THEORY OF FIBRE OPTIC TRANSMISSION

IDC

To be covered
Light transmission in glass fibres Modes of light transmission Construction of an optic fibre Capacities and limitations Future developments

IDC

Fundamentals of Operation
Light in the form of electromagnetic energy is guided through an optical waveguide. G Low level of attenuation in fibre G Light will
G

IDC

eflect efract Diffract

Reflection

IDC

Refraction

IDC

iffraction
Incident ray

DIffracted ray

!bstruction

IDC

efractive Inde" #
The more dense the medium the slower the light will travel $ measure of light speed and material density is refractive inde" # % speed of light in a vacuum speed of light in a medium #% & " '() m*s actual light speed in medium

IDC

Light passing from one medium to another with different refractive inde"
passing into a medium of lower refractive inde" the light ray leaves at an angle greater than the angle of incidence passing into a medium of higher refractive inde" the light ray leaves at an angle less than the angle of incidence

IDC

!i"#t Passin" From Hi"# N To !o$ N

Incident ray eflected ray

'

,igh #' Interface Low #+

+ +
IDC

'
efracted ray

!i"#t Passin" From !o$ N To Hi"# N

Incident ray eflected ray

'

Low #+ Interface ,igh #'

+ +
IDC

'
efracted ray

-#.LL/- L$0
#' " -I#1'2 % #+ " -I#1+2
3 0here #' and #+ are the refractive indices of mediums ' and + ' and + are the angles of incidence or refraction into the mediums ' and +

#' % -I# 1+2 % C+ #+ -I# 1'2 C'

3 C' and C+ are the speed of light in the mediums ' and +
IDC

Internal

eflection

$ certain amount of light is always reflected when light travels from one medium into another More light is reflected when light travels from a higher # to a lower # The amount of light reflected depends on the change of # and on the angle of incidence.
G

Critical angle
The angle beyond which the light is totally internally reflected.
IDC

Critical An"le

IDC

-I# 1C2 % #+*#'

."ternal reflection
!ccurs where light travels from a less dense medium to more dense medium. -ame effect as internal reflection but to a much lesser e"tent. Total internal reflection only occurs when the angle of incidence is 4(5

IDC

Construction of a optical fibre

$ tube of concentric glass rings of different refractive inde". e6uires the cladding to be of a lower refractive inde" than the core. Light must enter the core at greater than the critical angle.

IDC

Construction Of A Optic Fi%re

Face view Core Cladding

Coating or sheath

Profile Core n+ % '.:4 % (.) m Cladding n' % '.:;

-heath

Light
IDC

ay

7( m diameter '+7 m diameter +7( m diameter #ylon 8ac9et 1optional2

!i"#t Ra& Tra'ellin" T#rou"# an Optical Fi%re

#' #+ #' i% r #'< #+

Cladding

i r

i r

Core Cladding

IDC

Pro%lems Associated (it# An Air)*lass Interface

adiated light -cratch #+ % air #' % glass Dirt

#' = #+

$ttenuated reflected rays

!il

IDC

 Core is constructed of germanium doped silica glass 1#%'.:)2 Cladding is constructed of near pure silica glass 1#%'.:;2 -heath is constructed of ultraviolet cured plastic

IDC

Fresnel Reflection
efracted ray

i
Incident ray

Fresnel reflection

#' #+

i % Incident $ngle c % Critical $ngle i < c

IDC

Fresnel reflection also occurs at the fibre*air*fibre interface at connectors and leads to some attenuation 3 use inde" matching fluid

!I*HT TRANSMISSION NAT+RE OF *!ASS

G

There are & wavelengths at which there is low attenuation of the light in glass.
(.)7 micrometres 1)7( nm2 '.& micrometres 1'&((nm2 '.77 micrometres 1'77(nm2

IDC

T&pical Attenuation Responses

IDC

(.)7 micrometres
Lowest cost components -hort distance applications + to &.+ d> loss per 9ilometre

'.& micrometres
Most commonly used 1-$ '77(nm2 Long distances and high data rates (.& to (.4 d> loss per 9ilometre

IDC

'.77 micrometres
,ighest cost components Longest distances possible (.'7 to (.; d> loss per 9ilometre

Multiple wavelengths simultaneously multiple"ed on to one fibre % 0DM and now D0DM

IDC

Light must enter the core at such an angle that it stri9es the cladding at greater than the critical angle. G The geometrical cone of accepted angles of entry is referred to as the acceptance cone G ,alf the cone angle is the acceptance angle
G
IDC

Numerical Aperture

Cone Of Acceptance
For ray entering at e"actly & % C

Cladding #+ $ Core #' $ 2 &

$ % $cceptance angle C % Critical angle 2 < $

ay is reflected if
& = C

IDC

#?M. IC$L $@. T? . I- $ M.$-? . !F T,. LIA,T C!LL.CTI!# $>ILITB !F T,. FI> .
#$ % -I# 1 A2
3 0,. . 1 A) I- T,. $CC.@T$#C. $#AL.

#$ % 1#'2 C #+22 #$ % #' -I# 1 +2

G

T,. L$ A. T,. #$ T,. M! . LIA,T T,. FI> . 0ILL C!LL.CT

IDC

!i"#t Collection For

ifferent NAs

IDC

!i"#t Collection For ifferent iameter Cores

a
Cladding #+ Core #' D'

D1 < D2

-mall diameter core

a % b
Cladding #+

b
Core #' D+

IDC

Large diameter core

Larger the #$ the more dispersion that occurs and the lower the bandwidth. >ut cheaper light sources can be used 1L.Ds2. G -maller the #$ the less dispersion occurs with corresponding higher bandwidth. Light sources can be e"pensive 1lasers2
G

IDC

Break End Day 1

G

Duestions E Tomorrow we continue with the theory of Fibre optic transmissionF..

IDC

Modes of operation
G

!ptical fibres carry varying numbers of rays of light.

From one to many thousands

.ach ray is referred to as a mode of light. G Fibres with large #$s or diameters suffer from modal dispersion
G
IDC

Modal dispersion
,igh order mode Low order mode

#+ #'

Input pulse

Fundamental mode

!utput pulse

IDC

Inters&m%ol interference due To modal dispersion

#+ #'

Input pulses

!utput pulses

I-I leads to errors and transmission failure Dispersion is measured in ns*9m % (Do2 Di 2 )1/2
IDC

Do G Di % pulse width at output and input in ns

Num%er Of modes carried In a fi%re

'(((( '((( #umber of discrete modes '(( '( '

'
IDC

'(

'(( Core diameter in m

ifferent N profiles
I #& 1air2 #+ #'

(a)

#'

#+ #& Distance along diameter I D

#& 1air2 #+

(b)

#+ #& Distance along diameter D

I #& 1air2

(c)
IDC

D #& Distance along diameter D

Multimode fi%res
G G G G G G G
IDC

Carry many modes of light Two types 3 -tep and Araded Inde" Core diameters of 7( micrometres or more Distance of operation up to 79m Digital bandwidth of + C &(( Mbit*s 0avelength of operation )7( or '&(( nm Light sources generally L.Ds

Step Inde, Multimode Fi%re

G

G G

G
IDC

$ step index fibre has a core and cladding with different refractive indices but each of which are constant when loo9ed at cross sectionally. This forms an optical waveguide Travelling modes decrease as #$ and diameter decrease. 1More significant decrease with diameter2. Sin le or mono mode fibres carry only one mode.

-T.@ I#D.H M?LTIM!D. FI> . C! . # I '.:) CL$DDI#A # I '.:; #$ % (.'; 3 (.7 $ttenuation +.; 3 7( d> *9m 1)7(nm2 Modal Dispersion '7 C :( ns * 9m >$#D0IDT, up to 7( M,J C 9m

IDC

*raded Inde, Multimode Fi%re

I #& 1air2 #+ D #+ #& Distance along diameter D

Input pulse

!utput pulse

IDC

*raded Inde, Multimode Fi%res

G

Core to cladding refractive inde" changes gradually from '.:) to '.:; $ttenuation +C'( d> *9m 1)7(nm2K (.: 3 (.+7 d> *9m at '&(( G'77( nm #$ I (.+ $cceptance angle I '+ degrees Modal dispersion less than 7 ns * 9m >andwidth up to & A,J C 9m

G G G
IDC

Cheaper overall systems G .asier to terminate and splice G Three main constructions
G

7(*'+7*+7( ;+.7*'+7*+7( '((*'+7*+7(

G

#$ I (.+ #$ I (.+L7 #$ I (.+4

IDC

The smaller the core diameter the lower the attenuationK the higher the bandwidthK but the less signal energy coupled into the fibre.

MONOMO E FIBRES
$ step inde" fibre with a very small core G Carries only a very small number of modes G $lso core and cladding refractive indices are very close in value. Therefore the critical angle is very large 1-nell/s Law2. This helps reduce travelling modes.
G
IDC

Monomode Fi%res
#& 1air2 #+ #' I

#' #+ #& Distance along diameter D

Input pulse

!utput pulse

IDC

e6uires precise TH alignment or lose power into the cladding G #o modal dispersion G Typical spec. ).7*'+7*+7( 1typically )C4um core2 G $TT.#?$TI!#
G

(.&( T! '.( d> *9m $T '&(( nm (.'7 T! '.( d> *9m $T '77( nm
G

>$#D0IDT,
Areater than :(A,J @resently :( Abps with D0DMs
cont

IDC

#$
(.' T! (.'7 Mery small acceptance angle therefore must use laser with precise alignment

Distance between repeaters

?p to +(( 9m for up to +.7 Abps

0avelength of operation
Most common is '&(( nm Moving towards '77( nm as this has lower attenuation.

IDC

ifferent Fi%re ata Rates istances

'(((

'((

-*M -*I '77( m Laser -*M -*I '&(( m Laser M*M A*I '&(( m Laser

Data ate C Mbit*s '( M*M A*I '&(( m L.D ' M*M A*I )7( m L.D M*M -*I '&(( m L.D M*M -*I )7( m L.D '( +( &( :( 7( ;( L(

)(

4(

'((

''(

'+(

'&(

Distance C Nilometres

IDC

M*M % Multimode -*M % -ingle mode -*I % -tep inde" A*I % Araded inde"

Cost
Monomode cable is cheaper than multimode cable OOO TH * H e6uipment is & to '( times that of multimode e6uipment

IDC

Optical fi%re Band$idt#

G

!ptical fibre bandwidth is directly related to distance

.g modal dispersion increases with distance

Aiven as PmegahertJ bandwidth by 9ilometresQ

i.e. M,J C 9m eg. 7(( M,J C 9m % +7( M,J over +9m !r '(( M,J over 7 9m

IDC

BANDWITH

IDC

Fi%re Attenuation
'.( @o @i @o % @ower out of fibre @i % @ower into fibre

(.7

(.+7

(.'+7 (.(;+7 (.(&'+7

IDC

+L

&L

:L

7L

C#romatic .color/dispersion in monomode fi%res

G

Chromatic dispersion is made up of two types of dispersion

Material dispersion
3 Different wavelengths travelling different speeds in glass 3 get spectral spread around fc 3 !ccurs because the refractive inde" of glass is a function of wavelength and a light source emits many wavelengths and harmonics. 3 L.Ds have a broader spectrum than lasers
IDC

Cont

3 For monomode fibre modal dispersion disappears but material dispersion becomes significant at high data rates

0aveguide dispersion
3 !ccurs because some light travels in the claddingK where it travels faster than the light in the core. G

Measured as the Rchange in refractive inde" with wavelengthS. Therefore can be Tve or Cve.
ps * nm * 9m

IDC

C#romatic
T Uero dispersion wavelength

ispersion
Material dispersion
positive slope

esultant chromatic dispersion Dispersion ps*nm*9m (

negative slope

0aveguide dispersion

IDC

'+((

'&((

':(( 0avelength m

'7((

!ther losses
$bsorption losses
3 Due to impurities of ironK copperK nic9el and ohC molecules

-catter losses
3 Due to the molecular irregularities in the construction of the glass 1 ayleigh scattering2 3 Due to irregularities in the core * cladding interface formed during manufacture. Changes the order of the modes that stri9e it.

>ending losses
3 Light stri9ing the cladding at less than critical angle
IDC

Macro%end losses
#' #+

c % Critical angle

IDC

Micro%end losses

IDC

 adiation losses
3 Due to a certain amount of light energy travelling in the cladding and being dissipated at sharp bends.

Fresnel connector loss

3 $s before C fibre*air*fibre interfaceC reflection

Fibre siJe and #$ mismatch

IDC

Fresnel Reflection losses At Connectors

IDC

iameter - NA Mismatc#
D'=D+
# $'

#$'%#$+

D'
#$+

Lost ray D+

(a) Diameter Mismatch

Interface
#$ '

D'%D+ #$'=#$+

C' C+
#$+

efracted

IDC

(b) NA Mismatch (same diameter)

Ot#er Fi%re T&pes

G

@lastic 1@MM$ 3 @olymethyl methacrylate2

-tep inde" #$ I (.7 $cceptance angle of &( degrees !perate at ;7( nm 1red light2 1also 7((C4((nm2 $dvantages
3 3 3 3 More robust than glass More fle"ible .asier to handle and terminate Cheaper
Cont.

IDC

 Disadvantages
3 $ttenuation now down to ''( d> * 9m 3 >andwidth of 7 Mbps over 7( m 3 Lower operating temperature G

?ltraviolet Fibres
+(( d> * 9m at &7( nm +((( d> * 9m at +(( nm ?sed only for scientific applications

G G
IDC

MidCinfrared
3 ?nder development C good future potential

@olarisation Maintaining Fibres

Perform Manufacture

IDC

Furnace

Fibre Drawing Tower

UV Curing

IDC

Fiber Geometry Problems

Off Center

Different Size

Non-Circular

IDC

All fibers are allowed a certain tolerance in the core/cladding geometry. This can cause light loss at oints between fibers.
!"

Attenuation in Fiber
%acrobending $oss

Absor#tion $oss %icrobending $oss

IDC

Note: Only the fiber core is shown.