FitzPatrick (1960) Leading British Statisticians of The Nineteenth Century

Leading British Statisticians of the Nineteenth Century Author(s): Paul J.
FitzPatrick Source: Journal of the American Statistical Association, Vol. 55, No. 289 (Mar., 1960), pp. 3870 Published by: American Statistical Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2282178 . Accessed: 28/06/2013 06:54
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LEADING
BRITISH STATISTICIANS NINETEENTH CENTURY

PAUL J. FITZPATRICK CatholicUniversity ofAmerica
OF THE
This paper exploresstatisticalcontributions of eleven outstanding British statisticiansof the nineteenth, century.They are Playfair, Porter, Babbage, Farr, Guy, Newmarch,Jevons, Rawson, Galton,
Giffen,and Edgeworth. This treatment represents one aspect of British statistical thought not previously developed. INTRODUCTION
THIS paper aims to present leadingBritishstatisticians whose main statistical contributions were made in the nineteenth century.So far,very littlehistoryhas been writtenabout Britishstatisticalthought. The elevenindividuals who are consideredhere stand out among the Britishstatisticiansof that centuryas having made the best contributions to the fieldof statisticsby means oforiginalstatisticalideas and techniquesand by theirdirection ofoutstanding statistical organizations. Four different kinds of statistical work are distinguished, namely,(1) techniquesof presentation;(2) bodies of materialcompiled; (3) substantialinvestigations employingstatisticaltechniques; and (4) contributions to statisticaltheory.On the occasion of the search forstatistical contributionsof leading American statisticians of the nineteenthcentury, statisticalactivitiesof eleven Britishstatisticianscame to light.It was considereddesirableto develop thisaspect ofthe history ofstatisticsso that American studentsof statisticsmightbecome familiar withtheirwork. These Britishstatisticians are WilliamPlayfair,the founder ofgraphicmethods of statistics; George R. Porter,head of the statisticaldepartmenlt of the Board of Trade who directedso well the developmentof this newly-created organization; Charles Babbage, the founderboth of Section F-Statistics-in the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1833 and of the of calculatingmaStatisticalSociety of London in 1834, as well as the inventor chines; Dr. WilliamFarr, the founder of Britishvital statisticsand well known statisticianof the Annual Reports of the Office of the RegistrarGeneral; Dr. WilliamA. Guy, anotherleadingauthority in the fieldofBritishvital statistics, editor of the Journal of theStatisticalSocietyof London,and honoredby the establishment ofthe famousGuy medal; WilliamNewmarch,leadingauthority on monetaryand bankingstatistics,editorof the Journalof theStatisticalSocietyof London,and one of the fewBritishstatisticiansof his time to perceive the need forutilizinga greatermeasure of mathematicsin describing and analyzing economicand social problems;W. Stanley Jevons,more famousas an economistand logician,who made a numberof importantstatisticalcontributions in the formof the ratio chart,the geometric mean, and measuresforanalyzingsecular trend,seasonal variationand cyclicalfluctuations; Sir Rawson W. Rawson, an authorityon international statistics,editor of the Journal of theStatistical Society ofLondon,and first president ofthe International Institute of Statistics (1885-98); Sir Francis Galton, an eminent scientist,who de38
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veloped the idea of correlationand other statistical measures,includingthe Sir Robert Giffen, quartiledeviation,the median,and the index of correlation; well-known head of the statistical departmentof the Board of Trade, and editorof the Journal of theStatisticalSocietyof London; and Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, the philosopher of statistics,probablythe outstandingstatistician in the nineteenthcenturybecause of his work in probability,correlationand editorof the EconomicJournal. indexnumbers,and the distinguished (1759-1823) and statistician, is regarded inventor, WilliamPlayfair, economist, journalist, as thefounder ofgraphicmethodsin statistics.He wroteseveralworkscontaining excellentchartsbetween1786 and 1821 [49, p. 190; 50, p. 101; 56], but his to thesevolumes.Playfairhad earned contemporaries paid littleor no attention much ill-will because of previous caustic and unfriendly writings,and no Englisheconomistor statisticiantook any notice of his chartsuntil 1879 when the famous English economistand statisticianW. Stanley Jevons remarked at the June17, 1879 meeting ofthe StatisticalSocietyofLondon that "Englishmen lost sightof the fact that William Playfair,who had never been heard of in this generation,produced statistical atlases and statistical curves" [32, Vol. 42, p. 657]. Indeed, we findmany statisticaltables in English economic and statistical worksand journals in the firsthalf of the nineteenthcentury,but very few charts. Funkhouser'sinvestigationreveals that graphs firstappeared in the volumes of Journalof theStatisticalSocietyof London in 1841. The firstfifty this Journal(1837-1887), contain about fourteen charts.As far as the United States is concerned,little or no evidence of the use of graphs appears before 1843, when George Tucker's work,Progressof the UnitedStatesin Population and Wealth in FiftyYears appeared withthreecharts,two beingline chartsand one a bar chart. Much the same conditionprevailed in westernEurope, notthe favorablereceptionof Playfair'sworksin France. Moreover, withstanding some continentalscholars, such as Jacques Peuchet (1805) and P. A. Dafau werestrongly opposed to the use (1840) in France, and Carl Knies in Germany, ofgraphs. volume (1786) containingchartsbears the title The CommerPlayfair'sfirst cial and Political Atlas. Its long sub-titlereads "representing by means of and trade of England the stainedcopper-plate general charts, exports,imports and To of the revenue with observations.... which are added, charts ... all but one debts of Ireland." This volume contains forty-four charts, being timeseries,the othera bar graph. Funkhouserdescribesthem in these words:
1. WILLIAM PLAYFAIR
coloredby hand in threeand four They are well executedcopper-plate engravings from colors.Twentyof these represents the trade of England with othercountries the year 1700. The line of imports is stained yellow,that of exports,red; the space between is coloredblue whenthe balance is favorableto England and pinkwhenthe balance is unfavorable [16].
to the The workwas again publishedin 1787 and in 1801. In the introduction thirdeditionof this work (1801), pages ix-xii, Playfairexplains the use of his "lineal arithmetic" as follows:
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The advantage proposed, by this method, is not that of giving a more accurate statement than by figures,but it is to give a more simple and permanent idea of the gradual progress and comparative amounts, at different periods, by presenting to the eye a figure, the proportions of which correspond with the amount of the sums intended to be expressed. Suppose the money received by a man in trade were all in guineas, and that every evening he made a single pile of all the guineas received during the day, each pile would represent a day, and its height would be proportioned to the receipts of that day; so that by this plain operation, time,proportion,and amount, would be all physically combined. Lineal arithmetic then, it may be averred, is nothing more than those piles of guineas represented on paper, and on a small scale, in which an inch (suppose) represents the thickness of five millions of guineas . .. as much information may be obtained in five minutes as wozld require whole days to imprint on the memory. . . by a table of figures.'
A Frencheditionhad appearedin 1789,publishedby H. JansenofParis, bearing the title Tableaux d'arithmetique lineairedu commerce, des finances, et de la dette nationalede l'Angleterre. This workalso carriesa long sub-title.This translation was verywell receivedin France. In 1801, Playfairpublishedin London his volume,TheStatistical Breviary, withthe longsub-title:shewing, on a principle entirely new, theresources of every stateand kingdom in Europe; illustrated withstainedcopper-plate charts, representing thephysicalpowersof each distinct nationwithease and perspicuity. This volume containedfourplates, threebeing circlechartsof different sizes, proportional to the natureof the data presented. They employthe colors,green,pale red,red, and yellow.A Frencheditionappeared in 1802.2 Funkhouser,who has made a detailed study of Playfair'sworks,points out that Playfair:
published his many excellent examples of the line graph, circle graph, bar graph and pie diagram and accompanied them with pointed expositions of the advantages of the new method for the discovery and analysis of economic trends [16].
Playfairobtained his ideas about chartsfromseveral sources.3Funkhouser and Walker quote this statementby him:
At a very early period of my life, my brother, who, in a most exemplary manner, maintained and educated the family his father left, made me keep a register of a thermometer, expressing the variations by lines on a divided scale. He taught me to know that whatever can be expressed in numbers may be represented by lines [17].
Later on, PlayfairworkedforJamesWatt, the inventorof the steam engine, who had developed a gauge on his enginle forregistering the steam pressure.
l Italics are Playfair's.
2 In 1796 another work appeared with the title A Real Statement of the Finances and Resources of Great Britain; illustrated by two copper-plate charts. In 1798 Playfair published Lineal Arithmetic,bearing the long sub-title: applied to show the progress of the Commerce and Revenue of England during the present century, which is represented and illustratedby thrity-three copper-plate charts. In 1805 and again in 1807 he published An Inquiry into the Permanent Causes of the Decline and Fall of Powerful and Wealthy Nations, illustrated by four engraved charts. Designed to shew how the prosperityof the British Empire may be prolonyged. In 1805 Playfair translated a small pamphlet entitled A Statistical
bar charts. 3 As this paper goes to press,an article "A Note on the Historyof the Graphical Presentation of Data" by Erica Roystoncomes to my attention. It was publishedin Biometrika, 43 (1956).
our Agricultural Distresses, Their Causes and Remredies,accompanied uith tables and copper-plate charts, shewing and comparing theprices of wheat, bread, and labour, from 1565 to 1821. Addressed to the Lords and Commons. It contained
Account oftheUnitedStatesofAmerica, written by D. F. Donnant,a Frenchman, and publishedit as a supplement to The Statistical Breviary. In thispamphlet, refers to Thomas Jefferson's "Statistical AccountofVirginia." Playfair (The correct titleis: Noteson theStateof Virginia (1787), London: JohnStockdale.) In 1821 he wroteA Letter on
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was familiarwiththe Cartesian Moreover,Playfair,having been a draftsman, lines. systemofplotting As Funkhouserand Walkerpointout:
ofstatistics his graphsare astonishing in that they ofthe history from the standpoint were made at a time when large collectionsof reliable quantitativedata were not and tabulating measuring, counting, yet available, when the passion for weighing, was not yet consonantwith the spirit of the age, and when the developmentof statisticalmethodstill waited upon the collectionof large bodies of mass data [171.
Playfair,the fourthson of the Rev. James Playfair,born at Benvie near John Dundee, in Scotland, receivedlittleformaleducation. His older brother, Playfair (1748-1819), well-knownmathematicianand geologist,was at one of Edinburgh. of mathematicsand philosophyat the University timeprofessor This brother,elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1807, was one of the originalmembersof the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Their fatherdied when William was thirteenyears old, and John undertookto care for the family. Andrew Meikle William was sent to serve as an apprenticeto the millwright ofthe threshing machine.JohnRennie,laterto bethe inventor ofPrestonkirk, In come famous as engineerof the Waterloo bridge,was a fellow-apprentice. forthe firm of Playfairserved as a draftsman 1780, at the age of twenty-one, Watt was the James Watt, famous as the Boulton and Watt at Birmingham. inventorof the steam engine.Possessingan inventivetalent,Playfairsecured employa numberof patentsin the fieldof mechanics.He lefthis Birmingham mentto open a shop in London in orderto sell various items whichhe had inin thisventure.In 1787 Playfairwent ventedand made, but he was unsuccessful ofthe Scioto (Ohio) land in the promotion to Paris, wherehe became interested in his writings, company.About 1792 he attackedthe 1789 FrenchConstitution and forseveralyears he became involvedin Frenchpolitics.He thoughtit best to leave France and about 1793 he returnedto London, aftervisitingFrankfort.He opened a so-called securitybank to handle small loans, but this venturewas also unsuccessful[1; 10, Vol. 15, pp. 1300-1; 42, Vol. 3, pp. 116-7]. one attackingthe FrenchRevoluAbout 1795 he engagedin variouswritings, assignats.About 1795 he estabtion,and anotheradvocatingan issue offorged lished a "critical and satirical newspaper (called) the Tomahawk,"which he which edited and owned. In 1808 he founded a weekly paper, Anticipation, issues duringits shortlife.Later he went to Paris publishedabout twenty-five newspaperfora shorttime." He pubagain, and edited "Galignani'sMessenger lished in 1806 his annotated edition of Adam Smith's Wealthof Nations with whichearnedhim the ill-willofthe influential some uncomplimentary remarks, writer.It is estimated Reviewand of others.Playfairwas a prolific Edinburgh Magazine, that he wroteover a hundreditems,mostlyarticles.The Gentleman's in its June1823 issue. ofhis writings an Englishperiodical,listedforty
2. GEORGE R. PORTER
(1792-1852)
George Richardson Porter, economist,executive and statistician,is well so well the developto Britishstatisticsby directing knownforhis contribution ofthe Board of Trade. Porter statisticaldepartment mentofthe newly-created was a pioneerin England in advocatingthe use of statisticsto place economics
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on a sound scientific basis. His famous work, The Progressof theNation, contains numerousstatisticaltables. Porter'schieftask as a civil servantwas to digestand arrangeforthe Board of Trade the mass of information appearing in Parliamentaryreports and and this him an excellentopportunity papers, positionfurnished to show his Sir statistical talent. Jervoise Athelstane Baines, C.S.I., President of the Royal Statistical Society (1909-1910), reports:
The StatisticalBranch . . . was startedby Porter, by whomtheincoherent mass of time periodicaltables (official government returns)then preparedwas forthe first reducedto orderly and comprehensive accompaniedby lucid explanations of returns, of the figures. the meaningand limitations he took advantage ofthe wide Moreover, to collectreturns fromothersources,addingthem scope afforded by his commission fora to his review,and givingit a comparativecharacterby includingthe figures seriesof years [5].
Baines also revealsthat "this Board was the onlygovernment department in whichofficial statisticsweredealt as a special subject, and to thisday, it stands out as the premierrepresentative of the scientific of publicainterpretation tiolis" [5]. Porter played a strongpart in the formationof the Statistical Society of London. When this Society was formedin 1834, Porter was one of its active and he servedas a member ofits first council.He was a member ofthe founders, PublicationCommitteeoftheJournalofthe Societywhenit was first published in May 1838 under the editorshipof Rawson W. Rawson, and he was also a to this periodical.Porterserved,moreover, as treasurer contributor of the Societyfrom1841 until his death in 1852 [51, pp. 15-16, 57, 298]. He was regarded as one of its "most esteemedmembers."Afterhis death, the council of to its Journalto be bound in a separate the Society orderedhis contributions volume "partlyas a permanent tributeto his memory,and partlyforconvenience of those who may wishto perusehis valuable papers in a collectedform" Porterwas one of the active members [47]. Furthermore, ofthe BritishAssociation forthe Advancementof Science fromthe time of its founding, and contributedseveral papers to Section F-Statistics. F. W. Hirst, editor of the LondonEconomist, regardedPorteras "a thoroughly painstakingstatistician." Porteris best knownas the author of The ProgressoftheNation in its VariRelationsfromtheBeginningof theNineteenth ous Social and Commercial Cento thePresent-Day, tury publishedin threesmall volumes,London, 1836-43. A revised one-volume edition appeared in 1847 and 1851. This work "was a and fiscal statisticaland descriptive study of the social, economic,commercial half of the changes whichtook place in the United Kingdom duringthe first nineteenthcentury." In 1912, it was republished with additional material under the directionof F. W. Hirst. Professor Hewins, Directorof the London School of Economics and Political Science, termedthis workas "an invaluable half of the nineteenth recordof the first century.It is remarkableforthe acand forthe skill with whichthe results curacy and varietyof its information, of statisticalinquiryare presented."A reviewin the Journalof theStatistical Society of London called it "a compendious and valuable library of British Statistics."
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Porterwas a pioneerin the use of index numbers,as Westergaardreveals:

He treated the prices of 1833-7 in the same way as Shuckburgh Evelyn, but his material was much more complete. For each month in these five years he gives the average of index-numbers for fiftyarticles comprising the "principal kinds of goods that enter into foreign commerce." It is his aim in this way to find "the mean variation in the aggregate of prices from month to month" [57, p. 203].
Section Fifteen,entitled"Statistics,"to Sir JohnF. W. Porter contributed Inquiry (1849), whichwas preparedforthe use Herschel'sManual ofScientific of statisticsdeals withthe treatment of Her Majesty's Navy. His tweuity-page agritakingofa censusand suggestssubjectssuch as population,manufactures, trade,etc. He did not include education,domesticand foreign culture,mining, the fourth editionofPorter's any discussionofstatisticalmethods.Incidentally, in 1871. was William Newmarch corrected by contribution slightly and was educated Porterwas bornin London, the son ofa London merchant, at the Merchant Taylors' School. His fatherintendedhim to manage the fambusiness,but Porterfailed to make a success of it. He preily's sugar-broker totheAlmanac pared a paper on LifeAssuranceforCharlesKnight's Companion in 1831 which attracted attention.He marriedSarah Ricardo, a well-known writeron educational subjects and a sister of the famous economist David Ricardo [10, Vol. 16, p. 178; 13, Vol. 4, p. 946; 42, Vol. 3, p. 170]. In 1832 Porterwas appointedto the Board of Trade by Lord Aucklandupon the recommendation of Charles Knight, after the latter had refusedthe position. He formanyyears.4 statisticaldepartment servedas head of the newly-established of the Board of In 1840 he was made seniormemberofthe railwaydepartment Trade, and in 1841 he was appointed joint secretaryof the Board. Porter [57, p. 137]. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society provedto be an able official and a memberof a numberoflearnedsocieties. ofVirPorterprobablyinfluenced Professor GeorgeTucker ofthe University ginia to take a deep interestin statistics.When Tucker spent the summerof 1839 in England, he lodged part of the time with Porter. Tucker mentioned work, that he enjoyed meetingThomas Tooke, the author of the well-known GeorgeLong, the editorof the The HistoryofPrices,and he also met Professor Penny Cyclopaedia. Tucker later published his famous American statistical work,Progressof the UnitedStates in Population and Wealthin Fifty Years, in Hunt's Merchant's Magazine appeared in installments (1843) whichoriginally from July1842 to December 1943 (Vols. 7, 8, and 9). WalterWillcoxof Cornell Universityconsideredthis work as "the most importantAmerican book on half of the nineteenth statisticsto appear in the first century."He added that insightin utilizingscanty census material" [15, Tucker "displayedremarkable p. 690]. In 1845, Porter collaborated with ProfessorGeorge Young and Professor a volume Americaand theWestIndies. Besides his GeorgeTuckerin publishing he severalpapersforLardner's CabinetCyclopaedia, otherwritings, contributed on "A Treatise Origin,ProgressiveImprovement,and Present the includilng State of the Silk Manufacture,"and "A Treatise on the Origin,Progressive
4 As thisarticlegoes to press, a book, The Board of Trade and theFree-TradeMovement, 1830-42, New York: Oxford University Press, 1958,by Lucy Brown,comes to my attention.
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Improvementand Present State of the Manufactureof Porcelain and Glass" [49, p. 191-2; 50, p. 102].
3. CHARLES BABBAGE
(1792-1871)
mechaniCharles Babbage, economist,inventor,mathematician,scientific in 1833 of part in the founding played a veryprominent cian, and statistician, Section F-Statistics-in the BritishAssociationforthe Advancementof Scipresident.He played a similarpart in the foundence of whichhe was the first ing of the StatisticalSociety of London in 1834. Dr. William Farr, in his presidential address before the Statistical Society of London on November 21, 1871, made the statementthat Babbage "was, in reality,morethan any other man its founder" [32, Vol. 34, p. 411]. Babbage was also one of the founders ofthe BritishAssociationforthe Advancementof Science in 1831,an organizain part as a resultof his attack on the Royal Societyin a tion that was formed on the Decline ofSciencein England (1830). workReflections In establishingSection F, Babbage was assisted by the famous economist, Rev. Thomas R. Malthus, Rev. Richard Jones,Professorof Political Economathastronomer, my,King's College,London, and AdolpheQuetelet,eminent who Brussels at Observatory of the Royal director and statistician, ematician was at that time in England attendingthe meeting.Babbage reports: "The Section was formedfor the purpose of promotingstatistical inquiries which were of considerableimportance.They had been assisted by a distinguished AlQuetelet, possessinga budget of most valuable information." foreigner, that insisted of Science for the Advancement though the BritishAssociation of men,whichare Section F should adhere "to facts,relatingto communities when sufficiently and promise which capable of being expressedby numbers, by Quetelet to form urged Babbage was multipliedto indicate generallaws," of the Section Fin A of the Committee a statisticalsociety London. meeting Those present home. at Babbage's Statistics-was held on February21, 1834, Rev. an economist, Empson, William were Charles Babbage (President), Lieut.-Col. Sykes, Ogilby, Richard Jones,Rev. Thomas R. Malthus, William G. W. Wook, M.P., and John Drinkwater(Secretary).Edward Strutt,M.P. M.P. were also present.On a motionmade by Malthus, and W. W. Whitmore, seconded by Jones,it was unanimouslyvoted to establisha statisticalsociety in London. At a public meeting,March 15, 1834, held at the rooms of the HorticulturalSociety, with the Marquis of Lansdowne, a descendentof Sir Babauthor of Political Arithmetick, presiding, William Petty,the well-known the in of Statistical Sobage moved: "That a Society be established the name of and classification cietyof London, the object of whichshall be the collection as of the conditionsand prospectsof Society,especially it all factsillustrative exists in the British Dominions." Rev. Richard Jones seconded the motion, member foreign whichwas unanimouslycarried.Quetelet was chosenthe first of the society. It was then moved, seconded and unanimouslyvoted that "Charles Babbage, Esq., M.P., Rev. Richard Jones, M.A., Henry Hallam, Esq., M.P., be appointeda ProvisionalComEsq., and JohnElliot Drinkwater, mittee to prepare Regulations for the conduct of the Society." Their report
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withsome changeswas later accepted by the Society [51, pp. 4-11; 22-28; 57, p. 174; 33, p. 15]. About 1812 Babbage conceivedthe idea of inventing a calculatingmachine, the forerunner of our currentcalculatingmachines,and this model was completedaround 1822. He describedthe designofthismachineand its workings in a briefpaper beforethe Astronomical Societyin June 1822 whereit was favorably received. The Society awarded him its first gold medal on June 13, 1823. Babbage thenenlistedthe supportofthe Royal Societyin the construction of a larger-scale calculatingmachine. He also contactedMr. Robinson, Chancellor ofthe Exchequer,fora government grant,and he was awarded the sum of 1500 pounds. Later on, Babbage receivedadditionalgrants.In 1828,upon his return fromFrance wherehe had gone to improvehis health,he attemptedto secure additional government funds,but he was unsuccessful. Babbage later decided to construct a calculatingmachineon an entirely different principle.However, only a smallermachinewas built and exhibitedat the 1862 InternationalExhibition. One of his machines is now in the South KensingtonMuseum. Thus Babbage spent much time and moneybetween 1822 and 1843 developingand perfecting his calculating machines [4]. Babbage wroteseveral statisticalpapers: "Sur les constantesde la nature," (1853-55), "Notice statistiquesur les Phares," (1853-55), and "On the Antecedentsof InternationalStatisticalCongresses,"(1860-61), all threeappearing in the Congres International de Statistique. One paper appeared in the Journal oftheStatistical SocietyofLondon (Vol. 19, 1856) bearingthe title "Analysisof the Statistics of the Clearing House duringthe year, 1839." This pioneering study of seasonal variationscontainednineteentables and several charts "too largeforengraving." Another paper, "An ExaminationofSome QuestionsConnectedwithGames of Chance," was read March 21, 1820,and appeared in Volume 9 (1823), of Transactions of theRoyal Societyof Edinburgh. Babbage was born near Teignmouthin Devonshire and received his early education at private schools at Alphingtonand Enfield. His father was a memberof the bankingfirm of Praed, Mackworthand Babbage. In 1811 Babbage enrolledat TrinityCollege, Cambridge,and graduated in 1814. He received the M.A. degreefromthis institution in 1817. In 1816 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was one of the founders of the AnalyticalSoin cietyin 1812 and of the Astronomical Society in 1820,holdingseveral offices the latter. From 1828 to 1839 he held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at TrinityCollege, Cambridge [10, Vol. 1, pp. 776-8; 12, Vol. 2, p. 374; 42, Vol. 1, pp. 75-7]. He wrote on a variety of subjects, includinginfantmortality, geology,life insurance, light-houses, mathematics,taxation, and others. His chief work, On the Economyof Machineryand Manufactures(1832; third edition, 1833, fourth of the subdivisionoflabor and edition,1835), is an excellentdescription economicfunctionof machines. It contains a wide range of practical illustrationsofthefactory system.This workwas translatedintofourforeign languages and republished some in the United States. Babbage is the authorof altogether eightywritings, many being briefpapers or sketchesor pamphlets.The titles
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are listed in the appendix of his book Passages fromtheLife of a Philosopher, of theNatural Numbersfrom his autobiography.His Table of theLogarithms in several foreign countries. 1-108,000 (1827) was well regardedand reprinted fortheAssuranceof View ofVarious Institutions Otherworksare A Comparative on thePrinciplesof Taxation (1848; second edition,1851, Lives (1826), Thoughts thirdedition, 1853), and The Expositionof 1851 (1851) [49, pp. 15-16; 50, p. 5].
4. DR. WILLIAM FARR
(1807-1883)
Dr. William Farr, physicianand founderof Britishvital statistics,is widely known as the statisticianof the Annual Reportsof the British Officeof the organizationin 1838 as Registrar General. He joined this newly-established Compiler of Abstracts in the statistical department. Later he was made of the department.He gave up medical practiceand remained superintendent in until his retirement with this organizationas Deputy Registrar-General until 1842 when he served under T. H. Lister,who held office 1879. Farr first that the was succeeded by Major George Graham. It should be remembered of all deaths and causes of death was firststarted in 1837. Farr registration basis, foresawthe urgentneed of placing English public health on a scientific and was a pioneerin the use of statisticaldata and techniquesto achieve this of causes of objective. He played a great part in developingthe nomenclature Newsholme, Sir Arthur death. Farr succeededso well that one noted authority, claims:
regardedas the founderof the English national systemof vital Farr is rightly of Englishvital the actual compilation years he supervised For over forty statistics. methodsof tabulationwhichhave stood the test of time and a introduced statistics, of causes of death whichhas been the basis of all subsequentmethods. classification On the basis of national statisticshe compiled life tables still used in actuarial calculations[12, Vol. 6, p. 133].
Anotherstatistician,Simeon North, President of the American Statistical Association(1910), pointsout:

with undyinggratitudethe inspiredgenius with which The world acknowledges Dr. William Farr, of England, organizedthis work of registration.... Under his hands, the greatproblemsto whichvital statisticsare the key and clew, were conestablishedwhichdetermine and the generalprinciples vertedinto scientific truths, to diseaseand death. and hygienic ofpopulation ofdensity conditions, therelationship ofthe people againsta thousandinsidious Dr. Farr was the pioneerin the protection He firstshowed,by statisticalmethod,the relationof cause sources of infection. He organizedthe British "Annual Reports of the RegistrarGeneral of and effect. Births,Deaths, and Marriages,"-a splendidand unrivalledseries of demographic
statistics ... [41, pp. 30-1].
The first censusin England was taken in 1801. The census of 1851, organized fairlycompleteone. In the 1851 under Dr. Farr, is said to have been the first in the 1871 census, comand 1861 censuseshe was an assistant commissioner, missioner[40, pp. 25-26; 22, pp. 65-701. of the Office of the Registrar of the statisticaldepartment As superintendent volumesof reportson births, formorethan forty General,Farr was responsible in his presidential and deaths. After Farr's death, Sir Robert Giffen, marriages,
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address beforethe Statistical Society of London, spoke highlyof Farr by indicating:

At least two remarkablemonuments of his later labours, the special reportto the RegistrarGeneral on the mortality of the 1861-1871 decade, whichwas completed onlyseven or eightyears ago, and his paper on the mode of estimating the value of stockshavinga deferred dividend.What he has leftis a noble monument ofindustry and ingenuity, full of example to all of us who have devoted time and strength to statistics[51, pp. 115-116].
Farr compiledthreeEnglish Life tables (1843, 1853, and 1864), the thirdbeing the most elaborate. They are based on English censuses of 1841 and 1851 and recordsof deaths, 1838-54 [57, pp. 137, 144, 147, 161, 219]. Farr was a veryactive memberofthe StatisticalSocietyof London, and read manypapers relating to vital statistics before thisSocietywhichwerepublished in the Society's Journal.He was a liberaldonorto its library.He servedon the council from1840-1882 with the exceptionof 1847, and he held the office of treasurer from1855 to 1867, and that of presidentfrom1871 to 1875 [51, pp. 60-61, 95-96]. He proposedand secondedno less than 216 personsas members of the Society. In 1864 he was presidentof Section F-Economic Science and Statistics-of the BritishAssociationforthe Advancementof Science. He was also presidentof the Public Health Section of the Social Science Associationin 1866. Moreover,being an official delegate of the BritishGovernment, he took an active part and manifesteda deep interestin the work of the nine InternationalStatisticalCongresses whichwereheld in Brussels (1853), Paris (1855), Vienna (1857), London (1860), Berlin (1863), Florence (1867), The Hague (1869), St. Petersburg (1872), and Budapest (1876). He and Dr. D'Espine played a prominent part at the First InternationalStatisticalCongressin 1853 in attempting to bringabout the adoption of an international list of the causes of death. Their recommendations were adopted at the Second International Statistical Congressin 1855 [40, pp. 173, 177; 14]. Farr was bornat Kenley in Shropshire, and, as hisparentswerein humblecircumstances,was adopted at an early age by Mr. JosephPryce,squire of Dorrington,near Shrewsbury.Both Mr. Pryce and the Reverend J. J. Beynon directedhis earlyeducation.Farr assistedMr. Prycein his variousaffairs. From 1826-28 he studied medicineunder Dr. J. Webster,a promising young physiMr. cian, and assisted Mr. T. Sutton,a surgeonat the Shrewsbury Infirmary. educaPryce at his death in 1828 leftFarr a legacy of 500 pounds forhis future tion,and Dr. Websterat his death in 1837 leftFarr a similaramount of money along withhis library.In May 1829 Farr wentto Paris wherehe enrolledat the of Paris to studymedicinefortwo years,and it was whilehe was in University became interestedin medical statistics [10, Vol. 6, pp. that city that he first 1090-1; 11, Vol. 10, p. 187; 13, Vol. 6, pp. 993-4]. One of his teacherswas the famous French physician,P. Ch. A. Louis, who is generallyregardedas the fatherof medical statistics.In 1831 he returned to London to studyat University College,and in March 1832 he became a licentiate(L.A.S.) ofthe Apothecaries' Society.In the same yearhe startedto practicemedicine.He thenedited the Medical Annual, wroteformedicaljournals,and in 1837 withthe assistance of his close friend, Dr. R. Dundas Thompson,he edited the BritishAnnals of
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Medicine.He wrotean articleon "Vital Statistics" forMcCulloch's Statistical Accountof theBritishEmpire,Vol. 2 (1837) [42, Vol, 2, pp. 33-35]. Farr was a prolificwriterwho contributednot only to the Journal of the StatisticalSocietyof London and the CongresInternational de Statistique, but also to the Lancet,the Reports of the BritishAssociationforthe Advancement ofScience and the Social Science Association [49, p. 76; 50, p. 42]. Many ofhis importantviews may be foundin a memorialvolume entitledVital Statistics (1885), edited by Noel A. Humphreys for the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain [27]. Farr was honoredin many ways. The Royal Society elected him a Fellow in 1855. The Universityof New York gave him the honorarydegreeof M.D. in 1847, OxfordUniversity bestowedupon him the honoraryD.C.L. in 1857, the Royal Medical and ChirurgicalSociety elected him an Honorary Fellow in 1857, and the King and Queen's College of Physicians in Dublin also elected himan HonoraryFellow in 1867.
5. DR. WILLIAM A. GUY
(1810-1885)
Dr. William Augustus Guy, editor, physician and statistician,while well knownforhis writings in public health,is betterknownforhis many activities on behalfof the Statistical Society of London. Guy, like Farr, was strongly of the opinionthat statisticswas seriouslyneeded forthe study of medical problems. At King's College Hospital, he collected data on out-patientswhichresultedin threepapersrelating to the "Influence ofEmployments Upon Health," read beforethe StatisticalSociety of London and publishedin its Journal [57, p. 157]. Some othermedico-statistical papers read beforethe Society and published in its Journal were: "On the Health of Nightmen,Scavengers and Dustmen," "Temperatureand Its Relation to Mortality,""Mortalityof London hIospitals, and Deaths in the Prisonsand Public Institutions oftheMetropolis," and "Annual Fluctuation in the Number of Deaths fromVarious Diseases." Guy's contribution to statisticsrests primarily on the compilationof bodies of material relating to public health, and on his informative papers dealing with the historyof statistics. Guy was a veryactive memberof the StatisticalSociety of London, serving for many years as its honorarysecretary,1843-1869, editor of its Journal, 1851-1856,and as its president, 1873-75. He was also formanyyearstreasurer of its informal group knownas the Statistical Dining Club. Incidentallythere are two references to thisclub. One accountreports: Outside thework oftheSociety as such,but stillclosely connected withit, is the Statistical Dining Club.Theonly detailed reference toitintheMinutes oftheCouncil is to be found under date11January 1839, where it is entered thatMr. Porter reported thata statistical Clubhadbeenformed "andhadappointed to dinetogether on thedaysoftheOrdinary Monthly Meetings; thattheterms were an annual sub, ofoneguinea, scription and 10 s. eachondining with theClub."The Clubis limited to forty members and "clubability" is an indispensable prerequisite forelection; at eachgathering thelecturer oftheevening is received as a guest andtreated hospitably.It hasfew rules, no minutes, norecords, andonly oneofficer, theTreasurer. The Clubis a select body[51,p. 69].
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The second account reveals, at the time of its one hundredthanniversary, that:
11, 1839,Mr. George ofthe CounciloftheStatisticalSocietyon January At a meeting and "had appointedto R. Porterreportedthat a StatisticalClub has been formed on the days of the OrdinaryMonthlymeetings."That Club has now dine together in orderto markthe hundredyears of its life,and the members, completedthe first occasion, decided that a special Centenary dinner should be held and that Mr. among the members. Macrostyshould compilea recordof the Club forcirculation members, by prominent That account has now been printed,with "recollections" fifty years,it has been foundpossibleto reand thoughno recordsexistforthe first is limitedto cover the names of 163 past and presentmembers.The membership and therewerein Februarythreevacancies. forty The CentenaryDinner was held at the Trocadero afterthe OrdinaryMeeting on of the Presidentof the Society,ProFebruary21st, 1939, underthe Chairmanship personstook part, namely twentyeight members, fessorA. L. Bowley. Fifty-one six Club guests,and seventeenprivateguests[54].
This club is stillgoingstrongunderthe same rules. It is reportedthat at one time it had one of the best cellars in the city, but this was destroyedby the bombingof London. many papers whichwereread beforethe Society and pubGuy contributed lished in its Journal. One statementrecords "that in twentyyears, 1844-63, Dr. Guy read 15 papers" [57, pp. 60-2, 96, 103]. Notinghis death in December 1885, anotherstatementrecords:
The Council minuted: "Dr. Guy was a constantand liberal donor to the Library in numberand the Society,exceeding and the numerous paperswhichhe read before varietyof subjects those of any otherFellow were of exceptionalvalue. He further of the Societyby the largenumber to his constantinterest in the prosperity testified by bequeathingto it a legacy of of Fellows whomhe introducedto it, and finally value" [51, p. 152]. of considerable interest ?250 and a reversionary
Some of Guy's papers relatingto statistics,whichwereread beforethe Society and publishedin its Journal,were: "On the Relative Value ofAveragesDeNumbersof Observations,"(Vol. 13, 1850), "On the OrigrivedfromDifferent inal and Acquired Meaning of the term 'Statistics,' and on the Proper Functions of a StatisticalSociety," (Vol. 28, 1865), "JohnHoward as Statist," (Vol. 36, 1873), "JohnHoward's True Place in History," (Vol. 38, 1875), and "On Tabular Analysis" (Vol. 42, 1879) [51, pp. 150-1, 153, 156-7]. In the Jubilee Volumeof the Society (1885), he has a paper, "Statistical Development,with InterSpecial Referenceto Statisticsas a Science." The 1861 issue of Congres nationalede Statistiquecontains his "Statistical Methods and Signs" [33, pp. 72-86, 363-4; 49, pp. 105-6; 50, pp. 53-4]. Guy was held in high esteem as a statistician. Sir Rawson W. Rawson, K.C.M.G., C.B., President of the Society (1884-86), called attentionto "his industry,and high capacity, his professionalknowledge,and statistical insight." Sir ArthurNewsholme,K.C.B., M.D., F.R.C.P., an outstandingauin the fieldof vital statistics,regardedGuy as "one of the ablest early thority Englishstatisticians[40, p. 314]. Because of Guy's many activitieson behalf of the Society, the Royal Sta-
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tisticalSociety voted in 1891 to establishin his honor,the "Guy Medal." One account reveals:
At the Council Meetingon 21 May, 1891, a motionwas put forward by Sir R. W. Rawson and T. H. (afterwards Sir Thomas) Elliott that in memory of Dr. Guy a of the Councilin recognition gold medal shouldbe awarded "at the discretion of the originalstatisticalworkplaced at the disposal of the Society." This was approved was further at the Annual Meeting in June.... The definition expanded by the Council. "The Guy Medal ofthe Royal StatisticalSociety-foundedin honourof the whose name it bears-is intendedto encouragethe cultistatistician distinguished in theirstrictly scientific vation ofstatistics, aspects,as well as to promote the applicationof members to the solutionofthe important in all the relationoflife problems to whichthe numericalmethodcan be applied, with a view, as far as possible,to determine by its methodsthe laws whichregulatethem." Then the schemewas expanded: a Gold Medal for"workof high characterfoundedupon originalresearch performed speciallyforthe Society"; a Silver Medal for "workfoundedon existing materials"[51, pp. 160-2].
As to the Guy Gold Medal, two persons were awarded this honor in the nineteenthcentury,The Rt. Hon. Charles Booth, F.R.S., in 1892 and Sir Robert Giffen, F.R.S., in 1894. From 1900 to 1930 inclusive,six additionalpersons won this honor,namely,Sir JervoiseAthelstaneBaines, C.S.I., in 1900, Professor Francis Y. Edgeworth,F.B.A., in 1907,Major P. G. Craigie,C.B., in 1908; Professor GeorgeUdny Yule in 1911, Dr. T. H. C. Stevenson,C.B.E., in 1920, and Sir AlfredW. Flux, C.B. in 1930. As to the Guy Silver Medal, five persons won it during the nineteenthcentury,and twentypersons between 1900 and 1930 [51, pp. 301-2]. "wherehis male ancestorsforthreegenerations Guy was bornin Chichester, had been medical men." He studied at both Christ's Hospital and Guy's medal of the Medical SoHospital. In 1831 he was awarded the Fothergillian at PembrokeCollege, cietyofLondon forthe best paper on asthma. He enrolled Cambridge,receivingthe M.B. degreein 1837. His college careerin England had been interrupted by two years at Heidelbergand Paris, wherehe studied underleadingmedical men. In 1838 Guy was appointedto the chair offorensic medicineat King's College, and in 1842 he was made physicianto King's College Hospital, having the care of outpatients.From 1846 to 1858 he served as dean ofthe medical faculty, ofhyand in 1869 he was also appointedprofessor giene. In 1844 he was admitted a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and he served as censorin 1855, 1856 and 1866, and as examinerin 1861-63. At the Royal College he was also Croonian (1861), Lumleian (1868) and Harveian (1875) lecturer.In 1862 he was examinerin forensicmedicine at the of London. He was Swineyprizemanin 1869. Because ofhis intense University interestin vital statistics,he retiredfrommedical practice. He served on a numberof commissions[10, Vol. 8, pp. 835-6; 24]. Dr. Guy was an outstanding physicianand was "oftenconsultedin medicolegal cases." He wroteseveralmedical works,as Principlesoj ForensicMedicine (1884), which was frequently reedited,and The Factorsof the UnsoundMind to Sanitary (1881). Anotherwork was Public Health; A Popular Introduction Science,part I (1870) and part II (1874).
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NEWMARCH (1820-1882) William Newmarch,banker,economist, editorand statistician,an authority on monetaryand bankingstatistics,editorof the Journalof theStatisticalSociety ofLondon,was one of the few Britishstatisticiansof his time to perceive the need of utilizingmathematicsin describingand analyzing economic and social problems. Newmarch's contributions to Tooke's History of Prices is regarded as a masterlystatisticalreviewof the economichistoryof Great Britain,and this workcontainsmany elaborate statisticaltables. He was an earlyuser of index numbers. He was honorarysecretaryof the Society from 1854 to 1862, its presidentfortwo years, 1869-71, succeedingthe Rt. HIon. W. E. Gladstone, M.P., and servedas editorofits Journalforfiveyears,1855-61,makinga number of importantchangesin this periodicalforwhichhe was praised. The Society's publication also records that "the Council expressed 'their approbation' of Mr. Newmarch's'valuable services'and theirknowledgeof 'the practical and scientific characterof the Journalunderhis editorship.'It is forothers to say how farhis successorshave lived up to his standard" [51, p. 88]. Newmarch,in his presidentialaddress, "Progressand Present Conditionsof Statistical Inquiry," beforethe Statistical Society of London in 1869, reveals greaterinsightand foresight than most of his contemporaries when he said, among otherthings:
Let me now state what appears to me to be the fieldsof statistical researchwhichin thiscountry mostrequireearlyattention.
Then he goes on to enumerateeighteenfields, the last one being:

18. Investigations of the mathematics and logic of StatisticalEvidence; that is to say, the true construction and use of Averages,the deductionsof probabilities, the exclusion ofsuperflous integers, and thediscovery ofthelaws ofsuchsocialphenomena as can onlybe exhibited by a numerical notation.
Later on in this address,he emphasizes:

The last subject (divisioneighteen)in the list,relatesto the mathematics and logic ofStatistics, and therefore, as manywillthink, to the mostfundamental enquirywith whichwe can be occupied.... It is certainthat by meansofaverages,and variations of increase and decrease, presentedby large masses of figures social representing phenomenawhich occur withinlongeror shorterintervalsof time and withindefinedlimits,it is possible to arriveat conclusionswhichso far resemblethe law of several cases that theyjustifythe enunciationof probabilitiesand predictions [32, Vol. 32, pp. 365-6,373].
Newmarchenjoyed two distinctions as presidentof the StatisticalSociety of London. First, until he became presidentof the Society in 1869, all previous presidents had been eitherhighgovernment officials or members ofthe royalty. Secondly, he institutedthe custom "of a regular series of Presidential Addresses." The inaugural addresses are given at the commencement of each presidential term.Previouslythey had been made at the close of the term-a practiceestablishedin 1851 by the Rt. Hon. Earl ofHarrowly, K.G., D.C.L., at the end of the second termof office. As the Annals records: "Since that time each succeedingPresident. .. has enrichedthe recordswith an address, and
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in theirmass theiraddresses forma contribution to the historyand developmentof statisticswhichis unrivalledelsewhere." Newmarchwas an outstanding memberof the StatisticalSocietyof London. He was regardedas "one ofits most eminentmembers."One publicationofthe Society records: He "had for more than thirtyyears been identified with its work,having contributed many papers on the leading economicalquestionsof the day, and taken a prominent and guidingpart in its discussion" [51, p. 115]. Robert Giffen,K.C.B., F.R.S., a distinguishedeconomist and statistician, claims that Newmarch "was remarkablenot merelyas a statisticianbut as a man of businessand as an economist" [51, p. 115]. Newmarchwas an earlyuser of indexnumbers.Westergaardreportsthat:
In 1859 W. Newmarchpublishedindex-numbers fornineteenarticleswiththe New Year, 1851, as a starting two years he treateda similar point,and in the following his investigations extending to twenty-two articles, withthe years 1845-50 material, as a basis [57, p. 204].
Newmarchpublishedseveral articlesforthe JournaloftheStatistical Society ofLondon,afterhavingread thembeforethe Society. Some are: "Progressand Present Conditionof StatisticalInquiry" Vol. 32, p. 359; "Electoral Statistics of Counties and Boroughsin England and Wales fromthe ReformAct of 1832 to the Present Times" Vol. 20, p. 169; "Electoral Statistics of England and Wales, 1856-58," Vol. 22, p. 101; "Attempts to Ascertainthe Magnitude and Fluctuationsof the Amountof Bills of Exchange in Circulationat one time in Great Britain,England, Scotland, Lancashire,and Cheshire,respectively, and of Bills drawn on Foreign Countriesduringeach Year, 1828-47," Vol. 14, p. 143. An article "On the Statistical Society of London" appeared in the 186061 issue of the Congres International de Statistique. Newmarchcollaboratedwith Thomas Tooke in completing the two concluding volumes, 5 and 6, of the well-known work,the Historyof Prices and the StateoftheCirculation, From1793 to 1857 (London, 1857), the six volumescoveringthe periodfrom1793 to 1856. Newmarch'stwo concluding volumes,coveringthe years from1836 to 1856, are not only a masterful statisticalreview containingmany elaborate statisticaltables but also a carefulmonetaryand bankinganalysis. He entertained the HistoryofPrices great hopes of bringing up to date, but pressureof many duties preventedit. These two volumes attractedmuch attentionand were translatedinto German and used in several German universities[42, Vol. 3, pp. 17-8]. When Mr. Tooke passed away, Newmarchplayed a leadingpart in securing fundsto establishthe "Tooke Proof Economic Science and Statistics" at King's College [48, Vol. 34, fessorship pp. xvii-xix]. In 1863 he inauguratedan annual section,"CommercialHistoryofthe Year," in the London Economistwhich continuedup to 1882. During his connection with the Economist,he served under the editorshipof Wilson, Bagehot and Palgrave. Newmarch was an authorityon monetaryand banking problems and apa numberofParliamentary He also apcommittees. peared severaltimesbefore in 1857 before the of of Commons investiSelect Committee the House peared Bank of gating the Act, being a leading critic the famous Peel's Bank Act
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passed in 1844 [23]. After1846 he was a frequentcontributor to the Morning Chronicle[48, Vol. 34, pp. xvii-xix]. Some of his articlesdealing withthe supply of gold attractedmuch attentionand werelater publishedin 1853 withadditionsas a book entitledThe New Supplies ofGold.Part of thisworkhad been read as a paper beforethe Statistical Society of London in 1851. Besides his contributions to the MorningChronicle, he wroteforthe Economist, Fortnightly and the Times. Some of his writings Pall Mall Gazette, the Statist, Review, were anonymous [33, pp. 367-8; 49, p. 176; 50, p. 93]. Newmarch was born at Thirsk, Yorkshire,and educated in the schools at York. He held severalpositionsas a clerkin his hometown, first undera stamp and thenwiththe Yorkshire distributor Fire and Life Office. Newmarchmoved to Wakefieldin 1843 to serve as one of the cashiers in the bankinghouse of Leathem,Tew, and Co., and remainedwiththis firm until 1846 whenhe joined the managerialstaffof the Agra Bank of London. This change furnished him the opportunity to become acquainted withmany leading persons,some being Thomas Tooke, Alderman Thompson, M.P., and Lord Wolverton [39]. In 1851 he resignedto become actuary and secretaryof the Globe Insurance Company and distinguished himself by carrying out severalimportant financial transactions.In 1862 he resignedto be appointed manager of the banking house of Glyn, Mills and Company and he remainedwith this firm nineteen in 1881 when he was strikenwithparalysis.He was years until his retirement also a director ofseveralbusinessenterprises [10,Vol. 14,pp. 352-4; 12, Vol. 11, pp. 368-9]. He was electeda Fellow ofthe Royal Societyin 1861. He was, moreover,formany years secretary of the Political Economy Club, and also an active memberof both the Adam Smith and the Cobden Clubs. Besides serving one timeas secretary, Newmarchwas in 1861 also presidentofSection F of the BritishAssociationforthe Advancementof Science [9 (1861), pp. 201-2031. Incidentally, Arthur Bowley in his presidential addressbeforeSection F (1906) states that "from1835 to 1855 SectionF ofthe BritishAssociationwas devoted to 'Statistics,'and it is onlyfrom1856 onwardsthat it has receivedthe curious name, 'Economic Science and Statistics' " [32, Vol. 69, p. 540]. His colleagues' highesteemof Newmarchis partlyreflected by threememorials: After his death the Statistical Society of London "subscribedtwenty guineas to the NewmarchMemorial Fund" [51, p. 115]. Mr. H. D. Pochin, a memberof the Council of the Society placed at its disposal 100 pounds fora NewmarchMemorial Essay [33, p. 35]. Finally, 1420 pounds and 14 shillings of were subscribed toward "the foundationof the Newmarch Professorship Economic Science and Statisticsat the UniversityCollege, London."
7. W. STANLEY JEVONS
(1835-1882)
William Stanley Jevons,economist,logician and statistician,is well known for his influential in the fieldsof logic and economics.He should be writings Jevons was a equally well known for his importantstatistical contributions. pioneerin statisticalmethodsin several ways: First, in emphasizing the superiorvalue of the geometric mean overthearithmetic mean; second,in strongly recommending the use of the chart,now knownas the ratio chart,as a graphic means of showingper cent of change; third,in calling attentionto the several of an index number;and finally, problemsinvolved in the properconstruction
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time seriesin the formof secular statisticalmeans of measuring in improvising trend,seasonal variation and cyclicalfluctuations. in statisticsdates at least fromOctober 1860, when at Jevons'earlyinterest the age of twentyfiveyears "he began to formdiagramsto exhibitsome stain the BritishMuseum Libraryforthe purposeof tistics"he had been collecting Atlas. Later in a letterdated April7, 1861, he wroteto developinga Statistical Herbert: his brother,
I am very busy at presentwith an apparentlydry and laborious piece of work, Great Britain,whichare to be concerning quantitiesof statistics namely,compiling Atlas.... in the formof curves,and if possible,publishedas a Statistical exhibited Almostthe whole of the statisticsgo back to 1780 or 1800, a large part extend to 1700 or 1720, and some-for instance,the price of corn-as far back as 1400. The plates will,I think,rather whichI shall exhibitin about thirty quantityof statistics astonishpeople.
the various itemsdealingwithpopulation,forHe thengoes on to enumerate eign and domestic commerce,money and banking, agriculture,government debt, etc, whichhe intendsto cover. Then in thissame letter,he says:
known,but have neverbeen so fully of course,are generally Most of the statistics, numbersof curves combinedor exhibitedgraphically.... The mode of exhibiting beenpracticedmoreorless any timeon thisside oftheDeluge. and lineshas, ofcourse, of Trade [correct indeed,I findthat a book of Charts At the end of the last century, and PoliticalAtlas, 1786] was published, titleof Playfair'sworkwas the Commercial nevermuchused, the method, minein principle;but in statistics, exactlyresembling to be almostas muchused intodisuse.It ought,I consider, has fallenalmostentirely [30, p. 157-8]. as maps are used in geography
In a letterdated December 3, 1861, to his brotherTom, Jevons remarks: "My statistical matters proceed slowly, and the mere drawing of diagrams deal oftime." takes up an incredible Jevonswrotein his journal on December 8, 1861:
About October 1860, having then recentlycommenced reading at the Museum some diagramto exhibitthem.... I began to form and metsomestatistics, Library, that I contemdoingtwo or threediagramsthe resultsappeared so interesting After to me that publicaThen it occurred a seriesformyown information. plated forming atlas of say thirty to form a statistical undertook be possible,and I finally tionmight For the last year this statistics. all the chiefmaterialsof historical plates, exhibiting . . . Towards the end of last October I had atlas has been my chiefemployment. in the first copy, and thoughtit diagramsmore or less finished some twenty-eight timeto arrangeforpublication[30, p. 161].
with several publishing However, Jevons was unsuccessfulin his efforts of were the opinion that the work houses to have the atlas published. They of the limited market,he records in view would involve too great an expense "looked Mr. Newmarch records how He also in his journalon December8, 1861. left I so that soon a without and almost word, at my diagramswithoutinterest, were worlds business the and the academic him" [30, p. 162]. It appears that not ready to appreciate these statisticaltools and the knowledgethey could impartabout the immediatefuture. In his letterof December 28, 1862, Jevonswrotehis brotherTom:
of a small I am at present goingon withmyold workofdiagrams.I am now thinking monthly quotations atlas withplates about 6 by 8 inches,from1844-62, comprising
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of prices, exports, imports, etc., all fully reduced, analyzed, etc., so as to make quite a small gem of work.... It is somewhat the same idea with which I just began nearly two years ago but I have learnt so much by experience that my firstdiagrams were The atlas would contain quite laughable besides the little gems I now produce.... perhaps twelve plates [30, p. 173].
However,this atlas met the same unfortunate fate. In September1862 Jevonssent two papers to be read at the annual meeting of Section F of the BritishAssociationforthe Advancementof Science. One paper entitled"On the Study of Periodic CommercialFluctuations" was read and approved, while the second paper, "Notice of a General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy," was merelyread [9, Vol. 32, pp. 157-9]. This little-noticed second paper was to be further developedlater and publishedas a book, The Theoryof Political Economy(1871). This mathematicaldescription of economicprincipleswas to earn Jevonsa world-wide reputationas an economist.He statesin the prefaceofthe second edition(1879) that: "I do not write formathematicians, nor as a mathematician,but as an economistwishingto convinceothereconomiststhat theirscience can only be satisfactorily treated on an explicitlymathematicalbasis." This work thus reveals Jevonsto be a pioneerin the fieldof mathematicaleconomics,and, as will be seen, he was a trailblazer also in the fieldofeconometrics. In the former paper, "On the Study of Periodic CommercialFluctuations," Jevonsstudiedthe natureof seasonal variationsby computing as well monthly as quarterlyaverages. He found that "it is interesting to observe that the monthlyand quarterlyvariations are of preciselythe same character." He employed four diagrams revealing "Average Rate of Discount, 1845-61 and 1825-61," "Total Number of Bankruptcies,1806-60," "Average Price of Consols, 1845-60," and "Gazette AveragePrice ofWheat, 1846-61." This investigation enabled Jevons to discover the nature of secular trend movement of prices [29, pp. 2-11]. Analyzingthis study,Keynes points out that Jevons:
was not the firstto plot economic statistics in diagrams; some of his diagrams bear, indeed, a close resemblance to Playfair's with whose work he seems to have been acquainted. But Jevons compiled and arranged economic statistics for a new purpose and pondered them in a new way.... Jevons was the firsttheoretical economist to survey his material with the prying eyes and fertile, controlled imagination of the natural scientist. He would spend hours arranging his charts, plotting them, sifting them, tinting them nearly with delicate pale colours like the slides of the anatomist, and all the time pouring over them and brooding over them to discover their secret. It is remarkable, looking back, how few followers and imitators he had in the black arts of inductive economics in the fifty years after 1862 [35, pp. 523-4; 53].
Next yearhe brought out his pamphletofseventy-three pages, A SeriousFall in theValue ofGoldAscertained, and Its Social Effects Set ForthWithTwo Diagrams [28], a very importantstatisticaltreatment.For one thing,Jevons,in thispioneering mean studyexplainson page 7 the value ofusing the geometric as an average in place of the arithmetic mean to combinewholesale monthly pricesnear the middleofthe month,the pricesbeingthose of 39 chiefcommoditiesforthe years 1845 to 1862 [57, pp. 203-4]. He proposedthe use ofthe geo-
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metricmean by calculatingthe arithmetic mean of the logarithms instead of the use ofdiagramswith usingthe originalnumbers.Secondly,he demonstrates variation of prices" with verticalscale forobserving"proportional logarithmic the horizontalscale showingarithmeticprogression.This diagram, the foreratio chart,appears to be a variant of Playfair'schartinig runnerof our current of the problemsinan excellentdemonstration technique. Thirdly,he offers various aspects such as the indexnumbersby examining volved in constructing the choice of an average, the numberand kinds of comquestionof weighting, modities to include, etc. Seventy-nineminor items were also employed as a check on his results. He even applied the theoryof probabilityto his work. Thus Jevonsis regardedby some as "the fatherofindex numbers." Keynes again appraises Jevons:
of mind applied, with a sure touch and unand originality For unceasingfertility labours for involving immense controlof the material,to a mass of statistics, failing his way through withno precedents and labour-savan unaidedindividualploughing of our ing devices to relievehis task, this pamphletstands unrivalledin the history diagramsand chartswhichaccompanyare also of highintersubject. The numerous [35, 525-6; 53]. description of statistical est in the history
the theory that after Jevons' pioneeringefforts It is, indeed, unfortunate until 1887 whenProfessor and use ofindex numberswereto markslow progress Francis Y. Edgeworthcommencedhis excellentstudiesin this area [9, (1887), pp. 247-301; (1888), pp. 181-232; (1889), pp. 133-64; (1890), pp. 485-8]. reporting that The last page of Jevons'pamphletcontainsan advertisement he had "in preparation" The Merchant'sAtlas and Handbook of Commercial indicates that Jevonswas again a pioneerin Fluctuations.This originaleffort about the currentstatus of business planningto sell businessmen information conditions.No reason, however,can be found for the failureto publish this Atlas. It is quite likelythat the poor sales forhis pamphlet,A SeriMerchant's ous Fall in theValue ofGold,may be the answer.It sold only 74 copies. In 1865 he broughtout anotherstatisticalpaper "On the Variationof Prices, and the Value of the Currency Since 1872" whichhe read beforethe Statistical Society of London in May 1865 and publishedin its Journalin June 1865 (Vol. a further developmentof the theoryof index num28). This paper represented He continuedto century. bers,and containeddata goingback to the eighteenth mean and the ratio chart.In 1865 his famousbook, The Coal use the geometric appeared, which attractedconsiderableattention.In Chapter 9, enQuestion, titled "Of the Natural Law of Social Growth,"he pointed out that many ecosome at a growth, nomic and social phenomenaexperiencea law of geometric greaterrate than others.He goes on to apply this idea to the growthof Great of Great Britain Britain. Jevons advanced the thesis that futureprosperity ofgeometric leading progression wouldincreasethe demandforcoal in the form to a possible exhaustionof coal. This book resultedin the appointmentof a royal commissionto examine the available coal reserves.Thus Jevonscan be In 1866, he consideredas a pioneerin the fieldof secular trendmeasurement. broughtout another statistical paper, "On the Frequent Autumnal Pressure in the Money Market, and the Action of the Bank of England," whichwas read beforethe Societyin April 1866,and publishedin its Journalin June1866 (Vol. 29).
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Jevonswas a student of business cycles,then known as commercialcrises, pointingout that thereis a strongrelationbetween the solar period and the price of corn. His first paper, "The Solar Period and the Price of Corn," was read in 1875 beforeSectionF-Economic Scienceand Statistics-of the British Associationforthe Advancementof Science. Corrections were made in subsequent papers, entitled "CommercialCrises and Sun Spots," which were published in two articlesin Nature: Part I appeared in the November 14, 1878 issue and Part II in that of April24, 1879. Anotherpaper, "The Periodicityof CommercialCrises and its Physical Explanation," was read in August 19, 1878 beforeSection F of the British Association for the Advancementof Science and publishedin Volume 7 of the Journalof theStatisticaland Social Inquiry Society of Ireland. Wesley C. Mitchell, in his famous book Business Cycles (1927), pays tributeto Jevonsby stating: "It was leftforW. StanleyJevonsto give the first powerful impetusto statisticalworkin economictheory." Jevonswas a very active memberof the statisticalSociety of London and "made numerousdonations to its Library." He served as its honorarysecretaryfrom1877 to 1880 [51, p. 115], and read several papers beforethe Society whichwerepublishedin its Journal.Some are: "On the Variationof Prices,and the Value of the Currencysince 1782" (Vol. 28, 1865), "On the Frequent Autumnal Pressurein the Money Market, and the Action of the Bank of England" (Vol. 29, 1866), "Conditionofthe Metallic Currency ofthe United Kingdom, withReference to the QuestionofInternationalCoinage" (Vol. 31, 1868), and "Statistical Use of the Arithomometer" (Vol. 41, 1878). The latter article referred to the use of a French calculatingmachine. The Annals reportsthat "no other economistso distinguished was so closely connected with the Society." In 1870 he served as presidentof Section F of the BritishAssociation forthe Advancementof Science. While livingin ManchesterJevonswas also an active memberof the ManchesterStatistical Society. He served as its vice presidentin 1868-69, and as its president,1869-71 [2]. He read several papers beforethis Society, forexample, "The Work of the ManchesterSociety in connectionwiththe Question of the Day" (1869-70), and "The Progress of the Mathematical Theory of Political Economy,withan Explanation ofthe Principlesofthe Theory" (187475). Furthermore, he wrote a paper, "The Periodicityof Commercial Crises and its Physical Explanation," which was published in the Journal of the Statistical and Social InquirySocietyofIreland (Vol. 7, 1876-1879). This paper examined the nature of the relationshipbetween commercialcrises and sun spots., bornthe ninthofeleven children, at Liverpool,was the son ofan iron Jevons, merchantwho was a writeron economic and legal matters. He received his earlyeducationat the hands of a privatetutor,and at the Mechanics Institute High School. But he remainedonly a shorttime at this institutionand then
5 Jevons PrimerofPolitical was the authorofa numberofotherworks[49,pp. 134-5; 50, p. 661.In economics, Economy(1878) whichwas translatedinto French and German,Money and theMechanismof Exchange(1875), The Statein Relation toLabour (1882), and Methods ofSocial Reform (1883). In the fieldoflogic,Elementary Lessons in Logic (1870), PrimerofLogic (1876), and Pure Logic and Other Minor Works(1890), Studiesin Deductive Logci, 2 volumes (1874), (1880). Another workwas The Principlesof Science: A Treatiseon Logic and Scientific Method, to the and one volume (1877). He was a contributor in earlieryears.Later he contributed to Australian newspapers Spectator, LondonQuarterly Review, Review, National Review, Times,MacmillanMagazine. Contemporary
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he atenrolledat Beckwith's private school. In 1850, at the age of fifteen, tended the UniversityCollege School at London, and in 1851 he enrolledat chemistry, biology,and the University College, wherehe studiedmathematics, of 1851 he had won fiveprizes-three being metallurgy. By the midsummer firstprizes and two second prizes. Because of financial circumstances(his father havingbecome a bankruptin January1848), Jevonswas forcedto leave college when halfwaythroughhis studies. This business failureof Jevonsand Sons probablyresultedfromthe depressionof 1847. Late in 1853 at the age of eighteenhe leftEngland to accept the positionof assayer in the newly-established Royal Mint at Sydney,Australia. Gold had recentlybeen discoveredin Australia. En route he stopped offat Paris wherehe spent two monthsat the Paris Mint studyingassaying. He arrived at Sydney in October 1854 [48, he was interestedin meteorology, but his interest Vol. 35, pp. i-xii]. At first later shifted to Adam Smith's WealthofNations and JohnStuart Mill's Logic. His residenceof about fiveyears in Australia is said to have given him much on various problemsand subjects, a developmentwhich to reflect opportunity afterhis returnto England. Early in 1859 he is well indicated in his writings resigned his positionand returned to London by way of South Americaand the United States, wherehe visiteda numberof cities.In October 1859 he enrolled at the UniversityCollege to study mathematics, political economyand logic, receivingthe A.B. degreein 1860, and the Ricardo scholarshipand the M.A. degreein June 1863. He won the gold medal in philosophyand political economy [31; 12, Vol. 8, pp. 389-91]. In 1863 at the age oftwentyeighthe became in Manchester,wherein 1866 he a tutorat Owens College, a younginstitution oflogic and mentaland moral philosophyand in 1867 was appointed professor also Cobden Lecturerin Political Economy [10, Vol. 10, pp. 811-5; 11, (1957), Vol. 13, pp. 30-1]. In 1864 he joined the Statistical Society of London and remained an active memberforthe remainderof his life. While livingin Manchesterhe became an active memberof the ManchesterStatistical Society. In 1868Jevonswas appointedan Examinerin Political Economy at the University of London. In 1874 and 1875 he served as an Examiner in the Moral Science of Cambridge.In 1876 he was Examinerin Logic and Tripos at the University ofLondon. In 1872 he was electeda Fellow Moral Philosophyat the University of the Royal Society, the first economistso honoredsince Sir William Petty, In 1876 he resigned his teachingposition famousauthorofPoliticalArithmetick. at Owens College in orderto accept the chair of Political Economy at the UniversityCollege at London. Because of ill health,because of his dislikeforlecturing,and because of his intense desire to devote all his time to his writing projects,he resignedfromteachingin 1880. In 1875 he receivedthe honorary degreeof LL.D. fromthe Universityof Edinburgh [42, Vol. 2, pp. 474-9; 38, p. 1202]. 8. SIR RAWSON W. RAWSON, C.B., K.C.M.G., (1812-1899) Sir Rawson William Rawson, administrator,editor and statistician, an as the firsteditor of the authorityon internationalstatistics,is remembered JournaloftheStatisticalSocietyofLondon (1838-40), and is well knownas the first presidentof the InternationalInstituteof Statistics duringits formative years (1885-98).
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Rawson became a memberof the Statistical Society of London in March 1835, was elected to the council in 1836, served as honorarysecretaryfrom issue of May withthe first 1836 to 1842, and as editorofits Journalbeginning 1838 [45]. This scholarlyperiodical continuedas a monthlyuntil April 1839 when it became a quarterly.It has been published continuouslysince that date and is probablythe most outstandingstatisticaljournal in the world.As editor, Rawson was assisted by "a Publication Committee (Mr. Porter, Dr. Lister, Mr. Heywood, Mr. Romilly, and Mr. Boileau)" [51, p. 57]. In 1840 Rawson was succeeded by JosephFletcheras editor.The Annals reportsthat 6 ofthe decade ofthe Society,"Mr. R. W. Rawson contributed duringthe first on as many separate subjects by papers." It also mentioned"13 contributions R. W. Rawson" [51, pp. 60-2]. His articleswere of a criticalnaturebecause it papers and otherstate docuwas "the custom to commenton parliamentary of theStatisticalSociety,1834-1837, a volume published ments." Proceedings by the Society,containspapers preparedand read duringthe years beforethe publication of its Journal.In this volume Rawson has fourpapers, one being "On the Collection of Statistics." froma distinguished "On his return colonial career,"he again took an active part in the StatisticalSociety of London [51, p. 155]. In 1876 he was reelected to the council and remaineda memberof it until his death. Five times he was elected vice presidentduringthe period from1876 to 1884, and he served as title of the Society was changed to presidentin 1884-86. In 1885 the official the Royal Statistical Society. In his address at the Golden Jubileemeetingof the Society, he mentionedthat "my public career in the colonies afterwards in the workof the Society forthe third separated me fromactive participation postponedone year on account ofthe death ofa century."This Golden Jubilee, of the Duke of Albany,was held in London, June22, 23 and 24, 1885. In planning this Golden Jubilee,the Society had set up a Committee"to considerin what mannerthe Jubileeof the Statistical Society may be utilized forthe advancementof Statistical Science and the extensionof the Statistical Society." The objectivesof the Jubileebecame: "1. To reviewthe workof the Statistical years. 2. To considerwhat has been achieved by Society duringthe past fifty the InternationalStatistical Congresses,or by othermeans,in the directionof prothe uniformity ofstatistics, and by what means that object may be further Statistical an International ofestablishing moted. 3. To considerthe possibility Association" [51, pp. 139-40]. The Golden Jubilee meeting was an outstanding one with distinguished guests in attendancefrommany countries.General Francis A. Walker, Presifrom dent of the AmericanStatistical Association,was the sole representative the United States. An excellentset of statisticalpapers, read by distinguished economists and statisticians,such as Edgeworth, Levasseur, Galton, Guy, Korosi, von Neumann-Spallart,and others,are pubMarshall, Mouat, Giffen, over these lishedin the Society's GoldenJubileevolume. Sir Rawson, presiding sessions,deliveredthe openingaddress [33, pp. 2-12]. He was elected the first presidentof the InternationalInstitute of Statistics,foundedat this meeting, whichheld its first meetingin Rome in 1887 [57, pp. 246, 260]. He suggested Rawson was regardedas "the Nestor of Britishstatisticianls."
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tonof exportsor imin one of his papers "the use ofvaryingprice of an average ports as a sort of an index numberfor measuringthe change in the value of money" [46]. Rawson was chairmanof the LibraryCommitteeof the Society, and he left the statisticalportionof his libraryto the Society. One obituary recordsthat "the Society has been deprived of both its senior Fellow and of one who has done morethan perhaps anyone else toward placing it in its present satisfactory condition" [45].6 Rawson, the eldest son of Sir William Rawson, K.B., was born in London and educated at Eton. In 1830 he was appointed private secretaryto Mr. Poulett Thompson, vice presidentof the Board of Trade, and served in the same capacity to Mr. Alexander Baring who succeeded Mr. Thompson in 1834. He again servedin the same capacity to William Gladstone in 1841 who to the Govwas then vice president.In 1842 he was appointed civil secretary to Mauritius. In 1854 he beernorGeneral of Canada, and in 1844 treasurer came colonial secretaryat Cape of Good Hope, duringwhich period he was ofthe Bahamas, and honoredwiththe C.B. In 1864 he was appointedgovernor of WindwardIslands. In 1875 he rein 1869 he succeeded to the governorship tiredfrompublic service,and in the same year he was honoredwithK.C.M.G. [59, Vol. 1, pp. 588-9].
9. SIR FRANCIS GALTON
(1822-1911)
Sir Francis Galton, eugenist, explorer,psychologistand statistician,the fatherof correlation analysis,created a numberof statisticaltools. As early as Genius,began to develop statisticaltech1869, Galton, in his workHereditary niques, statingon page 26: "The method I shall employ . . . is . .. theoretical law of 'deviation froman average'," whichhe acknowledgeshas been used by to the famousBelgian statisticianQuetelet. Galton claims that he is the "first treat the subject in a statisticalmanner." In the prefaceof this work,Galton says: has beenadvocated by a The theory ofhereditary scouted, though usually genius, in thepast as wellas in modern times. But I mayclaimto be thefirst fewwriters and to in a statistical to arrive at numerical results, to treatthesubject manner, on heredity. from an average" intodiscussion introduce the "lawofdeviation Galton describesthe incidentwhich gave rise As to the idea of correlation, to its developmentas follows: I first under which clearly grasped arebeing Asthese lines written, thecircumstances weresolely concerned with thatthelaws ofHeredity theimportant generalisation in statistical recalled to mymemory. It wasin arevividly deviations units, expressed hadbeengiven to ramble ofNaworth where an invitation thegrounds freely. Castle, recess in therockby the in a reddish A temporary shower drove meto seekrefuge else acrossme,and I forgot Theretheidea flashed sideofthepathway. everything in mygreat for a moment delight [18,p. 300].
6 Besides contributing of otherworks, many papers to its Journal,Rawson also was the authorof a number of Cooliesand Valuationof theRupee in Mauritius, includingReportson MauritiusCensus of 1851, Immigration on Islands, Reports oftheHurricaneof 1866 in those Description oftheBahamas,and an Account 1845-64, Statistical Vital BarbadosCensusof1871 and RainfallofBarbados1873-74,Britishand ForeignColonies(1884), International Barometer (1890and TradeoftheBritishEmpire,1884-85,Our Commercial Statistics (1885), SynopsisoftheTariffs totheUnited or Approaches 91), OceanHighways Kingdom(1894) [49,pp. 200-1; 50, p. 1071.
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The date of this famous idea is 1888. Galton also relates anotherincident, line: whichpertainsto the regression
to display the freI had given much time and thoughtto Tables of Correlations, quency of cases in whichthe various deviationssay in stature,of an adult person, measuredalong the top, are associated withthe various deviationsof staturein his measuredalong the side. I had long used the convenientword "midmid-parent, after the statureor othercharacter parent"to expressthe averageofthe two parents, had been changedintoits male equivalent.But I could not see myway ofthe mother one mornAt length, to expressthe resultsof the completetable in a singleformula. ing, while waitingat a roadsidestationnear Ramsgate fora train,and poringover ran in the diagramin my notebook,it struckme that the lines of equal frequency but my eye, being accusconcentric ellipses. The cases were too few forcertainty, the solution.More careful satisfied me that I was approaching tomedto such things, the first corroborated impression [18,302]. drawing strongly
Galton firstused the term "correlation"on December 20, 1888, when his paper, "Co-relationsand Their Measurement" was read beforethe Royal Soin 1889 that ciety. It was not until the publication of his Natural Inheritance the terms "correlation"and "regression"became known [57, pp. 226--7,268,
270-2].
to the theof Galton's many conltributions Thus 1869 markedthe beginning oryofstatistics.He devised the ogive curve (1875), the symbolofthe coefficient but later changedto regression), of correlation, meant reversion, r, (whichfirst (1877), the quartile deviation (1879), the median (1883)-although Fechner had the same idea independently-the percentilesystem (1885), the index of Galton correlation (1888), and the use ofthe normalcurveforgradingchildren. was responsiblefor the introductionof graphical methods in mapping the of the use of statisticalmethodsin the field weather,and he was the originator are so well describedby two wellof biology.Galton's statisticalcontributions knownauthorities, Karl Pearson and Helen M. Walker,that readersare urged to consultthem [43, 55]. Galton joined the StatisticalSociety of London in 1860, "but his association with the Society was not close" [51, pp. 179, 225]. He served on the council in 1875. He read threepapers before from1869 to 1879,and was vice president the Society. was the youngest of seven Galton, born in Duddeston, in Warwickshire, a memberof the Society of Friends,was a banker,and his children.His father, persons. His two grandfathers motherwas related to a numberof prominent wereboth Fellows of the Royal Society,and his cousin was the famousCharles Robert Darwin (1809-1882). Afterbeing educated at several private schools, Galton attended King Edward VI's grammar school, then studied at the Hospital, and completedhis medical education at King's College. Birmingham His parentswishedhimto be a physician,but he later changedhis mindabout medicine and enrolledin 1840 at Trinity College, Cambridge,graduatingin in1843. His fatherpassed away in 1844, leaving him a considerablefinancial travelforthe next and so he was able to spend much timein foreign heritance, few years. In 1850 he, along with Dr. Charles J. Andersson,exploredcertain unknownareas in Africa. An account of his experiencesresultedin a book, The Narrativeof an Explorer in Tropical South Africa (1853), which went
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throughseveral editions. This explorationearned him in that year the gold medal of the Royal GeographicalSociety and in 1854 the silver medal of the French Geographical Society [19]. In 1855 Galton wrote another work, the Artof Travel,whichalso wentthrough several editions.In 1856 he was elected a Fellow ofthe Royal Society. Duringthe years 1860-63 he was the editorofan annual volume, Vacation Touristsand Notes of Travels. Galton now became interestedin meteorologyand in 1863 published his work Meteorographica. This was followedby otherwritings in meteorology so that he became a member ofthe meteorological and its successor,the meteorological committee council, as well as being connectedwiththe Kew Observatory.He was thus associated with the meteorologicalcommitteefor about fortyyears, ever since its beginning[10, Supp. Vol. 2, pp. 70-3; 11, Vol. 11 (1910) pp. 427-8; 12, Vol. 6, pp. 553-4]. The publication of the Originof Species by Charles Darwin in 1859 encouragedGalton to make a study of heredity whichresultedin several works,Hereditary Genius (1869), whichwent throughseveral editions,English Men of Science (1874), Inquiries Into Human Faculty and Its Development (1883), and Natural Inheritance (1889). At the 1884 InternationalHealth Exhibition in London he set up the firstAnthropometric Laboratory, which measuredover 9,000 persons.At the close ofthisexhibition, the laboratorywas establishedat the Science Museum, South Kensington.This later became the foundationof the well-known biometriclaboratoryat the UniversityCollege, London [38, pp. 1167-72; 44]. Because of the possible anthropological significance, Galton now turnedhis talents to the study of fingerprints, and several works appeared, namely,Finger Prints (1892), BlurredFinger Prints (1893), and FingerPrint Directories (1895). This systemis now employedall over the world. Galton was a mostprolific writer[49, p. 89; 50, p. 47]. His Memories in 1908 lists 182 writings. Pearson has listedover 220 papers and fifteen books. He was, and learned societies at home and moreover,a member of many scientific abroad. He was the recipientof honorarydegrees fromOxford,which conferredthe D.C.L. on him in 1894, and fromCambridge,which honoredhim with the D. Sc. in 1895. The Royal Society bestowedupon him threemedals: The Royal Gold Medal in 1886, the Darwin Medal in 1902, and the Copley Medal in 1910. In 1908 the Linnaean Societygave him a medal in honorof the Darwin-Wallace Celebration. In 1901 the Anthropological Institute awarded him the Huxley Medal. He was knighted in 1909 [58, pp. 562-3; 59, pp. 265-6]. ofthe BritishAssociationforthe Advancement Galton was generalsecretary of Science from1863 to 1868,and twicehe declinedthe presidency. Four times he was presidentof its Sections; twice of its GeographicalSection in 1862 and Section in 1877 and 1885. He was presi1872, and twice of its Anthropological dent ofthe Anthropological Institutefrom1885 to 1888. Galton servedforseveral yearson the Council ofboththe Royal GeographicalSocietyand Statistical Society of London, and was vice presidentof the latter in 1875. He was also ofthe Royal Society Chairman,Committeeof Management,Kew Observatory of a 1889-1900. In his will he lefta sum of45,000 pounds forthe establishment Karl Pearson. Chair of Eugenics to be occupied by his close friend,
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10. SIR ROBERT
Sir Robert Giffen, economist,economicjournalist,editorand statistician, is well knownas the head of the statisticaldepartment of the Board of Trade, as the editorof the Journalof theRoyal StatisticalSociety(1876-1891), and as a prolific writeron economicstatistics.In 1867 Giffen became a memberof the StatisticalSocietyofLondon, and he first servedon the councilin 1871. He was electedits honorary secretary for1873-74 and 1876-82,and he was editorofits Journalfrom1876 to 1891. He was vice president of this Society,1880-81, and its presidentfortwo years 1882-84 [51, pp. 227-8]. He read eleven papers beforethe Society and threebeforeSection F of the BritishAssociationforthe AdvancementofScience. He was twicepresident ofSectionF in 1887 and 1901. He assistedin the founding ofthe InternationalStatisticalInstitutein London in 1885. He was an outstandingmemberof the Political Economy Club from 1877 to 1910. He was also one of the foundersof the Statist, to whichhe contributeda numberof articles,and of the BritishEconomic Associationin 1890, now known as the Royal Economic Society, in which he held office as vice presidentat one time. He contributed articles,knownas CityNotes,"received fromR.G.," to the EconomicJournalfromits first volume in 1891 up to his death in 1910. The Royal Statistical Society honoredhim with its Guy Gold Medal in 1894. As a statisticianGiffen was highlyregarded.He was chiefstatisticaladviser to the BritishGovernment, and he was forwhichhe preparedvarious reports, frequently called upon to presenthis views beforeroyal commissions and committees.One obituarynotice observed that he "was the most popular, if not the ablest, statisticianof modern times.... He was singularly painstakingand carefulin weighingstatisticaldata, and his power of imaginationwas of immense use in suggesting to him the key to many an economicproblem" [20, p. 529]. Anothernotice containsthis quotation:
I thinkthat one ofthefeatures me most of Sir Robert Giffen's workwhichimpressed was its extraordinary rapidityand certainty, whether he was piercingto the heart of a complicated or whether mass of statisticsand extracting theirreal significance, he was composingthe luminousand originalmemoranda,which he tossed offat lightning speed withlittleapparenteffort. He has an almostuniquepowerofcarrying his statistics in his head; theywerealways at his command,and he was neveroverwhelmed he neverlost his gripon by them.In the mostcomplicated mazes of figures the realitiesforwhichthe figures stood,and he neverseemedto lose his bearingsor his finesense of proportion.... With an acute perceptionof the thingsthat were not measuredor unmeasurable, he first surrounded the official statisticswith an atmosphereof caution, and then cleared away the mistby the use of bold estimates.For these estimateshe had an ofthe arithmetical sense almostamounting forthe probableerror to genius,a feeling factorsused, and a courageousrejectionof measurement wherethe inaccuracywas forthe relativeimportance of numbers.He too great. He had an intuitivefeeling used to expresshis conclusion as to the adequacy of the data by sayinghe could, or ofthe modcould not, "givea figure." He appearsto have had littleor no knowledge ern mathematical but arithmetical sense was so strongthat he theoryof statistics, was able to proceedsafelyand withknowledge calculationswhose validity through could onlybe establishedmathematically [21, pp. 319-21].
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This obituary closes with the last sentence reading: "Giffendeserves to be honoredwiththe Masters of StatisticalScience." One writerstates:
a prolific on economic,financial, Giffen, and statisticalsubjects,possessed a writer luminousand penetrating mind,greatstoreofinformation, an intimate acquaintance withbusinessmatters and methods, and shrewdjudgment.His instructive handling of statisticsand his keen eye forpitfallscontributed greatlyto raise the reputation and encouragethe study of statistics in this country, thoughhe did not develop its techniqueby the highermathematical treatment [10, Supp. Vol. 2, pp. 104-51.
Anotherwriter declares: "Giffen's numerousstatisticalstudiesare models of clear expositionand of legitimatestatisticalinference. He paid littleattention to the mathematicalanalysis of statisticaldata and was acutely aware of the limitations commonlyinherentin quantitative material" [12, Vol. 6, pp. 656-7]. Some of his papers are regardedas classics. One is his presidentialaddress beforethe StatisticalSociety of London in 1883, entitled"The Progressof the WorkingClasses in the Last Half Century,"whichwas followedin 1886 with "FurtherNotes on Progressof WorkingClasses During Last Half Century." Anotheris "Recent Accumulationsof Capital in the United Kingdom," (1878) followed by "Accumulationsof Capital in the United Kingdom, 1875-85," (1890). Still anotheris "The Use of Import and Export Statistics,"(1882). His book, The Growth of Capital (1889), is one of the early estimates of national wealth. His papers and books comprisea remarkablerecordfor a top official who wrotemost of them outside his regulardepartmentalduties. They reveal his wide acquaintance withmany problemsand his "unusual powerof accurate generalizationfrom voluminous and complex evidence." Richmond MayoSmith,a distinguished Americanstatistician, who termedGiffen as "the greatest livingstatisticianin England," was criticalat timesof Giffen's handlingof some statistics,althoughat othertimeshe praised Giffen's statisticalwritings [37]. During his twenty-one years with the board he was mainlyresponsiblefor the noteworthy in official improvements economic statistics,and he rendered much valuable assistance to royal commissionsand committees.He directed the first national census of wages in 1886.7 was born in the small Lanarkshiretown of Strathaven,and received Giffen his early education in the village school. His fatherwas a small merchantand an elder of the Presbyterian Church. At the age of thirteen, Giffen moved to Glasgow, wherehe spent several years (1850-1855) as a clerk in a solicitor's office. He attended part of the time classes at the Universityof Glasgow, but did not graduate. In later years (1844) this Universityhonoredhim with the degree of doctor of laws. In 1860 he became a reporter and sub-editorof the StirlingJournal.In 1862 he moved to London wherehe workedforthe Globe
7 He was the author of many books, some being AmericanRailwaysas an Investment (1872); StockExchange Securities;An Essay on theGeneralCauses of Fluctuations in TheirPrice (1877); Essays in Finance, First Series (1880; fifth edition1890); Essays in Finance,SecondSeries (1886; thirdedition1890); TheGrowth ofCapital (1889); The Cas8e,Against Bimetallism (1892; second editionin the same year); and EconomicEnquiries and Studies,two volumes(1904) whichcontainsmiscellaneous writings and addresses.He lefta manuscript whichwas publishedin 1913as a book,Statistics, editedby HenryHiggs withtheassistanceofG. UdnyYule. This volumecontains nothing on statisticalmethods[49,p. 99; 50, p. 49].
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as sub-editorand served until 1866. He then joined the Fortnightly Review underJohnMorley (later ViscountMorley), and in 1868 he became associated withthe LondonEconomist under the famousWalter Bagehot, as an assistant editorforthe years 1868-76. During part ofthisperiodof 1873 to 1876,he contributedarticlesto the Times and the Spectator, and also served as city editor of the Daily News [11, Vol. 12 (1910), p. 4]. He joined the Board of Trade in 1876 as chiefofits statisticaldepartment. In 1882 he was made assistantsecretary of the board, and was also placed in charge of the commercialdepartment. This had previouslybeen entrustedto the foreignoffice, but was now made a part of the statisticaldepartment. In 1892, a thirddepartment, labour, was mergedwith the statistical departmentand Giffenwas then appointed of the Commercial, Labour and Statistical Department Controller-General [57, p. 184]. Giffen was responsible forthe considerable improvement of official economicstatistics.In 1897, at the age of sixty,he retiredfromthis position. He was honoredin 1895 with the rank of K.C.B., afterbeing made a C.B. in 1891 [58, p. 582].
11. FRANCIS YSIDRO EDGEWORTH
(1845-1926)
Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, originallynamed Ysidro Francis Edgeworth, economist, editor,and statistician, is highlyregardedby many as the philosopherofstatistics.Some claim he is the oustandingstatisticianofthe nineteenth His writings, scatteredin many English and foreign century. periodicals,cover a wide varietyof subjects, includingprobability, law of error,law of change, index numbers,types of averages, method of least squares, bankcorrelation, ing, prices,rates of births,deaths and marriages [57, p. 261; 8]. The decade ofthe 1880's marksEdgeworth'sinitialand strong interest in the theoryof statistics.At that time six papers on the theoryof probabilityappeared (1883-84), the first one bearingthe titleof "The Law of Error" and appearingin the PhilosophicalMagazine (1883). This paper was the foundation of a later paper of the same title appearing in the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions (1905). At the beginning of this same periodin 1880, Edgeworth was appointed Lecturerin Logic at King's College. In 1885, at the Golden Jubilee of the Royal Statistical Society, he delivered a remarkable paper, "Methods of Statistics,"employing ideas of leading thinkers such as Laplace, Lexis, and Venn, whereinhe advanced the scientific basis for the theoryof statistics [33, pp. 181-217; 57, pp. 230-1]. This epoch-making paper served to bringthe calculus of probabilityinto practical use and demonstrated that 'in the apparatus foreliminating chance the most importantpiece of mechanismis the law oferror or probability curve" [51, p. 179-80]. During thisdecade Edgeworthwas greatlyinfluenced by threeworks:Lexis' Zur Theorie derMasTodhunter's History of Probabilityand Venn's Logic of sener-scheinungen, Chance. In the 1880's Edgeworth was a lonely pioneer in the somewhatunknownworldof statisticaltheory, and it was not until around 1895 that Bowley, Pearson and Yule became his statistical companions [51, p. 180]. From 1887-90, Edgeworthwas busily engaged in the study of index numbers,holding also office as secretary of the committee of Section F of the BritishAssociation forthe Advancementof Science. In this scholarlywork he not only ex-
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amined carefully such aspects as the relativevalue ofaverages,the appropriate weightsto employ,the applicationof the law of error, etc., but he also showed considerableinterestin the several economicangles of this problem [9, 18881891 volumes]. In 1890 he was appointed Tooke professor of economicscience and statisticsat King's College, a chair distinguished forits outstandingprofessors,some being Reverend J. E. Thorold Rogers, Reverend William Cunningham,E. J. Urwick,and FriedrichA. von Hayek. In 1891 he resignedthis chairto succeed Thorold Rogers as DrummondProfessor of Political Economy at OxfordUniversity, and served untilhe retiredas EmeritusProfessor in 1922 [10, Vol. 1922-30, pp. 284-5]. In 1892 his firstpaper on correlationbearing the title, "On CorrelatedAverages," appeared in the PhilosophicalMagazine. As to his statisticalwritings, Bowley points out that:
The numerousstatisticalstudiespublishedbetween1893 and 1926 are to a very largeextentthe working out ofideas expressed or latentin the papersalreadynamed, withnumerousapplicationsto a greatvarietyof problemsand withcriticaland explanatoryreferences to the workof otherwriters. Throughout the two scorepapers listed forthese years run the threadof the importance of sound fundamental ideas on probabilityin all mathematicalstatisticsas opposed to purelyempiricalwork [52, p. 622; 7, p. 118].
Edgeworth, regardedas "one ofits mostadmiredand trustedleaders,"joined the Royal StatisticalSocietyin 1883,servedon its council,withshortintervals, from1886 to 1912,0andwas its president in 1912-14. The Annals records:
His workfortheSocietylay mainly, eitherthrough papersor through contributions to Miscellanea,in the applicationof mathematics to the study of social and other problems. No subjectwas too greator too smallfortheuse ofhis analysis-the theory of banking,the flowof wasps through a cycle of operations, variationsin the rates of births,marriages, and deaths,chancein examinations, the rationale of exchange, psychical research wereonlya part ofthe materialto whichhe vigorously appliedhis in the innercirclesof the Societyin tools.... He was the greatestacademic figure the last fifty of friends yearsand the mostcharming to all those who werehonoured by his acquaintance [51, pp. 237-9].
Since Bowley has so well classifiedand described Edgeworth's statistical writings, the readeris referred to thisvaluable memorialwork.In the introduction Bowley states:
In the arrangement of subjectsI have endeavouredto followthe logical sequence that was always presentto his mind.... First comes "Probability"and "Credibasis of the whole is laid. Secondly,"The Law of bility,"in whichthe philosophic Error" and the "The Method of Translation,"in which the implicationsof the postulateof plural causationare workedout in the lightof the theoryof pure prob" where,cases being taken to ability. Thirdly "Applicationsto Special Problems, whichthe theoryis definitely variaapplicable,the use of the methodin measuring the accidental (or random) fromresultsof directcausations,and in distinguishing ofchance") is illustrated tion ("the elimination in manypracticalstatistical problems. held verydefinitely Edgeworth the opinionthat it was not sufficient to measurethe variationof a statisticalresultsimplyby the statement of a standarddeviation,but that it was necessary to connectthisstandarddeviationwitha law oferror, to assign ofit) wouldbe exceeded,and to relatethisprobthatit (or a multiple the probability inthisuse always performs The modulus abilityto credibility by the inversemethod, this completefunction. Fourthly,a shortsectionon "The Best Mean" is mainlydevoted to an explanationof Edgeworth's of the median,whichdepends championship on an understanding ofpartsofthe previoussections.Therefollows an accountofhis
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early contributions to the theory of correlation, so that it may be determined how far a claim for priorityin its development is valid, and finallya note on his concept,on of the relations between the theories and methods of probability and of political economy [6, pp. 4-5].
Edgeworthwas an active memberofthe BritishAssociationforthe Advanceof Section F in 1889. He was elected as president mentof Science,holdingoffice a Fellow of the BritishAcademy in 1903. He was a veryactive memberof the Royal Economic Society, servinga term as vice president.He distinguished as editor,then as chairmanof the editorial by servingfirst moreover, himself, as joint editorwithJohnMaynard Keynes, of the Economic board, and finally issue in M\Iarch 1891. He servedup to the day beforehis Journalsince its first this scholarlyjournal influenlce, death, February 13, 1926. Under his inspiring achieved internationalprominence. County Longford,Ireland, was the Edgeworth,born at Edgeworthstown, youngestof fivesons. He was educated at home under tutorsuntil the age of seventeen,and in 1862 attended TrinityCollege, Dublin, but apparentlydid and in 1868 to Balliol College, where not graduate. In 1867 he wentto Oxford, class honorsin Literis Humanioribus,the great school of he was awarded first year, although he did not receive the A.B. degree Philosophy,the following until 1873 [58 (1926), pp. 875-6]. In 1877 he obtained the M.A. degree and in the same year he was admittedto the bar, but he never practiced.He preand lecturing[12, Vol. 5, pp. 397-8]. In 1877 to spend his time writing ferred he published a paper-coveredvolume of 92 pages, New and Old Methodsof on IHenry Sidgwick'sMethodsof Ethics (1874). In Ethics,being a commentary Psychics: 1881 he publisheda slendervolume of about 150 pages, Mathematical to theMoral Sciences. In 1883 he An Essay on theApplicationof Mathematics SocietyofLondon (now the wrotehis first paper forthe JournaloftheStatistical Royal Statistical Society), bearing the title "The Method of Ascertaininga Change in the Value of Gold." In 1884, his paper "The Philosophyof Chance" appeared in Mind, this being a critique of Venn's Logic of Chance (1883). In or theMethod ofMeasuring 1887 he publishedhis thirdand last work,Metretike, These threeworksare the only books Edgeworthproand Utility. Probability duced in his life. He was apparentlymore inclinedto writenumerousarticles and many book reviews,as well as to edit the EconomicJournal,the official quarterlyof the Royal Economic Society. These activities took the greater years of his life [34, p. 234; 36, p. part of his time duringthe last thirty-five in economicswer e selected,edited and revisedby 151]. His principalwritings Edgeworth,and publishedin threevolumes,Papers Relatingto Political Econpapers omy,by the Royal Economic Society in 1925. They containthirty-four to statistical theory,embracing reviews. His contributions and seventy-five seventy-four papers and nine reviewsare collectedand arrangedby Bowley in to Mathematical Contributions 139-page volume entitled F. Y. Edgeworth's whichthe Royal Statistical Society publishedin 1928. Statistics,
CONCLUSIONS
of the featuresstand out in the lives and accomplishments Many interesting men whose workhas been reviewedin the precedingpages. Of the eleven lead-
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ing British statisticians,six, Babbage, Edgeworth, Farr, Galton, Guy and Newmarch,Playfair,Porter, Jevons,werecollegegraduates,whilefive,Giffen, Two, Farr and and Rawson, werenot. Only Edgeworthhad any legal training. in vital statistics,forone thing,to Guy, were physicians,intenselyinterested findsome means of reducingthe death rate. Only four,Babbage, Edgeworth, Galton, and Jevons,had post-graduatetraining.Not one taught a course in statistics.Only one, Farr, was connectedwiththe national census,namelythat of 1851, 1861 and 1871. Eight, Babbage, Farr, Galton, Giffen, Guy, Jevons, Newmarch,and Porter,wereFellows of the Royal Society,whilethree,EdgeGuy, Newmarchand Rawson, worth, Playfairand Guy, werenot. Four, Giffen, wereeditorsof the JournaloftheStatistical SocietyofLondon,now the Journal Guy, Newmarch of theRoyal StatisticalSociety.Six, Edgeworth,Farr, Giffen, of the StatisticalSociety of London, knownsince and Rawson, werepresidents Guy, Jevons,New1885 as the Royal Statistical Society, while five,Giffen, and marchand Rawson, served as honorarysecretaries.Three, Galton, Giffen Giffen won the Guy Gold Medal Rawson, wereknightedby theirgovernment. of the Royal Statistical Society, while none received the Guy Silver Medal. Rawson was for many years presidentof the InternationalInstitute of StaFarr, Giffen, Jevons tistics,foundedin 1885. Finally six, Babbage, Edgeworth, and Newmarch,were at one time presidentof Section F-Statistics-of the BritishAssociationforthe Advancementof Science. to the theoryof statisticswere Edgeworth, Three outstandingcontributors Galton and Jevons;Edgeworthin the areas ofprobability, correlation and index and Jevonsin the fieldsof averages, Galton in the fieldof correlation, numbers, index numbers,ratio chart,seasonal variation,secular trend,and crises,now known as business cycles. Edgeworth distinguishedhimselfas editor of the when he sugcontribution EconomicJournal. Newmarch made a significant gested the use of variations fromthe average, now known as dispersion,and particularlyin his 1869 presidentialaddress when he stated that statistics basis. He thusseemsto ha-ve possessed shouldbe placed moreon a mathematical than most ofhis contemporaries. and foresight Babbage morestatisticalinsight as the founderof two importantstatisticalorganizations, will be remembered Section F-Statistics-of the BritishAssociationforthe Advancementof Science in 1833, and the Statistical Society of London in 1834-warmly aided by his friend Playfairwillbe remembered Quetelet,thefamousBelgian statistician. as the founderof graphic methodsin statistics,and Farr forhis outstanding for establishing work in developingBritishvital statistics; Porter and Giffen statisticaldepartmentof the Board of Trade. and developingthe well-known Britishstatisticians century, Finally, it appears that, even in the nineteenth to the theoryofstatistics contributions weremakingnewerand moresignificant than Americanstatisticians, probablybecause of the fact that Britishstatisticians in generalhad a bettermathematicaltraining.
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London: Longman,Green, [31 Babbage, Charles,Passages FromtheLifeofa Philosopher, Longman,Robertsand Green,1864. Engines,London: E. and F. N. Spon, [4] Babbage, HenryPrevost,Babbage'sCalculating 1889. C. S. I., 'The Historyand DevelopmentofStatistics Athelstane, [51 Baines, Sir Jervoise ofStatistics, JohnKoren,editor, NewYork: in GreatBritainand Ireland,"TheHistory The Macmillan Company, 1918. London: Contributions to Mathematical Statistics, [6] Bowley, A. L., F. Y. Edgeworth's Royal StatisticalSociety,1928. 2 (1934), 113-24. [7] Bowley, ArthurL., "Francis Ysidro Edgeworth,"Econometrica, [81 Bowley, A. L., "MiscellaneousNotes; F. Y. Edgeworth,"Journalof theAmerican 21 (1926) 224. StatisticalAssociation, [91 British Associationof the Advancementof Science, Reportsof, London: various volumes. London: Oxford University Press,variousvolumes. ofNationalBiography, [101 Dictionary Press, 1910, various [11] EncyclopaediaBritannica,Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity volumes. of theSocial Sciences,New York: The Macmillan Company,various [121 Encyclopaedia volumes. London: Bradburyand Evans, various DivisionIII, Biography, [13] EnglishCyclopaedia, volumes. Societyof London, [141 "Dr. WilliamFarr, C.B., D.C.L., etc.," Journalof theStatistical 46 (1882), 350-1. [15] Fitzpatrick, Paul I., "Leading AmericanStatisticiansof the NineteenthCenturyAssociation, 53 (1959). II,'" Journal oftheAmerican Statistical of H. Gray, "HistoricalDevelopmentof the GraphicalRepresentation [161 Funkhouser, Statistical Data," Osiris, 3 (1937), 280-90. Also contains several photographsof Playfair'scharts. [171 Funkhouser,H. G. and Walker,Helen M., "Playfairand His Charts," Economic of Playfair'scharts. History, 3 (1935), 103-9. Also containsseveral photographs of My Life. London: Methuenand Co., 1908. [181 Galton,Francis,Memories oftheRoyalStatistical [191 "Obituary-Sir FrancisGalton,D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S.," Journal 74 (1911), 314-20. Society, ofthe RoyalStatistical [20] "Obituary-Sir RobertGiffen, K.C.B., F.E.S., LL.D.," Journal 73 (1910), 529-33. Society, Economic Journal, 20 (1910), 318-21. [211 "Sir RobertGiffen," [22] Greenwood,Major, Medical Statistics fromGrauntto Farr, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,65, 69-71, 1948. and Reports Documents Relatingto BritishBanking, [23] Gregory, T. E., SelectStatutes, Press, 1929. 1832-1928, Vol. 2, Oxford:OxfordUniversity Society of London, [24] "Dr. WilliamA. Guy, F.P.C.P., F.R.S.," Journalof theStatistical 48 (1885), 650-1. 13 (1946), [25] Hayek, F. A., "The London School ofEconomics,1895-1945,"Economica, 6-8. and Statisticians Today," Journal ofTheAmeriHarold, "British Statistics [26] Hotelling, can Statistical Association, 25 (1930), 186-90. 1885. London: Edward Stanford, [27] Humphreys, Noel A., VitalStatistics, and Its Social [28] Jevons,W. Stanley,A Serious Fall in theValue of Gold Ascertained, 1863. Set Forth in Two Diagrams,London: Edward Stanford, Effects and Finance, H. S. Foxwell, ed., [29] Jevons, W. Stanley, Investigations in Currency London: Macmillan and Co., 1884. London: Macmillan and [30] Jevons,H. A., Letters and Journalof W. StanleyJevons, Co., 1886. [31] "ProfessorWilliam Stanley Jevons, F.R.S.," Journal of the StatisticalSociety of London,45 (1882), 484-7. [32] JournaloftheStatistical Society ofLondon,variousvolumes.
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Leading British Statisticians of the Nineteenth Century Author(s): Paul J.

BRITISH STATISTICIANS NINETEENTH CENTURY

Porterwas a pioneerin the use of index numbers,as Westergaardreveals:

Anotherstatistician,Simeon North, President of the American Statistical Association(1910), pointsout:

address beforethe Statistical Society of London, spoke highlyof Farr by indicating:

AMERICAN STATISTICAL ASSOCIATION JOURNAL, MARCH 1960

Then he goes on to enumerateeighteenfields, the last one being:

Later on in this address,he emphasizes:

10. SIR ROBERT

[33] JubileeVolume,StatisticalSociety of London, London: Edward Stanford,1885.

Dictionary of Political Economy, London: Macmillan and Co., 1926,

CambridgeUniversity Press, 1924 and 1930.

CambridgeUniversity Press, 1922.

Centenary Appraisal, Cambridge:

London: The Royal StatisticalSociety,1921. The Royal StatisticalSociety,1934.

New York: Wiley,1952. New York: Wiley,1952.

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