8antium as a Christian capital city . one in which pagan sacrifice, the central rite of imperial Rome until this time, is specifically for'idden. The city is ready 'y $3 ? for a ceremony of inauguration. By0antium ac6uires two new names . 1ew Rome and Constantinople, the city of Constantine. The Roman empire, within eighteen years of Constantine#s first victory, has a new religion, a new centre of gravity and a significant change of culture. 2reece has always 'een the main cultural influence on Rome, and 2ree+ is the language of the inha'itants of By0antium. !ith the founding of Constantinople, the older culture effectively a'sor's its vigorous younger challenger. &ven the name Constantinopolis is 2ree+ ,polis meaning city-. Aet Constantinople is also the new Rome, capital of the Roman empire. The 2ree+s of this city will long continue to descri'e themselves as Romans. 5or several centuries Constantinople represents 'oth the end of the Roman empire and the 'eginning of the By0antine empire. *eanwhile Rome gradually esta'lishes a new identity . as the seat of the Christian pope. Three sons o! Constantine: AD ''7-'#1 "n the death of Constantine, in $3 =, the empire is divided 'etween his sons Constantine //, Constantius // and Constans. 8ince the time of his father, Constantius, the family has had a strea+ of constancy in its choice of names. The sons inherit the parts of the empire which they have already ruled, on 'ehalf of their father, as Caesars. Constantius //, though not the eldest, has the lion#s share . 2reece, Constantinople and the entire eastern empire. ;is elder 'rother, Constantine //, has 8pain, 2aul and Britain. The

youngest, Constans, controls /taly and 8pain. (ea"e an *is om, in honour of which churches are now rising in Constantinople, do not ma+e the 'rothers any more loving than other imperial families. 9arge num'ers of their male relations are 'utchered at the start of the reign, and Constantine // meets his death in /taly in 4? when marching against Constans. Ten years later Constans is murdered in 2aul 'y an army commander with an eye on the throne. 5rom $3 >? Constantius // is the only legitimate emperor. !ith difficulty he recovers control of the entire empire. But from the point of view of Christianity, on which he is as +een as his father, he ma+es one cardinal error. ;e gives command of the west to his cousin (ulian. Julian the Apostate: AD ''7-'#1 8on of a half.'rother of Constantine the 2reat, (ulian escapes the massacre of male mem'ers of the family which follows Constantine#s death . pro'a'ly 'ecause he is only six at the time. /n his early <?s he studies in Athens, which still retains its status as the centre of 2ree+ learning and pagan philosophy. Brought up strictly as a Christian, (ulian now 'ecomes a devotee of 2ree+ culture. ;e is himself a talented writer in 2ree+, and several of his wor+s survive. 9ittle of this would 'e remem'ered today, 'ut for the unexpected accident of his 'ecoming emperor. 8u'se6uent events, in the two 'rief years of the #apostate# on the throne, have mesmeri0ed Christian historians. /n $3 >6, when (ulian is twenty.five, the emperor Constantius // appoints him Caesar in command of the Roman armies in 2aul. To everyone#s surprise the young intellectual proves a 'rilliant general, winning a succession of victories over powerful tri'es along the Rhine 'order. /n >4, needing reinforcements against Persia, Constantius orders many of (ulian#s 'est legions to march east. /nstead, the troops stationed near Paris mutiny and proclaim (ulian emperor. ;e moves slowly eastwards with them to what would have 'een a re'ellious confrontation. But in 6% Constantius, moving westwards to meet him, dies in $sia *inor. (ulian is emperor. The revival o! the pa%an "ult: AD '#1-'#' /t is not +nown exactly when the new emperor, (ulian, decides to reinstate the an"ient %o s o! Rome and 2reece . $t first he 'ehaves with religious tolerance . returning to their sees, for example, Catholic 'ishops who have 'een exiled 'y Constantius, a committed follower of Arius. But 'y 6< (ulian is ma+ing a prominent display of the ritual sacrifices which he carries out personally at revived pagan temples. !hen Christians protest, he removes their relics from ancient shrines, imposes special taxes on Christian priests and gives preference to pagans in the civil service. (ulian is repeating, in reverse, the actions of his uncleConstantine in favouring Christianity. ;e intends to put

in place a networ+ of pagan priests and officials throughout the empire of the +ind esta'lished 'y the Christians. This view of tomorrow does not appeal to yesterday#s elite. To what extent the young emperor might have achieved his aim is one of history#s interesting speculations. /n Christian eyes 2od gives a swift and decisive answer when (ulian is +illed, in 6 , in a s+irmish against the Persians. $ rumour, first heard a century later, offers wry satisfaction. /t is said that in his dying words the apostate cedes victory to ChristBVicisti, Galilaee ,Thou hast con6uered, 2alilean-. The !rontiers o! empire: AD '#4-'7$ The death of (ulian in warfare with Persia leads indirectly to a rare spell of peace on that frontier. The army selects as emperor a mem'er of the royal household, 'y the name of (ovian, who extracts the Roman legions from a dangerous situation 'y ma+ing ma)or concessions. 9arge tracts of territory in *esopotamia and $rmenia, long disputed, are a'andoned to (ersia. (ovian dies of natural causes less than a year after 'ecoming emperor. ;is concessions are regarded as shameful in Constantinople, 'ut it is another forty years 'efore war with Persia resumes. "n the other permanently threatened frontiers of empire, the 3anu'e and the Rhine, the situation is very different. The pressure of 'ar'arian tri'es, themselves suddenly under threat from the 2uns, is at last a'out to 'rea+ down the 'arriers and flood the western empire. The catastrophe 'egins when the emperor @alens is defeated and +illed 'y the @isigoths at $drianople in =:. ;is successor, Theodosius . an emperor su'se6uently accorded the title #the 2reat# . solves the pro'lem in the short term 'y settling the 6isi%oths as !e erates within the empire, or allies. But the intrusion of 2oths, @andals and ;uns will over the next century distur' and finally destroy the Roman empire in the west. Christian emperor an Christian &ishop: AD '70-'04

Theodosius 'ecomes the eastern emperor in $3 =4 and rapidly settles the religious splits within the empire 'y declaring pagan worship and Christian heresies ,such asArianism- to 'e illegal. $ law of :? orders all citi0ens to su'scri'e to the Catholic doctrines agreed under the chairmanship of Constantine the 2reat at the Council of,i"aea in <>. $ close lin+ 'etween church and state, with the state giving the lead, 'ecomes a characteristic of the eastern or By0antine empire. But Theodosius discovers, in a famous clash, that western 'ishops have authoritarian ideas of their own. The cleric who sets a high standard for the western church in its relationship to the secular powers is $m'rose, 'ishop of *ilan. /n $3 4?, when Theodosius is in *ilan, there is a riot in 2reece 'y supporters of a popular charioteer. $ city governor

is +illed, and Theodosius sends orders for a 'rutal reprisal. The charioteer#s fans are invited into a circus for a special performance. Then the gates are loc+ed. *ore than >??? are slaughtered 'y troops in a massacre lasting three hours. !hen news of the atrocity reaches *ilan, $m'rose refuses to give communion to the emperor unless he does pu'lic penance for the crime. Theodosius at first stays away from church. But eventually he appears, 'are.headed and wearing sac+cloth in place of his sumptuous imperial ro'es. ;e repeats the performance on several occasions 'efore $m'rose relents, finally giving his emperor the sacrament on Christmas 3ay. /n the threat of excommunication the western church discovers a powerful weapon for dealing with wayward rulers. Rome an Constantinople: 4th - )th "entury AD

The 'alance 'etween Rome and Constantinople, and the potential for an upset, is 'ecoming more clearly defined.T*o imperial "ourts, east and west, have 'een a familiar part of the empire#s history. /n effect they are more li+e two army camps, permanently on the move. /f they come too close to each other, the result has often 'een war. !ith two rival cities, 'oth interested in political and religious priority, the situation is more complex. /n the mid.4th century, under Constantius //, the senate in Constantinople is given e6ual authority with that of Rome. $ few years later, at the Council of Constantinople in :%, it is stated that the 'ishop of Constantinople is of e6ual status to the 'ishop of Rome. "n the religious front an uneasy truce is maintained for several centuries. The final schism 'etween Rome and Constantinople, ac+nowledging the separate RomanCatholi" an 9ree5 -rtho o: churches, 'ecomes only gradually evident during the *iddle $ges. /n the military sphere the pace is forced 'y events largely 'eyond the emperors# control. Theodosius rules the entire empire with considera'le s+ill until 4>, and his descendants remain at least nominally in control of 'oth east and west until 4>>. But any measure of peace in the west has 'een 'ought 'y compromise with 2erman tri'es. In epen ent &ar&arians: AD 47)-47# /t has 'ecome clear, during the >th century, that the Romans are now powerless to +eep the 'ar'arian rulers in any su'ordinate role. The @isigoths control an area stretching from the 9oire in the north to the Rhone in the east, extending south over the Pyrenees to include much of northern 8pain. The ruler of such a territory no longer needs to 'e a federate ally of Rome. /n 4=> &uric, +ing of the @isigoths, declares his independence. The -stro%oths, su'dued for many decades 'y the ;uns, 'egin after the death of Attila to move south and west round the Blac+ 8ea. But it is lesser groups of 'ar'arians who 'ring Rome her final indignity. /n 4=6 there is the first 2erman +ing

of /taly. - oa"er; 5in% o! Italy: AD 47#-40' 2erman mercenaries 'y now form an important part of any Roman army, and Roman armies play a ma)or role in the ma+ing and 'rea+ing of emperors. This is the case in a fairly normal putsch of $3 4=6, 'ut it is followed 'y an unusual demand from the mercenaries. They want to settle in /taly. They suggest that a third of every landowner#s estate should 'e made over to them. The suggestion is not as unreasona'le as it sounds. Roman soldiers have in the past 'een re*ar e *ith lan , and 'ar'arian tri'es have 'een settled in provinces of the empire as !e erates. But it is a shoc+ing thought to Romans that this provincial system might apply to /taly itself. The mercenaries# demand is re)ected. There is an immediate mutiny. The tri'esmen elect one of their num'er, "doacer, as their +ing. ;e leads them to a rapid victory, 'ut immediately ma+es it clear that his intention is not to destroy the western empire. ;e wants to 'e part of it. ;e sends am'assadors to the emperor Ceno in Constantinople, ac+nowledging the emperor#s rule 'ut as+ing to 'e allowed to govern /taly as +ing of his own people. Ceno reluctantly agrees, su')ect to certain points of protocol. The senate in Rome accepts the fait accompli with 'etter grace, for "doacer proves an effective ruler within the traditional Roman system. ;e even finds land for his 2erman tri'esmen without causing undue upheaval. The en o! the Roman empire< AD 47#

The acceptance of "doacer as +ing of /taly in 4=6 causes this year to 'e seen as the end of the Roman empire. $nd in a real sense it is. Dings and popes, neither of them part of Roman imperial tradition, will henceforth wield power in the /talian peninsula. But this is the perspective of hindsight. To historiansConstantinople is 'y this time the capital of the young By0antine empire. To &uropeans in the >th century it is still the centre of the very ancient Roman empire. /n imperial terms there is nothing new a'out chaos and upheaval in the west, and Roman emperors in Constantinople will continue to ta+e active steps to reassert their authority. /n 4:: this is done with the help of the -stro%oths.