CHINESE JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICS Vol.53, No.

1, 2010, pp: 92102

RESEARCH ON TECTONO-THERMAL EVOLUTION MODELING METHOD FOR SUPERIMPOSED BASIN WITH THE JIANGHAN BASIN AS AN EXAMPLE
ZHAO Chang-Yu1 , SONG Hai-Bin2 , QIAN Rong-Yi1 , SONG Yang2,3 , HUANG Xing-Hui2,3 , CHEN Lin2 , TIAN Li-Hua4
1 School of Geophysics & Information Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China 2 Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources Research, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China 3 Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100049, China 4 China Petroleum Jidong Oileld Exploration and Development Research Institute, Tangshan 063004, China

Abstract Tectono-thermal evolution modeling based on geodynamic methods is an important method for studying sedimentary basins thermal history. We restored superimposed basins complex and long-time evolution by using balanced cross-section method, and inverted for its paleo-heatow by using multiple-stage nite extensional and compressional strain rate method, with Yisui prole in the Jianghan Basin as an example. Finally, we calculated the paleo-temperature of superimposed basin. Thus, we established a workow of multiple-stage extensional and compressional modeling, in which tectonic restoration, paleo-heatow inversion, lithosphere temperature reconstruction, and sedimentary basin temperature inversion are combined, and sedimentary basins thermal evolution is coupled with that of the lithosphere. Key words Superimposed basin, Tectono-thermal evolution, Strain rate, Paleo-heatow, Paleo-temperature

1 INTRODUCTION Liu Guangding proposed to carry out comprehensive geophysical researches and basin modeling in the 1980s, and proposed an important topic about the pre-Cenozoic residual basins in the middle of the 1990s[1,2] . The methods of basin modeling can play important roles in the exploration of pre-Cenozoic petroliferous basins. Evolution of residual basins is a complex process, and it is dicult to be solved by traditional qualitative methods of basin analysis. Because the qualitative methods of regional tectonic evolution and basin analysis can not satisfy the requirement for residual basins explorations, quantitative basin modeling methods are needed for exploring the hydrocarbon distribution in pre-Cenozoic marine-facies residual basins. Basin modeling includes the reconstructing of the process of tectono-thermal evolution of prototype basins which has been altered and superposed, and especially the process of petroleum generation, migration, accumulation, secondaryhydrocarbon generation and accumulation, based on the researches of geology, geophysics, and geochemistry. It can be used for the estimation of favorable position and hydrocarbon reserves. So basin dynamic modeling has great signicance for the exploration of sedimentary basin and for the second-round hydrocarbon resources exploitation in China[3,4] . Modeling of tectonic and geo-thermal evolution are the major contents for petroliferous basins dynamic modeling[5] , which provide the basis for simulation of hydrocarbon generation, discharging and migration history in the basin. Generally, tectonic evolution modeling methods include forward subsidence rate, 1D back-stripping, and balanced cross-section. Considering the eects of uplift-erosion and overthrust nappe, and deformation of folds, 1D back-stripping method can not meet the requirements for buried and subsidence history modeling for Paleozoic basins. Balanced cross-section method has a great signicance in polycyclic and multiple-stage tectonic modeling. Thermal evolution modeling methods include thermal indicator method and tectono-thermal method.
E-mail: youful@sohu.com *Corresponding author: hbsong@mail.iggcas.ac.cn

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Thermal indicator method can restore the paleo-temperature after mineral reached the maximum temperature, therefore it is useless for the paleo-temperature restoration for the time period before the sedimentary basins deposited deeply. This paper is focused to model the tectonic and thermal evolutions of Yisui section in Jianghan basin, by using multiple-stage nite extension and compression strain rate method[6,7] . Tectono-thermal evolution modeling based on the geodynamic methods is useful to study the thermal history of sedimentary basins on a deep and wide view of lithosphere scale. And it is benecial to exploring deep dynamic actions and tectonic activities, combining shallow eects such as rapid deposition and erosion, and studying the thermal regime of sedimentary basins. In recent years, most of the researches on tectono-thermal evolution modeling in China are focused on the rift basins in the eastern China[815] . And present simple models of tectono-thermal evolution for rift basins can not be tted for modeling the complex tectono-thermal history of marine-facies sedimentary basins. Quantitative modeling is helpful to understand the tectonic and thermal regimes of superimposed sedimentary basins, by analyzing the geodynamics of these large marine-facies sedimentary basins in Chinese continent comprehensively, and developing the tectono-thermal evolution models for these superimposed basins in China. There are three steps for modeling the complex tectonic and thermal evolution of superimposed basins. The rst step is to model tectonic evolution by using balanced cross-section method. The second step is to determine basement heat ow by using multiple-stage nite extension and compression strain rate method. The third step is to calculate the paleo-temperature distribution based on the results of tectonic evolution and paleo-heat ow inversion. Thus, we realized the modeling of tectonic reconstruction, basement heat ow inversion, lithospheres temperature calculation, and sedimentary basins temperature structure estimation, which combined the thermal evolution modeling on the scale of lithosphere and sedimentary basin. Fig. 1 shows the basic workow.

Fig. 1 Flowchart of tectono-thermal evolution modeling

BSC: Balanced Cross-Section

2 BASIC METHODS OF TECTONIC EVOLUTION MODELING The balanced cross-section method has been widely applied in structural geology and petroleum geology (such as basin analysis and basin modeling) studies, which is useful for both extensional tectonics and compressional tectonics (such as Orogenic Belt). The balanced cross-section method can be used for setting up the model, balance processing, tectonic restoration for regional tectonics on the basin scale and local tectonics. And it can deal with Airy isostatic correction, exural isostatic correction and decompaction. It is also useful in seismic interpretation[16] . In this paper, the balanced cross-section method was used to model the tectonic evolution history of superimposed basins. In earlier time, Chamberlin[17,18] , Buche[19] and Dahlstrom[20] used the method of balanced cross-section to determine the detachment depth for concentric fold. Dahlstrom[20] , Suppe[21,22] and Verrall[23] made the most contributions to improving and developing the theory of balanced cross-section. The theoretical basis of the balanced cross-section method is the law of conservation of matter. The matters volume is maintained between pre- and post- deformation. And the matter conservation will be simplied to area conservation along the prole vertical to the tectonic strike. If the thickness of strata keeps constant after the deformation event, it will be simplied to length-conservation. These conservation principles can be used to restore the deformed structure to its pre-deformation state. The main laws of balanced cross-section include area conservation[24] , thickness conservation, length conservation, displacement conservation (for the same fault) and shortened amount

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conservation[25,26] . The tectonic restoration methods are as follows[27] : (1) Line length unfolding: this algorithm is based on the law of length conservation. It is tted for restoring parallel folds, such as exural deformation. The disadvantage of the algorithm is that it will cause an abrupt change in bed thickness. (2) Flexural slip unfolding: this algorithm follows the laws of thickness conservation, area-conservation, and length conservation. It is tted for restoring concentric folds and parallel folds (Fig. 2). The folds with thickness variations can be unfolded as follows: We divide the strata to parallel thin beds with same thickness according to a template bed and separate these beds to two parts in inexion points, then we construct a slip system for this fold. We restore the limb of folds to a horizontal datum (or dened datum) by using slip system unfolding method, according to the thickness relationship between the template bed and these thin beds in the slip system, at last we can unfold it by using the parallel-bed shear method. (3) Restoration: this algorithm is best tted for attening a regional dipping structure (Fig. 3). The deformation strata can be justied to a horizontal datum (or a dened datum) by using vertical shear or inclined shear to process unfolds. The disadvantage of the restoration algorithm is that the line length can not be maintained during the unfold process between the deformed and pre-deformation states, When the incline is larger, the loss of the line length becomes serious.

Fig. 2 Processes of restoration with Flexural Slip Unfolding (Midland Valley Exploration. Ltd)
(a) The slip system of exural slip unfolding; (b) Geometry after exural slip unfolding.

Fig. 3 Processes of restoration with Restore method (Midland Valley Exploration. Ltd)
(a) Geometry before restoration; (b) Geometry after restoration.

(4) Inclined shear: this algorithm is closely related with the geometry of the fault, which is based on the research results of fault geometry and hanging wall deformational features[23,28,29] . This algorithm is tted for penetrated deformation along the fault, such as large detachment fault, listric-normal fault. It can be applied for the reverse or forward modeling of inverted basins and detachment faults by setting dierent parameters (fault displacement, shear vector). (5) Fault Parallel Flow: this algorithm, developed by the University of Keele[30,31] , can model the kinematic features of the hanging wall induced by fault-parallel shear action. It is especially tted for modeling complex structures such as fault-related folds, thrust belts, salt structures and inversion structures, etc. It follows the laws of area-conservation and length conservation. The basic steps are as follows: we divide the deformed structure to small blocks along the fault plane, combine the inexion points which separate each block to two

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equivalent parts to ow lines and we can restore these blocks to the pre-deformation state by unfold slipping along the fault (Fig. 4). (6) Trishear: this algorithm, developed by Colorado State University[32] , is designed to model deformed geological structures within a triangular zone associated with the faults. The Trishear algorithm can be used for the forward or reverse modeling of the fault-related folds (such as Triangular zone) (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4 Processes of restoration with Fault Parallel Flow algorithm method (Midland Valley Exploration. Ltd)
(a) Geometry of thrust; (b) Processes of Fault Parallel Flow algorithm method; (c) Geometry after restoration.

Fig. 5 Trishear for tectonic modeling (Midland Valley Exploration Ltd.)

(a) Before deformation; (b) After deformation.

Beside the above methods, some simple methods such as rotation and horizontal shift can be utilized for the restoration of Domino structures. The thermal evolution of sedimentary basins is controlled by the strength of the lithosphere. There is larger subsidence when the strength of the basin is much weaker than that of the periphery. Meanwhile, the tectonic subsidence is controlled by the initial lithosphere thickness, and tectonic activity also controlled the basin basements geometry. By modeling tectonic evolution history and calculating the tectonic subsidence, we can estimate the extent of the extensional and compressional activity (stretch factor, ). Then we can invert for the basal paleo-heatow and basins paleo-temperature by using the stretch factor ( ). 3 THE BASIC METHOD OF THERMAL EVOLUTION MODELING 3.1 Finite Extension Strain Rate Method In the nite extension strain rate method, we assume that the basal heat ow of the basin is stably and uniformly distributed before the extension process[6,7] . The surface temperature is T (z = a) = 0, and the temperature of the lithosphere bottom is T = Tm (1300 C). The lithosphere and the crust are stretched with horizontal velocity u(x), and the asthenospheric material is owing upwards across the plane z = 0 to replace the outowing lithosphere. The vertical velocity v (z ) decreases from V0 at the lithosphere bottom and vanishes at z = 0, which is assumed to vary linearly with z : v (z ) = G(a z ), (1)

where G = V0 /a is the gradient value of the vertical velocity which changes with the depth, namely the strain rate. According to the law of conservation of matter, the parameter G in Eq.(2) is related to the horizontal velocity based on the continuity equation: u v = = G, (2) x z where the horizontal velocity u(x = 0) = 0 u(x) = dx = Gx. dt (3)

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Integrating over a time interval td yields Eq.(4): x = exp(Gtd ), x0 (4)

where x0 and x are distances from the coordinate origin, before and after the extension process. Since x/x0 = , Eq.(5) is yielded which relates and G: = exp(Gtd ). (5) When lithosphere deformation occurred in pure shear strain eld, and the eect of lateral heat conduction and radioactive heat are neglected, the relevant heat ow equation describing the thermal evolution of the lithosphere in the extension process is: T T 2T + G(a z ) =k 2, t z z (6)

where k is the thermal conductivity. After the extension process nishes (G = 0), the cooling stage of lithosphere begins, then the changes of temperature satisfy the Eq.(7): T 2T =k 2. t z (7)

The thermal equilibrium state is maintained before the lithospheric extension begins. The temperature is as follow: T (z, t = 0 ) = Tm (1 z/a), (8) Eq.(9) is the boundary condition T = 0, Tm , z = a, z = 0. (9)

Lithosphere temperature evolution during the extensional stage is calculated by thermal conductive Eq.(6) with the advective term, combining the initial and boundary condition (Eq.(8) and (9)), when 0 < t td . Then the paleo-heatow is calculated by Eq.(10) q (t) = k T z .
z =a

(10)

He et al.[9] studied multiple-stage extensional model based on McKenzies instantaneous model. Jarvis et al. presented 1D nite extension model. He assumed that the strain rate was a constant (G = V0 /a) during the extension stage, and vanished after the extension. In this paper, we utilize Eq.(11)
[33]

G(t) =

G0 exp(t/ ), 0 t td 0, t > td ,

(11)

where G0 is strain rate at t = 0, and the decay speed of the strain rate is controlled by the constant . The relation between G and is: = exp[G0 (1 exp(td / ))]. (12) 3.2 Inversion of Multiple-Stage Finite Extensional and Compressional Strain Rate Method The strain rate method can also be used in basement heat ow inversion for multiple-stage extensional and compressional basins. At the extensional stage, the lithosphere is stretched and thinned, which causes the asthenospheric material upwell. At this situation, the horizontal velocity u(x) > 0, the vertical velocity v (z ) < 0, the stretch factor > 1, and the strain rate G > 0. In the extensional stage, the heat ow reaches the maximum. The heat ow is higher when the stretching factor is larger. After the extension, the lithosphere enters a long stage of cooling shrinkage. Then the heat ow presents exponential decay, and at last becomes

Zhao C Y et al.: Research on Tectono-Thermal Evolution Modeling Method for Superimposed Basin stable. At the compressional stage, the lithosphere and the crust are inuenced by lateral compressional stress, so the lithosphere thickens. At this situation, the horizontal velocity u(x) < 0, the vertical velocity v (z ) > 0, the stretch factor < 1, and the strain rate G < 0. The horizontal compressional activity also causes heat ow decreased. Under the eect of isostasy, the heat ow becomes stable nally. Figure 6 shows the result of the basal heat ow inversion at one position (x = 104 km) along the Yisui section in Jianghan Basin. We can know that there are multiple-stage extensional and compressional tectonic activities since 230 Ma. We obtained a good tting of the tectonic subsidence curves between the real and the inversion one. 3.3 Paleo-Temperature Restoration

97

Fig. 6 1D paleo-heatow inversion of Yisui Section (x = 104000 m)

(a)Lithosphere temperature evolution; (b) Heatow evolution; (c) Tectonic subsidence change with time, the tting curve is in red.

Based on the modeling of tectonic evolution, we selected several basement key points and used the multiplestage nite extension and compression strain rate method to calculate the strain rates, the stretching factors and the heat ows. The paleo-heatows are calculated from the stretching factors. At last, paleo-temperature can be calculated from the following equation:
z

T (t, z ) = T0 + Q(t)
0

1 dz, K (z )

(13)

where T0 is the surface temperature, Q(t) is the paleo-heat ow, K (z ) is the thermal conductivity of the strata, and z is the depth. 4 APPLICATION OF YISUI SECTION IN JIANGHAN BASIN Jianghan Basin lies in the middle part of Yangtze block, bounded to the west by Huangling anticlinorium, to the north by Qinling-Dabie orogenic belt, and to the south by Jiangnan-Xuefeng uplift zone, and it presents oblique triangular shape (Fig. 7). Jianghan Basin is a superimposed basin which developed on pre-Sinian continental basement and consisted of multiple prototype basins. It has experienced multiple-stage extension and compression tectonic activity, which causes the complexity and variety of Palaeozoic reservoir. In recent years, there are few studies on the thermal history of Jianghan Basin. Most of the studies utilized the method of thermal indicator[34] , and focused on the Cenozoic fault-sag basin[3538] . We modeled complex tectonic and thermal evolution of superimposed basin by using tectono-thremal evolution method based on geodynamics, with Yisui prole in the Jianghan Basin as an example. 4.1 Tectonic Evolution Modeling of Yisui Section in Jianghan Basin Jianghan Basin experienced multiple-stage extension and compression tectonic activity from Palaeozoic to Mesozoic era. The main characteristics were the whole uplift and subsidence with local stratigraphic erosion. The average sedimentary thickness was about 1400 m to 1600 m with the maximum of 2100 m during the Cambrian period. It had a relatively large sedimentary thickness in the central part during the Silurian Period, which was about 3300 m. From the Devonian to middle Triassic period, the thickness was about 2000 m, and there was less sediment in the northern part or the strata were eroded completely later. In the late Triassic to early-middle Jurassic period, it was an environment of interior lake setting. The depressions were uplifted and parts of Triassic strata were eroded due to the inuence of Indo-China movement during the late Triassic

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Fig. 7 Tectonic regionalization of Jianghan Basin

AA -Yisui section, BB -Jianying section, CC -Linhuang section, DD -Yihong section.

period. In the middle-late Jurassic period, the interior lake faded due to the crustal uplifting. In the end of Jurassic period, there were extensive folds due to intensive compressional action, sediments above the water surface were eroded, and in some regions T3 to J1 strata were eroded completely. In the early Cretaceous period, previous compressional environment was changed to extensional one. Instead of compression, thrust-nappe structure and uplifted erosion, extensional, faulted sedimentary structure and negative inversion structures developed widely. Meanwhile, extensive deposition developed. In the late Cretaceous period, rifting became gradually weak, then the whole Jianghan Basin uplifted due to the basal uplift and the strata eroded after the deposition gradually nished. In the Paleogene period, the extensional stress orientation changed from NE during the Cretaceous period to SEE. In this period, subsidence and deposition centers changed their positions. In the Neogene period, sediment with the average thickness of 700 m was deposited (Fig. 8). 4.2 The Paleo-Heatow of Yisui Section in Jianghan Basin During the late Sinian to Middle Devonian period (570390 Ma), the period of Caledonian Movement, Tongwan Movement and Yichang Movement, the basal HF (Heat ow) increased slowly along the whole prole. The average HF was about 57 mW/m2 at 570 Ma, and it was gradually increased to 60 mW/m2 at 390 Ma, with the highest value about 64 mW/m2 . During the middle Devonian to late Triassic period (390240 Ma), under the inuence of Dongwu Movement, Yunnan Movement and Kunming Movement, the average HF decreased gradually to 5557 mW/m2 . During the middle Triassic to middle Jurassic period (240159 Ma), under the inuence of IndoChina and early Yanshan movement, the average HF increased. In the central and southern areas, the HF reached historical maximum which was normally above 62 mW/m2 and reached 6568 mW/m2 in some areas. While in the northern areas, the average HF was about 60 mW/m2 . During the late Jurassic to late Cretaceous period (15997 Ma), the phases II-IV of Yanshan epoch, the average HF decreased again and decreased to about 53 mW/m2 at 97 Ma, and only retained high heat ow value in the central part of Yisui section with the maximum of about 60 mW/m2 . After the late Cretaceous period, the basal heat ow showed obvious regional characters as follows. In the southern part of Yisui section, it showed only one rising process, the heat ow was higher in the northern area than in the southern area and it was about 59 mW/m2 in present

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Fig. 8 Tectonic evolution of Yisui section in Jianghan Basin

(a) Present section; (b) Before Miocene; (c),(d) Before Palaeocene; (e) Before Cretaceous; (f) Before late Triassic; (g) Before Middle Triassic; (h) Before Devonian; (i) Before Silurian; (j) Before Ordovician.

years. In the northern area of Yisui section, there are two stages of HF variation. In the late Cretaceous period (9765 Ma), the HF decreased generally and was higher in the southern area and lower in the northern area. It reached the minimum value about 5048 mW/m2 from south to north at 65 Ma. After that, the HF wholly increased and reached 54 mW/m2 in present years. In the central part of Yisui section, it showed complex heat ow variation. In the late Cretaceous period, the HF increased rapidly from 52 mW/m2 to 56 mW/m2 , and it was 1 mW/m2 higher in the southern part than in the northern part. In the Paleogene (6523 Ma) period, the HF dierentiated again. The

Fig. 9 Inverted paleo-heatow of Yisui section in Jianghan Basin

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HF in the southern part decreased rapidly and reached 52 mW/m2 , then increased to 54 mW/m2 . Meanwhile, the HF in the northern part decreased slowly and had a weak disturbance at 23 Ma. Present HF of north part was about 56 mW/m2 , although there was a 2 mW/m2 change from 65 Ma to present (Fig. 9). 4.3 The Paleo-temperature of Yisui Section in Jianghan Basin The distribution of paleo-temperature was stable at 570 Ma. The geothermal gradient was about30 C/km in Bahong, the northern area of Yisui section. The geothermal gradient increased from the northern part to the southern part in the central area of Yisui section, which was about 42 C/km at Chenhu-Tuditang in the central-northern area and about 4854 C/km at Lexiangguan-Qianjiang in the central-southern area. In the southern area of Yisui section, it was about 5158 C/km at Dangyang. At 460 Ma, there was a weak geothermal disturbance in the northern area and it was about 29 C/km, and it was about 40 C/km in the central-northern area, about 42 C/km in the central-southern area, and about 45 C/km in the southern area. Previous distribution of geothermal distribution was inherited at 390 Ma. At 240 Ma, there was a weak geothermal disturbance in the central-northern area. It was about 2830 C/km in the northern area, about 3438 C/km in the central-northern area, about 36 C/km in the central-southern area, and about 35 C/km in the southern area. At 230 Ma, it was about 2830 C/km in the northern area, about 3336 C/km in the

Fig. 10 Paleo-temperature evolution of Yisui section in Jianghan Basin

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central-northern area, about 35 C/km in the central-southern area and about 34 C/km in the southern area. At 135 Ma, it was about 30 C/km in the northern area, about 36 C/km in the central-northern area, about 37 C/km in the central-southern area and about 36 C/km in the southern area. At 65 Ma, it was about 26 C/km in the northern area, about 3235 C/km in the central-northern area, about 33 C/km in the central-southern area and about 2432 C/km in the southern area. At 23 Ma, it was about 27 C/km in the northern area. The geothermal gradient decreased rapidly in the southern part of central-southern area, unlike the previous small rise. And the geothermal gradient increased slowly to about 3034 C/km in the northern part of the central-southern area. The geothermal gradient increased rapidly and reached 35 C/km in the southern area. Present geothermal gradient was about 27 C/km in Bahong, the northern area of Yisui section. It was about 34 C/km at Chenhu-Tuditang, the central-northern area, about 3133 C/km at Lexiangguan-Qianjiang, the central-southern area, and it was about 34 C/km at Dangyang, the southern area of Yisui Section (Fig. 10). 5 CONCLUSION Deep geodynamic process of tectonic regime transfer not only controls the complex and superimposed geological structure of sedimentary basin, but also inuences its shallow temperature eld and thermal regime. The tectono-thermal evolution modeling method based on geodynamics is useful to study the thermal history of sedimentary basins on the deep and wide view of lithosphere scale. Multiple-stage nite extension and compression strain rate method can work well for superimposed basin which has experienced multiple-stage complex and long history. Meanwhile, we have built a multiple-stage extension and compression tectono-thermal evolution modeling workow, which contains tectonic restoration, basement heat ow inversion, lithospheres temperature calculation, and sedimentary basins thermal evolution inversion. We combine the thermal evolution modeling of lithosphere and sedimentary basin, and use the strain rate method to study multiple-stage extension and compression process in thermal evolution modeling on the lithospheric scale, then realize the conjunction of tectonic and thermal modeling for polycyclic and compressional and superimposed basin, and have a new thought for superimposed basins research. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was supported by the National Major Fundamental Research and Development Project of China (2007CB411704) and by the Marine-Facies Foresight Project of the China Petroleum and Chemical Corporation. REFERENCES
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