Research Article

Biogeochemical contrasts between mid-Cretaceous carbonate platforms

and Cenozoic reefs
YASUFUMI IRYU* AND TSUTOMU YAMADA
Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Aobayama,
Sendai 980-8578, Japan (E-mail: iryu@dges.tohoku.ac.jp)
Abstract Carbonate sediments of mid-Cretaceous platforms on Allison and Resolution
Guyots, Mid-Pacic Mountains (ODP Leg 143, Sites 865, 866, 867 and 868) and those of
upper Oligocene to Pliocene reefs of the Kita-daito-jima Borehole were studied. The mid-
Cretaceous platforms abound with abiotic (?) precipitates (ooids) and microbial carbonate
grains/sediments (oncoids and algal laminites), whereas the Cenozoic reefs consist mainly
of coral and non-geniculate coralline algae, major frame-builders, benthic foraminifers and
codiacean alga (Halimeda). There exists a remarkable difference in a mode of calcication
between the mid-Cretaceous platforms and Cenozoic reefs. The major reef-builders of
Cenozoic reefs precipitated carbonates within closed to semiclosed spaces within their
bodies. In contrast, the mid-Cretaceous platforms contain abundant grains/sediments
formed by chemical (?) precipitations and biotic extracellular calcication. This contrast-
ing feature reects different modes of biogeochemical cycles between the mid-Cretaceous
and Cenozoic. Increased CO
2
(degassed by active volcanism) and resultant high tempera-
ture and intensive weathering may have brought high concentration of Ca
2+
and HCO
3
-
into the mid-Cretaceous sea, which enhanced abiotic and extracellular calcication. Inverse
processes are true for the Cenozoic.
Key words: biogeochemical cycle, carbonate platform, Cenozoic, Cretaceous, reef.
The Cretaceous period is characterized by the
anomalous Earths system with respect to heat
ux, biogeochemical cycles and climate. There
occurred extraordinarily active global volcanism
caused by superplumes which formed huge oceanic
plateaus in the Pacic and Indian Oceans such as
the Mid-Pacic Mountains, Ontong-Java Plateau
and Shatzky Rise (Larson 1991; Tarduno et al.
1991), and batholiths were formed (Arthur et al.
1985). The production rate of oceanic crusts was up
to 1.51.75 (Larson 1991) or more than two (Kaiho
& Saito 1994) times more rapid than the present.
Increased tectonic activity raised the Cretaceous
atmospheric CO
2
levels. Berner (1994) calculated
that the CO
2
levels in the Early Cretaceous were
approximately four times greater than the present
and that mean global atmospheric temperatures
were 59C higher than the present. Sea level was
100200 m higher than the present and ooded
approximately 20% of the continental area (Barron
et al. 1980). Deep-sea sedimentary records docu-
INTRODUCTION
A Phanerozoic history is marked by alternating
periods of warm and cool climates. The warm
periods are dened as those during which the
climate was globally warm, as indicated by the
abundance of evaporites (Frakes et al. 1992) and
carbonates (Kazmierczak et al. 1985; Given &
Wilkinson 1987; MacKenzie & Morse 1992), with
little or no polar ice. They are supposed to be
prevalent in the Early Cambrian to Late Ordovi-
cian, Late Silurian to Early Carboniferous, Late
Permian to Middle Jurassic and Late Cretaceous
to Early Tertiary in the Phanerozoic (Frakes et al.
1992). In contrast, the cool periods experienced
global refrigeration during which ice sheets were
widespread around the poles.
*Correspondence.
Accepted for publication 25 May 1999.
1999 Blackwell Science Asia Pty Ltd.
The Island Arc (1999) 8, 475490
476 Y. Iryu and T. Yamada
ment that ocean temperatures (both surface and
bottom water) in the Cretaceous were signicantly
warmer than the present and that there has been
a lowering of temperature since the Cretaceous
with brief intervals of warming (Shackleton &
Kenett 1975; Savin 1977; Miller et al. 1987). These
data clearly show that a climatic change from the
Cretaceous onwards is one of the most represen-
tative transitions from the warm greenhouse to
cool icehouse Earth.
This paper aims to compare biotic and abiotic
carbonate production and sedimentation between
the warm and cool phases registered in mid-
Cretaceous carbonate platforms on Allison and
Resolution Guyots, Mid-Pacic Mountains, cored
by ODP Leg 143 (Sager et al. 1993) and upper
Oligocene to Pliocene reefs observed in the
Kita-daito-jima Borehole drilled in 1934 and
1936 (Sugiyama 1934, 1940) and cropping out at
the surface, and to discuss their signicance from
a biogeochemical point of view.
In this paper, limestones are basically described
according to the Dunham (1962) classication
modied by Embry & Klovan (1971).
OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS
MID-CRETACEOUS CARBONATE PLATFORMS
Site 865 (Allison Guyot)
Allison Guyot is located on the western Mid-Pacic
Mountains at 1810-50N, 17900-50W (Fig. 1).
The guyot has a domed upper surface rising
approximately 300500 m above the platform edge.
Site 865 (1826.41N, 17933.34W), at a depth of
1518 m, contains deposits formed in the former
interior lagoon (Sager et al. 1993; Van Waasbergen
& Winterer 1993). Hole 865 A penetrated 700 m of
shallow-water carbonates (Units IIBIV) overlain
by 140 m of pelagic sediments (Units I and IIA) of
foraminiferal and nannofossil ooze (Fig. 2). The
shallow-water carbonate succession ranges in age
from late Aptian (?)/early Albian (?) to late Albian
(Arnaud-Vanneau & Sliter 1995; Jenkyns et al.
1995; Rhl & Ogg 1996).
Shallow-water carbonate sediments of Allison
Guyot are lithologically divisible into three units
(Sager et al. 1993). These units can be grouped into
two: the lower part of the site (Unit IV) consist-
ing of wackestone and packstone with varying
amounts of benthic foraminifers, molluscs and cal-
careous algae, intercalating thin beds of clay; and
the upper part (Subunit IIB and Unit III) charac-
terized by wackestone and packstone with gas-
tropods, calcareous sponges and siliceous sponge
spicules.
Unit II comprises manganiferous/phosphatized
limestone and is divisible into shallow-water car-
bonates (Subunit IIB) and overlying pelagic lime-
stone and cavity lls (Subunit IIA). Planktonic
foraminifers and nannofossils suggest that pelagic
sediments in Subunit IIA are of early to middle
Turonian age and late Santonian to Maastrichtian
age (Sliter 1995). Subunit IIB, 67.6 m thick, is
Fig. 1 Map showing localities of Sites
865 on Allison Guyot and Sites 866, 867
and 868 on Resolution Guyot in the Mid-
Pacic Mountains.
phosphatized and karstied, consisting of pack-
stone and wackestone, locally with requieniid
rudists.
Unit III is 424.2 m thick and composed of lime-
stone, which is similar in lithology to overlying
limestone in Subunit IIB: wackestone and
mudstone and rare packstone and grainstone
with molds of molluscs. Benthic foraminifers are
common to abundant throughout the unit. Two
subunits can be distinguished within Unit III.
Subunit IIIA is composed chiey of wackestone
associated with minor packstone and grainstone.
Wackestone contains abundant requieniid rudists.
Many of the rudists have articulated valves. Corals
occur locally; high-spired gastropods are common
to abundant throughout the subunit. Underlying
Subunit IIIB is richer in lime mud than Subunit
IIIA and includes some mudstone as well as
packstone. Dasycladacean algae, ostracods,
sponge spicules and sponges are characteristic;
gastropods and rudists are less abundant than in
Subunit IIIA. Dasycladacean algae are scattered
and are generally very poorly preserved. Some
episodic subaerial exposures are indicated during
deposition of this unit by the occurrences of brec-
ciation of well-indurated wackestones, reddish
staining and, in some places, erosional discontinu-
ities within the sediment.
Unit IV, more than 249.0 m thick, is represented
by clayey limestone/claystone, extending to the
base of the hole where it has been intruded by
several basaltic sills. Four subunits are recog-
nized within this unit. Subunit IVA consists of
wackestone and packstone with claystone laminae
(approximately 2 mm thick). Bioclasts include
benthic foraminifers, ostracods, gastropods, bi-
valves, solitary corals, sponges, sponge spicules
and dasycladacean algae. Pebble-sized lithoclasts
of dark gray mudstone (named black pebbles in
this paper) are contained. The facies of Subunit
Mid-Cretaceous carbonate platforms and Cenozoic reefs 477
Fig. 2 Stratigraphic column of Hole 865 A. Note that there exists a possibility that the lower part of the carbonate succession is late Aptian in age
(Arnaud-Vanneau & Sliter 1995).
478 Y. Iryu and T. Yamada
IVB is basically the same as that in Subunit IVA.
This unit, however, has black pebbles in more
abundance and commonly dolomitized, locally
with ne-grained pyrite. Possible desiccation
cracks occur, indicating subaerial exposures.
Benthic foraminifers are abundant throughout.
Subunit IVC distinctively includes dispersed ne
carbonaceous fragments that are more abundant
downhole. This unit is also characterized by inter-
calating beds of carbonaceous mudstone and
intensely bioturbated and stylolitized clayey lime-
stone similar to those described in the upper sub-
units. Dolomitization is pervasive. Black pebbles
are locally abundant. Pyrite is commonly found.
This subunit yields roots in growth position and
coalied woody material. Oyster fragments are
observed in several horizons. Subunit IVD com-
prises clayey limestone and carbonaceous mud-
stone intruded by basaltic sills. The facies of this
subunit is similar to that of Subunit IVC but differs
in having large quantities of oyster and other
bivalve shells. Wood fragments and clusters of
granular pyrite are clearly recognized. No distinct
base for this sedimentary unit was recovered from
Hole 865 A.
Site 866 (Resolution Guyot)
Resolution Guyot is located in the western Mid-
Pacic Mountains (Fig. 1) at 2112-22N, 17410-
30W. The semicircular guyot has a rather at
surface at approximately 13001400 m depth. Site
866, at a depth of 1362 m, was drilled near the
northern edge. Hole 866 A (2119.95N, 17418.8W;
Fig. 3) penetrated a 1600-m-thick Hauterivian to
upper Albian (Arnaud-Vanneau & Sliter 1995;
Jenkyns et al. 1995; Rhl & Ogg 1996) shallow-
water carbonate platform (Units IIIVIII) over-
lain by 24 m of pelagic carbonate ooze (Unit I)
and Cretaceous (?) limestone encrusted by man-
ganese, the detailed nature of which is unknown
(Unit II).
Unit III is 414.9 m thick and composed domi-
nantly of wackestone with mudstone, packstone
and grainstone. Bioclasts include gastropods,
bivalves, benthic foraminifers, echinoids, ostra-
cods, sponges and sponge spicules and dasy-
cladacean algae and much less abundant corals,
serpulids and bryozoans. Most fossils have
dissolved to leave moldic porosity. Intraclasts of
mudstone are commonly found and oncoids occa-
sionally occur. Peloids are distributed in a micritic
matrix but in many places are concentrated
as geopetal lls in burrows. Brown, laminated
calcrete crusts or evidence for incipient calcretiza-
tion is recognized in this unit, becoming more
common in the lower subunit (Subunit IIIC); this
indicates repeated episodic subaerial exposures
during the deposition of this unit. Keystone vugs,
desiccation cracks and fenestrae are identied
at some levels. The degree of porosity and the
abundance of calcrete varies among horizons
within Unit III, which leads to distinguishing
three subunits despite the similarity of the general
lithologies.
Unit IV consists of 232.1 m of bioturbated
peloidal packstone, wackestone and grainstone
with gastropods and foraminifers. Also included
are small shell fragments of bivalves and gas-
tropods and dasycladacean algae. Dark, organic-
rich laminated wackestone, packstone and
mudstone intervals occur at some levels, increas-
ing in abundance downhole. These limestones are
commonly organized into recurring meter-scale
packets. Each packet generally commences with
laminated organic-rich mudstones grading upward
into bioturbated, less organic-rich packstones and
grainstones, overlain by white wackestones with
benthic foraminifers and gastropod molds. Desic-
cation cracks are observed in a single horizon.
Lignitic fragments and large, vertically oriented,
coalied plant fragments are contained.
Unit V, 115 m thick, consists of massive oolitic
grainstone (Fig. 4a). It is locally cross-laminated
and generally well-sorted. Keystone vugs are
recognized at several horizons. Other components
include peloids, aggregated grains, intraclasts,
rare oncoids and bioclasts of bivalve, echinoids,
foraminifers and dasycladacean algae and less
abundant corals and gastropods. Although grain-
stone is the main constituent of this unit, rudstone
and packstone also occur. In some levels, peloids
are more dominant than ooids. The ooids domi-
nantly show radial internal structures but they are
poorly to heavily micritized or primarily micritic,
displaying a peloid-like appearance. Limited bio-
turbation is observed.
Unit VI consists of 412 m of packstone, wacke-
stone, and algal laminites (Fig. 4c), intercalating
centimeter-thick intervals of clay/organic-rich
mudstone (Sager et al. 1993; Fig. 25 on page 207).
This unit is distinguished by lithologies in cycles
and the occurrence of laminoid-fenestral fabrics,
keystone vugs, tepee structures and desiccation
cracks. The occurrence of a thick bed abounding in
rudists and their debris (biostrome) and pervasive
dolomitization below the bed enables subdivision
of the unit into three subunits. Subunit VIA mainly
Fig. 3 Stratigraphic column of Hole 866 A.
480 Y. Iryu and T. Yamada
comprises meter-scale cycles which begin with
centimeter-thick layers of clay/organic-rich mud-
stone that grade up into peloidal packstone-
wackestone and, nally, into algal laminites.
The bioclasts within the packstone/wackestone
include gastropods, bivalves, small-sized benthic
foraminifers and dasycladacean algae. The algal
laminites and clay/organic-rich mudstone locally
contain abundant ostracods. Fenestrae, tepee
structures and desiccation features occur within
the algal laminites. Subunit VIB, 57.8 m thick,
is composed mainly of peloidal packstone/
wackestone and grainstone/rudstone with abun-
dant caprinid rudists and their debris. The
rudist biostrome constitutes most of the subunit:
other components include oysters and benthic
foraminifers. The lithologies in Subunit VIC are
considerably similar to that in Subunit VIA but
differ from the latter by the occurrence of
dolomite. The dolomite is patchily distributed
throughout the subunit, being more common
downhole.
Unit VII consists of 196.3 m of dolomitized
oolitic/peloidal grainstone, oncoidal wackestone
and algal laminites with clay/organic-rich inter-
vals (see Sager et al. 1993, g. 25 on p. 207). The
unit is distinguished by its pervasive sucrosic
dolomitization and the increased contribution of
oncoids. Birds-eye and keystone vugs are dis-
cernible in several intervals. The constituents are
oncoids, peloids, bivalve shells, serpulid worm
tubes, echinoids, rudists, corals and nerineid gas-
tropods. Three subunits can be distinguished
within this unit. Subunit VIIA is composed of
dolomitized wackestone to grainstone. The upper
part of this subunit is characterized by the same
small-scale sequences as the lower part of Subunit
VIC. Peloidal oolitic packstone/grainstone disap-
pears downhole and the sequence is dominated by
facies inter/supratidal deposits that are generally
dolomitized. Subunit VIIB consists of white
sucrosic to, in part, light-red-stained dolomite
that has replaced the original peloidal grainst-
one to a varying degree. Keystone vugs can be
observed. The organization and interrelationship
of facies in this subunit are unknown because of
its extensive dolomitization. Subunit VIIC consists
of variably dolomitized peloidal grainstone, locally
Fig. 4 Thin-section photomicrographs
of carbonate rocks from Resolution Guyot
(a, b, c, ODP Leg 143 Hole 866 A) and
Kita-daito-jima (d, e, Kita-daito-jima
Borehole). (a) Oolitic grainstone of Unit
V (Sample ODP Leg 143 Hole 866 A Core
79R Section 1, Interval 1721 cm). (b)
Slightly dolomitized oncoidal grainstone
with peloids of Subunit VIIIA (Sample
ODP Leg 143 Hole 866 A Core 156R
Section 2, Interval 2327 cm). (c) Algal
laminite of Subunit VIC (Sample ODP
Leg 143 Hole 866 A Core 102R Section
2, Interval 2932 cm). (d) Coral frame-
stone of Unit C1 (Kita-daito-jima Bore-
hole Sample 41, 7.96 mbgs). Note coral
(C), encrusting foraminifers (F) and non-
geniculate coralline algae (A). (e) Bio-
clastic grainstone of Unit C3
(Kita-daito-jima Borehole Sample 711,
136.64 mbgs). Note bioclasts of mol-
luscs (M), benthic foraminifer (arrowed)
and coralline algae (C).
oolitic, which is rich in bivalve and gastropod shell
debris associated with corals, rudists, echinoids,
algae and sclerosponge fragments. Corals and
rudists are more abundant in the lower part
of the subunit. Subunit VIID consists of oolitic
peloidal grainstone, oncoidal wackestone and
local mudstone with interbeds of algal laminites.
Patchy dolomitization is developed throughout.
A typical sequence shows well-developed peloidal
wackestonepackstone with miliolid foraminifers
at the bottom, passing upward into more-or-
less dolomitized mudstone/wackestone, having
birds-eye vugs, oncoids and algal laminites at the
top.
Unit VIII is composed of pervasively dolomi-
tized oolitic grainstone that contains unreplaced
oncoids (Fig. 4b) of up to centimeter-scale (Subunit
VIIIA, 201.6 m thick) and of the basal 18.7 m of
largely undolomitized oolite, which rests on basalt
(Subunit VIIIB). Subunit VIIIA consists of well-
sorted oolitic and peloidal grainstone that locally
contains intraclasts and aggregated grains. Pack-
stone, wackestone and local mudstone levels occur;
the sediment can be classied as rudstone where
oncoids are particularly abundant. Bioclasts in-
clude gastropods, green algae, bivalves, corals,
echinoids and rare bryozoans. Dolomitization is
patchy and irregular in the upper part of the
section but more extensive downhole. Subunit
VIIIB comprises pyritic oolitic grainstone; the
pyrite typically resides in the cores of ooids as
well as in a matrix, and peloids and distinctive
green clasts also occur. Dolomite is moderate in
amount and occurs only as a scattered interstitial
rhomb or as a very thin fringing cement around
ooids.
Sites 867 and 868 (Resolution Guyot)
Sites 867 (2120.96N, 17418.55W) and 868
(2121.17N, 17418.56W) are situated at the
outer rim of the guyot summit. The former site
is located on the perimeter mound and the latter
is just outside the mound. The sequence (Fig. 5)
consists of approximately 30-cm-thick foramini-
feral nannofossil limestone (Unit I) and underlying
shallow-water limestones of variable facies (Unit
II).
Unit II is composed of oatstone, rudstone,
grainstone, packstone and wackestone with minor
mudstone, and contains variable amounts of skele-
tons and fragments of rudists, sponges and corals.
This unit is divisible into three subunits (Subunits
IIA, IIB, and IIC). Subunits IIA and IIB occur in
Site 867; subunit IIC is recognized in Site 868.
Subunit IIA is characterized by the presence
of smoothly sculptured centimeter-scale cavity
systems but not distinguished from the underlying
Subunit IIB in terms of primary carbonate depo-
sitional facies. Subunit IIB is characterized by the
presence of coarse-grained intervals of oatstone
to rudstone interbedded with ner-grained facies
of wackestone, packstone and grainstone. Coarser
intervals are up to 40 cm in thickness, commonly
exhibiting a ning-upward sequence and consist
mainly of shell fragments (caprinid rudists and
nerineid gastropods), intraclasts and peloids, asso-
ciated with fragments of corals, bryozoans, echi-
noids and red and green algae. The packstone and
wackestone contain gastropods, bivalves, rare
coral fragments and oncoids, peloids and black
pebbles. Large rudists and bivalves (Gervillia
and oysters) occur, some of which are found in
Mid-Cretaceous carbonate platforms and Cenozoic reefs 481
Fig. 5 Stratigraphic columns of Holes 867 B and 868 A. Legend as in Fig. 3.
482 Y. Iryu and T. Yamada
probable life position. Benthic foraminifers and
ostracods are locally abundant; dasycladacean
algae are scattered. Algal laminites and birds-eye
vugs are present. Subunit IIC, a probable time
equivalent of Subunit IIB, is characterized by the
presence of several intervals of boundstone
(bafestone). Different types of sponges, major
bafers, occur in growth position overlying the
erosional surface to form thickets up to 20 cm high.
Sponge tubes are commonly covered by encrust-
ing foraminifers and cyanobacterial laments.
Boundstone is interbedded with oatstone and
minor grainstone rich in requiniid and caprinid
rudists, gastropods, sponge fragments and
oysters. These bioclastic grains are commonly
bound and/or coated with cyanobacterial laments.
Possible keystone vugs occur.
CENOZOIC REEFS
Kita-daito-jima
Kita-daito-jima is located in the Philippine Sea
at 2555.657.6N, 13116.719.6E (Fig. 6),
approximately 360 km east of Okinawa-jima. It is
near the northwestern periphery of the Daito
Ridge extending approximately 600 km in a west-
northwesteast-southeast direction (Fig. 6). It is
also located on a lithospheric forebulge of the
Philippine Sea Plate subducting beneath the
Eurasian Plate. The island is semitriangular in
shape, pointed to the south, approximately 4 km
from north to south and 5 km from east to west.
There exists a central lowland encircled by an
elevated area along the coastal periphery of the
Fig. 6 Map showing locality of Kita-
daito-jima (modied from Ota & Omura
1992) and a site of borehole on the
island. OT and RT, Okinawa Trough and
Ryukyu trench, respectively.
island. The latter is 12 km wide, approximately 50
m in elevation (up to 74 m) and consists of inner
and outer ridges, both of which are arranged
more-or-less parallel to the shore.
The Kita-daito-jima Borehole was drilled at an
elevation of 2.5 m near the center of the island in
1934 and 1936 (Sugiyama 1934; 1940). It pene-
trated 431.67 m of shallow-water carbonates. Four
lithologic units can be distinguished within the
borehole (Fig. 7). Carbonates cropping out at the
surface are lithologically divisible into three units:
Units S2, S1, and S0 in descending order (Fig. 7).
The lowest, Unit S0, at the surface, is correlative
to the uppermost, Unit C1, in the borehole.
Unit S2 is very limited in its distribution. This
unit occurs abutting on the cliff of the eastern
shore at elevations less than 10 m. It consists of
framestone abounded with in-situ hermatypic
corals, such as Porites spp. and non-geniculate
coralline algae. Coral debris and up to boulder-
sized limestones derived from underlying Unit S1
also occur.
Unit S1 extends on the island except the central
lowland. This unit comprises reef/fore-reef sedi-
ments and its laterally equivalent lagoonal
deposits (Fig. 7). Its thickness is estimated to be
more than 70 m. The reef/fore-reef sediments
are represented by coral framestone and coral
bafestone, both with abundant in-situ her-
matypic corals and non-geniculate coralline algae.
The framestone contains massive (Porites spp. and
Faviidae gen. et sp. indet.), tabular (Acropora
spp.), and encrusting forms of corals, while the
bafestone includes branching (Acropora spp.)
forms. The bafestone is very limited in its distri-
bution and occurs on the coastal peripheries within
the coral facies. The lagoonal deposits comprise
rudstone with algal-encrusted coral branches,
Halimeda wackestone/packstone and bioclastic
packstone/grainstone. This unit is extensively
dolomitized, with the exception of the western part
of the island.
Unit S0 crops out in the central lowland. This
unit is composed mainly of framestone with
autochthonous hermatypic corals and less abun-
dant rudstone containing coral debris. Dolomitiza-
tion is pervasive in this unit.
Unit C1 mainly comprises pervasively dolomi-
tized coral framestone with occasional grainstone
and packstone (Fig. 4d). It extends to 49.72 m
below ground surface (mbgs) within the borehole.
Possibly in-situ hermatypic corals and non-
geniculate coralline algae occur throughout the
unit. Bioclasts include benthic foraminifers,
coralline algae and echinoids. This unit uncon-
formably overlies Unit C2, judging from probable
indications of episodic subaerial exposures and
subordinate karstication occurring in the upper
9 m of Unit C2: brecciation of well-indurated lime-
stone (packstone [?]) and a reddish staining.
Unit C2 is 52.05 m thick and consists mainly
of bafestone and less dominant framestone.
Dolomitization is pervasive. Branching corals
(Acropora spp.) are abundant in the bafestone.
The branches encrusted by non-geniculate
coralline algae abundantly occur in the lower 11 m
of the unit (approximately 91102 mbgs). Bioclasts
comprise benthic foraminifers, coralline algae,
echinoids and less commonly molluscs.
Unit C3, 107.39 m thick, comprises locally
dolomitized rudstone associated mainly with
grainstone and packstone (Fig. 4e). Rudstone
characteristically includes possible in-situ corals
and much more abundant coral debris associated
with non-geniculate coralline algae. Lower
rudstone/packstone occasionally contains coral
branches encrusted by coralline algae. Benthic
foraminifers are abundant throughout the unit.
Based on lithology, d13C and d18O values, and
Sr isotope ages, this unit is divided into three
subunits (Inagaki & Iryu 1998). They are,
in descending order, Subunits C3a (103.38
122.56 mbgs), C3b (122.56173.35 mbgs), and C3c
(173.35209.26 mbgs).
Unit C4 extends from 209.26 mbgs to the base
(431.67 mbgs) within the borehole. Recovered
material is represented mostly by coarse-grained
sand- to granule-sized drilling slimes. The original
constituents of this unit appear to be packstone
abounded with benthic foraminifers, associated
with bioclasts of corals, non-geniculate coralline
algae, echinoids and molluscs. Carbonates in this
unit are not dolomitized at all.
Omura et al. (1991) obtained alpha-spectromet-
ric
230
Th/
234
U ages of corals from Unit S2.
Their ages range from 113 6 to 133 6 ka, imply-
ing that the unit was formed during the last
interglacial stage (the oxygen isotope stage
5e). Benthic foraminiferal biostratigraphy and
Sr-isotope stratigraphy show that Units C1 (= S0),
C2, C3 and C4 are the Pliocene, late Miocene,
middle Miocene (10.9, 15.5 and 16.1 Ma for
Subunits C3a, C3b and C3c, respectively) and
the late Oligocene to early Miocene (18.824.3 Ma),
respectively, and that dolomitization of Units C1
and C2 occurred approximately 2.0 and 5.5 Ma,
respectively (Hanzawa 1941; Ohde & Eldereld
1992).
Mid-Cretaceous carbonate platforms and Cenozoic reefs 483
484 Y. Iryu and T. Yamada
Fig. 7 Schematic geologic cross-section of Kita-daito-jima with stratigraphic column of Kita-daito-jima Borehole.
DISCUSSION
Comparison between mid-Cretaceous carbonate
platforms on Allison and Resolution Guyots and
Cenozoic reefs on Kita-daito-jima reveals that
there exist signicant differences in their in-
habitants, constituents and topographic features
(Fig. 8). The following differences can be noted.
Ooids, oncoids and other microbial sediments
occur abundantly in mid-Cretaceous platforms.
In contrast, they are lacking or very limited in
Cenozoic reefs.
Corals and non-geniculate coralline algae densely
grow to form rigid frameworks on Cenozoic
reefs but they are rarely found or lacking in mid-
Cretaceous platforms, where rudists and sponge
constitute smaller-scaled bioherms.
Cenozoic lagoonal sediments abound in benthic
foraminifers, codiacean alga (Halimeda), corals,
non-geniculate coralline algae and molluscan
shells, whereas mid-Cretaceous platforms
contain molluscs (including rudists) and dasy-
cladacean algae.
Reef margins of Cenozoic reefs are characterized
by topographic highs where abundant frame-
building organisms, such as hermatypic corals
and non-geniculate coralline algae, occur super-
imposed. This is the site for the formation of
reef facies. Such topographic highs are absent
or poorly developed in mid-Cretaceous
platforms.
It should be noted that sedimentation rates of
carbonate successions on Allison and Resolution
Guyots are of the same order of magnitude as that
of Kita-daito-jima, although frame-building organ-
isms scarcely inhabited mid-Cretaceous carbonate
platforms. In the case of carbonates on the guyots,
the rates are calculated based on major sequence
Mid-Cretaceous carbonate platforms and Cenozoic reefs 485
Fig. 8 Schematic gure showing differences
of constituents between Cretaceous carbonate
platforms and Cenozoic reefs. (Drawings are
after Kauffman & Johnson 1988, Nakamori
1986 and Wray 1977).
486 Y. Iryu and T. Yamada
boundaries and their ages given by Rhl & Ogg
(1996) since the age of top and base of the succes-
sions have not necessarily been determined. In
the carbonates on Allison Guyot, the sequence
boundaries Alb 1 and Alb 12 are discriminated,
respectively, at 793.5 and 180.4 m below seaoor
(mbsf), ages of which are estimated as 111.5 and
101.0 Ma. The sedimentation rate of Albian car-
bonates is calculated to be 58.4 m/106 years. In
Resolution Guyot, the sequence boundaries Ltb
and Alb 12 are recognized at 924.8 and 60.0 mbsf,
respectively. The age of Ltb is 121.0 Ma. The
Aptian to Albian carbonates accumulated at a
rate of 43.2 m/10
6
years. The sedimentation rate
of non-dolomitized lagoonal carbonates on Kita-
daito-jima (Unit C4) is 38.5 m/10
6
years, because
Sr-isotope ages at 428.8 and 217.2 mbgf are 24.3
and 18.8 Ma (Ohde & Eldereld 1992), respec-
tively. Similar rates are reported from Enewetak
Atoll (Saller & Koepnick 1990). These rates may be
interpreted as rates of guyot subsidence = accom-
modation rates rather than as sedimentation
rates and might not reect carbonate-producing
capability of reefs/carbonate platforms. Even if
this is the case, in reality much more carbonates
were deposited in a denite duration (10
6
years) on
mid-Cretaceous carbonate platforms than on
Cenozoic atolls. This is a result of deposition of
huge amount of ooids, oncoids and other microbial
sediments on the mid-Cretaceous platforms.
Our comparative study reveals that oncoids
are among the major constituents of the mid-
Cretaceous platform on Resolution Guyot. These
oncoids are composed largely of thin-laminated
micritic envelopes, with a distinct boundary,
when recognized as such, between the envelopes
and nucleus. Such characteristics, coupled with
the remnants of cyanobacterial laments, rarely
observed in the micritic envelopes, suggest that
cyanobacterial calcication is a likely origin for
these oncoids. In contrast, oncoids are not found
in Cenozoic reef sediments on Kita-daito-jima.
The data accord well with alternating phases of
enhanced and reduced cyanobacterial calcica-
tion proposed by Riding (1992). He stated that
cyanobacteria could provide a long-term index
of marine calcication and that the Phanerozoic
record of marine calcied cyanobacteria shows
marked episodicity (Fig. 9). He termed those
phases when calcied cyanobacteria were com-
mon cyanobacterial calcication episodes (CCE),
which are separated by reduced cyanobacterial
calcication episodes (RCCE). The Middle
Triassic to Early Cretaceous falls within CCE
whereas the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic within
RCCE.
Ooids show a similar occurrence trend to that of
oncoids. Abundant ooids, the primary mineralogy
of which was calcite (Jenkyns & Strasser 1995),
occur in mid-Cretaceous carbonate successions on
Resolution Guyot (Site 866), in contrast to their
complete absence from Cenozoic carbonates on
Kita-daito-jima. This is in good agreement with
predicted secular variations in the abundance
of calcareous ooids and in ooid mineralogy in
Phanerozoic limestone sequences (Fig. 9). Wilkin-
son et al. (1985) documented that the abundance of
ooids varies greatly with ages and that Phanero-
zoic ooids exhibit peak abundances during the
Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician, Carbonifer-
ous, Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous and
Holocene: Sandberg (1983) pointed out that
inferred non-skeletal carbonate (ooid and cement)
mineralogy was low-Mg calcite during the Juras-
sic to Cretaceous (calcite threshold) and high-
Mg calcite and aragonite during the Cenozoic
(aragonite threshold).
There is a signicant difference in modes of
carbonate productions between mid-Cretaceous
platforms and Cenozoic reefs. Organisms domi-
nating Cenozoic lagoonal sediments, such as
benthic foraminifers, codiacean alga (Halimeda),
coral and non-geniculate coralline algae, precipi-
tate CaCO
3
in closed or semiclosed spaces within
their bodies. On the contrary, the mid-Cretaceous
platforms contain abundant chemical (?) precipi-
tates (ooids) and microbial carbonate grains/sedi-
ments (oncoids and algal laminites). The latter
are products of cyanobacteria which precipitate
CaCO
3
on their lament surface by calcication
enhanced by photosynthesis. Similarly, dasy-
cladacean algae, commonly found in lagoonal
muddy facies on mid-Cretaceous platforms, form
their skeletons on their thallus surface by biologi-
cally induced calcication. Such a contrasting
feature suggests that abiotic and biotic extracellu-
lar calcication more readily occurred in mid-
Cretaceous marine environments than in the
Cenozoic. This may reect that concentrations of
Ca
2+
and HCO
3
-
in the Cretaceous sea were much
greater than those in the Cenozoic. The biogeo-
chemical model gives a supportive output for
secular variations of HCO
3-
concentrations in the
oceans over the past 100 million years (Lasaga et
al. 1985); the concentrations around 100 Ma were
approximately three times greater than the
present, showing the general trend of decreases
from the Cretaceous onwards, although the model
predicted that Ca
2+
concentrations for the Creta-
ceous period were not as high as expected.
Consequently, differences in biota and sedi-
ments between mid-Cretaceous platforms and
Cenozoic reefs could be ascribed to differences
in water chemistry in the oceans, resulting from
different modes of global biogeochemical cycles
(Fig. 10). The mid-Cretaceous was a time of ex-
traordinary active global volcanism (Fig. 9) and
rapid spreading rates of plates; the sea-level was
elevated 100200 m higher than the present
(Barron et al. 1980) and the atmospheric CO
2
level
quadruplicated (Berner 1994). Higher CO
2
and
its induced high atmospheric temperatures might
have increased weathering of silicates and carbon-
ates on the continents despite less land area, which
resulted in high concentrations of Ca
2+
(?) and
HCO
3
-
in sea waters. Such marine environments
appear to have been favorable for abiotic precipi-
tation of carbonates and biotic extracellular
calcication. Furthermore, increased hydrother-
mal submarine weathering lowered the Mg/Ca
ratio of circulating water through magnesium
removal, which should facilitate low-Mg calcite
precipitation rather than aragonite and high-
Mg calcite (Wilkinson et al. 1985). The Cenozoic
was a time of decreased volcanism, low spreading
rates, low stands of sea level and decreased ux
of CO
2
to the atmosphere, resulting in cooler
climates and reduced weathering. In those con-
ditions, precipitation of non-skeletal carbonates
decreased, marine organisms formed their skele-
tons within their bodies and aragonite could
precipitate in association with high-Mg calcite.
These two modes of biogeochemical cycles for
the mid-Cretaceous and Cenozoic are basically
in agreement with the submergent mode and
oscillatory mode of MacKenzie & Pigott (1981) or
the calcite sea and aragonite sea of Wilkinson
et al. (1985).
Mid-Cretaceous carbonate platforms and Cenozoic reefs 487
Fig. 9 Carbonate abundance (Kazmierczak et al. 1985; MacKenzie & Morse 1992), non-skeletal carbonate mineralogy (Sandberg 1983), abundance of
ooids (Wilkinson et al. 1985) and enhanced and reduced cyanobacterial calcication episodes (Riding 1992) compared with sea level curves (Vail et al.
1977; Hallam 1984), global abundance of volcanic rocks (Ronov 1980) and mean global temperature (Frakes et al. 1992).
488 Y. Iryu and T. Yamada
CONCLUSIONS
CARBONATE PLATFORMS
Comparative study on mid-Cretaceous carbonate
platforms on the Mid-Pacic Mountains and Ceno-
zoic reefs on Kita-daito-jima led to the conclusion
that their constituents are highly different from
each other. The mid-Cretaceous platforms are
characterized by abundant occurrences of chemi-
cal (?) precipitates (ooids) and microbial carbonate
grains/sediments (oncoids and algal laminites),
whereas the Cenozoic reefs consist mainly of coral
and non-geniculate coralline algae, major frame-
builders, benthic foraminifers and codiacean alga
(Halimeda).
CALCIFICATION
There exists a remarkable difference in mode
of calcication between the mid-Cretaceous plat-
forms and Cenozoic reefs. The Cenozoic reefs
abound with those organisms whose calcication
sites are within their bodies. In contrast, the mid-
Cretaceous platforms contain abundant grains/
sediments formed by chemical (?) precipitations
and biotic extracellular calcication.
BIOTA AND SEDIMENTS
The differences in biota and sediments between
mid-Cretaceous platforms and Cenozoic reefs
might be related to differences in water chemistry
in the oceans. Tectonically induced high CO
2
levels
in the mid-Cretaceous raised atmospheric temper-
atures. The high atmospheric temperatures could
have increased weathering of silicates and carbon-
ates on the continents despite less land area, which
resulted in high concentrations of Ca
2+
(?) and
HCO
3
-
in sea waters. This condition might have
facilitated abiotic precipitation of carbonates and
biotic extracellular calcication. Inverse processes
are true for the Cenozoic.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to the Ocean Drilling Program for
inviting one of the authors (Y.I.) to participate
on ODP Leg 143. Thanks are also due to E.L.
Winterer, W.W. Sager, J.V. Firth and other
members of the ODP Leg 143 shipboard scientic
party and crew for their onboard cooperation; T.
Nakamori and S. Ozawa for discussion and critical
comments on stratigraphy of Kita-daito-jima; K.
Ishizaki for correcting and improving the English
text; G. Eseller and an anonymous reviewer for
providing valuable critical reviews; and J. Nemoto,
R. Takashima, S. Inagaki and K. Odawara for
preparing the manuscript.
This research was nancially supported by
a Grant-in-Aid for Encouragement of Young Scien-
tists from the Ministry of Education, Science,
Sports and Culture, the Government of Japan (to
Y.I.; 07740408) and grants from the Saito Gratitude
Foundation (Sendai, Japan), the Fukada Geological
Institute (Tokyo, Japan) and the Kuribayashi Ikuei
Gakujutu Zaidan (Sapporo, Japan).
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