Aws WJ 201310

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
October 2013
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3 WELDING JOURNAL
CONTENTS
26 Cold Cutting: A Clean and Repeatable Technology
A variety of end profiles can be produced cleanly with
modern cold cutting equipment
M. Leska
30 The Three Rs of Welded Art
Individuals with different backgrounds share a
common love for art and a deft ability to wield a welding
torch
H. Woodward, K. Campbell, and M. R. Johnsen
38 Producing Better Bevels with Plasma
Computer-aided manufacturing software along with
adjusting arc voltage are the answers to improving bevel
cuts with plasma
M. Avila
44 A History of the Oxyacetylene and Plasma Cutting Processes
An interesting historical perspective is given on two major
cutting processes
J. Henderson and N. Hussary
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published
monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-
sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St.,
# 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672; telephone (305)
443-9353. Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla.,
and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send
address changes to Welding Journal, 8669 NW
36th St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672. Canada
Post: Publications Mail Agreement #40612608
Canada Returns to be sent to Bleuchip Interna-
tional, P.O. Box 25542, London, ON N6C 6B2,
Canada.
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
Departments
Editorial ............................4
Washington Watchword ..........6
Press Time News ..................8
News of the Industry ............10
Aluminum Q&A ..................16
Brazing Q&A ......................18
Product & Print Spotlight ......20
Brazing & Soldering Today
Technology News ..............60
Brazing Profiles ................66
Coming Events....................68
Certification Schedule ..........72
Welding Workbook ..............74
Society News ....................77
Tech Topics ......................78
Guide to AWS Services ........94
Personnel ........................96
Classifieds ......................106
Advertiser Index ................107
283-s Application of Friction Stir Processing as a Pretreatment
to Fusion Welding
Improvements in the heat-affected zone and weld metal
microstructure were achieved with nickel-based alloys
J. R. Rule et al.
291-s Influences of Laser Spot on High-Speed Welding for
Cr-Plated Sheet
The development of a suitable elongated spot pattern improved
welding speed and joint quality on thin chrome-plated sheet
J. Zhan and M. J. Yang
297-s Supermartensitic Stainless Steel Deposits: Effects of
Shielding Gas and Postweld Heat Treatment
Increasing the CO
2
content in the shielding gas had a marked
effect on tensile strength, hardness, and toughness
S. Zappa et al.
304-s Effect of Tempering Pass on HSLA-80 Steel HAZ
Microstructures
The microstructure and hardness of the grain-coarsened HAZ
were analyzed after being subjected to simulated thermal cycling
meant to represent tempering passes
A. Cruz-Crespo et al.
Features
Brazing & Soldering Today
Welding Research Supplement
26
30
52
October 2013 Volume 92 Number 10
AWS Web site www.aws.org
On the cover: Dedicated bevel cutting heads tilt or rotate to match the angle
being cut. (Photo courtesy of Hypertherm, Inc.)
52 Basics of Brazing with Induction Heating
Six key steps are explained for proper brazing with
induction heating
B. Daly
56 Whats Happening with Aerospace Brazing
New brazing alloys are helping improve the thermal life of
jet engine parts
T. Sandin
EDITORIAL
Im proud to report that the AWS Foundation continues to take the lead in commu-
nicating to students how rewarding a welding career can be. Let me tell you just a little
bit about the Foundations programs and what has been accomplished thus far.
Since it was established in 1989, the AWS Foundation has awarded more than $6 mil-
lion in scholarships to more than 4850 students. The scholarship program includes the
following:
National Scholarship Program with a minimum funding endowment of $50,000.
District Scholarship Program that provides $7500 to each of the 22 Districts annually
for a total of $165,000 in funding to help students at trade/technical schools, commu-
nity colleges, and universities.
Section Named Scholarship Program, which now has 57 scholarships endowed by
Sections and/or individual donors within a Section.
District Named Scholarship Program 11 scholarships endowed by the Districts
and/or individual donors within a District.
Graduate Research Fellowship Program Two endowed at $500,000 providing an
annual award to two students of $25,000 that is matched in kind by the university
where they are conducting research.
Our scholarship program has grown over the last year, thanks to the American
Welding Society for its commitment to match all funds to new and existing scholarship
endowments. This matching program is still in effect. An endowed scholarship at the
National, District, or Section level can create a lasting legacy for you or your company.
For more information on how you can start your own scholarship, contact Sam Gentry
at sgentry@aws.org, or Vicki Pinsky at vpinsky@aws.org. Act now, as this matching pro-
gram is for a limited time.
Our Welder Workforce Development program and efforts continue to grow and
expand. Traffic on the www.careersinwelding.com and www.jobsinwelding.com Web sites
has increased. The Careers in Welding mobile exhibit began its initial tour in 2011, and
traveled 17,000 miles to 23 events in 13 states in 2012. More than 37,000 visitors have
walked through the exhibit. Now in 2013, the tour has begun and is currently scheduled
to go to 13 events in 13 states. The first event this year was the Boy Scout Jamboree
where more than 3200 scouts toured the exhibit.
We continue to offer bricks that will be displayed on the American Welding Society
Scholarship Wall at the AWS World Headquarters building. This is a long-term project
and proceeds from the sale of the bricks will be used to provide additional welding schol-
arships. The wall is located in the garden and patio area for use by guests and AWS staff.
The 4 8 in. bricks can be individualized up to three lines can be engraved on them
for a $250 donation. The 8 8 in. bricks require a $500 donation, and can include up to
six lines. For a $75 up-charge, you can add a corporate logo or other symbol. We have
several companies that have purchased arrays with one brick having a logo placed in
its center. Through your participation, we can grow additional funds for use in our schol-
arship programs. The wall is part of a beautiful setting at the new AWS building. If you
have already purchased a brick, thank you. If you would like an order form, or if you have
questions, please e-mail Vicki Pinsky at vpinsky@aws.org.
The AWS Foundation is showing students how many
choices there are regarding careers in welding and how
rewarding these careers can be. Were seeing many more
young people showing an interest in making a welding
career choice. Help support these students by purchas-
ing a brick, or endowing a scholarship.
OCTOBER 2013 4
Officers
President Nancy C. Cole
NCC Engineering
Vice President Dean R. Wilson
Well-Dean Enterprises
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
D. A. Flood (At Large), Tri Tool, Inc.
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (Dist. 17), The Harris Products Group
W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center
M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Engineering
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), NS Inspection and Consulting
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
Show Your Support for
Students
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Chairman, AWS Foundation
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GAO: Mixed Results for Federal Support
of Manufacturing
In a recent report, the U.S. Government Accountability Office
(GAO) concluded that government support for manufacturing is
strong with respect to basic research in comparison to other coun-
tries, but lags behind in key areas such as commercialization and
job skills. Global Manufacturing: Foreign Government Programs Dif-
fer in Some Key Respects From Those in the United States, a report
which analyzes the programs of the United States, Canada, Ger-
many, Japan, and South Korea, reaches the following conclusions:
The U.S. emphasizes R&D projects with commercial po-
tential, while the foreign programs place greater emphasis on ac-
tual commercialization to help manufacturers bridge the gap be-
tween innovative ideas and sales.
The United States is a leader in intellectual property pro-
tection, but its government plays a less prominent role than the
Japanese government in developing technological standards on
industrial products.
A key difference related to training programs pertains to
the sustained role of government in coordinating stakeholder
input into a national system of vocational skills training and cre-
dentialing, which helps provide a supply of skilled workers for
manufacturers. This was particularly evident in Germany. In con-
trast, the United States largely devolves vocational training to
states and localities and does not have a national system to issue
industry-recognized credentials.
The full report is available at www.gao.gov/products/GAO-13-
365.
House Passes Agency Customer
Service Bill
The Government Customer Service Improvement Act of 2013
(H.R. 1660) has been passed by unanimous consent in the House
of Representatives. This legislation would require the Office of
Management and Budget (OMB) to develop minimum customer
service standards that federal agencies must use to develop de-
tailed goals that improve response times for e-mail, telephone,
and written inquires and to modernize existing processes to make
service more efficient. It also would require agencies to develop
a customer service feedback system in coordination with OMB
that provides customers an opportunity to comment on the serv-
ice they receive. An identical version of the legislation is now
pending in the Senate.
OSHA Outlines Inspection Strategy
As part of the justification for its fiscal year (FY) 2014 budget
request, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) has detailed its workplace inspection plans for FY 2014.
The highlights are as follows:
OSHA will target more than 50% of its inspection activities
and resources on the construction industry.
OSHA plans to conduct a total of 39,250 federal inspections
in FY 2014 31,400 safety inspections and 7850 health inspec-
tions.
The number of health inspections continues to rise, reflect-
ing OSHAs view that exposure to substances ultimately can be
as hazardous to health as workplace accidents.
OSHA intends to develop an inspection weighting approach
in order to direct inspections to high hazard operations, includ-
ing inspections of refineries and chemical plants, emerging chem-
ical and health issues and workplace violence, operations that
require much more time and complexity than the average OSHA
inspection.
OSHAs justification is available at www.dol.gov/dol/bud-
get/2014/PDF/CBJ-2014-V2-12.pdf.
Fatal Occupational Injuries Decreased
in 2012
A preliminary total of 4383 fatal work injuries were recorded
in the U.S. in 2012, slightly down from a count of 4693 in 2011,
according to results from the Census of Fatal Occupational In-
juries conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The 2012
total represents the second-lowest preliminary total since the
census was first conducted in 1992. Other key findings include
the following:
The rate of fatal work injuries in 2012 was 3.2 per 100,000
full-time equivalent workers, down from a rate of 3.5 per 100,000
in 2011.
Most fatalities (41%) resulted from transportation incidents,
including roadway accidents involving motorized land vehicles.
Falls, slips, and trips accounted for 15% of fatalities, while
12% were due to being struck by an object or piece of equipment.
Most fatalities occurred in the construction industry, twice
as many as manufacturing.
New Rule Seeks to Protect Small Business
Subcontractors
Government contractors are now required to alert the applica-
ble federal agency if they do not use the small business subcontrac-
tors that were key to producing the original bid proposal, accord-
ing to a new Small Business Administration rule. The regulation,
which became effective in August, lists three conditions of small
business involvement in a prime contract bid that will require this
notification: a small business is specifically referenced in a bid or
proposal; the small business has entered into a written agreement
with the prime contractor to perform specific work as a subcon-
tractor under the contract should the proposal win; or, the small
business drafted portions of the proposal or submitted pricing or
technical information that appears in the bid or proposal.
Congress Forms Aluminum Caucus
Members of Congress have recently established the bipartisan
Congressional Aluminum Caucus. The purpose of the caucus is to
serve as an informal group of members, dedicated to elevating
awareness of the U.S. aluminum industry and every aspect of the
metals production and use, from mining to manufacturing to recy-
cling. The aluminum industry contributes $32 billion and 500,000
jobs directly and indirectly to the U.S. economy.
WASHINGTON
WATCHWORD
OCTOBER 2013 6
BY HUGH K. WEBSTER
AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE
Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at
1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail
hwebster@wc-b.com; FAX (202) 835-0243.
PRESS TIME
NEWS
Boeing Selects ESAB for Space Launch System Project
Boeing has selected ESAB Welding & Cutting Products, Florence, S.C., as a partner
in manufacturing fuel tank structures for NASAs new heavy-lift rocket, the Space Launch
System (SLS). This will be the largest American rocket ever built and measure 200 ft
taller than the entire space shuttle rocket assembly. The SLS will measure 384 ft in total
length with a weight of 6.5 million lb.
ESAB engineers and experts have worked with Boeing and NASA for more than a
year to develop the Vertical Assembly Center a giant orbital welding system capable
of supporting the huge rocket fuel tank while circumferentially welding its sections to-
gether with the friction stir process. When completed, this center will be the largest
welding machine of its type ever built.
The center is being designed, engineered, and built at ESABs facility in Laxa, Swe-
den; supported by the companys North American Automation Division. The vertical
tower assembly is being built in the United States using U.S. steel and component
materials.
The SLS project is viewed as Americas next-generation space program, with the goal
of producing a rocket to transport people beyond Earths orbit. Slated for launch in
2017, this expandable rocket will have capabilities for transporting payloads for deep-
space explorations.
Nissan U.S. Manufacturing on Track
Nissan projects its U.S. plants will
nearly double the number of export mar-
kets it will be able to serve by 2015. In Au-
gust, the car company shipped the first of
more than 900 U.S.-built, right-hand drive
Pathfinders to Australia and New Zealand.
With the addition of these two new areas,
it is now able to export vehicles from its
Smyrna, Tenn., vehicle assembly plant to
61 markets around the world.
In 2014, Nissans Canton, Miss., vehi-
cle assembly plant will become the global
source for Murano production, creating
export opportunities in as many as 119
markets.
Also, over the next few months, Nissan
expects to expand U.S. exports of Nissan Altima, Pathfinder, Maxima, and Infiniti QX60
models into new markets such as Ghana, Nigeria, Philippines, Vietnam, Israel, Argentina,
and parts of Latin America.
Auburn Manufacturing Celebrates $1.4-Million Expansion
Auburn Manufacturing, Inc., a developer, manufacturer, and marketer of textile
products for extreme temperature industrial applications, recently broke ground on a
$1.4-million, 22,500-sq-ft expansion to its Kittyhawk facility in Auburn, Maine.
According to Kathie Leonard, company president and CEO, expanding will provide
the extra room needed for its focus on advancing in coatings, nanotechnologies, and
heat protection enhancements.
As of press time, the building was complete and equipment along with inventory
were being moved into the facility. It should be fully operational by this month.
In addition, Auburn hopes to expand the facility again in another 35 years.
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology to
Grant Scholarships in Honor of Andr A. Odermatt
The Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, Troy, Ohio, has established two new $5000
scholarships in honor of its president, Andr A. Odermatt, to benefit students who attend
the establishment. The scholarships will be first awarded in May 2014. Odermatt has a long
history with welding, working with Oerlikon Welding Industries and Hobart Brothers Co.,
where he began in 1964 until his retirement in 2001. Interested students are directed to
apply for scholarships online at www.welding.org/g-13-scholarship-forms.aspx.
OCTOBER 2013 8
MEMBER
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Advertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
tmoore@aws.org
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
L. Davis, ORS Nasco
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
D. Levin, Airgas
E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Well-Dean Enterprises
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
Copyright 2013 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-
tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-
tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
By early 2014, Nissans production capacity
will eclipse two-million units in the Americas,
driven by added capacity at its U.S. plants, as
well as new facilities in Mexico and Brazil.
(Photo courtesy of Nissan.)

Your Best Choice To Replace 2% Thoriated

Lasts Longer

E3
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system and we
last at least 130
this particular a
when compare
2% thoriated.

s were tested
rbital welding
d wer fo e found to
0% longer in
application
ed to

2% thoriated
after 3 passes

E3
after 8 passes

Both electrodes shown were
run on a remote orbital
welding system on a 20 inch
pipe with a 2 inch wall.
2% ran approx. 19 linear ft
E3
ran approx. 50 linear ft

after 3 passes

Both electrodes shown were
run on a remote orbital
welding system on a 20 inch
pipe with a 2 inch wall.
2% ran approx. 19 linear ft
ran approx. 50 linear ft
after 8 passes
OCTOBER 2013 10
NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
Falls Stamping & Welding Venture
to Create 112 Jobs
Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell recently announced Falls
Stamping & Welding Co. will invest $5.7 million for a business in
the town of Pulaski to supply metal subassemblies to the Volvo
Trucks plant in Dublin, Va. This project will create 112 new jobs.
The metal stamping company, formed in 1989 and headquar-
tered in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, serves automotive, trucking, and
nonautomotive markets. According to Lane Witte, its vice presi-
dent of sales, Pulaskis benefits include proximity to the Inter-
state 81-77 corridor and being close to one primary customer.
McDonnell approved a $175,000 grant from the Governors
Opportunity Fund to assist the town and county with this proj-
ect. Through its Virginia Jobs Investment Program, the Virginia
Department of Business Assistance will provide funding and serv-
ices to support the companys recruitment and training.
Cadillac Coupe Goes Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic welding is helping the Cadillac ELR extended-
range electric luxury coupe, which goes on sale in North Amer-
ica in early 2014. General Motors (GM) Brownstown Battery
Assembly plant near Detroit uses the process to join metal elec-
trode tabs on the vehicles 16.5-kW-h, lithium-ion battery sys-
tem. It also employs an automated system to execute millions of
these welds each year.
Ultrasonic welding uses tools, an anvil and horn, for applying
rapid mechanical vibrations to the batterys copper and aluminum
electrodes. A camera vision system shoots a reference image of
The 92,000-sq-ft extension of the Walter Surface Technologies
International Bio-Circle facility has been completed on its origi-
nal site in Montreal, Pointe-Claire, Quebec. This achievement
for the surface treatment provider of abrasives and various tools
has come after several years and represents an investment of more
than $30 million.
More than 300 guests, including some of Montreals top busi-
ness leaders and metalworking industry executives, were present
for the official inauguration. Tours were conducted by members
of the companys team.
Serving as the overall international headquarters for the Wal-
ter company, the campus encompasses corporate management,
R&D, labs, product management, test centers, marketing, sales,
warehousing, distribution, and after-sales service.
In addition, the Bio-Circle complex contains a bottling plant
where production capabilities are increased ten fold. Compo-
nents include automated bottling systems, large mixing and stor-
age tanks, plus pumping and packaging systems.
The new campus is a major asset for our future growth. Now,
we have the automation, the processes, and the facility to help us
execute our core value of delivering products and solutions that
help our customers work better. Today, this focus on making
green work is leading to the development of environmentally
helpful initiatives, which are increasingly welcomed in our indus-
try, stated Pierre Somers, chairman and CEO of Walter Surface
Technologies International.
The new campus features include storage facilities with man-
aged humidity for sensitive products; energy efficiency with 49
wells running 500 ft deep to capture geothermal energy; windows
that contribute to overall temperature control; controlled water
temperature in all rooms; air filtering systems that clean the air
before it is released into the atmosphere; and neutralization
of chemical effluents before they enter the municipal sewage
system.
Employees follow a recycling program as well that covers vir-
tually every aspect of daily operations from cafeteria services to
individual work spaces.
Pierre Somers, chairman and CEO of Walter Surface Technolo-
gies International, cuts a chain to access the new Bio-Circle
facility.
Walter Surface Technologies Inaugurates $30-Million
International Campus
11 WELDING JOURNAL
the weld area prior to operation. In addition, quality operators
check electrode tabs before/after welding, and the system moni-
tors dozens of signal processing features during each weld.
This battery-specific welding process is a result of collabora-
tion among GMs Manufacturing Systems Research Lab and Ad-
vanced Propulsion Center along with the Brownstown plant. The
coupe is built at GMs Detroit-Hamtramck Assembly Plant, while
its battery pack is built at Brownstown.
General Motors (GM) Brownstown Battery Assembly plant uses
ultrasonic welding to join metal electrode tabs for the Cadillac ELR
lithium-ion battery. (Photo by Jeffrey Sauger for GM.)
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
OCTOBER 2013 12
EWI Opens Michigan Office
EWI held an open house August 27 to introduce area manu-
facturers to its new metro Detroit facility in Madison Heights,
Mich. Approximately 100 people met with EWI staff and watched
demonstrations of its SpotSight and AcousTech Machining
equipment.
This event was to tell people were here, explained Ron
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experience WESTEC.
Scon lor Apple Scan for Android
During the open house, Jeong Na, EWI technology leader NDE,
demonstrated SpotSight, EWIs new matrix phased array-based
ultrasonic imaging technology. The equipment, developed originally
for use in the auto industry, can be used in a wide variety of manu-
facturing environments for structural inspection of metal, plastic,
braze, and composite joints.
continued on page 14
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Brown, EWI business development manager, Advance En-
ergy/Automotive, who heads up the Michigan office. The re-
sponse has been very good from our customer base, and it also
shows our customer base up here that were serious about taking
care of them.
The facility currently occupies about 2000 sq ft of office and
classroom space adjacent to Easom Automation Systems, Inc.,
but the space can be expanded, if necessary. EWI is collaborat-
ing with Easom, an equipment manufacturer and technology sys-
tems integrator. Only two or three people will work in the office
on a permanent basis; EWI will bring staff up from its main fa-
cility in Columbus, Ohio, as needed.
Brown said plans are to hold training classes, workshops, or
other events at the site every two months.
The office is located at 32429 Industrial Dr., Madison Heights.
For more information, contact Brown at (603) 504-5148 or
rbrown@ewi.org. Mary Ruth Johnsen, editor
Tritex NDT Opens U.S. Office
Tritex NDT Ltd., a manufacturer of echo ultrasonic gauges
that measure metal thickness through coatings, has opened an
office in Newark, N.J. Due to steady growth and an increasing
global demand for its products, the company opened the office
to serve users in North and Central America, including Canada;
provide local product support; and offer sales/marketing
operations.
Also, the company is now ISO 9001:2008 certified, which sets
out the requirements of a quality management system.
North American Robotics Companies
Set New Records for First Half of 2013
According to statistics released from the Robotic Industries
Association, Ann Arbor, Mich., North American robotics com-
OCTOBER 2013 14
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index
continued from page 12
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
The new Tritex NDT office has opened in Newark, N.J. Pictured is
a worker using the companys Multigauge 5500 for inspecting
pipeline metal thickness through coatings.
WE LISTENED.
WE DELIVERED.
The New 400 Series Torches,
with Patented Handles and the
New G Series Regulators
Visit Us At FABTECH In Booth N1457
Contact your local distributor or visit VictorEquip.com
Victor is a registered trademark of Victor Technologies
.
2013 Victor Technologies International, Inc.
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ALUMINUM
Q&A
BY TONY ANDERSON
Q: Recently, a reader thought it may be
interesting to provide a short quiz on alu-
minum welding issues. Therefore, I have
created 12 questions to test your alu-
minum and aluminum welding technol-
ogy knowledge.
Respondents who e-mail me at tony.
anderson@millerwelds.com with all the
correct answers by October 25 will be eli-
gible for a prize drawing. There is only
one right response to each question.
Out of the accurate entries received,
10 will be randomly selected to win a
signed copy of the AWS publication, Weld-
ing Aluminum Questions and Answers
(2nd edition), plus their choice of a golf
shirt (available in small, medium, large,
XL, 2XL, and 3XL) or leather welding
jacket (offered in small, medium, large,
XL, 2XL, 3XL, 4XL, and 5XL) Fig. 1.
In your e-mail submission, include a
list of the question numbers along with
your answer letters. Also, to make the
process easier in case you win, provide
your name, mailing address, clothing
choice (golf shirt or leather welding
jacket), and preferred size.
The answers to these questions, as well
as the names of the winners, will be pub-
lished in the Welding Journals December
2013 Aluminum Q&A column. Good luck!
1. What is the principal alloying
element in the 8xxx series alloy group?
A Copper
B Lithium
C Zinc and Tin
D Other Element
2. What do the 2xxx, 6xxx, and 7xxx
series alloys have in common?
A Heat Treatable
B Copper
C Nonheat Treatable
D Chemistry
3. Which of the following aluminum al-
loys has been solution heat treated and
naturally aged to a substantially stable
condition?
A 6061-T6
B 2014-T4
C 5052-H32
D 7075-T62
4. When gas tungsten arc welding a
6xxx series aluminum base metal without
filler metal (autogenously), what type of
discontinuity would you most likely
expect to find in your weld?
A Porosity
B Incomplete Fusion
C Hot Cracking
D Undercut
5. What is the most common reason,
when testing a weld made in 6061-T6
base metal, for a transverse tension test
OCTOBER 2013 16
F
o
r

i
n
f
o

g
o

t
o

w
w
w
.
a
w
s
.
o
r
g
/
a
d
-
i
n
d
e
x
Fig. 1 All 10 winners will receive a signed
copy of the AWS publication, Welding
Aluminum Questions and Answers
(2nd edition), and their choice of a golf
shirt or leather welding jacket.
to fail in the heat-affected zone and not
meet the minimum tensile strength
requirements of the welding code?
A Too Low Preheat
B Overheating Base Metal
C Porosity
D Hot Cracking
6. What is the most suitable 5xxx filler
metal to be used for welding a structure
made from 5454 base metal and that is to
be exposed in service to temperatures
between 150 and 350F for prolonged
periods?
A ER5356
B ER5183
C ER5556
D ER5554
7. What is the usual cause of porosity
in aluminum welds?
A Oxygen
B Silicon
C Hydrogen
D Nitrogen
8. The electrolytic process used for
producing aluminum that was discovered
in 1886 and is still used today is known
by what name?
A Davy Process
B Hall-Heroult Process
C Wohler Process
D Henri-Etienne Process
9. In accordance with the
requirements of AWS D1.2/D1.2M: 2008,
Structural Welding Code Aluminum,
what is the maximum preheat
temperature when welding base metal
5052?
A 150F
B 250F
C 350F
D It does not give a maximum preheat
for this base metal.
what is the minimum length of an
intermittent fillet weld?
A 1
1
2 in.
B 2
1
2 in.
C 3 in.
D 3
1
2 in.
when testing for a procedure
qualification using a 5083-H112 (1-in.-
thick forging) base plate complete joint
penetration groove weld, what would be
the minimum tensile strength required to
pass the reduced section transverse
tension tests?
A 36 ksi
B 38 ksi
C 39 ksi
D 40 ksi
requirements of AWS A5.10/A5.10M: 2012,
Welding Consumables Wire
Electrodes, Wires and Rods for Welding
of Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloys
Classification, the standard testing
method for all ER Classifications is
chemical analysis plus what other test?
A Tensile Test
B Bead-on-Plate Test
C Radiographic Test
D Guided Bend Test
17 WELDING JOURNAL
TONY ANDERSON is director of aluminum
technology, ITW Welding North America. He is
a Fellow of the British Welding Institute (TWI),
a Registered Chartered Engineer with the British
Engineering Council, and holds numerous po-
sitions on AWS technical committees. He is
chairman of the Aluminum Association Tech-
nical Advisory Committee for Welding and au-
thor of the book Welding Aluminum Questions
and Answers currently available from the AWS.
Questions may be sent to Mr. Anderson c/o Weld-
ing Journal, 8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL
33166-6672, or via e-mail at tony.anderson@
millerwelds.com.
BRAZING
Q&A
BY DAN KAY
Q: What is the correct amount of overlap
to use when brazing tubular aluminum
pieces together? Is the amount of overlap
for aluminum different than for other
metals such as stainless to stainless?
A: As a general guideline, I suggest that
the amount of overlap for aluminum
brazed joints be about 1T to 3T, where T
is the thickness of the thinner of the two
aluminum pieces being joined. Figure 1
shows sketches of a sheet metal joint and
a tubular joint with the recommended
overlaps.
Note that this overlap is less than the
typical 3T to 6T overlap that is recom-
mended for all other base metals. The
reason for this relates to the closeness of
the melting temperatures of the alu-
minum brazing filler metal (BFM) and
the aluminum base metal being joined.
Often, the solidus temperature (melting
temperature) of the aluminum-based
BFM is only a few degrees lower than
that of the aluminum base metals being
joined.
Thus, when the BFM has reached its
melting temperature and is ready to flow,
there appears to be a stronger driving
force for the BFM to react with and dif-
fuse into the base metal rather than
merely skate over the base metal surface
and flow deeply into the joint by capillary
action.
Figure 2 is a cross-sectional sketch of
a poorly brazed joint I encountered. It
shows how the aluminum BFM flowed at
the top of the assembly where the smaller
tube goes into the fitting and the BFM
also nicely filled in at the bottom of the
assembly, but there is a large void around
the interior circumference of the joint.
Challenge questions to the reader:
How could this happen? What is wrong
with this joint design?
I was curious about how this joint was
brazed, so I asked the brazing personnel
how it was possible for the BFM to travel
all the way through the joint, and yet
leave a large void between.
His answer did not surprise me. He
admitted he could not get the BFM to
flow all the way through the joint after
repeated attempts on several samples.
Therefore, he just added extra BFM at
the bottom of the joint to make a nice
braze fillet at the other end of the joint,
which looked satisfactory to him.
Note: Brazing should never involve
feeding BFM to both sides of the joint to
create a fillet on each end. Proper braz-
ing requires filling the faying volume be-
tween the two mating surfaces in the
joint. Thus, an important rule of brazing
is feed the BFM from one end of the
joint, then inspect the other.
Question: What should the designer
of this brazement have changed to en-
sure complete joint penetration by ap-
plying the BFM at one end of the joint?
As you can see from Fig. 2, the brazed
joint did not meet the 1T to 3T overlap
criterion for aluminum brazing. The
overlap shown is about 10T, far more
than is needed for full strength and leak-
tightness (hermeticity) in an aluminum
brazed joint. With this excessive overlap,
it would be extremely difficult, if not im-
possible in my opinion, to get the BFM
to flow all the way through that long
joint.
Had this assembly used only 2T or 3T
overlap, the joint would have allowed the
BFM to flow through to obtain complete
joint penetration and allowed visual in-
spection of the opposite side of the joint.
It would also have saved time, money,
and materials by eliminating the need to
apply a lot of extra BFM to the joint.
My recommendation is to practice
Fig. 1 When joining aluminum base
metals, the overlap should be only 1T to
3T, where T is the thickness of the thinner
member.
OCTOBER 2013 18
brazing using 1T to 3T overlap to de-
velop confidence in the strength and
leak-tightness it achieves. Too many peo-
ple, in my experience, try to ascertain the
goodness of a braze joint by how they
feel about the amount of overlap. Peo-
ple have told me, Oh, I dont think
thats enough overlap, depending more
on their gut feeling rather than on hard
facts gained from testing and experience.
Its only with experience that design-
ers can develop confidence that overlaps
of only 1T to 3T are satisfactory for mak-
ing aluminum brazed joints.
19 WELDING JOURNAL
This column is written sequentially by
TIM P. HIRTHE, ALEXANDER E.
SHAPIRO, and DAN KAY. Hirthe and
Shapiro are members of and Kay is an ad-
visor to the C3 Committee on Brazing and
Soldering. All three have contributed to the
5th edition of AWS Brazing Handbook.
Hirthe (timhirthe@aol.com) currently
serves as a BSMC vice chair and owns his
own consulting business.
Shapiro (ashapiro@titanium-braz-
ing.com) is brazing products manager at Ti-
tanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio.
Kay (Dan@kaybrazing.com), with 40
years of experience in the industry, operates
his own brazing training and consulting
business.
Readers are requested to post their ques-
tions for use in this column on the Brazing
Forum section of the BSMC Web site
www.brazingandsoldering.com.
Fig. 2 Cross section of a 6061 tube
brazed into a 6061 fitting using AWS
BAlSi-4 (4047) brazing filler metal. The
excessive overlap prevented the filler metal
from penetrating the full length of the
joint.
PRODUCT & PRINT
SPOTLIGHT
Oxyfuel Torch Offers
Clearer Cutting Path View
The 400 Series of oxyfuel torches in-
corporate handle and cutting attachment
designs that enable better ergonomics, a
clearer cutting path view, and visual cues.
They are available in medium- and heavy-
duty models and also sold as part of the
Medalist 250 and 350 outfits. The out-
fits include the torch handle, cutting at-
tachment, welding tip, G Series regula-
tors, and hoses. In addition, the torches
feature a patented contoured handle that
uses an engineered zinc-aluminum alloy,
Zamak. The oxygen and fuel valves are
color coded and labeled for instant iden-
tification by indicating directions for open
and closed valve positions. Their cutting
attachments provide good line-of-sight
visibility as well; the company accom-
plished this through a sleeker three-tube
design.
Victor
www.victortechnologies.com
(636) 728-3000
Soldering Irons Include
Built-in LEDs
The companys soldering irons for do-
it-yourself and hobbyist applications have
three on-board LEDs that provide appli-
cation lighting with minimum tip shadow-
ing. Delivering a focused light beam to the
work allows users to accurately solder and
ensure a good connection. The round, soft-
grip, nonslip handle offers greater com-
fort. Once the tip position is determined,
the hand naturally gravitates toward the
triangular area that houses the LEDs.
Backed by a seven-year warranty, the line
includes light-, standard-, medium-, and
heavy-duty irons. They are available in
15-, 25-, 40-, and 80-W models.
Weller
www.wellerred.com
(800) 476-3030
Book Devoted to Popular
Welding Techniques
The Art of Welding provides in-depth
coverage of the equipment and techniques
Focus on Brazing and Soldering with Cutting Processes
The Braze Mate 100LS for brazing and soldering is designed for
medium-volume applications or short runs of various part styles. The
two-station machine offers automatic, timed heat control with multi-
ple torches attached to a retractable arm. Rates from 40 to 70 parts/h
are typical. In addition, the production sequence begins with an op-
erator loading the part into a stainless steel fixture mounted to an
18-in.-diameter dial plate. A deposit of the companys paste alloy is
applied to the joint area with a hand-held applicating device. The
operator manually rotates the dial 180 deg to a locked position. The
heat cycle is activated, automatically positioning the burners in the
heat zone. Once the joining temperature is reached, the torches au-
tomatically retract into idle position followed by an air and water
cooling cycle. Then the operator rotates the dial plate 180 deg back
to the load/unload station. During heating/cooling, a second fixture
is loaded and pasted.
Fusion, Inc.
www.fusion-inc.com
(800) 626-9501
OCTOBER 2013 20
Brazing and Soldering Machine Built for
Medium-Volume Applications
Just About the Only Type
of Positioner We Dont Make.
Just About the Only Type
of Positioner We Dont Make.
Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome Arcade, NY USA 800-252-5232
www.koike.com
HT Series
Head Tailstock
TR Series
Turning Rolls
HD Series
Gear Driven
Positioner
Locust I & II
Welding Head
Manipulators
Koike Aronson positioning equipment cant tee up your
392-dimple favorite, but we have you covered nearly everywhere
else from 100 lbs. to 4 million lbs., at any angle. Koike Aronson/Ransome
can help you weld just about any type of piece more profitably. Call us to find out
how we can make your welding operation more efficient.
Visit us at Booth #N806
at FABTECH in Chicago
Follow us on
23 WELDING JOURNAL
used in popular welding processes. Au-
thor William Galvery, a member of the
AWS Long Beach-Orange County Sec-
tion, provides insight to the proper use of
equipment and science behind welding,
including how it affects different metals.
Ryan Friedlinghaus, host of West Coast
Customs on Fox Sports, provides the tips
and techniques he uses every day. Chap-
ters include general tools, materials, and
safety equipment; oxyacetylene welding;
oxyfuel and plasma arc cutting; and braz-
ing and soldering. Detailed are the pros
and cons of each process and information
on equipment, setup, safety, and welding
techniques.
Industrial Press
www.industrialpress.com
(888) 528-7852
CO
2
Laser Lenses
Protected against
Thermal Damage
The companys CO
2
laser lenses are
optimized for 10.6 microns and offered in
WE TAKE THE
PRESSURE OFF
Ask Us For a
Productivity
Study
Visit Fabtech:
Booth #S1889
Call Or Email:
330-461-6855
jt@hgg-group.com
Visit Our
Specially Focused
Landing Page:
www.pressurevessel
cutting.com
HGG understands your problems
cutting and making pressure vessels.
Chuck-type Stationary Pipe Cutting
Machines (SPC) eliminate the time-
consuming hassle of laying out lines
on shells as well as grinding holes
for accurate fit-up. Holes are now
easily located, positioned and cut
with unparalleled accuracy and at
maximum speeds for all ranges of
walled thicknesses. Vessels that used
to take 10 hours to prep and cut now
take about an hour.
An SPC pays for itself
quickly. Learn more:
MAKING PRESSURE VESSELS
PRODUCT & PRINT
SPOTLIGHT
OCTOBER 2013 24
two versions standard A/R coatings
that provide < 0.2% total absorption and
a proprietary Cool-Cut
TM
coating that ab-
sorbs < 0.15% of laser energy to protect
against thermal damage. Suitable for use
with lasers from 200 W to 4 kW, they fea-
ture focal lengths from 3 to 10 in. in 0.5-
in. increments. Also, they come in plano-
convex and meniscus configurations in 1
to 2 in. OD sizes with thicknesses from
0.250 to 0.380 in. and can be supplied
mounted.
Laser Research Optics
www.laserresearch.net
(888) 239-5545
Dross Separator Recovers
Solder
The Separo solder-recovery system al-
lows companies to reclaim solder in-house
for cost savings. A shifts worth of wave
solder dross can be turned into usable sol-
der ingots in less than an hour. It works
with lead-free or SnPb alloys and is capa-
ble of treating 911 lb of hot or room-tem-
perature dross per cycle. The heavier sol-
der alloy settles at the bottom of the
The Emmet A. Craig
WELDING SCHOOL
RESISTANCE
November 20-21, 2013
McCormick Place,
Chicago
To register go to www.fabtechexpo.com
Space is limited

20-21, ,

2013

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McCormic

McCormick Place,
heated crucible while lighter dross oxides
rise to the top and are captured in a spe-
cialized filter. After 30 to 40 min, molten
solder is transferred to the five ingot
molds below the crucible. No chemical ad-
ditives are required, ensuring the re-
claimed alloy is 100% pure and usable.
Manncorp
www.manncorp.com/solder-recovery
(800) 745-6266
New Videos Demonstrate
Selective Soldering System
The company has added to its Web site
four new video demonstrations of the
Seitec STS-2533SJ selective soldering sys-
tem with built-in spray fluxer. Designed
for use with multilayer and high-density
printed circuit boards, the soldering sys-
tem allows for flux application on small
targets and through-hole components.
The videos, showing soldering close-up
slow motion, soldering process, soldering
process 2, and inline machine demo, can
be viewed at www.seikausa.com/tv.
Seika Machinery, Inc.
www.seikausa.com
(310) 540-7310
Waterjet Machine Available
in Range of Cutting Widths
The Hydrocut
TM
LX waterjet shape
cutting machine is a large gantry with a
high-stiffness beam design featuring dual
linear rails, plus rack-and-pinion drives.
It can be equipped with up to four water-
jet stations, and can also carry up to two,
high-definition plasma stations with the
companys m3 Precision Plasmarc system.
The gantry offers all-steel construction
and rides on a floor-mounted, heavy-duty,
85-lb crane rail system. It achieves speed
control from 0.1 to 1400 in./min, and is
available in cutting widths from 8 to 18 ft
25 WELDING JOURNAL
OCTOBER 2013 26
F
or pipe cutting or weld preparation
tasks related to maintenance or
new construction, there are prima-
rily two different methods commonly
used. The first is heat (thermal) cutting
with subsequent hand grinding, and the
second is portable machining, popularly
known as cold cutting, which produces a
weld ready surface Fig. 1.
Reasons to Choose Cold
Cutting
While each has its adherents, cold cut-
ting and beveling is considered by many
a superior method due to its precision and
inherent safety advantages. Machining
eliminates the risks associated with open
flame torch cutting, particularly impor-
tant wherever volatile hydrocarbons are
present. The cold cutting method also
eliminates the undesirable heat-affected
zone (HAZ) created by thermal cutting,
altering the molecular structure of the
metal. Due to these factors, more indus-
tries are specifying cold cutting as part of
their project bid process.
Cold cutting in its simplest terms uses
a portable machine tool to cut or prep
prior to welding or flange assembly. Weld
prep can take multiple forms: beveling,
compound beveling (with two or more
bevel angles), J prep, counterboring (ma-
chining the inside of the pipe), facing
(machining a square edge), and flange
facing (machining the mating surfaces of
bolted flanges) Fig. 2.
Form Tooling vs. Single
Pointing
There are two basic types of portable
machining, form tooling and single point-
ing. Form tooling uses shaped tooling (or
cutting bits) to create the final contour
or profile of the finished prep. It tends
to pull larger chips and requires addi-
tional machine rigidity and power than
single pointing. The benefits of form
tooling are it can be faster than single
pointing and may be easier to set up and
operate for a less experienced operator
Fig. 3.
Single pointing refers to machining,
using the point of the tooling to take a
fine cut and pull a smaller chip. The ben-
Cold Cutting:
A Clean and
Repeatable Technology
MARK LESKA is Senior Marketing Coordi-
nator, ITW Orbital Cutting and Welding,
E. H. Wachs (www.ehwachs.com)
Industrial Products Division.
Portable machine tools for cold
cutting have many advantages for
end prepping pipe prior to welding
BY MARK LESKA
Fig. 1 Cold cutting produces a precise,
repeatable weld-ready finish in a single
step.
Fig. 2 Typical weld preparation profiles. Many profiles are only achievable by
machining.
27 WELDING JOURNAL
efits of single pointing are the ability to
machine heavy wall or high-alloy mate-
rial that tend to resist form tooling, and
the versatility of creating custom profiles.
Another benefit is the choice of using
a machine tool with a smaller power
requirement.
In addition, single point cutting bits
are generally less expensive than form
tooling cutting bits. They are often avail-
able as an insert bit and holder arrange-
ment, with multiple cutting points offer-
ing a lower cost per cut. By its nature,
single point machining tends to have
longer cut times than form tooling, and
in certain instances may require set up
calculations by the operator to success-
fully create the final prep.
Machining Technologies
Machining produces the consistent,
repeatable weld preps needed to ensure
weld integrity, critical to timely and prof-
itable project outcomes. Machining in
general utilizes a wide range of technolo-
gies to accomplish various tasks. These
machining technologies include lathe,
milling, reciprocating, abrasive, chipless
cutting, drilling, and threading. No sin-
gle technology is best for all applications,
with some projects or tasks employing
multiple technologies. Portable machin-
ing also offers the ability to apply vari-
ous remote control and automation
schemes where required.
Lathe
Lathe machining offers great accuracy
and repeatability by utilizing a rigid, ro-
tating frame with fixed tooling. Lathe
cutting and beveling is used where a proj-
ect requires 360-deg machining of objects
such as tube, pipe, vessels, cylinders, and
conical objects. Lathe cutting produces
a finish that in years past was only achiev-
able in a well equipped machine shop.
The best known pipe-cutting machine
tool using lathe technology is the split
frame, a rotating ring pipe cutter and
beveler named for its ability to split in
half for mounting to inline pipe.
Machining with a split frame (which
may also be referred to as a "clamshell")
is highly versatile. Properly configured,
it can be used for cutting, beveling, com-
pound beveling , counterboring, facing
(or squaring), and flange facing. With its
comprehensive group of accessories, the
split frame becomes a complete, inte-
grated machining system that can tackle
most field machining tasks Fig. 4.
Fig. 3 Form tooling offers ease of setup and operation.
Fig. 4 Versatile split frame machining systems utilize lathe technology to deliver per-
fect preps.
OCTOBER 2013 28
Milling
Milling utilizes a rotating cutter
mounted to a carrier that follows a lin-
ear or radial path. Compared to lathe ma-
chining, milling produces fine chip de-
bris and is not limited to 360-deg opera-
tion. This is particularly useful for local-
ized machining of pockets or windows,
or partial segmentation. Milling opera-
tions include cutting, beveling, facing,
and grooving.
The modern market for pipe cold cut-
ting technology goes back to 1949 with
the introduction of the Trav-L-Cutter
by E. H. Wachs. It is a portable milling
machine designed to cut, or cut and bevel
simultaneously, on most pipe materials
and schedules.
Reciprocating
Reciprocating cutting utilizes a
straight blade moving in a repeated for-
ward and backward motion to achieve the
cutting action.
The advantages of reciprocating saws
are their relative simplicity and ease of
set up and operation. An example of this
type of reciprocating saw is the Guillo-
tine, which cuts horizontally, vertically,
or anything in between with an ellip-
tical cutting motion that lifts the
blade on the return stroke, enhanc-
ing cutting efficiency and minimizing
blade wear.
These saws can be configured with
remote control with auto feed and
auto clamping operation for subsea
or hazardous environments.
Chipless Cutting
Chipless cutting, also known as
foreign material exclusion (FME) is
designed to prevent cutting contam-
inants from entering the workpiece.
Chipless cutting is often used in food
and dairy, high purity, and power
generation applications where metal
shavings cannot be tolerated. In sim-
ple terms, FME utilizes a sharp
edged wheel that orbits while inward
pressure is applied to sever (cut) the
work piece, much like a household
can opener. Other examples where
chipless cutting might be specified
are hot cells, semiconductor, and de-
activation and decommissioning
(D&D) activities related to nuclear
facilities, chemical agents, and ex-
plosive munitions.
Fig. 5 One of the hottest technologies in cold cutting is abrasive cutting diamond wire saws.
Fig. 6 Automated cutting technologies used
for demilitarizing WWII aerial bombs in Guam.
To illustrate, the U.S. Department of
Defense needed to destroy a WWII
stockpile of chemical agents stored in-
side steel, cylindrical ton containers (TC)
at a military storage facility. The project
required the TC to be remotely severed
without generating additional contami-
nates. Wachs FME technology helped
destroy over 1800 TC, successfully end-
ing over 60 years of agent storage at the
facility.
Abrasive Cutting
Abrasive cutting utilizes a hard ma-
trix material bonded to the leading sur-
face of various shaped cutting end effec-
tors. The newest machine utilizing indus-
trial abrasive cutting is the diamond wire
saw (DWS), which cuts with a diamond
matrix cable rotating at high speed, fed
into the workpiece with controlled force.
Diamond wire cutting is useful where the
risk of material collapse, known as com-
pressive cutting, exists.
Its the best solution when cutting
mixed material types such as concrete
and steel, which tend to quickly dull con-
ventional saw blades. In addition, DWS
set up quickly, making them useful for
destructive cutting Fig. 5.
Drilling and Threading
Drilling is a cutting process that uti-
lizes a rotary cutting tool (drill bit) that
is advanced into a workpiece to cut or
bore holes, or remove material to enlarge
a hole. Threading is a rotary cutting tool
used to create screw threads. Traditional
hydraulic powered industrial drills for
drilling and threading are manufactured
by E. H. Wachs, plus a line of specialized
subsea drills.
Utilizing two hydraulically powered
opposed drills, the subsea drill is de-
signed to drill inline holes for pin inser-
tion used for installing solid rigging bars.
This procedure facilitates decommission-
ing and removal of structures such as
multiple string casings and oil platform
legs in near shore and subsea applica-
tions, so they can be safely lifted in larger,
stable assemblies.
Cutting Automation
Automation technologies can be ap-
plied to cutting processes where human
interaction is difficult or impossible, such
as zero visibility, radioactive environ-
ments, explosive environments, and deep-
water subsea operations. Automation op-
tions can include remote, topside or re-
dundant controls, automatic feed, auto-
matic clamping, ROV power and control,
up to complete sequence automation with
system integration Fig. 6.
Repeatable Results
Properly machined weld preparations
are a vital prerequisite to achieving the
precise, high-integrity welds required in
todays modern industries. Cold cutting,
with subsequent or simultaneous bevel-
ing, produces the repeatable weld preps
that contribute to weld integrity.
29 WELDING JOURNAL
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t throughout North America.
tner with
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Change of Address?
Moving?
Make sure delivery of your Welding
Journal is not interrupted. Contact
Maria Trujillo in the Membership
Department with your new address in-
formation (800) 443-9353, ext. 204;
mtrujillo@aws.org.
OCTOBER 2013 30
L
iving your passion and getting paid
to do it sounds too good to be true,
but the artists portrayed in this ar-
ticle are doing just that. All of these
craftsmen love to tinker, weld, and ex-
press their creative ideas by putting stuff
together in fanciful ways. For them, solv-
ing each fabrication problem encoun-
tered along the way becomes a labor of
love that makes the final product more
meaningful. Their ultimate joy is having
their artworks appreciated by others who
buy them for display in their homes and
places of business. Read on to be inspired
and, when you feel the urge, raid a scrap
pile, go into your shop, and give welded
sculpturing a try.
Morphing from
Microbiologist to Welder
Kendall Polster, a microbiologist, re-
called that throughout his life he built
things and made furniture, but he credits
his brother, Craig, a qualified welder, for
teaching him how to work with metal.
Metalworking became his passion. Pol-
ster said he was fortunate to have the
tools readily available and an expert to
train him on their use.
I started welding metal tables for my-
self. My friends liked my furniture, so I
sold some and made more, he said. In
1994, after working three years as a re-
search biologist at The Blood Center of
Southeast Wisconsin and starting med-
ical school, Polster took a leave of ab-
sence to pursue his newfound craft. He
never went back. Instead, he went on to
become known as The Weld Guy
Fig. 1.
Crude Scrap Becomes
Treasures
Having worked in construction and
landscaping during high school and col-
lege, he likes it when things have a func-
tion. Therefore, he said, I dont mind
when a customer wants me to change a
piece. Other people have good ideas
too. On the other hand, much of Pol-
sters work is imaginative art that he sells
to museums, individuals, and galleries
around the country. His creations have
the rough, raw look inherent in the scrap
metal he uses to create his happy dogs,
eerie demons, whimsical robots, lamps,
guitars, huge hand guns, and bowls of
rusty flowers Figs. 24. Although
much of his work exhibits delicate details,
they are also robust and earthy. He likes
to call it manly art.
Thus began Polsters profitable career
selling a prolific assortment of welded
artworks that ranges from fanciful orna-
mental tabletop and wall decorations to
queen-sized beds, 24-ft-wide estate gates
(Fig. 5), and myriad other creations.
Now, Ive hit 40 and I weld junk, he
joked. If that doesnt make my mom
proud of me.
Polster even revels in the beauty of the
processes he uses to transform the crude
metal pieces he salvages from scrap piles
into these treasures. I should say that
welding, torching, and grinding metal can
be quite a performing art in itself its
an experience. Torching through galva-
nized metal, watching the flames jet out
as you pierce through, then observing the
yellow, green, and blue haze glow for half
a minute after youve stopped torching as
it continues to burn, and the fountain of
sparks produced while and after you stop
torching on magnesium-filled cast iron.
He noted, On some furniture with
exposed welds, I lay a real nice bead and
on some sculptures I purposely weld a re-
ally bad drippy globby bead just to make
it look less refined. He mused, Im sure
a little Dr. Seuss never hurt anyone. He
recommends reading Green Eggs and
Ham. Quoting Dr. Seuss, I like non-
sense, it wakes up the brain cells. Fantasy
is a necessary ingredient in living.
Polster urges everyone pursuing
welded crafts to observe safety practices
and wear protective clothing lessons
he learned the hard way.
I started working out of one side of a
two-car garage with no heat for my first
eleven years in business, he recalled. A
few years into it, I took over the other
side. My first tools were just a Miller
Thunderbolt stick welder, a 14-in. abra-
The Three Rs of
Welded Art
MARY RUTH JOHNSEN
(mjohnsen@aws.org) is editor and
KRISTIN CAMPBELL (kcampbell@aws.org)
and HOWARD WOODWARD
(woodward@aws.org) are associate
editors of the Welding Journal.
Reuse, recycle, repurpose: the
artists profiled here take the
principles of those three Rs to heart
BY HOWARD WOODWARD,
KRISTIN CAMPBELL, AND
MARY RUTH JOHNSEN
31 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 1 Weld Guy, Kendall Polster, is
shown at the HarleyDavidson Museum
with some of his sculptures for sale. Visi
ble are a robot, wall mask, and a guitar.
Fig. 2 Happydog sculptures have al
ways been popular, fastselling critters.
Fig. 3 Every den needs a demon mask to
chase away the blues.
Fig. 4 Polsters gun collection includes
large wall decorations and lifesized re
volvers in realistic and fanciful designs.
The stars are steel screw heads.
Fig. 5 A bird and a squirrel reside in this
graceful irontree gate that Polster de
signed to complement the estates land
scaping.
Fig. 6 HarleyDavidson commissioned
this curved steel wall panel for its board
room, specifying the letters to be hand cut
for a more rustic appearance.
Fig. 7 Bicycle parts come alive in this in
tricate 2ftwide fish sculpture that fetched
$25,000 at a SRAM Corp. fundraiser.
1 2 3
4
5
6
7
OCTOBER 2013 32
sive chop saw, and an oxyacetylene
torch. He remarked, It is amazing what
all you can do with just a few tools. Now,
I have a 6000-sq-ft shop with all sorts of
machines, plasma cutters, angle and plate
rollers, a shear, various saws, press brake,
and a machine shop, too. It seems the
more tools I get, the more I want. When
I got my first plasma cutter, it seems the
torch got dedicated to just heating things
up. When I got my first Miller MIG
welder, the old stick welder only got
pulled into service when I had to help a
friend weld on a rusty trailer. And when
I got my plate shear, I used the saws and
plasma cutter less. I have several welding
machines and plasma cutters now and
have never had a single problem with
them over the years. As for advice to peo-
ple wanting to start out making art, I say
just do it. Get at it and make something.
I think people would be amazed at what
they can do if they just try.
Creative Therapy
Polster derives another benefit from
metalworking. I started diligently
sculpting when I was feeling a bit de-
pressed over the ending of a relationship
with a girlfriend. Sculpting, he said,
took my mind off of the sadness. I guess
it was my form of therapy. It was during
this time that I welded my first dog. Up to
now, I have made close to 1000 dogs. I
guess a dog cant help but make you
happy. Polster enthused, It is also neat
to see how much personality you can give
a dog sculpture just by varying the place-
ment of the head, body, and ears. He
does not name his dogs. I want the peo-
ple who purchase them to give their own
name. Once this is done, the sculpture is
complete. I hope they enjoy their new
rusty-junk dogs.
Dozens of businesses have commis-
sioned works from him including Miller
Brewing, Red Bull Energy Drink, John-
son Controls, Wahl Corp., and Harley-
Davidson (Fig. 6), a colorful fish sculp-
ture made from bicycle parts that sold for
$25,000 (Fig. 7). Polsters artworks are
currently exhibited and sold at Cranston
Gallery, Milwaukee; Lindsay Gallery,
Columbus, Ohio; Marc Delorme, Paris,
France; Roan and Black Gallery in
Saugatuck, Mich.; Harley-Davidson Mu-
seum, Milwaukee; and Art Space,
Kohler, Wis. Polster is pleased to say the
vast majority of the sculptures pictured
on his Web site have been sold. It is a
good problem to have, he said. The gal-
leries always want more.
Emboldened by his ongoing success,
Fig. 8 Kyle Thilmany (left) and Kurt HermansenJent pose next to the 7fttall flower
(one foot of which is below ground) they fabricated using slotted spoon handles in 6 and
12in. lengths. The dragonfly attached on a stainless steel twisted rod is mainly made out
of small spoon handles.
Fig. 9 The assortment offered by Bending & Welding Spoon Art includes flowers, water
hose holders, and displays for empty wine bottles.
33 WELDING JOURNAL
the Weld Guy tells everyone, You name
it, I weld it! I am flexible and will work with
any ideas to create a custom-fit piece for
whatever you want. Additional informa-
tion is available from Kendall B. Polster,
The Weld Guy, weldguy@weldguy.com,
www.weldguy.com.
Forking It Over: Turning
Silverware into Art
With the thousands of forks and
spoons Kurt Hermansen-Jent and Kyle
Thilmany have purchased, you would
think they were preparing for a huge eat-
ing competition. Instead, they have been
using these utensils for making clever
creations ranging from tabletop figures
to tall flowers Fig. 8.
Earlier this year, the childhood friends
started Bending & Welding Spoon Art
(www.bendingandwelding.com) in An-
chorage, Alaska. The venture, which
started from gifting silverware stick
men to family members, has rapidly
taken off.
Currently, the new business serves as
a fun part-time job. Hermansen-Jent, a
freelance welder and former commercial
diver/underwater welder, trained at the
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology.
Thilmany has aspirations to become a po-
liceman. They also both work in the com-
mercial fishing industry.
And although the young duo never
imagined they would be selling art,
they declare this new path has been
forktastic.
Whats nice about silverware is that
it is relatively easy to get ahold of in bulk,
and it is stainless steel, so we dont ever
Fig. 10 Instead of using plain drawer
pulls for furniture, why not be clever and
repurpose cutlery?
Fig. 11 This singing in the rain jewelry
holder has two spoons that make up its
legs while another forms the midsec
tion/head. Two forks serve as its arms.
The mesh umbrella holds earrings, and
the raindrops carry necklaces and
bracelets.
Fig. 12 It does not look like this angel is
built with silverware, but two bent fork
tops create wings while the center is a
whole fork with its stem and top also bent
into a kneeling position with hands, a
head, and halo.
10 11
12
have to worry about the art rusting or at
least not over a long time, Thilmany
said. And they are welded sturdy enough
so that they can be left out year round,
even in our Alaskan winters.
Spooning a Signature Style
The array of decorative items made
with this cutlery, for garden and indoor
exhibition in flower pots and such, is de-
scribed below and featured in Figs. 912.
Backyard creatures, including butter-
flies and dragonflies
Bowls
Displays for empty wine bottles
Flowers, including daisies and tulips,
for vases and in tall forms for yards
Furniture drawer pulls
Holders for water hoses and business
cards
A line of Hooked on Alaska hooks
in crab, airplane, starfish, fishermen,
and other styles for jackets, pots/pans,
and more
Jewelry holders and trees
Tabletop figures in many forms, includ-
ing one with a disco flair that has a
scouring pad fro, an angel, and guys
on a toboggan.
Their art is available at many antique
and gift stores in Anchorage, and online
through Etsy (go to www.etsy.com and
then search for Bending & Welding
Spoon Art). Recently, a sales repre-
sentative has begun marketing their
creations.
Fabrication Facts
At first, it was challenging to narrow
down the techniques for making a fluid
piece of art with the least damage, abra-
sions, and discolorations. Trial and error
helped; for example, gas metal arc weld-
ing produced too much heat and melt-
through on forks and spoons. Today, gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is per-
formed using direct current electrode
negative with 2% thoriated tungsten
electrodes and 100% argon shielding gas.
Its cool to take metal and change it,
Hermansen-Jent said. He likes that
GTAW is a clean, easy-to-control process
with varying amperages, but given that
the torch is small, a lot of focusing is
required.
Brazing is also used in small spots.
Assembly takes place in the 10 20 ft
garage at Hermansen-Jents parents
house. The dedicated space has ample
working room and area for storing silver-
ware Fig. 13.
Most bending work is around sized
metal tubes. For tighter, more decorative
bends, silverware is heated until red hot,
then bent without leaving plier marks,
causing bends to look more fluid.
Because of the way that we prepare
the pieces, finalizing the product is very
easy, Thilmany added.
There is usually not a need for finish-
ing work, but spray painting flowers in
different colors, and occasionally heat
treating designs, such as tulips, to give a
purple/gold color, is performed.
To build a small figure may take about
15 min while a larger, more complex
piece could take more than an hour.
Utilizing New Utensils
Originally, they used recycled silver-
ware but quickly realized it was more ex-
pensive, time consuming to clean, and
caused inconsistencies.
That is when we made the switch to
using new silverware for our assembly
line collections, Thilmany said.
They purchase cutlery in large quan-
tities at Sams Club and salt shaker tops,
which are used for the center of flowers,
from a local restaurant supply store. They
take donations of materials for fancier,
unique pieces or for special requests.
Inspiration Insight
A lot of our collaboration comes from
friends and family. Some of our best
ideas, though, come to us when we are
just out in the garage working, Thilmany
said.
They exhibit at public art shows, and
are open to new concepts/suggestions
offered by attendees that they will try
later. They appreciate receiving honest
feedback.
Our favorite part of our work is re-
ally immersing ourselves in the art com-
munity. Before this adventure, neither of
us really had much of an interest in local
business nor artwork. That has com-
pletely changed now, Thilmany said.
Whats Next?
Up ahead for the duo is revealing their
new designs. They have made moose,
mosquitoes, and other items that have
not been seen before. In addition, they
want to create a winter line and are al-
ways trying to come up with Alaskan-
themed models. Custom boxes are being
made to keep their festive figures in, too.
We tend to think that our main goal
for customers is to make them happy,
Thilmany said. We are not limited to any
one thing, so we will do functional pieces
to just straight artwork with no real use
other than decoration.
For two guys not having any previous
introduction to art, they have served up
some pretty hearty portions so far.
Building on a Massive
Scale
Although hes been working as a
welder for more than 20 years, John An-
drews believes he didnt find his true call-
ing in the welding field until 2011 when
he began work on his first large-sized art
piece. Andrews initially built that sculp-
ture, a seated dragon with a wide-open
mouth and upward-pointed nose (Fig.
OCTOBER 2013 34
Fig. 13 In their garage workshop, HermansenJent performs gas tungsten arc welding,
while Thilmany heat treats a piece of stainless steel silverware.
Fig. 14 Norm, the first massive sculp
ture Andrews created, at its viewing place
in downtown Grand Rapids, Mich., for the
ArtPrize competition.
14), in hopes of selling it to pay off some
debt. However, after his sister, Jenny,
told him about ArtPrize, an international
art competition, he decided to enter the
contest. The dragon named Norm
after Andrewss 14-year-old dog who
died during its construction placed in
the top 25 of the competition. That suc-
cess inspired Andrews to enter again this
year. This time its a flying dragon (Fig.
15) he named Monty after another dog
that has since passed away, a Clumber
spaniel owned by Andrewss wifes best
friend. By design, the faces of both drag-
ons resemble their namesakes. Montys
creation is chronicled on Facebook; just
search for Monty, a Dog Gone Dragon.
Additional information is available at
www.jracustomwelding.com.
The 19-day ArtPrize competition
takes place in downtown Grand Rapids,
Mich. It welcomes entries from a wide
variety of artistic media, including music,
painting, and sculpture. Although there
are six juried awards, the public selects
most of the winners, including the
$200,000 top prize, by voting via text mes-
saging, through the competitions mobile
app, or online. This years ArtPrize ran
from September 18 through October 6.
With Monty, Andrews said, I wanted
35 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 15 Monty, Andrewss entry for the 2013 contest, completed and ready to be driven to Grand Rapids.
Fig. 16 An assortment of flowers and this wine tree are among Andrewss smaller
creations.
to create something special, something
that would be bigger and more dramatic
for the public with hopes of getting into
the top ten for 2013. (The top ten vote-
getters receive cash prizes.)
How He Got His Start
Andrews, who grew up in Reed City,
Mich., first learned to weld at Wyoming
Technical Institute in Laramie, Wyo.,
where he was studying auto mechanics.
After being disappointed in that field as
a career, he entered Ferris State Univer-
sity in Big Rapids, Mich., where he was
first enrolled in the Mechanical Engi-
neering program, then switched to Weld-
ing Engineering Technology. He moved
from Michigan to Gainesville, Fla., in
2002, working for three different weld-
ing businesses before opening JRA Weld-
ing, LLC in 2002. Its a two-person oper-
ation, with Andrews doing the welding
and wife, Susan, taking care of the office
operations.
After I moved to Florida I started to
make welded gifts for my wife. I would
stay after work and use scrap metal, An-
drews recalled. She loved my gifts and
it was easy on my wallet. One day I over-
heard her say that I could make anything
and I felt if she has that much confidence
in me, why not weld a large sculpture,
and thats how Norm came about.
Prior to the first dragon, Andrewss
art had been smaller in scale. Hed cre-
ated a small motorcycle, fish, flowers,
swords, bookends, and wine trees, among
others Fig. 16. I also made a bunch
of ants and trellises for botanical art fes-
tivals and called my display Ants in Your
Plants (Fig. 17). I did okay with that, but
it wasnt satisfying enough for me, he
said.
One of his big first jobs after going
into business for himself was as part of a
four-person crew that built a green
home out of 12 steel shipping containers.
We turned the shipping containers
into a certified L.E.E.D. Platinum home
that is an industrial work of art, he said.
OCTOBER 2013 36
Fig. 17 These metal ants were part of Andrewss Ants in Your
Plants display.
Fig. 18 Andrews used gas metal arc welding to create the
dragons body.
Fig. 19 The sculpture prior to attachment of the scales.
17 18
19
While working on that job site, I was
taking a break and came up with the idea
of using shipping containers for scales on
the dragon. The painted containers
would provide color for the art piece and
even if those colors faded, the Cor-Ten
steel the containers were constructed of
would develop a rust-colored patina.
From Nose Tip to Tail
Andrews built both dragons out of
scrap material, and while cost played an
important role in why he chose to use
scrap, the fact he could keep the steel
from being melted down or being sent to
a landfill was also important.
Monty is 10
1
2 ft tall and 8
1
2 ft wide, with
a 20-ft wing span. If it was possible to
straighten it out, the dragon would be
77 ft long. The sculpture weighs in at
4000 lb.
In addition to shipping containers, a
partial inventory of the materials he used
on Monty includes a beer keg; various
sized propane, helium, kerosene, and
water tanks; a light pole; mini plow
blades; antique cow drinking fountains;
stainless steel prosthetic hip parts; and a
goal post. Andrews poured 480 lb of con-
crete into the tail as ballast.
To build the first dragon, Andrews
used a Hobart 110-V plasma cutting ma-
chine with a built-in air compressor. It
did the job cutting over 7000 scales, but
it didnt last very long into Montys 12,600
scales, so he bought a 220-V Thermal
Dynamics plasma cutting machine and a
large air compressor. Welding was done
with a Lincoln Electric 135 gas metal arc
welding machine with a combination of
steel and stainless steel 0.30 wire, along
with either argon, Ar/CO
2
mixed gas, or
Stargon Fig. 18.
Making and attaching Montys thou-
sands of scales was a laborious process.
First, I traced a bunch of circles with a
Sharpie onto the Cor-Ten steel shipping
container, then I followed the Sharpie by
hand with the plasma cutter, Andrews
explained. The scales start at the tail and
overlap each other all the way to the nose.
Each one was welded, then hammered to
fit the contour, then welded again and
hammered again (Figs. 19, 20). The slats
started about midway down his tail just
as the blue fades to green. Each slat was
bent and formed by hand then welded in
line with each row of scales.
Andrews began building Monty in his
backyard November 1, 2012, and com-
pleted the sculpture on August 3, 2013,
working on it in his spare time. He hauled
the massive sculpture to Grand Rapids
for ArtPrize on a 30-ft gooseneck trailer
he built himself, where it was displayed
at his venue, Barnes & Thornburg LLP,
on the corner of Pearl & Monroe.
I really love doing the large sculp-
tures, Andrews said. Even though
Monty is only my second one, I feel like
have finally found my calling as to what
I want to do when I grow up. Yes, Im sure
Ill get tired of dragons, but large figura-
tive art is what does it for me.
37 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 20 Monty in flight with the scales attached.
Producing
Better Bevels
with Plasma
BY MICHELLE AVILA
MICHELLE AVILA
(michelle.avila@Hypertherm.com)
is public relations manager,
Hypertherm, Inc., Hanover, N.H.
39 WELDING JOURNAL
Creating a beveled edge when cutting
metal is something nearly every company
is called upon to do. It is estimated that
90% of fabricators have to make at least
some parts with a bevel because beveled
edges are a necessity for weld prepara-
tion and other final assembly methods.
Despite the fact that beveling is a near
necessity when working with metal, it
isnt exactly fun or easy. Even those fab-
ricators and companies who produce
high-quality beveled parts recognize the
challenges involved. Achieving desired
part specifications and holding consis-
tent outcomes can be extremely difficult.
This is especially true for new part and
process setups when using plasma in a
production environment.
Obstacles for Achieving
a Good Bevel Cut
There are a number of reasons why
creating and maintaining a good plasma
bevel is difficult, even for experienced
companies. The first has to do with the
number of different bevel cuts available
see sidebar. Of the most commonly
used cut types, V and A cuts are easiest
because they can be applied in a single
pass. However, the X, top-Y, and bot-
tom-Y cuts require two passes of the
torch. K cutting, often called a triple
pass bevel, requires three cuts. As you
can imagine, the challenge of getting a
good bevel multiplies with the number of
passes needed.
Combine different bevel types with
varying bevel angles, material types and
thicknesses, as well as amperage levels,
and the complexity of plasma bevel cut-
ting grows. Each time theres a change
whether its the need to cut a part out
of thicker metal, change the angle, or
make a different type of bevel new
process data are needed. Determining
these process parameters is readily
achieved in the market, but isnt a fast or
accurate process.
Operators and programmers who do
this regularly can tell you theres quite a
bit of trial and error involved. This is true
even when starting with process data
supplied by the table manufacturer. The
end result is a lot of wasted time and
material.
In-House Research
Results
Hypertherm, a manufacturer of
plasma, laser, and waterjet cutting sys-
tems, recently conducted field research
on the bevel process.
Bob Boyes, a company product man-
ager, discovered fabricators were spend-
ing between one to four hours setting up
each bevel job. He added that this time
frame was only for fabricators fortunate
enough to start with existing process
data. Fabricators who had to develop
completely new data took longer.
Sixteen different customers told me
it took a significant amount of time to set
up the right bevel-cutting parameters.
And when it came to more complicated
beveled parts that were either low-vol-
ume or single-run parts, they often just
gave up and used secondary operations
after shape cutting the parts on the cut-
ting table, he explained.
But thats only the first problem. The
second reason beveling is so hard to get
right is the plasma cutting process isnt
static. The consumables found in the
torch wear with each cut. This causes
changes to 1) the arc, 2) the height be-
tween the torch and workpiece, and 3)
the molten metal flow path. This means
that even if you do manage to get the
right process parameters dialed in, its
only a matter of time before those pa-
rameters are wrong.
If the operator isnt making adjust-
ments throughout the cutting process,
the torch will continue to get closer and
closer to the plate as the consumables
wear down, said Boyes. This movement
not only impacts the quality of the cut
edge but ends up changing the actual di-
mensions of the part being cut. Even
though the settings were correct at the
By entering process parameters into a
computer-aided manufacturing software program,
plus monitoring and adjusting arc voltage settings,
it is possible to make the beveling process easier
Dedicated bevel cutting
heads tilt or rotate to cut
the desired angles.
outset and gave you a part that met spec-
ifications, that can quickly change.
How Bevel Cutting
Heads Operate
Some table manufacturers offer dedi-
cated bevel cutting heads. These rotate
to match the bevel angle being cut which,
in theory, is supposed to make the bevel
process easier see lead photo.
The problem is that while these bevel
heads can help with beveling, more work
is needed because the plasma arc changes
its physical behavior as you tilt the torch.
The obstacles to creating a good bevel
are so great that even though more than
80% of parts destined to get a bevel are
initially cut on an X-Y plasma table, 90%
of the time the actual bevel itself is made
using a secondary cutting method. In
other words, most fabricators or compa-
nies needing to make a bevel are cutting
their part to size using plasma, then pick-
ing up and moving that part to another
area of the factory to cut the beveled
edge.
An estimated 40% of mild steel parts
cut today need a bevel. Thats a lot of
metal being moved around, adding lead
time and cost to the parts.
Changing the Landscape
The ability to not only make better
bevels, but make those bevels using
plasma, could potentially save fabrica-
tors an enormous amount of resources.
The need to move parts around the fac-
tory from one cutting station to the next
would disappear, as would the need to
purchase additional equipment and pay
OCTOBER 2013 40
Fig. 1 The addition of bevel process
parameters to cutting software means a
process that may have taken a minimum
of three passes in the past can now be
done with one.
Figs. 2, 3 Thousands of steel pieces
were cut and measured to produce fac-
tory-tested cut charts for mild steel.
2
1
3
additional employees to perform that
secondary operation.
Though not easy, the good news is that
it is possible to make better bevels using
plasma. The key is to first gather the right
process data for most every conceivable
bevel situation. Companies need to pre-
determine the process parameters for
beveling a range of material thicknesses
at different amperage levels. These pa-
rameters would need to change based on
things like bevel type, angle, kerf, cut
height, cut speed, and arc voltage.
As you can imagine, we are talking
about thousands of different parameters.
Indeed, too many for one person to re-
alistically calculate. However, by enter-
ing them into a computer-aided manu-
facturing software program like ProNest,
and continuously monitoring and adjust-
ing arc voltage settings, it is entirely pos-
sible to make the bevel process easier and
repeatable for consistent dimensional
outcomes Fig. 1.
Instead of relying on educated
guesses, along with trial and error, oper-
ators and programmers need only select
their desired amperage, material thick-
ness, bevel cut type, and angle.
Calculating thousands of cut parame-
ters and then entering these factors into
software isnt complicated. However, it
is time consuming.
Hypertherm estimates it spent more
than a year of engineering time develop-
ing a comprehensive set of bevel cutting
parameters Figs. 2, 3. The company fo-
cused on V, A, and top-Y cuts because
those bevel types comprise the majority
of finished product cut in the marketplace.
Engineers also worked to incorporate
arc voltage sampling for the height con-
trol so that a correct standoff distance
for cutting is sustained throughout the
life of the consumables. This combina-
tion enables the table owner to run the
plasma bevel cutting system efficiently
from rapid setup to consistent output of
high-quality parts.
Conclusion
Instead of making bevels with a hand
grinder or other method, companies fol-
lowing this new process are able to set up
new bevel jobs within minutes.
For example, at Curtis Welding and
Fabrication in Iowa, positive results have
been achieved. Bevel cuts dont take me
any longer than a straight cut would. It
only takes a few seconds more for the
torch head to rotate around, said owner
Curtis Renaud, who has also achieved
hour and labor savings.
41 WELDING JOURNAL
Beveled edges cut on plate steel are described throughout in-
dustry by the English letter the resultant cut most closely resem-
bles. Commonly, there are six different types of bevel cuts A, V,
top-Y, bottom-Y, X, and K as displayed in this image.
Is your D1.1 ancient?
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Types of Beveled Cuts
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OCTOBER 2013 44
A History of the
Oxyacetylene and
Plasma Cutting
Processes
A short review highlights the advances that have
been made in torch, regulator, and electrode design
JOHN HENDERSON is group brand
manager, and NAKHLEH HUSSARY,
PhD, is chief scientist plasma,
Victor Technologies
(www.victortechnologies.com),
St. Louis, Mo.
BY JOHN HENDERSON AND
NAKHLEH HUSSARY
45 WELDING JOURNAL
O
n the occasion of the 100th an-
niversary of the introduction of
the modern oxyacetylene torch
and stem-type gas regulator, as well as
the 50th anniversary of the modern
plasma cutting electrode and dual-flow
gas patents, this article takes a look at
some of the major developments in the
history of oxyfuel and plasma arc cutting.
Within the space allowed, it can only
touch a small fraction of the most inter-
esting, significant, or lasting innovations.
Metalworking developments seem-
ingly follow a pattern, with the pioneers
asking themselves a series of questions.
It starts with, Can we create a new
process? followed by a never-ending
quest to make the new technology safer,
faster, comfortable, accessible, afford-
able, and precise.
Oxyacetylene Origins
Edmund Davy, a chemistry professor
at the Royal Dublin Society, accidentally
discovered acetylene (C
2
H
2
) in 1836
(Ref. 1). At the time, Davy noted that,
From the brilliance with which the new
gas burns in contact with the atmosphere,
it is, in the opinion of the author, ad-
mirably adapted for the purpose of arti-
ficial light, if it can be procured at a cheap
rate.
The gas was rediscovered in 1860
by French chemist Marcellin Berthelot,
who coined the name acetylene. In
1895, French chemist Henry Le Chate-
lier discovered that the combination of
equal volumes of acetylene gas and oxy-
gen produced a flame with a temperature
far greater (about 6000F or 3300C)
than that of any previously known gas
flame. Because of the way the atoms com-
bine, the gas has a high calorific value
and releases a high amount of energy
when burned.
Credit for producing the first oxy-
acetylene torches in 1901 is given to
French engineer Edmond Fouche, who
invented a high-pressure model with the
acetylene delivered at up to 15 lb/in.
2
and
a low-pressure injector model where
the acetylene is drawn into the mixing
area of the torch as a result of the suc-
tion created by the oxygen flow. Fouches
torches were further refined by a Parisian
firm, A. Boas Rodrigues & Company.
Their design featured a medium-pres-
sure injector torch that delivered the
acetylene at 3 lb/in.
2
or more and the oxy-
gen at pressures of 120 lb/in.
2
. These
torches created a more consistently neu-
tral flame (low-pressure torches tended
to create an oxidizing flame and were
prone to extinguishing) and increased
operational safety (medium-pressure
torches mixed the gases near the handle,
requiring the operator to quickly shut off
the gases in the event of a backfire and/or
flashback)(Ref. 2).
The first oxyacetylene welding shop
in the United States was set up in 1906,
and in 1907 the technique was adopted
at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. There, oxy-
acetylene torches could cut a porthole in
3-in. armorplate in 30 min, a task that
formerly had required five men working
for two weeks to complete (Ref. 3).
By as early as 1910, publications (Ref.
4) began to note that, An oxyacetylene
Over the years, plasma cutting has
advanced significantly.
OCTOBER 2013 46
cutter should be an adjunct to every re-
pair shop of any size. Every auto repair
shop of any size will probably have one
of these oxyacetylene outfits in a few
years.
Interestingly, safe crackers were
among the first to put oxyacetylene
torches to practical use. While not ex-
actly a noble profession, these well-pay-
ing cutting jobs did as much as anything
to advertise the efficiency of the process.
Remembering the
Innovators
The history of oxyacetylene cutting
wouldnt be complete without mention-
ing the innovators whose names and com-
panies have become associated with the
process and its equipment.
On the gases side, Thomas Leopold
Willson, a Canadian working in North
Carolina, accidentally discovered the
first commercially viable process for
making calcium carbide in 1892 (acety-
lene gas forms when water is added to
calcium carbide). His business partner,
James Turner Morehead, helped find fi-
nancing for the company and eventually
sold it to Union Carbide in 1898.
In 1902, German scientist Carl Von
Linde built a plant for producing liquid
air and then fractioned it to produce pure
oxygen. After building separation plants
in Europe, he then founded the Linde
Air Products Company in Cleveland,
Ohio.
With acetylene and oxygen readily
available, the world was ready for better
cutting torches. John Harris exhibited a
torch at the 1904 St. Louis Worlds Fair
and started Harris Calorific in 1905, and
Elmer Smith founded Smith Equipment
Company in 1916. However, one can
argue that the modern oxyfuel torch and
regulator design began with an accident
in San Francisco in 1913.
German immigrant Ludwig Wilhelm
(L.W.) Stettner was a highly skilled black-
smith and ornamental ironworker when
the yoke-style regulator on his oxyacety-
lene rig failed. In this type of regulator,
the gas directly impinges on the valve
seat, and a sudden rush of pressure can
and did cause a catastrophic fail-
ure that cost Stettner his left eye and tem-
porarily blinded him in the right eye. His
hospital recuperation would change the
course of cutting history.
I then said, Boy, you got to do some-
thing with your brain now, so I start
thinking, Stettner recalled years later in
an interview, his English still heavily ac-
cented with German. It had to be done
mentally because I cant see. Fortunately,
the apparatus proved entirely successful.
Even after these many years, it is still the
standard of comparison.
The apparatus Stettner envisioned
included the modern stem-type regula-
tor (where the gas is diffused by coming
up underneath the valve stem) and the
modern oxyacetylene cutting and weld-
ing torch. Though much improved in
safety and performance, the same basic
functions introduced in the early models
are still found in most cutting torches.
Stettner founded the Victor Equip-
ment Company in 1913. The company
name comes from the English translation
of his wifes maiden name, Sieger, which
means winner or victor. Stettners
innovations include adding a lever (in-
stead of just a valve) to deliver the cut-
ting oxygen (1913) (Fig. 1), a handle that
features a tube within a tube to create a
smaller diameter, more comfortable han-
dle (1918) (Fig. 2), and a separate cut-
ting attachment and torch handle (1918)
(Fig. 3) for application flexibility. An ad-
ditional historic photo highlights a whole
plasma cutting system, large in size, with
separate components Fig. 4.
A Focus on Safety
Many improvements in oxyfuel cut-
ting involve making the torches and reg-
ulators safer and more durable, enabling
users to stay in the field, cut longer, and
come home safely. Further, some of the
developments taken for granted today
occurred during the early careers of those
still working today. For example, com-
plying with OSHA regulations (today 29
CFR 1910.253, Oxygen-fuel gas welding
and cutting) has been a fact of life for any-
one under 50, but the organization was-
nt even established until 1971.
Some of the products that improved
safety include the universal torch mixer
(patented in 1975), which helped prevent
flashbacks due to unmixed gases. Users
could now switch between cutting gases
Fig. 1 A cutting torch from 1913.
Fig. 2 A 1918 cutting torch designed with a more comfortable handle.
47 WELDING JOURNAL
simply by using the right cutting tip in-
stead of having to buy a new cutting at-
tachment. Perhaps most significantly,
Victor patented the first torch with inte-
gral check valves and flashback arrestors
in 1982, a design that remains popular
today because users dont have to re-
member to add external devices to com-
ply with safety requirements.
Problems associated with regulators
since the beginning have been burn-
through, explosion, and the potential for
creating a missile if a cylinder acciden-
tally falls and damages the regulator. Re-
cent regulator designs address the latter
issue by creating a regulator that fits in-
side the diameter of the cylinder and a
multilayer shock zone that can absorb
more than 5000 ft-lb of energy without
failure. The updated designs include a
new particle trap to stop contaminants
from entering the seat mechanism, and
they offer the highest resistance to oxy-
gen-related fires, passing the ASTM G-
175 Promoted Ignition Test, which is ad-
ministered in the medical gas regulator
industry.
Plasma Arc Process
Invented by scientists at Union Car-
bides Linde Division, the plasma arc cut-
ting process materialized when scientists
constricted a gas tungsten arc to increase
its energy density and focus its momen-
tum, thereby forming a cutting arc rather
than a welding arc. To understand the
complexity of the process, con-
sider that even current models
and modern simulation
methodologies cannot fully
and efficiently model plasma
arc behavior without consider-
able simplifying assumptions.
In many ways, it really is rocket
science.
The pioneers in the indus-
try include Robert Gage, as he
and his colleagues acquired
the original patent in 1955.
Meanwhile, James Browning,
a professor at Dartmouth Col-
lege (Hanover, N.H.), and his
graduate student, Merle
Thorpe, were developing their
first plasma torches and power
sources. They focused on de-
veloping a high-temperature
torch that created arcs and
plasma jets hotter than the
suns surface (10,000F or
5600C).
Browning, a serial entrepre-
neur, founded Thermal Dy-
namics in 1957. Early on he de-
signed and built several high-
temperature research systems for the
NASA space program for wind tunnel fa-
cilities. These systems could also simu-
late re-entry conditions for Project Mer-
cury, the first United States human
spaceflight program. Technologies and
products for plasma cutting, welding, and
plasma spraying were all part of the tech-
nologies developed there.
Based on research efforts while at
Creare, an engineering research com-
pany, two other Dartmouth professors,
Richard Couch and Robert Dean, began
their own plasma cutting company, Hy-
pertherm, in 1968 in Hanover, N.H. (less
than eight miles from the Thermal Dy-
namics facility in West Lebanon, N.H.).
The technological rivalry between the
two companies has resulted in a stream
of ever-improving products, greatly ben-
efiting the fabrication industry.
Dual-Flow Gas Technique
Today, most people take it for granted
that plasma cutting cuts any electrically
conductive metal. However, the process
was originally limited to stainless steel,
aluminum, and other nonferrous metals
that could not be readily cut with oxyfuel
and were slow to cut mechanically.
The first plasma systems used only a
single inert or nonactive gas (e.g., helium,
argon, or nitrogen) as the plasma gas be-
cause the tungsten electrode eroded rap-
idly in the presence of oxygen. However,
the plasma process had no advantage
over oxyacetylene for cutting ferrous
metals without the ability to use oxygen
to support oxidation and the associated
exothermic reaction.
This began to change in 1963 when
Browning discovered that introducing
another secondary or shielding gas to
surround the main plasma arc cooled the
edges of the arc and caused the arc to
protect itself by shrinking or (techni-
cally) constricting. Constriction further
Fig. 3 A separate cutting attachment was available in 1918.
Fig. 4 This archived image shows what a whole
plasma cutting system used to look like. Note its
large size and separate components.
OCTOBER 2013 48
concentrated the arc, produced a higher
energy density stream and subsequently
increased cutting speed and improved cut
quality. In dual-flow applications, the
plasma/shielding gas combinations were
usually nitrogen/air or oxygen for mild
steel, nitrogen/CO
2
or nitrogen/argon-
hydrogen mix for stainless steel and
aluminum.
Dual-flow cutting increased speed on
mild steel, helped reduce top rounding,
drove the arc deeper into the cut, and
minimized dross on the bottom of the cut.
There were also appreciable speed and
quality benefits on nonferrous materials.
The dual-flow technique cooled the
plasma consumables to extend service
life. By cooling the consumables, as well
as recessing them within a shield cup, the
new design decreased the likelihood of
the arc attaching to them and helped al-
leviate double arcing problems (Ref. 5).
Electrode Redesign and
Air Plasma Cutting
The dual-flow technique broke new
ground, but it required two other core in-
ventions until the process could begin to
reach its full potential: the modern but-
ton-type electrode and the use of zirco-
nium or hafnium as the emitter. Both in-
ventions overcame the drawbacks of ex-
Table 1 Examples of Advances in Plasma Technology
Year Thickness (in.) Current Plasma Gas Shielding Gas Cutting Speed (in./min)
1957 0.5 250 N
2
None 35
1965 0.5 270 N
2
None 40
1976 0.5 350 N
2
, H
2
H
2
O 90
2006 0.5 150 O
2
Air 100
1965 1.0 1,100 N
2
, H
2
None 100
1976 1.0 575 N
2
H
2
O 60
2006 1.0 300 O
2
Air 70
2012 1.0 400 O
2
Air 80
Table 3 High-Precision Cuts Include Those in Classes 13
ISO 9013: 2002 (E) Specication
Material Thickness (in.) Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
Angle
0.125 2.0 5.7 14.0 25.8 35.3
0.25 0.8 2.2 5.1 10.2 15.4
0.375 0.5 1.5 3.4 6.7 10.3
0.5 0.4 1.2 2.6 5.2 8.1
0.75 0.3 0.9 1.9 3.8 5.9
1.0 0.3 0.8 1.5 3.1 4.9
Table 2 A Comparison of Plasma and Shield Gases Used for Ferrous and Nonferrous Materials
Metals and Cut Quality Plasma Shield Advantages
Mild Steel Precision Cut (50400 A) O
2
Air Weld-ready cut surface
Mild Steel Precision Cut at 30 A O
2
O
2
Weld-ready cut surface
Nonferrous Precision Cut N
2
H
2
O Best cut quality to 1
1
4 in., weld-
(Water Mist Secondary Process) ready surface, lowest cost per foot
Nonferrous Precision Cut H35 N
2
Faster cutting on > 1
1
4 in., weld-ready
cut surface. Total cost is about 2030%
higher on materials 1
1
4 in.
Mild Steel Conventional Cut Air Air Economic, good cut quality
Mild Steel Conventional Cut O
2
Air Better cut quality can be weld-ready
if bevel angle is not an issue
Nonferrous Conventional Cut Air Air Economic, but post-cut cleaning required
Nonferrous Conventional Cut (thin N
2
N
2
Better parts life than air, better cut surface
materials
3
8 in.)
Nonferrous Conventional Cut (Water N
2
H
2
O Nitride-free cut, but will have more bevel
Mist Secondary Process) angle and a wider kerf than a precision cut
isting designs and pushed the use of new
arc chemistries. While tungsten is a great
emitter of the electrons necessary to cre-
ate the plasma, it is a poor thermal con-
ductor, so its service life decreases if ther-
mal management is not implemented
properly. As a result, tungsten life used
to be measured in a few hundred arc
starts as opposed to thousands today.
To solve the problem, Browning
stuffed a small cylinder of tungsten into
the tip of a copper cylinder. The cylinder
was hollowed from the back so that cool-
ing water could be introduced. This new
design offered both excellent electrical
and thermal conductivity; the copper
conducted electricity to the tungsten, but
also transferred heat away from the tung-
sten and prolonged its service life.
Patented in 1963, the design of the
plasma electrode remains largely the
same today (Ref. 6).
Hafnium and Zirconium
Because all known electrode materi-
als deteriorated in the presence of oxy-
gen, the concept of using air or oxygen
had been all but abandoned. Then in the
late 1960s, Soviet scientists discovered
that hafnium and zirconium offered the
much sought-after solution. Research
and development efforts took off as both
metals were found to resist rapid deteri-
oration. Air provided significant cost sav-
ings, and using oxygen for the plasma gas
and enriching the shielding gas produced
the highest quality, fastest cuts on steel
(see Tables 1 and 2).
Portable Manual
Systems
Early plasma cutting power systems
were huge, heavy, power-sucking behe-
moths that required three-phase primary
current, as well as cooling systems. As a
result, their use was limited to the large
manufacturers who could afford them.
Recognizing the importance of devel-
oping a self-contained single-phase sys-
tem for small shops, Thermal Dynamics
introduced the PAK-5 in 1980. In 1982,
the PAK-3 was the first commercially vi-
able system to use air as the plasma gas.
At the same time, SAF introduced a sim-
ilar product in Europe.
The reader should notice that up until
this point, plasma technology advances
focused on the torch. Unlike welding
processes, nearly all of the magic hap-
pens inside the torch. The most notable
exception would be the invention of in-
verter technology by Swedish engineers
Gran Hedberg and Curt Hanson in 1976.
With the advent of lightweight, portable
power sources that used single-phase
power and created a good cut quality with
single-gas torches, manual plasma cut-
ting exploded in popularity during the
mid-1980s and early 1990s.
High-Precision Cutting
and Automation
The first high-precision plasma cut-
ting systems were invented in Japan in
the 1980s and in the United States start-
ing in the early 1990s. High-precision
plasma systems create a denser, higher
energy arc that in effect creates a sharper
cutting tool that comes close to compet-
ing with lasers in some applications. A
nozzle today has an orifice of 0.040 to
0.045 in. (vs. about 3/16th in. for some of
the early torches) and delivers up to
60,000 A per in.
2
.
As previously reported in the Welding
Journal, an automated plasma system can
cut with a precision of ISO Class 3 qual-
ity or better (see Table 3). The cut sur-
face has the following characteristics:
square face (< 3-deg bevel); smooth,
with nearly vertical drag lines; little to no
nitrides or oxides; has little to no dross;
minimal heat-affected zone and recast
layer; and demonstrates good mechani-
cal properties in welded components.
Noteworthy improvements in high-
precision cutting also include systems ca-
pable of using the Water Mist Secondary
(WMS) or nitrogen-water process for
nonferrous materials. During cutting, the
energy from the plasma gas divides the
water in the torch into its principal com-
ponents. The hydrogen creates a reduc-
ing atmosphere in the cutting zone, pro-
ducing a clean, dross-free and oxide-free
cut surface. The process can reduce their
cutting costs by an average of 20 to 30%.
In recent years, research has also fo-
cused on hafnium electrode wear rates
and learning how arc shutdown interacts
with the molten pool of hafnium, the
plasma arc, and gas flow. The life of elec-
trodes the single most controlling fac-
tor in consumable life has more than
doubled in the last 20 years. In fact, a new
multiple-hafnium electrode introduced
last year can increase arc starts from 400
to 900 at the 400-A current level.
No discussion of advanced plasma
cutting would be complete without men-
tioning CNCs, as high-precision cutting
would not be possible without automa-
tion. Obtaining a Class 3 cut or better re-
quires integrating the torch lifter, auto-
matic gas controller, cutting current, and
X-Y axis movements with millimeter and
millisecond precision. With the power of
todays CNCs, even an inexperienced op-
erator can obtain a precision cut (or the
fastest cut) using touch-screen technol-
ogy. The power of nesting software con-
tained within the CNCs further enhances
productivity and reduces scrap, as well
as frees the floor operator from being de-
pendent on the engineering department
when on-the-fly changes are needed.
Cut quality expectations have evolved
from high quality in the 1960s to square
cut in the 1970s to high definition in the
1990s to the high-definition, high pro-
ductivity, high-profitability cutting of
today. Nearly 60 years of research effort
make plasma cutting an economically
competitive choice for cutting thinner
and thicker metal, as well as putting
the process in reach of every fabricator
(Ref. 7).
On the oxyfuel side, torch and regu-
lator manufacturers continue to enhance
product safety, operator comfort, and de-
sign products for a global workforce.
While plasma cutting has certainly dis-
placed oxyfuel in many applications,
there will always be a role for the process
for cutting thicker metal, heating metal,
and field fabrication and repair. As long
as there is steel to cut, you will find a
burner using a torch that L.W. Stettner
would immediately recognize.
References
1. Wikipedia. 2013. Edmund Davy.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_
Davy.
2. Hart, R. N. 2013. Welding: Theory,
Practice, Apparatus and Tests, Electric,
Thermite and Hot-Flame Processes (Kin-
dle locations 2056-2058). Kindle edition.
3. ACS. 1998. Commercialization of
calcium carbide and acetylene land-
mark. www.acs.org/content/acs/en/ educa-
tion/whatischemistry/landmarks/calcium-
carbid eacetylene.html.
4. Hart, R. N. 2013. Welding: Theory,
Practice, Apparatus and Tests, Electric,
Thermite and Hot-Flame Processes (Kin-
dle locations 2056-2058). Kindle edition.
5. Renault, T., and Hussary, N. 2007.
Life and times of plasma cutting. The
Fabricator.
6. Hussary, N., and Renault, T. 2008.
Electrode life: A measure of system per-
formance in plasma cutting. Welding Jour-
nal 87(4): 3032.
7. Colt, J., and Cook, D. June 2002.
Exploring dry cutting technologies. The
Fabricator.
49 WELDING JOURNAL
The 2013 AWS Robotic
Arc Welding Contest
By Vern Mangold
Vice-Chair of AWS D16
Committee on Robotic and Automatic Welding
O
n November 20, 2013, the robot
welding community will know who
is the number one robotic arc
welder in the world. The American Welding
Society challenges all contestants who are
willing to battle for the title of Robotic Arc
Welding Champion.
The contest will take place on Tuesday, November 19 and
Wednesday, November 20 at the FABTECH expo in Chicago. Con-
testants will choose one of the two CRAW cells available for testing.
A candidate can select the CRAW cell provided by Wolf Robotics
that consists of an ABB welding robot and is coupled with a Lincoln
power source and welding system. The other choice is a Miller
CRAW cell equipped with the full complement of Miller welding
equipment and a Panasonic welding robot. Each contestant has a
20-minute period to complete the robotic welding program, then
the program must be tested and subjected to a verification dry-run.
The final task is to perform the actual robot arc welding process.
The finished coupon will be visually and electronically inspected,
and the performance of the contestant will be judged on the quality
of the welds and the speed in which the examination was completed.
A 20-minute written quiz will also be administered. The two-part
challenge is a mini version of the official AWS certification for ro-
botic arc welding personnel.
The winner is the entrant who posts the top combined score in
the written and performance tests. Competition results will be an-
nounced at 3:00 pm Wednesday, November 20 at the CRAW testing
booth in the North Hall of McCormick Place.
About the Certified Robot Arc Welding Program
In keeping with the longstanding AWS tradition of safety, the AWS
D16 Committee on Robotic and Automatic Welding developed the
Certified Robot Arc Welding (CRAW) program and the supporting
standard D16.4, Specification for the Qualification of Robotic Arc
Welding Personnel, which was the basis for the certification process
that was developed by the AWS Certification Subcommittee on Cer-
tification of Robotic Arc Welding Personnel. This relatively new cer-
tification program has a lot of similarities to the Certified Welding
Inspector (CWI) program.
To become CRAW-certified, a candidate must pass both a closed-
book written examination and a hands-on welding performance ex-
amination.
The term Win-Win is often misused, but it properly describes
the CRAW program. Employers benefit by the knowledge that weld-
ing personnel who have been certified through the CRAW process
will demonstrate the requisite level of technical knowledge required
to apply robots in arc welding tasks in a safe, efficient, and econom-
ical manner.
Successful candidates who achieve the CRAW certification
demonstrate to employers that they have achieved a high distinction
in the robot industry. They earn the right to carry the CRAW cre-
dential with pride and to advertise their achievement on their pro-
fessional resume.
A Short History of Robot Arc Welding
The use of industrial robots to perform arc welding processes is rel-
atively new. Industrial robots turned 50 years old in 2011, and the
process of robotic arc welding has been in existence in rudimentary
form since 1972. A slightly more mature robot welding process is
Calling all robot welding programming experts!
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robotic resistance welding, also known as
spot welding. Spot welding is typically used
to join sheet metal structures together. Ro-
bots have successfully welded automobile
bodies together since 1965. Arc welding with
robots only became a reality when the servo
and computer technologies used by robots
improved and the ability of robots to move
in a continuous, variable, and controlled
fashion was perfected. This enabled ma-
chines, for the first time, to duplicate the
dexterity of human hand motion.
By trial and error, the robot arc welding
process developed over time until today
robot arc welding is considered a mature
manufacturing process technology.
In 1985, the AWS Technical Activities
Committee added a new technical machin-
ery committee to its family of technical com-
mittees. John Hinrich, past AWS
director-at-large and former A.O. Smith ex-
ecutive, leveraged his extensive experience
with arc welding robots and his contacts
within industry to convince AWS to become
actively involved in the safe and efficient ap-
plication of this emerging technology. At
Tower Automotive (formerly A.O. Smith),
Mr. Heinrichs engineers developed tech-
niques and manufacturing protocols for arc
welding robots which became the founda-
tional information and benchmarks for the
new D16 Committee on Robotic and Auto-
matic Welding. The first task addressed by
the D16 Committee was the development of
an arc welding robot system safety standard.
The document identification number is
D16.1, which became an ANSI-approved
standard in 2001.
The committee has successfully published
four AWS/ANSI robot standards, along with
technical reports and other tools that con-
tinue to enhance and augment the safe ap-
plication of arc welding robots.
The Industrial Robot Another
Tool in the Welders Toolbox
From the earliest introduction of continuous
path articulated robots, the process of con-
tinuous path arc welding has been consid-
ered a natural extension of the use of robots
in the manufacture of automotive and trans-
portation-related products. Resistance weld-
ing of car bodies provided the predecessor
technology that was fundamental for the in-
troduction and eventual acceptance of
equipment supplied by companies seeking
better methods of arc welding steel and alu-
minum structures. Although the technolog-
ical developments ushered in a new
opportunity to create robot arc welding ap-
plications, additional developments were re-
quired to make the applications
commercially viable and acceptable by the
general industrial manufacturing commu-
nity. The missing element in this process was
standardization and harmonization of the
language and specifications used by indus-
trial robot integrators, suppliers, and end
users.
Today, industrial arc welding robots are
valuable tools in the welding engineers tool-
box. The use of hand arc welding processes
in the production of automotive and trans-
portation products is virtually nonexistent in
American factories, both small or large, and
foreign or domestic. In addition to the man-
ufacture of automotive and transportation
products, arc welding robots are considered
critical to the production of a wide variety of
commercial and industrial products that
range from submarines to small appliances.
The range of applications continues to
grow. Recent technological developments
have allowed robot technology to add the
welding of exotic, high-strength, and dissim-
ilar metals to the ever increasing list of ap-
plications.
Safety First: An AWS Tradition
Like any tool, industrial robots must be
properly selected. Robots should be applied
to manufacturing tasks designed to be safe
in nature and compatible with prevailing
regulations, rules, and standards. The tech-
nology is only effective if it can be used
safely and efficiently, and this reality is inte-
gral to the work of the AWS D16 Commit-
tee. The committee is dedicated to the safe
use of the arc welding robot technology and
the work of the committee speaks for itself.
It is significant that the D16 Committee
has produced ANSI standards that address
the technical needs of the welding industry
in the logical areas of business productivity
and efficiency. The D16.1 Specification for
Robotic Arc Welding Safety standard remains
the most important publication produced by
the D16 Committee. The D16.1 standard
provides comprehensive directions and in-
formation necessary for the safe use of robot
arc welding technology.
Candidates must robotically weld a CRAW
weld coupon as shown above, as specified in
AWS D16.4, Specification for the Qualifica-
tion of Robotic Arc Welding Personnel.
A CRAW competition was first held at the AWS National Robotic Arc Welding
Conference in Milwaukee in June.
How to compete at FABTECH
In addition to the traditional Professional Welders Competition and a new
Welding Wars team fabricating contest for students, AWS will conduct the
2013 AWS Robotic Arc Welding Contest at McCormick Place in the North
Hall at Booth N2099. The competition will be an abbreviated version of an
AWS CRAW certification examination, with a 20-minute written exam and a
20-minute robot programming and welding test.
First prize will be free tuition for full CRAW training and the official exam.
To apply to compete, visit www.aws.org/certification/CRAWor email
crawcontest@aws.org.
ADVERTISEMENT
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
OCTOBER 2013 52
B
razing is a process for joining two
metals with a filler material that
melts, flows, and wets the metals
surfaces at a temperature that is lower
than the melting temperature of the two
metals. Protection from oxidation of the
metal surface and filler material during
the joining process is achieved using a
covering gas or a flux material.
Brazing and silver soldering are terms
that usually refer to the joining process
where the filler materials have a melt
temperature above 752F (400C) to cre-
ate a stronger joint.
The Benefits of Brazing
The brazing process does not melt the
base metals being joined, yet it can pro-
duce strong robust joints. Brazing offers
distinct advantages over other joining
techniques:
Similar and dissimilar metals can be
brazed.
Brazing uses lower temperatures,
resulting in less part distortion and joint
stress.
Dimensional integrity of the fin-
ished product is easier to control.
Brazing produces strong low-stress
joints.
Advantages of Using
Induction Heating
Induction heating addresses some of
the issues of other brazing methods. It re-
moves the requirement for a skilled op-
erator, reduces energy costs, and de-
creases the equipment footprint while
implementing a lean manufacturing
process for higher-quality parts.
Induction brazing is used in the join-
ing of many different metals for multiple
applications. Typical joints are steel to
steel, steel to brass, steel to copper, brass
to copper, copper to copper, aluminum
to aluminum, and copper to aluminum.
The six key steps include the following:
1. Design the joint correctly allowing
for a 0.0015 to 0.005 in. (40 to 125 m)
clearance between the two surfaces at the
braze material flow temperature to allow
for capillary action and joint wetting
Fig. 1.
2. Clean the surfaces of the joint ma-
terials.
3. Apply flux to both pieces.
4. Fixture the two pieces together with
a braze ring or preform then position in
the coil.
5. Heat the parts until both pieces
achieve the braze material flow tempera-
ture then stick feed the braze material if
preforms are not being used.
6. Clean the brazed joint to remove all
of flux residue.
Basics of Brazing with
Induction Heating
Properly used, induction brazed joints offer
a number of advantages
BY BRETT DALY
BRETT DALY (bdaly@ambrell.com) is a
marketing specialist with Ambrell, an
Ameritherm Company, Scottsville, N.Y.
Fig. 1 The optimum braze joint strength occurs with a part joint clearance between
0.001 and 0.005 in. (25 and 125 m). Data from Lucas Milhaupt.
53 WELDING JOURNAL
Filler Metals and Fluxes
The function of braze filler metal is to
provide a metallurgical bond to the sur-
faces of the materials on both sides of the
joint. There are many different braze al-
loys that are designed to correctly melt,
flow, wet, and bond materials for joining.
Typical braze filler materials that are
used to create the correct alloy for the
joint materials are copper, silver, zinc,
nickel, and aluminum.
Some filler metal alloys have eutectic
properties (Fig. 2) that are very useful for
the brazing process, where the alloy melts
and flows at a lower temperature than the
melt temperature of either of the base
materials. As shown in the diagram (Fig.
3), the 30% copper/silver braze melts at
1454F (790C) compared to a melt tem-
perature of 1980F (1180C) for copper
and 1760F (960C) for silver.
The primary function of the flux is to
protect the two metal surfaces being
joined and the braze metal from oxida-
tion during the heating process. Some
flux materials also act as a cleaning agent.
A typical flux material for lower-temper-
ature brazing would be a potassium salt
of boron and fluorine with a temperature
range from 1050 to 1800F (565 to
982C). Other flux materials with less flu-
orine are available for higher braze tem-
peratures between 1600 and 2200F
(870 and 1100C).
Brazing Different Metals
Aluminum. Aluminum requires a lot
of energy to heat using induction and its
thermal conductivity is 60% compared to
copper. Coil design and time for the heat
Fig. 2 Eutectic properties of silver (Ag)
and copper (Cu). It is critical that the filler
metal alloys melt and flow at a lower tem-
perature than the melt temperatures of
both base metals.
Fig. 3 Filler metal and flux operating temperature ranges for typical materials used in
brazing steel, copper, brass, and aluminum.
Examples of various assemblies heated to brazing temperature using induction heating.
OCTOBER 2013 54
to flow are critical in a successful induc-
tion brazing process for aluminum parts.
Recent advances in lower-temperature
aluminum braze materials have allowed
induction to effectively replace flame and
furnace heating in high-volume brazing
of aluminum assemblies.
The low melting temperature of alu-
minum requires that the induction braz-
ing process apply the energy to the part
correctly, to raise both part surfaces to
the braze flow temperature at the same
time, without overheating and melting
the edges of the part.
Steels. Induction brazing is the ideal
technique for joining steel parts where
welding is not suitable. A well-designed
induction brazed steel joint provides
many benefits, including part geometry
integrity and lower part stress.
Carbon and stainless steels have high
resistivity. They couple well to induction
energy and heat easily. However, they
have poor thermal conductivity so the in-
duction brazing of steel parts should not
be rushed. With steel, it is important to
allow the heat to soak through to the joint
surface for proper flow and wetting of the
braze material.
Copper-based alloys are often used as
a low-cost braze material on carbon
steels, while nickel-based alloys are used
for stainless steels.
Some Brazing Facts
Steel heats well, but is a poor ther-
mal conductor.
Copper takes more induction en-
ergy to heat, but is an excellent thermal
conductor.
Brass heats better than copper, but
has lower thermal conductivity.
Silver copper alloys are popular
braze materials for brass and copper
parts.
Induction brazing is an excellent
method for joining parts made of dissim-
ilar metals. Applications with mixed
metal joining include steel to copper,
steel to brass, and brass to copper. With
these metals, its all about timing. For a
successful brazed joint between different
metals, it is critical that both metal sur-
faces reach the braze flow temperature at
the same time as the joint. The induction
heating solution must take into account
the different thermal conductivities of
the materials, and the time each material
takes to get to temperature (Table 1).
As you can see, there are many ad-
vantages to using induction heating for
brazing. Induction heating is, in fact,
a very versatile method that can be
leveraged for joining a wide range of
materials.
Table 1 Physical Characteristics of Commonly Brazed Metals
Material Thermal Conductivity k cal/cm s C Electrical Resistivity ohm m 10
8
Typical Melting Temp.
C F
Aluminum 0.60 2.65 660 1220
Brass 0.26 7.1 930 1710
Copper 0.95 1.7 1084 1983
Carbon Steel 0.11 74 1480 2700
Stainless Steel 0.05 74 1510 2750
OCTOBER 2013 56
M
aterial scientists and ceramic
component manufacturers
have been developing new
materials and processes that allow
engines to run hotter in response to the
aerospace industrys focus on higher per-
formance and lower costs.
In gas turbine engines, a large
amount of air from the compressor is
used to cool the turbine vane and blades.
The amount of air needed is determined
by turbine temperature and the materi-
als that need to be cooled. If the turbine
materials need less cooling or can be
made from materials that can withstand
higher temperatures, this would make
more air available for propulsion.
Increasing the turbines temperature
capability is key to improving engine
efficiency. However, engines run hotter
as processing temperature is increased,
and this increased heat tends to degrade
metals.
Inside turbines, presintered preforms
(PSPs) are being used to repair vanes
that break down from excessive heat and
wear. The PSPs, with a small amount of
braze alloy mixed with the base metal,
Whats Happening with
Aerospace Brazing
TOM SANDIN is the brazing production
manager for Morgan Advanced Materialss
Wesgo Metals (www.wesgometals.com),
Hayward, Calif.
New brazing alloys improve thermal barriers in jet engines
BY TOM SANDIN
Morgan Technical Ceramics offers presintered preforms for hightemperature braze
applications.
57 WELDING JOURNAL
are used primarily in the turbine section
for repair of vane cracks and worn-out
areas.
As temperatures continue to climb in
these zones, new materials and technolo-
gies are being developed to create a bet-
ter thermal barrier. This is expected to
significantly lower maintenance, repair,
and overhaul (MRO) costs. Examples
include the development of advanced
braze alloys, the use of ceramics on high-
temperature metal to ceramic compo-
nents, and the introduction of active
brazing, which allows metal to be bonded
directly to ceramic without metallization.
Braze Alloys Developed
for HighTemperature
Applications
Braze alloys are used in a variety of
advanced military aircrafts and commercial
aerospace engine components, and grades
are being developed that directly bond
ceramic to metal and other materials. Alloy
compositions vary and include those
designed for functional use in very high-
temperature applications (750850C).
Alloys are selected to meet the spe-
cific service temperature conditions as
well as the requirements of all the com-
ponents to be joined. Examples include
alloys used in new turbine hot sections
and brazing silicon nitride ceramic to
new superalloy engine parts. See Table 1
for an overview of available braze alloys,
showing the engine part it is used in and
the component/base material.
Most modern airliners use turbofan
engines because of their high thrust and
good fuel efficiency. A turbofan gets
some of its thrust from the core and
some from the fan. Incoming air is cap-
tured by the engine inlet. Some of the
incoming air passes through the fan and
continues on into the core compressor
and then to the burner, where it is mixed
with fuel, and combustion occurs. The
hot exhaust passes through the core and
fan turbines and then out the nozzle.
The rest of the incoming air passes
through the fan and bypasses the engine,
similar to air through a propeller. The
air that goes through the fan has a slight-
ly increased velocity (Ref. 1).
Figure 1 is a diagram of a typical tur-
bofan engine showing the most common
locations for use of alloys, including
those used for the engines cold section
(air inlet and compressor) and hot sec-
tion (turbine and combustion chamber).
Morgan Advanced Materialss Wesgo
Metals site in Hayward, Calif., produces
more than 15 braze alloy compositions
for use in the compressor section.
Nioro is used on Inconel X750 or 718
to meet the solution anneal temperature
without the excess grain growth that
occurs from nickel-based alloys. Nioro
is a high-purity gold/nickel alloy for vac-
uum brazing. Nickel braze alloys are
used in compressor and turbine section
brazing. In its foil form, it can be used
for brazing honeycomb and metal seal
strips.
In the stator section of a turbofan
engine, the stator pulls the cold air in
and bypasses the engine, creating an
extra thrust. The stator also has a role in
reducing turbulence, so air pitching and
rolling are minimized.
In turbofan fuel systems, gold and
platinum-gold nickel are used to braze
Table 1 Brazing Alloys
Alloy Engine Secton Component/Base Material
Incronibsi 7 (AMS4777) Compressor/Low Turbine Hastalloys, Inconels, Waspalloy
Nibsi4 (AMS 4778) Compressor/Low Turbine Hastalloys, Inconels, Waspalloy
Incroibsi14 (AMS4776) Compressor/Low Turbine Hastalloys, Inconels, Waspalloy
TiCuNi Exhaust/Low Compressor/ Ti64, Ti Alloys
Structural Mounts
Nioro (AMS 4787, Bau4) Compressor, Fuel Systems Inconel 718, 750, 600, 625
PalNicro36M High Compressor/Low Turbine Hastalloys, Inconels
Presintered Preforms High Compressor/High Superalloys
Turbine/Low Turbine
Palnioro 7 (AMS4786) Fuel Systems Inconel 600, 625
Fig. 1 Common locations for use of alloys in a turbofan engine.
Gold Nickel,
Nickel Braze Alloy
Intake Compression Combustion Exhaust
Exhaust Turbine
Combustion
Chambers
Compressor
Cold Section
Hot Section
Air Inlet
Fuel Systems
Gold Nickel, Platinum
Gold Nickel Braze
Alloy
PSP Repair Alloys,
Nickel Braze Alloys
OCTOBER 2013 58
the fuel system tubes and nozzles. The
fuel nozzle, located where the first and
second combustion stages take place, is
exposed to a considerable amount of
heat. Ductility in the braze joints is
needed to help with the expansion and
vibration in the combustion section.
Gold and platinum braze alloys also
exhibit superior contrast in the braze
joint, allowing the use of X-ray technol-
ogy to check braze joint integrity. In
addition, these alloys demonstrate
extremely good corrosion resistance.
Engine manufacturers have expressed
great interest in materials that can with-
stand extreme temperatures where con-
ventional superalloys fail.
Active Metal Brazing
An area of increasing interest is
active metal brazing, which allows metal
to be bonded directly to ceramic without
metallization, thereby eliminating sever-
al steps in the joining process and creat-
ing an extremely strong, hermetic seal
that can reach higher operating temper-
atures. Aerospace applications include
nozzles for aerospace and industrial tur-
bine engines, new turbine vane systems,
and engine sensor components.
Active metal brazing can be per-
formed with any combination of ceram-
ics, carbons, graphites, metals, and dia-
monds. Active braze alloys (ABAs) are
used for engine sensors that employ
metal-to-ceramic strips to monitor
engine functions. Brazing is done with a
high-temperature ABA so the sensor can
withstand 1000C (1830F) in service.
Active metal brazing facilitates the
joining of some materials and compo-
nents that could never before be accom-
plished, and is especially beneficial in
military and aerospace applications.
Acknowledgment
The author wishes to thank Mark
Forkapa, aerospace market segment
leader, Morgan Advanced Materials,
North America, for his expertise and
contributions towards this article.
References
1. National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, www.grc.nasa.gov/
WWW/ K- 12/ ai r pl ane / at ur bf . ht ml ,
retrieved October 6, 2011.
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OCTOBER 2013 60
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
Preferred Brazing and Soldering
Conditions for Copper-to-Aluminum
Transition Joints
As the global market for HVAC prod-
ucts continues to expand its use of alu-
minum components, the need for a suit-
able means of joining copper-to-
aluminum has become apparent.
When brazing or soldering is selected
as a joining process, several parameters
need to be controlled to ensure proper
joint integrity. These include the joint
design (i.e., root opening, shear depth,
and Cu-to-Al orientation) and brazing or
soldering consumables, i.e., alloy and
flux. Initial evaluation tests have been
performed by Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc.,
Cudahy, Wis., to investigate the effects
of different joint designs and types of
brazing/soldering consumables on the
overall quality of a copper to aluminum
transition joint (Ref. 1).
The 98Zn/2Al solder produced joints
that exhibited the least amount of ero-
sion, highest shear/tensile strength, and
acceptable pressure resistance up to 44.8
bar (650 lb/in.
2
) for approximately 60 s.
Joints made with the 88Al/12Si exhibited
the least amount of porosity but consid-
erable base metal erosion was observed,
which can affect assembly strength.
Specimens joined with the 78Zn/22Al
alloy demonstrated high tensile
strengths and consistent pressure testing
results but also exhibited base metal ero-
sion and a significant amount of shrink-
age porosity, which may cause concerns
for leak-tight assemblies.
Irrespective of alloy choice, it is evi-
dent the nominal joint clearances 0.08
mm (0.003 in.) or 0.15 mm (0.006 in.) and
its consistency from side to side in tube-
to-tube assemblies are critical to the
degree the alloy pulls through and the
level of alloy/base metal interaction
occurs.
A Diffusion-Hardenable Solder with
Negative Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion
Soldered joints of dissimilar materials
in some high-tech applications (such as
optical quantum generators, gyroscopes,
thermoelectric generators, etc.) work in
a wide range of operational tempera-
tures. As the result, a loss of the solder
joint sealing happens due to a significant
difference in the coefficients of thermal
expansions.
A new composite solder for joining
dissimilar materials has been developed
and tested at the Institute of Solid State
Chemistry, Ekaterinburg, Russia. The
solder contains 4852 wt-% of Ga-In-Sn
eutectic alloy and 4852 wt-% of copper
divanadate (Cu
2
V
2
O
7
) as a filler. The
eutectic alloy contains gallium 70, indi-
um 22.5, and tin 7.5 wt-% (Ref. 2).
Components of the Ga-22.5In-7.5Sn
alloy are melted together in a crucible at
Aerospace Grade
Brazing & Welding
Alloys
Aerospace Grade
Brazing & Welding
Alloys
Aimtek is proud to offer a variety of value-added services from
custom labeling, to specialized packaging, to parameter
development and application assistance. Our technical Engineering
Department and knowledgeable staff will help meet your standard
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We understand that a small request can make a big difference.
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61 WELDING JOURNAL
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
200C, held for 4 h, cooled to room tem-
perature, and filtered using the shot filter
with 100-micron pores. The alloy is still
liquid because its melting point is only
9C. The resulting paste is mixed for 15 s
with 5052 wt-% copper divanadate filler,
which has a particle size of <63 microns.
The coefficient of the solidified compos-
ite material is from 0 to 0.5 10
6
C
1
.
Wetting Cu
2
V
2
O
7
particles by Ga-
22.5In-7.5Sn alloy is good, whereby reac-
tion between liquid gallium alloy and cop-
per divanadate particles is already started
during their mixing. Coefficient of ther-
mal expansion for the resulting composite
solder can be controlled by varying the
ratio between liquid and solid compo-
nents in the solder paste for the range of
4852 wt-% of the gallium alloy.
Shock Resistance of the Lead-Free
Solder Sn-3.9Ag-0.7Cu
Effects of microstructure, intermetal-
lic layer thickness, and strain rate on
mechanical shock resistance of copper
soldered joints made with the lead-free
solder Sn-3.9Ag-0.7Cu were investigated
at Arizona State University, Tempe,
Ariz., over the strain rate range from
10
3
to 12 s
1
.
Dynamic strength of the solder joint
is controlled by the following two fac-
tors: At low rate strain, it is controlled by
the bulk joint metal, whereas at high
strain rates, it is controlled by brittle
intermetallic layer (IMC) at the inter-
face. This behavior only applies to the
case where the intermetallic thickness is
relatively thin. At the thickness of brittle
layer >15 microns, the intermetallic
layer controls the strength of soldered
joints at all strain rates (Ref. 3).
In the solder-controlled strength
regime, ductile dimple fracture mor-
phology was observed. In the IMC-
controlled strength regime, cleavage
fracture of the Cu
6
Sn
5
intermetallic
layer was observed. At the critical strain
rate, there was a mixture of ductile
debonding through tin alloy matrix and
cleavage fracture of IMC layer. The
qualitative numerical 3D modeling was
conducted, which accurately depicts the
experimentally observed fracture behav-
ior of solder joints.
Improving the Strength of Soldered
Joints by Increasing the Cooling
Rate
A high tensile strength and lower
ductile-brittle transition temperature are
necessary for the reliability of solder
joints both in structural and electronic
applications. The effect of cooling rate
during solidification on microstructure,
impact, and tensile properties of Sn-9Zn
lead-free solder was investigated at the
National Institute of Technology
Karnataka, Mangalore, India.
Cooling rate was tested in the range
of 0.325C/s. The size of Zn flakes
became finer and distributed uniformly
throughout the matrix with an increased
OCTOBER 2013 62
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
cooling rate (Ref. 4).
Ductile-brittle transition temperature
(DBTT) of the solder increased with the
increase in cooling rate. The solder
DBTT was found to be 20, 10, 8,
and 0C for furnace-cooled, air-cooled
stainless steel and copper-chilled sam-
ples, respectively. Tensile strength of the
solder cooled at a high rate in copper or
steel mold reached 4748 MPa (7 ksi),
while cooled in air at 3839 MPa (5.6
ksi), and only 3032 MPa (4.5 ksi) after
cooling in a furnace at the slowest rate.
Reducing the Strength Loss of
Lead-Free Soldered Joints
Commercially available lead-free sol-
ders Sn-3.4Ag-1Cu-3.3Bi and Sn-3.4Ag-
4.8Bi (wt-%) had demonstrated good
reliability performance in the circuit
board testing program, but they still have
not been considered for high-volume
electronics manufacturing.
Room- and elevated-temperature
tensile testing was done at The
Aerospace Corp., Los Angeles, Calif.
Mechanical tests showed the addition of
Bi reduced the loss of strength for lead-
free soldered joints due to aging that
occurs in traditional Sn-Ag-Cu ternary
alloys (Ref. 5).
The room-temperature strength of
bulk SAC305 was reduced by 37% after
aging at 150C for 336 h, but the strength
reduction was not statistically meaning-
ful for the SAC-Bi solder, and the tensile
strength even increased in the SnAg-Bi
solder. This positive effect is attributed
to the presence of bismuth and its role in
solid-solution strengthening as well as
precipitation as a separate phase.
The dumping capacity of Bi-contain-
ing solders showed similar trends, with
tan increasing in aged SAC305 but
decreasing in SAC-Bi and SnAg-Bi sol-
ders. General coarsening of microstruc-
ture is responsible for reducing the
dumping capacity as it takes place in tin
or Sn-Pb eutectic solders.
Analyzing the Interfacial Effect on
Electromigration in Flip Chip
Solder Joints
Along with the trend of miniaturiza-
tion, the diameter of solder joints was
reduced from 100 to 50 microns at the
average current density around 10
4
A/cm
2
. Therefore, electromigration in
solder joints becomes a major concern
for the reliability of flip chips. Recent
experiments have shown that failure in
microsolder joints is induced by electro-
migration. Three-dimensional computa-
tional modeling was proposed by Sogang
University, Republic of Korea, to simu-
late evolution of micro- and submi-
croscale solder joints due to electromi-
gration-induced diffusion (Ref. 6).
A 3D diffuse interface model with
multiple concentrations and semi-
implicit Fourier spectral scheme was
employed that allowed investigating the
dynamic deformation of the solder joint.
Results have demonstrated rich dynam-
63 WELDING JOURNAL
ics and solder breakage at the interface
on the cathode side.
The solder bump starts to break apart
from the current crowding region, and
the failure time is exponentially
decreased as the strength of the applied
electric field increases. The chemically
enhanced interface energy improves the
reliability of solder joints as well as the
contact area between the bump and cop-
per plate.
Eco-Friendly Soldering Paste with
High Surface Electrical Resistance
A new solder paste that does not
require cleaning after soldering was
developed at Avangard Corp., St.
Petersburg, Russia, for surface mounting
of integrated currents onto printed cir-
cuit boards (PCB).
The paste is comprised of 8091 wt-%
of Sn-37Pb or Sn-36Pb-2Ag solder pow-
ders, and flux binder in the balance (Ref.
7). The flux binder contains 49% syn-
thetic resin Foral 85, 40% diethyl ether
of phthalic acid, 5% dibutyl ether of
phthalic acid, 1% salicylic acid, 1%
adipic acid, and 45 carnauba wax as a
rheology agent.
The paste composition is ecologically
clean based on natural biodegradable
compounds. It does not contain amines
and surfactants, plus has a very light
odor or none at all. Soldered PCBs were
tested, without washing, for flux residues
by using a Zestron flux test (www.ostec-
materials.ru/equipment/prod/44.html).
There were no acid residues observed
on the surface of soldered PCBs after
soldering. That was confirmed by high
values of dielectric resistance of the sol-
dered surface after holding at 40C and
98% humidity for 96 h.
Metallization of Polyester Fabric
for Soldering
Metallized textile structure com-
prised of nonconductive organic or inor-
ganic synthetic fibers can be soldered
after the deposition of a three-layer
coating developed by Soliani EMC S.r.l.,
Como, Italy.
After degreasing and neutralization
in the 30% hydrochloric acid solution, a
polyester fabric is subjected to activation
for 510 min in a bath containing 50 g/L
of PdCl
2
and 4 g/L of SnCl
2
. Then the
fabric is cleaned from colloidal residues
in a bath of hydrofluoric acid 20 mL/L
(Ref. 8).
The first nickel plating of the fabric,
is carried out for 510 min in a bath con-
taining 47 g/L of nickel chloride and 18
g/L of sodium hypophosphite at 40C.
The second layer, copper, is deposit-
ed onto the nickel layer by dipping for
34 min in a copper sulfate bath with
strongly acidic pH. Then the Ni-Cu coat-
ed fabric is subjected to a zinc electrolyt-
ic deposition by dipping in a bath at 50C
is comprised of 65 g/L of zinc chloride
and 200 g/L of potassium chloride at pH
= 5.05.5.
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OCTOBER 2013 64
Finally, the metallized polyester fab-
ric is obtained with three consecutive
layers nickel, copper, and zinc. Silver
can be deposited instead of zinc.
Laser Soldering Ceramic for
Encapsulation
Encapsulation is necessary to protect
electronic functional components in a
chemically aggressive environment at
high temperatures.
A process of laser joining ceramic
housings with glass solders was developed
at Gnter-Khler-Institute fr
Fgetechnik und Werkstoffprfung, Jena,
Germany. A glass solder, laser irradiation
of the soldering zone, thermal cycle of the
process, and process control were evalu-
ated and optimized (Ref. 9). The solder
was applied manually as a paste to the
joining area of the ceramic housing and
subsequently glazed in a furnace. A suffi-
cient wetting of alumina ceramic was
achieved only at the working temperature
of 1370C.
A maximum laser beam scanning rate
of 8000 mm/s was chosen to provide a
quasisimultaneous, uniform heating of
the soldering zone. The length of elliptic
spot on the ceramic surface was set to 4
mm to minimize the laser beam intensity
and temperature gradient. The manufac-
tured joints are vacuum tight. However,
the glass solder cannot crystallize after
solidification due to the short process
duration.
Thus, the required temperature
resistance cannot be guaranteed unless
the glass solder composition has high
enough recrystallization temperature.
Soldering Reactions between Sn-Pd
Alloy and Nickel Surface Finish
Palladium-on-NiP surface finishes are
now widely used in the electronics indus-
try due to low cost and high reliability in
both wire-bonding and soldering applica-
tions. Soldering reactions of Sn-xPd sol-
der (where x varied from 0.05 to 1 wt-%)
with the Ni coating of 7 microns thick on
copper substrate were studied in Yuan Ze
University, Taiwan, Republic of China.
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
65 WELDING JOURNAL
The liquid-solid reaction between Sn-Pd
alloy and Ni was found to be controlled
not only by the concentration of Pd but
also by the reaction time (Ref. 10).
Two predominantly intermetallic com-
pounds, Ni
3
Sn
4
and (Pd,Ni)Sn
4
, were
observed in the joint microstructure. The
growth of these phases at the interface
depends on both palladium content in the
solder and reaction time. Only Ni
3
Sn
4
phase was found at the very low Pd con-
centration of 0.05 wt-% after soldering at
250C for 220 min. Discontinuous
(Pd,Ni)Sn
4
phase scattered above the
Ni
3
Sn
4
layer appeared when the Pd con-
tent was 0.1 wt-% at a relatively short
reaction time of 60150 s. Most of the
(Pd,Ni)Sn
4
crystals disappeared, but the
Ni
3
Sn
4
layer remained after 300 s holding
at the soldering temperature. When the
Pd concentration was further increased to
0.2 wt-% and higher, the (Pd,Ni)Sn
4
developed a continuous layer in contact
with the Ni
3
Sn
4
layer.
Shear strength has dramatically
decreased at Pd content 0.2 wt-% and
higher due to formation of the
(Pd,Ni)Sn
4
-Ni
3
Sn
4
dual layer, but the
strength again goes up at the Pd concen-
tration 1 wt-% and long holding time
about 20 min.
Soldering Iron Features a
Replaceable Tip
An original, replaceable soldering
iron tip was designed and tested by
Hakko Corp., Osaka, Japan. The
replaceable tip cap is fitted on the for-
ward heat-conducting end of a soldering
iron. Conductive paste, powder, or a sol-
der can be sandwiched between the tip
cap and forward end to improve heat
conductivity of the structure (Ref. 11).
The tip cap is manufactured from
metal powders (preferably iron-nickel or
iron-cobalt alloy powders) that are com-
pacted by pressure molding to obtain a
desirable shape, then the green compact
is sintered at 8001300C in a nonoxida-
tive atmosphere. The tips assembly
includes a sleeve with tightening bolt,
coil spring sleeve, or slotted compressi-
ble sleeve, which allows for easy removal
and replacement of the tip cap.
Thus, the tip cap can be replaced
when it is finally worn out, while the heat
assembly unit needs to be replaced only
when its performance degrades. For
example, the tip cap is replaced after
manufacturing from 10,000 and 40,000
soldering points.
It is interesting to note that the small-
est iron erosion depth in the range
300450C occurs in the Sn-37Pb solder
(only 30 microns at 400C), while the
biggest erosion occurs in Sn-0.7Cu solder
(about 170 microns at 400C). The stan-
dard SAC solder Sn-3.5Ag-0.75Cu also
exhibited a lot of erosion (about 135
microns at 400C) for the iron tip but still
less than that of the Sn-0.7Cu solder.
References
1. Darling, C. F., and Marek, S. G.
2012. Preferred brazing and soldering
conditions for copper to aluminum transi-
tion joints. IBSC-2012: Proceedings from
the 5th International Brazing and Soldering
Conference, 487492. Las Vegas, Nev.
Eds. R. Gourley and C. Walker.
2. Krasnenko, T. I., et al. A diffusion-
hardenable solder. Russian Patent
2438844. Priority of May 11, 2010.
Published January 10, 2012.
3. Yazzie, K. E., Fei, H. E., Jiang, H.,
and Chawla, N. 2012. Rate-dependent
behavior of Sn alloy-Cu couples: Effects
of microstructure and composition on
mechanical shock resistance. Acta
Materialia 60: 43364348.
4. Prabhu, K. N., Deshapande, P., and
Satyanarayan. 2012. Effect of cooling
rate during solidification of Sn-9Zn
lead-free solder alloy on its microstruc-
ture, tensile strength and ductile-brittle
transition temperature. Materials Science
and Engineering A 533: 6470.
5. Witkin, D. B. 2012. Influence of
microstructure on quasi-static and
dynamic mechanical properties of bis-
muth-containing lead-free solder alloys.
Materials Science and Engineering A 532:
212220.
6. Kim, D. 2009. Computational analy-
sis of the interfacial effect on electromi-
gration in flip chip solder joints.
Microelectronic Engineering 86: 21322137.
7. Grjaznov, S. J., Ivanov, N. N., and
Ivin, V. D. Solder paste. Russian Patent
2438845. Priority of July 1, 2010.
Published on January 10, 2012.
8. Re, G. C. Metallization of textile
structures. European Patent application
EP 2397577. Priority of June 18, 2010.
Published on December 21, 2011.
9. Hubert, D., Kammann, J., Kash, S.,
Mller, H., and Wchter, S. 2012.
Selective laser soldering by means of
glass solder for high temperature appli-
cations. IIW Doc #XVII-A-0012-11: 5.
10. Ho, C.-E., Lin, S.-W., and Lin, Y.-
C. 2011. Effect of Pd concentration on
the interfacial reaction and mechanical
reliability of the Sn-Pd/Ni system.
Journal of Alloys and Compounds 509:
77497757.
11. Yoshimura, K., Uetany, T.,
Nagase, T., and Masaki, H. Soldering
iron with replaceable tip. U.S. Patent
8237091. Priority of May 25, 2005.
Published on August 7, 2012.
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
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.
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.
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Information provided by ALEXANDER
E. SHAPIRO (ashapiro@titanium-
brazing.com) and LEO A. SHAPIRO,
Titanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio.
BRAZING & SOLDERING PROFILES (advertisement)
Aimtek, Inc.
Established in 1973, Aimtek is a manufac-
turer and value-added supplier of Aero-
space-grade Brazing and Welding Alloys.
Aimtek specializes in precious metal-based
brazing alloys, as well as nickel, titanium,
and high temperature superalloys. Aimtek
is the exclusive North American distributor
for Soudax, a respected European manufac-
turer of resistance microwelding equipment
and hand tools for ball tack welding,
honeycomb, and numerous other set-up
operations. Aimteks quality certifications
include AS9100, ISO9001, Pratt & Whitney
LCS, UTC Supplier Gold, Rolls Royce,
Honeywell, and GE.
201 Washington Street,
Auburn, MA 01501-3224 USA
(508) 832-5035 Fax (508)832-5043
www.aimtek.com
Fusion, Inc.
Fusion produces a wide variety of brazing
and soldering alloys in paste form. Each
contains atomized filler metal, appropriate
flux, and special binders which facilitate
automatic application. Thus, all the ingredi-
ents for a strong, reliable brazed or soldered
joint are delivered in one step. Fusion also
designs and builds automatic brazing and
soldering machines. These custom-built
systems convey fixtured parts through a
timed sequence of filler metal application,
heating, and cooling. Typically, 200-700
assemblies per hour can be joined with just
one operator.
4658 E 355th St
Willoughby, OH 44094
www.fusion-inc.com
Lucas Milhaupt,
Global Brazing Solutions
Lucas-Milhaupt is your single supplier for
the most comprehensive selection of silver,
gold, copper, nickel, and aluminum brazing
supplies. We can provide you technical sup-
port and materials globally, wherever your
company manufactures your product. We
are your one source for brazing materials
including Handy One
flux cored products,

silver and aluminum coated products,
Sil-Fos
, Easy-Flo
, Braze, Silvaloy
,
Silvabrite
, Ultra Flux
, and Handy
Flux.
5656 S. Pennsylvania Ave.
Milwaukee, WI 53110 U.S.A.
(414) 769-6000
info@lucasmilhaupt.com
www.lucasmilhaupt.com
Metglas
,
Inc.
Metglas is a subsidiary of Hitachi Metals
America and is a worldwide leader in the
production of amorphous metal brazing
foils. Metglas brazing foils are a solution to
produce virtually reject-free joints with
high strength and superior resistance to
corrosion and high temperature oxidation.
Metglas brazing foils are available in
various alloy compositions and widths and
can be cut or stamped into exact shapes for
the most demanding applications. For
further information visit Metglas Inc. on the
web at: www.metglas.com or contact us at
1-800-581-7654 or 843-349-6800.
Jimmy Jordan
(843) 349-7319
Metglas@metglas.com
www.metglas.com
Thermo-Calc Software
Thermo-Calc Software is a leading developer
of software and databases for computational
thermodynamics and diffusion controlled
simulations. Thermo-Calc: powerful software
for thermodynamic calculations for multi-
component systems. DICTRA: a unique tool
for accurate simulations of diffusion in
multicomponent alloys. TC-PRISMA: new
software for modeling concurrent nucleation,
growth and coarsening of precipitates.
Databases available for steels, Ti, Al, Ni-
superalloys, solders and other materials.
4160 Washington Rd Suite 230
Mcmurray, PA 15317
(724) 731-0074
paul@thermocalc.com
www.thermocalc.com
Victor Technologies
Victor
TurboTorch
is the most requested

brand in brazing and soldering. Victor
TurboTorch is the professionals choice for
all your brazing and soldering needs, offer-
ing a full line of air fuel and oxy
fuel torches, equipment and accessories.
Victor TurboTorch is one of the Victor
Technologies
TM
portfolio of brands that
offers superior solutions for cutting, gas
control and specialty welding. Look for
us at www.VictorTechnologies.com, or
TurboTorch.com.
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Chesterfield, MO 63017
(800) 426-1888
Fax: (800) 535-0557
CustomerCare@VictorTechnologies.com
www.VictorTechnologies.com/TurboTorch
OCTOBER 2013 66
Call us at 800-782-2110 for a free quote on your
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COMING
EVENTS
Brazil Welding Show 2013. Oct. 14. So Paulo, Brazil. Sponsored
by DVS, German Welding Society. www.brazil-welding-show.com.
MFGDAY 10.04.13 National Manufacturing Day. Oct. 4. Open
house events held nationwide. Sponsored by Fabricators & Man-
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Extention Partnership. Visit www.mfgday.comfor interactive map.
National Manufacturing Day, EWI Open House. Oct. 4, Colum-
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WESTEC. Oct. 1517. Los Angeles Convention Center, Los An-
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Canadian Intl Aluminum Conf. Oct. 2125, Palais des Congrs
de Montral, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.ciacmontreal.com.
12th Inalco Intl Aluminum Conf. Oct. 21, 22, Palais des Congrs
de Montral, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.inalco2013.com.
SOUTH-TEC. Oct. 2931. TD Convention Center, Greenville,
S.C. The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (800) 733-4763;
www.southteconline.com.
FFA Annual Convention. Oct. 30Nov. 3, Kentucky Exposition
Center, Louisville, Ky. Future Farmers of America.
www.ffa.org/Pages/default.aspx.
ASNT Fall Conf. and Quality Testing Show 2013. Nov. 47, Rio
Hotel, Las Vegas, Nev. The American Society for Nondestructive
Testing. www.asnt.org.
Crane Users Conf. Nov. 1214, Hyatt French Quarter Hotel, New
Orleans, La. www.craneconference.com.
POWER-GEN Intl Event. Nov. 1214, Orange County Conven-
tion Center, Orlando, Fla. www.power-gen.com/event-info.html.
Intl Conf. for Vision Guided Robotics. Nov. 1315, Georgia In-
stitute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga. www.visiononline.org/events/.
AWS Professional Program. Nov. 1821. FABTECH, Mc-
NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
OCTOBER 2013 68
Get a Running Start to FABTECH Week!

Join AWS, FMA, SME, PMA, and CCAI for the 2
nd
Annual RUN4MFG 5K race
on Sunday, Nov. 17, 2013 in Chicago. The course route proceeds
through Lincoln Park along the beautiful Chicago Lakefront. The run will
raise funds to support manufacturing education and the educational
foundations of the FABTECH show partners.
Register today at fabtechexpo.com/run4mfg
69 WELDING JOURNAL
Cormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Numerous sessions offered on the
latest in welding research and commercial developments. Pick
one day or attend the entire four-day program. Sponsored by
American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 223;
www.fabtechexpo.com.
FABTECH 2013. Nov. 1821, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill.
This exhibition is the largest event in North America dedicated to
showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fabricating, tube
and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufacturing tech-
nologies. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 223;
Welding Dissimilar Metals Conf. Nov. 18. FABTECH, Mc-
Cormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by American Welding So-
ciety. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 223; www.fabtechexpo.com.
So Youre the New Welding Engineer Conf. Nov. 19, 20.
FABTECH, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by Amer-
ican Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 223; www.fabtech-
expo.com.
5th Thermal Spray Technology: High-Performance Surfaces.
Nov. 19. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by Intl Ther-
mal Spray Assn., an AWS Standing Committee. itsa@thermal-
spray.org. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext.
264; www.fabtechexpo.com.
RWMA Emmet A. Craig Resistance Welding School. Nov. 20,
21. FABTECH, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by
American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 223;
Alloys in Power Plant Technology Intl Conf. Nov. 26, 27. NH
Berlin-Mitte, Berlin, Germany. www.vdi-international.com/alloys.
CyberSE 2013, Intl Conf. on Cyber Science and Engineering.
Dec. 14, 15. Guangzhou, China. www.cyberse2013.org.
AERODEF Manufacturing. Feb. 2527. Long Beach Convention
Center, Long Beach, Calif. The Society of Manufacturing Engi-
neers. (800) 733-4763; www.aerodefevent.com.
FABTECH Canada. March 1820. Toronto Congress Centre,
Toronto, Ont., Canada. www.fabtechcanada.com.
FABTECH India colocated with Weld India. April 1012. Pra-
gati Maidan Exhibition Complex, New Delhi, India. Concurrent
with the 2014 Intl Congress of the IIW. Cosponsored by AWS,
FMA, SME, PMA, CCAI, and India Institute of Welding.
www.fabtechexpoindia.com.
ITSA International Thermal Spray Assn. Annual Meeting.
April 2426. Savannah, Ga. Sponsored by ITSA, an AWS Stand-
ing Committee. itsa@thermalspray.org; www.thermalspray.org.
FABTECH Mexico. May 68. Centro Banamex, Mexico City,
Mexico. www.fabtechmexico.com.
mfg4 colocated with MicroManufacturing Conf. and Exhibits.
May 68. Connecticut Convention Center, Hartford, Conn. The
Society of Manufacturing Engineers; (800) 733-4763;
www.mfg4event.com.
MMTS Montreal Mfg. Technology Show. May 1214. Place
Bonaventure, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.mmts.ca.
Composites Manufacturing. May 1315. Northern Kentucky
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OCTOBER 2013 70
Convention Center, Covington, Ky. Society of Manufacturing En-
gineers. www.sme.org/composites.
The Big M including SME Annual Meeting, RAPID Conf. and
Expo, and North American Research Conf. June 912. Cobo Cen-
ter, Detroit, Mich. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.the-
bigmevent.com.
FABTECH 2014. Nov. 1113. Georgia World Congress Center,
Atlanta, Ga. This exhibition is the largest event in North America
dedicated to showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fab-
ricating, tube and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufac-
turing technologies. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-
9353, ext. 264; www.fabtechexpo.com.
FABTECH 2015. Nov. 912. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. This
exhibition is the largest event in North America dedicated to
showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fabricating, tube
and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufacturing tech-
nologies. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 264;
Educational Opportunities
Brazing School Fundamentals to Advanced Concepts. Oct.
2224 (Greenville, S.C.); Nov. 1921 (Simsbury, Conn.).
www.kaybrazing.com/seminars.htm; dan@kaybrazing.com; (860)
651-5595.
CWI Preparation Courses. Nov. 1115. D1.1 Endorsement: Nov.
15; API Endorsement: Nov. 8. All courses and endorsements
held at Welder Training & Testing Institute, 1144 N. Graham St.,
Allentown, Pa. www.wtti.com; (610) 820-9551, ext. 204.
Emmet A. Craig Resistance Welding School. Nov. 20, 21. At
FABTECH, McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by
RWMA (Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance), an AWS
standing committee. www.aws.org/rwma/school.html.
For New Welding Engineers. Nov. 19, 20. At FABTECH,
McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Register at
Friction Stir Welding, Introduction. Nov. 6, EWI, Columbus,
Ohio. www.ewi.org/events.
Grounding and Electrical Protection Courses. Oct. 17, 18,
Albuquerque, N.Mex. Lyncole XIT Grounding,
www.lyncole.com/courses; education@lyncole.com.
High Purity Processing Technical Seminar. Oct. 2123,
Janesville, Wis. Sponsored by RathGibson. www.rathgibson.com.
Industrial Ventilation Training Programs. Oct. 1416,
Birmingham, Ala.; March 1719, 2014, Las Vegas, Nev. For elec-
tronic copy of the brochure e-mail rdeckhoff@gmail.com. The
Deep South Center for Occupational Health & Safety.
Introduction to Friction Stir Welding. Nov. 6, EWI, Columbus,
Ohio. www.ewi.org/events; education@ewi.org.
Laser Vision Seminars. Oct. 2, 3; Nov. 6, 7; Dec. 4, 5. Servo-
Robot, Inc. www.servorobot.com.
Modern Furnace Brazing School. Oct. 2224. Cincinnati, Ohio.
Contact Jim Nicoll at brazingschool@wallcolmonoy.com; (248)
585-6400, ext. 233.
Welding Dissimilar Metals. Nov. 18. At FABTECH, Mc-
Cormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Register at www.fabtechexpo.com.
ASM Intl Courses. Numerous classes on welding, corrosion, fail-
ure analysis, metallography, heat treating, etc., presented in
Materials Park, Ohio, online, webinars, on-site, videos, and
DVDs; www.asminternational.org, search for courses.
Automotive Body in White Training for Skilled Trades and
Engineers. Orion, Mich. A five-day course covers operations,
troubleshooting, error recovery programs, and safety procedures
for automotive lines and integrated cells. Applied Mfg.
Technologies; (248) 409-2000; www.appliedmfg.com.
Basic and Advanced Welding Courses. Cleveland, Ohio. The
Lincoln Electric Co.; www.lincolnelectric.com.
Basics of Nonferrous Surface Preparation. Online course, six
hours includes exam. Offered on the 15th of every month by The
Society for Protective Coatings. Register at www.sspc.org/training.
Best Practices for High-Strength Steel Repairs. I-CAR courses
for vehicle repair and steel structural technicians. www.i-car.com.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors Training Courses and
Seminars. Columbus, Ohio; (614) 888-8320; www.national-
board.org.
Canadian Welding Bureau Courses. Welding inspection courses
and preparation courses for Canadian General Standards Board
and Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission certifications. The
CWB Group, www.cwbgroup.org.
CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
Miami, FL Exam only Dec. 5
Los Angeles, CA Dec. 813 Dec. 14
Orlando, FL Dec. 813 Dec. 14
Reno, NV Dec. 813 Dec. 14
Houston, TX Dec. 813 Dec. 14
St. Louis, MO Exam only Dec. 14
Charlotte, NC Jan. 510 Jan. 11
Miami, FL Exam only Jan. 16
Beaumont, TX Jan. 1217 Jan. 18
Long Beach, CA Jan. 1924 Jan. 25
Denver, CO Jan. 2631 Feb. 1
Miami, FL Jan. 2631 Feb. 1
Pittsburgh, PA Jan. 2631 Feb. 1
New Orleans, LA Feb. 914 Feb. 15
Waco, TX Feb. 914 Feb. 15
Seattle, WA Feb. 914 Feb. 15
San Diego, CA Feb. 2328 March 1
Atlanta, GA Feb. 2328 March 1
Mobile, AL March 27 March 8
Kansas City, MO March 27 March 8
Houston, TX March 27 March 8
Norfolk, VA March 27 March 8
Milwaukee, WI March 27 March 8
Birmingham, AL March 914 March 15
Indianapolis, IN March 914 March 15
Boston, MA March 914 March 15
Portland, OR March 914 March 15
Miami, FL March 2328 March 29
Chicago, IL March 2328 March 29
Springfield, MO March 2328 March 29
Dallas, TX March 2328 March 29
Minneapolis, MN March 30April 4 April 5
Las Vegas, NV March 30April 4 April 5
Syracuse, NY March 30April 4 April 5
San Francisco, CA April 611 April 12
New Orleans, LA April 611 April 12
Nashville, TN April 611 April 12
Miami, FL Exam only April 17
St. Louis, MO Exam only April 19
Annapolis, MD April 27May 2 May 3
Detroit, MI April 27May 2 May 3
Corpus Christi, TX April 27May 2 May 3
Fresno, CA May 49 May 10
Miami, FL May 49 May 10
Albuquerque, NM May 49 May 10
Oklahoma City, OK May 49 May 10
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
Atlanta, GA Jan. 610 Jan. 11
New Orleans, LA Mar. 31April 4 April 5
Minneapolis, MN July 1418 July 19
Miami, FL Sept. 1519 Sept. 20
Norfolk, VA Oct. 1317 Oct. 18
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
(No exams given.)
For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education require-
ments without taking the exam. The exam can be taken at any site
listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES
Miami, FL Dec. 813
New Orleans, LA Jan. 510
Denver, CO Feb. 914
Dallas, TX March 914
Miami, FL March 2328
Sacramento, CA April 27May 2
Boston, MA April 27May 2
Charlotte, NC May 49
Pittsburgh, PA June 16
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Seattle, WA Feb. 2428 March 1
Houston, TX March 31April 4 April 5
Las Vegas, NV May 59 May 10
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
The course dates are followed by the location and phone number.
Dec. 913 at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
Dec. 26 at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
Oct. 14 at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
Oct. 2125 at
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
Training: Nov. 1820; Exams: Nov. 2122 at
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
CERTIFICATION SEMINARS, CODE CLINICS, AND EXAMINATIONS 20132014
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the
seminar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application dead-
line dates by visiting our Web site www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept.
to confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to reg-
ister online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply
early to avoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.
OCTOBER 2013 72
WELDING
WORKBOOK
Mechanically, the design of a brazement is no different from
the design of any other component. The guidelines that apply to
machined or other fabricated parts with respect to concentrated
loads, stress raisers, stress concentration, static loading, and dy-
namic loading, for example, also apply to the brazement.
Brazed joints must be properly engineered, processed, and
inspected. Therefore, they must be designed so as to permit ease
of fabrication and examination. The ultimate goal is to produce
quality brazements able to withstand the service conditions to
which the finished fabrication is exposed.
Design Variables
Brazement designers must define as many of the design vari-
ables of the brazed joint as practical to ensure the desired serv-
ice properties and life of the joint and the completed brazement.
These design variables include the following:
Base metal(s), including specifications, chemistry, and physical
properties.
Joint design, including joint clearance at room temperature and
at the brazing temperature and the physical shape of the mem-
bers (i.e., stress concentration points and base metal fillets).
Brazing atmosphere or flux.
Stress distribution at the brazed joints.
Service requirements, such as mechanical performance, electri-
cal conductivity, pressure tightness, corrosion resistance, and
service temperature.
Brazing filler metal, joint strength, melting characteristics, vapor
pressure characteristics, and method of placement.
Brazing process variables, including temperature, atmosphere,
time at temperature, heating and cooling rates, and distortion.
Prebraze cleaning, including grease and oil removal, oxide re-
moval, and the prebraze clean-up cycle (outgassing) in the fur-
nace with the appropriate atmosphere of gas or vacuum, when
required.
Postbraze cleaning, including flux or oxide removal and stop-
off removal.
Postbraze heat treatment, including tempering, annealing, hard-
ening heat treatment, solution treatment, and aging.
Testing of the brazed joint to attain design data.
Inspection method, including examination method(s), test re-
quirements, frequency, test limits, and qualification require-
ments.
This list of variables is not all inclusive with respect to possi-
ble variables. For more complex brazements, additional details
would need to be developed and defined.
All brazement variables and instructions must be included or
referenced on the assembly drawing or brazing procedure speci-
fication used during brazing so that adequate information is avail-
able to the brazing engineer and shop personnel.
Base Metal
The strength of the base metal has a profound effect on the
strength of the brazed joint; thus, this property must be kept in
mind when designing the joint for specific properties. Some base
metals are easier to braze than others, particularly with specific
brazing processes. For example, nickel base metal containing high
titanium, aluminum additions, or both presents special concerns
in furnace brazing. For those applications, vacuum furnace braz-
ing is usually selected because of its excellent control of the avail-
able oxygen, which combines with the aluminum and titanium.
An integral function of brazement design involves considera-
tion of the mechanical requirements of the base metal or metals
used in the brazement as well as the effect of the brazing cycle
on the base metal and the final joint strength. Cold-work-strength-
ened base metals are stress relieved, and their overall strength is
reduced by the brazing process temperature and time when in
the stress-relieving stage.
When designing a brazement to have strength above the an-
nealed properties of the base metal after the brazing operation,
heat-treatable metals are specified. The base metals can be of
the oil-quench, air-quench, or precipitation-hardening types. Al-
ternatively, the detail parts can be hardened and then brazed
with a low-temperature filler metal using short times at temper-
ature to maintain the mechanical properties.
Joint Design
Several factors include selection of the type of joint or joints
to be used in a brazement. These include the brazing process to
be used, fabrication techniques employed prior to brazing, num-
ber of items to be brazed, method used to apply the filler metal,
and ultimate service requirement of the joint.
The unit strength of the brazed joint may occasionally be
higher than that of the base metal. However, the strength of the
filler metal is generally considerably lower. Joint strength varies
according to the joint clearance; the overlap distance on lap joints;
the degree of interaction between the filler and base metals; the
presence of discontinuities in the brazement; and to a greater ex-
tent, the specific joint design.
Lap joints and butt joints are the most common types of joints
used in brazing operations.
In lap joints, the length of the overlap may be varied so that
the joint is as strong as the weaker member, even with a lower-
strength filler metal or with the presence of small discontinuities
in the joint. An overlap at least three to four times the thickness
of the thinner member usually yields maximum joint efficiency
when the joint is stronger than the base metal or the joint is
strengthened by diffusion brazing.
Lap joints are typically used because they offer the greatest
possibility of efficiency and the greatest ease of fabrication. They
do have the disadvantage of increasing the thickness of the metal
at the joint and creating a stress concentration at each end of the
joint, where an abrupt change in cross section occurs.
Butt joints can be used when the thickness of the lap joint
would be objectionable and the strength of the completed joint
will meet the requirements of the brazement in service. Even
though the strength of a properly executed butt joint may be suf-
ficiently high in laboratory tests, in service, it will almost always
fall far below the strength of the base metal due to the stresses
applied.
The strength of a butt joint also depends on the strength of
the filler metal in the joint, the clearance, the degree of interac-
tion between the filler and base metals during the brazing or dif-
fusion brazing cycle, and the service requirements.
OCTOBER 2013 74
Datasheet 343
Excerpted from the Brazing Handbook, fifth edition.
Design of Brazements
SOCIETYNEWS SOCIETYNEWS
BY HOWARD WOODWARD
woodward@aws.org
The 2013 Instructors Institute was held
at AWS headquarters July 2126. Shown
(from left) kneeling are Chris Ellinwood,
Jim Behee, Mike Castro, and Eric Krauss;
standing are David Ennis, Chris Armitage,
Nick Peterson, Brent Hurd, Scott Mazzulla,
Jack Minser, Carl Watson, Dan Rivera,
District 17 Director J. Jones, Jerry Bene-
brake, Instructor Rick Polanin, Doug
Desrochers, Robert Shigley, Matt Hayden,
Troy Miller, Jay Ginder, Nehemias Bur-
rion, Jim Falgout, Brandon Hoffner,
Donna Bastian, Kevin Adair, Ed Norman,
Bob Sand, Jason Schmidt, Brent Pashak,
Salvadore Russomanno, Robert Thomas,
and Mark Seibel. The AWS staff partici-
pants included David Hernandez, Martica
Ventura, and Alina Blanco.
The hands-on welding exercises were
performed off-campus at Florida Gas and
Welding Supplies.
Jim Greer, an AWS past president, con-
ducted a 9-year recertification class July
2126 at AWS Headquarters. Attending
were Roger Hill, Nigel Crosby Sr., Donald
McKendree, Michael Rosilez, Fidel Soto,
Emanuel De La Cruz, Natividad Armen-
darez, Edwin Harrell, Leland Creecy,
Royce Yancey, Anthony Cormier Sr.,
Ronald Royal Jr., Leroy Begay Jr., Richard
Jordan, Richard Braun, Stan Kaminski,
William Stevens, Todd Sabo, David Mc-
Causland, and William Matthews.
77 WELDING JOURNAL
Instructors Institute Meets at AWS Headquarters
Certified Welding Inspectors Convene for a 9-Year Recertification Class
Notice of Annual Meeting American Welding Society
The Annual Meeting of the members of the American Welding Society will be held Monday, Nov. 18, 2013, begin-
ning at 9 AM at McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. The regular business of the Society will be conducted, including elec-
tion of officers and nine members of the Board of Directors. Any business properly brought before the membership will
be considered.
OCTOBER 2013 78
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meet-
ings are open to the public. Persons wish-
ing to attend a meeting should e-mail the
program manager listed.
Oct. 2, 3, B4 Committee on Mechani-
cal Testing of Welds. Boulder, Colo. S.
Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Oct. 811, D1 Committees on Struc-
tural Welding. Seattle, Wash. B. McGrath,
bmcgrath@aws.org.
Oct. 911. A2 Committees on Defini-
tions and Symbols. Wheeling, W.Va. S.
Borrero, sborrero@aws.org.
Oct. 23. SH1 Subcommittee on Fumes
and Gases. Columbus, Ohio. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
The following meetings will be held at
FABTECH, Chicago, Ill.
Nov. 17. C7 High Energy Beam Weld-
ing and Cutting Committee. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Nov. 17. C7B Subcommittee on Elec-
tron Beam Welding and Cutting. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Nov. 17. C7C Subcommittee on Laser
Beam Welding and Cutting. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Nov. 18. B1 Committee on Methods of
Inspection. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Nov. 18. B1A Subcommittee on Non-
destructive Examination of Welds. E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Nov. 18. B1B Subcommittee on Visual
Inspection. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Nov. 18. B1C Task Group on the Weld-
ing Inspection Handbook. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Nov. 18. C2 Committee and Subcom-
mittees on Thermal Spraying. J. Rosario,
jrosario@aws.org.
Nov. 18. D14B Subcommittee on Gen-
eral Design and Practices. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Nov. 18. D17D Subcommittee on Re-
sistance Welding. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 18. D17J Subcommittee on Fric-
tion Stir Welding for Aerospace. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 19. C6D Committee on Friction
Stir Welding. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
Nov. 19. D9 Committee on the Weld-
ing, Brazing, and Soldering of Sheet
Metal. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 19. D15C Subcommittee on Track
Welding. J. Rosario, jrosario@aws.org.
Nov. 19. D17K Subcommittee on Fu-
sion Welding. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 20. A5H Subcommittee on Filler
Metals and Fluxes for Brazing. S. Borrero,
sborrero@aws.org.
Nov. 20. A5K Subcommittee on Tita-
nium and Zirconium Filler Metals. A.
Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 20. D14E Subcommittee on
Welding of Presses. E. Abrams, eabrams@
aws.org.
Nov. 20. D14I Subcommittee on Hy-
draulic Cylinders. E. Abrams, eabrams@
aws.org.
Nov. 20. D16 Committee on Robotic
and Automatic Welding. C. Lewis, clewis
@aws.org.
Nov. 20. D17K Subcommittee on Fu-
sion Welding. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 20. G2D Subcommittee on Reac-
tive Alloys. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Nov. 21. C3 Committees on Brazing
and Soldering. S. Borrero, sborrero@
aws.org.
Nov. 21. D14 Committee on Machin-
ery and Equipment. E. Abrams, eabrams
@aws.org.
Nov. 21. D17 Committee on Welding
in the Aircraft and Aerospace Industries.
A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Standards Approved by ANSI
C2.19/C2.19M:2013, Specification for
the Application of Thermal Spray Coatings
to Machine Elements for OEM and Repair.
New. 7/29/2013.
J1.1M/J1.1:2013, Specification for Re-
sistance Welding Controls. New. 7/29/2013.
AWS D8.1M:2013, Specification for Au-
tomotive Weld Quality Resistance Spot
Welding of Steel. Revised. 7/29/2013.
AWS was approved as an accredited
standards-preparing organization by the
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as approved
by ANSI, require that all standards be
open to public review for comment dur-
ing the approval process. The standards
listed above were approved by ANSI ef-
fective on the date shown.
ISO Standards for Public Review
ISO/DIS 15012-4, Health and safety in
welding and allied processes Equipment
for capture and separation of welding fume
Part 4: Design requirements
ISO/DIS 15614-1, Specification and
qualification of welding procedures for
metallic materials Welding procedure test
Part 1: Arc and gas welding of steels and
arc welding of nickel and nickel alloys
Copies of the above ISO standards are
available for review and comment through
your national standards body, which in the
United States is ANSI, 25 W. 43rd St., 4th
Fl., New York, NY 10036; (212) 642-4900.
In the United States, if you wish to par-
ticipate in the development of Interna-
tional Standards for welding, e-mail A.
Davis, adavis@aws.org.
Tech Topics
Safety and Health Committee seeks ed-
ucators, users, general interest, and con-
sultants. S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, C4
Committee seeks educators, general in-
terest, and end users. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Friction welding, C6 Committee seeks
professionals. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
High energy beam welding and cutting,
C7 Committee seeks professionals. C.
Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
Magnesium alloy filler metals, A5L
Subcommittee seeks professionals. R.
Gupta, gupta@aws.org.
Robotic and automatic welding, D16
Committee seeks general interest and ed-
ucational members. B. McGrath, bmc-
grath@aws.org.
Local heat treating of pipe, D10P Sub-
committee seeks professionals. B. Mc-
Grath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
Mechanical testing of welds, B4 Com-
mittee seeks professionals. B. McGrath,
bmcgrath@aws.org.
Reactive Alloys, G2D Subcommittee
seeks volunteers. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Titanium and zirconium filler metals,
A5K Subcommittee seeks professionals.
A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Welding qualifications, B2B Subcom-
mittee seeks members. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
Friction stir welding of aluminum al-
loys for aerospace applications, D17J
Subcommittee seeks members. A. Diaz,
adiaz@aws.org.
Resistance welding equipment, J1
Committee seeks educators, general in-
terest, and users. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Thermal spraying and automotive
welding, the D8 and C2 Committees seek
educators, general interest, and end users.
E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Machinery and equipment and Surfac-
ing and reconditioning of industrial mill
rolls, D14 Committee and D14H Subcom-
mittee seek professionals. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Opportunities to Serve on AWS Technical Committees
Volunteers are sought to contribute to the following technical committees. Visit www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html.
79 WELDING JOURNAL
Life Members of the American
Welding Society are urged to take ad-
vantage of their complimentary free ad-
mission to the upcoming FABTECH ex-
position plus free registration to the en-
tire Professional Program (a $325
value), scheduled for Nov. 1821 at Mc-
Cormick Place in Chicago, Ill.
The Professional Program registra-
tion entitles AWS Life Members to at-
tend any of the technical sessions oc-
curring during the four-day period.
Registration forms are available in
issues of the Welding Journal, as well as
in the Advance Program that was mailed
to members previously. You may also
request the form from the Membership
Department at (800) 443-9353, ext. 260.
To obtain your free registration,
mark AWS Life Member Free Reg-
istration at the top of your Registra-
tion Form. Fax both sides of the form
to (305) 443-5647, Attn: Rhenda Kenny,
membership director; e-mail to
rhenda@aws.org; or mail the form to
Rhenda Kenny, AWS, 8669 NW 36th
St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-6672.
AWS Life Members to Receive Free FABTECH Perks
November Deadline for Masubuchi Award Nominations
November 1, 2013, is the deadline for
submitting nominations for the 2014
Prof. Koichi Masubuchi Award. This
award includes a $5000 honorarium. It
is presented each year to one person,
40 years old or younger, who has made
significant contributions to the ad-
vancement of materials joining through
research and development. Nomina-
tions should include a description of the
candidates experience, list of publica-
tions, honors, and awards, and at least
three letters of recommendation from
fellow researchers. The award is spon-
sored by the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology Dept. of Ocean Engineer-
ing. E-mail your nomination package to
Todd A. Palmer, assistant professor,
The Pennsylvania State University,
tap103@psu.edu.
ARC Specialties hosted the AWS Tech-
nical Activities Committee (TAC) and In-
ternational Standards Activities Commit-
tee (ISAC) July 30 and 31 at its facilities in
Houston, Tex. John Martin, ARC vice pres-
ident, presented a company overview, fol-
lowed by tours of the facilities. A barbe-
cue dinner and networking reception were
held in the evening. Richard Holdren, ARC
senior welding engineer, is TAC chair.
Allen Sindel from Alstom Power and Wal-
ter Sperko from Sperko Engineering Serv-
ices serve as TAC vice chairs. Also partici-
pating at the meetings were Dean Wilson,
AWS president-elect; Vice President David
Landon; Vice President-Elect John Bray;
and Damian Kotecki, ISAC chair and an
AWS past president.
TAC and ISAC Members Meet at ARC Specialties
Damian J. Kotecki, AWS president
20052006, gave a keynote address at the
symposium marking the 100th anniversary
of the pouring of the first commercial heat
of stainless steel, held Aug. 1214 at the In-
dian Institute of Technology campus in
Mumbai. His address, Landmark Events in
the Welding of Stainless Steels, recounted
the history of weld metal constitution dia-
grams, dramatic effects of argon-oxygen de-
carburization on refining of stainless steels
and improving weldability, unintended con-
sequences of very efficient desulfurization
of AOD refining on autogenous GTAW of
stainless steels, accidental addition of nitro-
gen in AOD refining of stainless steels with
the effect of improving the weldability of
duplex stainless steels, and discovery of the
detrimental effect of bismuth additions to
high-temperature performance of stainless
steel FCAW electrodes.
The seminar talk topics included melt-
ing and refining of stainless steel, forming
and fabrication, welding and joining, physi-
cal metallurgy, corrosion, experiences from
industry, and newer grades of steel. Nearly
400 persons attended the event. Kotecki
later toured the Bharat Heavy Electricals
Ltd. (BHEL) Welding Research Institute in
Tiruchirappalli, presented several technical
lectures and a presentation on AWS Initia-
tives in Attracting and Training Welding
Professionals, which highlighted virtual
welding in the AWS Careers in Welding
trailer, the Boy Scouts of America welding
merit badge, and the AWS Online Web site.
Damian Kotecki (right) receives a speaker
gift from R. Easwaran, general manager,
BHEL Welding Research Institute & Labs.
Kotecki Presents Keynote Address at Stainless Steel Seminar in India
OCTOBER 2013 80
New AWS Supporters
Coherent Technical Service, Inc.
46561 Expedition Dr., Ste. 100
Lexington Park, MD 20653
Representative: Trevor Sonnenberg
www.goctsi.com
Columbia Steel Casting Co.
10425 N. Bloss Ave.
Portland, OR 97203
Representative: Marty Slagle
www.columbiasteel.com
Founded in 1901, Columbia Steel man-
ufactures steel and iron-alloy castings and
wear parts for industrial equipment. Parts
produced are up to 40,000 lb in a wide va-
riety of wear, abrasion, and heat-resistant
alloys. The companys in-house services
include engineering, pattern making, ma-
chining, and quality assurance.
RMS Energy Co., LLC
18559 243rd Ave. NW
Big Lake, MN 55309
Representative: Cody Cook
http://isolatedphasebus.com
RMS Energy is an isolated phase bus
service company offering new installa-
tions, retrofitting replacements, and pro-
viding cleaning, inspections, aluminum
welding, maintenance, and emergency
services.
Loram
3900 Arrowhead Dr.
Hamel, MN 55340
Representative: Jim Nelson
http://loram.com
Wheelers Welding Service, LLC
8301 W. Fm 1705
Happy, TX 79042
Representative: Dereck Wheeler
Supporting Companies
Ben Ash Iron Works, Inc.
215 E. Greenleaf Blvd.
Compton, CA 90220
Plansee USA LLC
115 Constitution Blvd.
Franklin, MA 02038
Affiliate Companies
Advanced Fluid Containment LLC
9501 W. 900 S., Ogden, UT 84404
Badd LLC
4750 New Middle Rd.
Jeffersonville, IN 47130
Bohler Lastechniek Groep
Haarlemmerstraatweg 89
Halfweq NH 1165MK
Netherlands
Cedifop
Molo Sammuzzo, Porto Di Palermo
Palermo 910139, Italy
Columbia Industries LLC
5775 NW Wagon Way
Hillsboro, OR 97124
Elcharions Systems Technologies Ltd.
Atop Technical Complex 278
Phc Ava Expy., POB 6902
Trans Amadi
Port Harcourt Rivers 50001, Nigeria
Enermex International, Inc.
7214 Clinton Dr.
Houston, TX 77020
First Engineering
16438 Salida El Sol
Romona, CA 92065
Gujarat Metal Cast Industries Ltd.
2 Panchratna Bldg., Subhanpura Rd.
Vadodara Gujarat 390023, India
Progress Rail Services
12100 E. Walls Rd.
Amarillo, TX 79118
Model Werks
3290 Overland Rd.
Apopka, FL 32810
Thatcher Sales & Erectors
7951 Mill Creek Rd.
Monterey, TN 38574
Educational Institutions
Chetek-Weyerhaeuser H.S.
1001 Knapp St., Chetek, WI 54728
Center for Employment Training
294 S. 3rd St.
El Centro, CA 92243
Intl Maritime Welding Society
18 Quirino Hwy., Corner Midway
Park Gate Zone 16 Bgy 183
North Caloocan, Manila, Philippines
Laurel Technical Institute
200 Sterling Ave.
Sharon, PA 16146
Maricopa Skill Center
1245 E. Buckeye Rd.
Phoenix, AZ 85034
Western Suffolk Boces Wilson Tech
507 Deer Park Rd.
Huntington Station, NY 11746
Welding Distributor
Machine & Welding Supply Co.
1660 U.S. Hwy. 301 S.
PO Box 1708, Dunn, NC 28335
Sustaining Member Companies
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
20+ Points
Jackie Morris, Mobile 40
Dereck Wheeler, Oklahoma City 25
1519 Points
Joseph Vincent, Kansas City 18
Paul Kreitman, Chicago 15
1014 Points
Rodney Riggs, Tulsa 11
Chris Layton, Central Arkansas 10
Joe Livesay, Nashville 10
Dennis Nance, Iowa 10
Shown are the members participating
in the June 1Dec. 31, 2013, campaign.
Members receive 5 points for each Indi-
vidual Member and 1 point for each Stu-
dent Member recruited. The standings
listed are as of August 18.
See page 81 of this Welding Journal for
campaign rules and prize list or visit
www.aws.org/mgm. If you have questions
about your member proposer points, e-
mail Rhenda Kenny at rhenda@aws.org;
or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 480.
83 WELDING JOURNAL
Article I Membership
Section 1. Classes of Members.
(a)General.
The membership of the Society shall
consist of the following classes: Sustaining
Members, Members, Retired Members,
Student Members, Honorary Members,
and, Life Members Corporate Member
and Member. (The members of the several
two classes are sometimes herein after re-
ferred to as members.) The Board of Di-
rectors may designate the dues to be paid
by members of each class and may desig-
nate additional classes or change the
classes of members or the rights of, and
qualifications or limitations upon, any
class of members. No individual shall be a
member of more than one class, or more
than one category within that class.
(b)Definition of Classes of Members.
1.Sustaining Member Corporate Mem-
ber. Any individual, corporation, firm,
partnership, job shop, educational insti-
tution, organization, or other association,
interested in the science and technology
of welding and allied processes shall be el-
igible to be a Sustaining Corporate Mem-
ber. Corporate Members may belong to a
number of categories to be defined by the
Board of Directors. Each Sustaining Cor-
porate Member which is not an individual
shall designate an individual as its repre-
sentative.
2. Member. Any individual who has a
degree or has at least five years of experi-
ence having a direct bearing on the has an
interest in the science and technology of
welding and allied processes shall be eli-
gible to be a Member. Members may be-
long to a number of categories to be de-
fined by the Board of Directors. Members
will include categories for Retired, Stu-
dent, Honorary, and Life Members.
3. i) Retired Member. Any individual who
is retired and receiving no remuneration
for any type of welding activity and has
been a member (other than a Student
Member) for at least fifteen consecutive
years prior to retirement shall be eligible
to be a Retired Member.
4. ii) Student Member. Any individual
who attends a recognized college, univer-
sity, technical school, vocational school,
or high school shall be eligible to be a Stu-
dent Member until the anniversary date
of his or her initial membership which fol-
lows the termination of his or her status
as a student. In any event, no individual
may be a Student Member for a period ex-
ceeding four years. Student Members shall
not have the right to vote or be eligible to
hold an elected office except in Student
Chapters. Students may hold appointed
offices in Sections. Additional conditions
to qualify as a Student Member may be
defined by the Board of Directors.
5. iii) Honorary Member. An individual
who, in the judgment of the Board of Di-
rectors, has achieved acknowledged emi-
nence in the welding profession or excep-
tional accomplishments in the develop-
ment of welding shall be eligible for elec-
tion as an Honorary Member pursuant to
Section 3(b) of this Article I. There shall
not be more than one Honorary Member
for each five hundred members then in the
classes of Sustaining Corporate Member
and Member. Not more than two individ-
uals shall be elected as Honorary Mem-
bers in any one fiscal year. Each Honorary
Member shall be exempt from payment of
dues and shall enjoy all the benefits of a
Member.
6. iv) Life Member. Any individual who
has served as President of the Society or
who shall have paid his or her dues for
thirty-five years shall be eligible to become
a Life Member. (Years in which dues were
paid as a Retired Member shall not be in-
cluded in computing the foregoing thirty-
five years.) Each Life Member shall be ex-
empt from payment of further dues, but
will continue to receive publications and
may obtain additional publications at sub-
scription rates applicable to his or her most
recent class of membership.
Article III Organization
Section 2. District Organization.
(c) District Nominations. Before Feb-
ruary 1 of any year in which required (see
Article V, Section 4, of these Bylaws), the
District Director, with the approval of the
District Executive Committee, shall ap-
point a District Nominating Committee
shall be appointed. Each Sections lead-
ership shall appoint a representative to
serve on the Committee. The Sections ap-
pointee shall be a member of the Section,
preferably a current Officer. consisting of
a member from each Section in the Dis-
trict and Two other members of the Dis-
trict, one of whom shall be the District Di-
rector and one of whom may be a former
Chair of the District Nominating Commit-
tee, if available, shall also be appointed
by the District Director. If a former Chair
of this Committee is not available, the Dis-
trict Director may appoint to this Commit-
tee any individual from any of the Sections
in his or her District who then currently
serves, or in the past has served, as Chair
of a Section. The members of this Com-
mittee who represent Sections shall be se-
lected from among those who are then cur-
rently a Section Chair, Vice Chair, Treas-
urer, or Secretary. The current District Di-
rector shall designate the Chair of this
Committee from among those members
who represent Sections.
The District Nominating Committee
shall select a qualified nominee for Dis-
trict Director of their District and report
to the Executive Director and Secretary
(who shall in turn report to the National
Nominating Committee) not later than the
first day of May of that the year requiring
an election, the name of the nominee they
have selected. Special qualifications for
the District Directors office are defined
in Article V, Section 4, of these Bylaws.
When reporting nominations to the Exec-
utive Director and Secretary, the written
acceptance and a brief biographical sketch
of each nominee for District Director shall
also be included by the District Nominat-
ing Committee.
Article IV National Meetings
of Members
Section 3. Notice.
Notice of any annual meeting or spe-
cial meeting of members shall be provided
mailed to each member in a manner re-
quested in their profile (electronic or post)
not less than 30 days nor more than 50 days
(60 days if notice is by other than first class
mail) before the date of the meeting. No-
tice may also be given by publication in the
Welding Journal in an issue which is pro-
vided mailed to all members not less than
30 days nor more than 60 days before the
date of the meeting. Notice of any special
meeting shall state the purpose or pur-
poses for which the meeting is called, and
only the business included within stated
purpose or purposes may be conducted at
such special meeting.
Section 5. Quorum.
Two One-hundred members (other
than Student Members) shall constitute a
Amendments to the Bylaws of the American Welding Society
The members of the American Welding Society will con-
sider amendments to the Societys Bylaws at the Annual
Meeting, to be held Monday, Nov. 18, 2013, in Chicago, Ill.
These Amendments were approved by the Board of Di-
rectors May 20, 2013, and are recommended for adoption
by the Members.The Bylaws require that the text of any
amendment be published in the Welding Journal and mailed
at least 30 days before the Members take action. Members
are encouraged to vote on the proposed amendments, in
person, at the aforementioned meeting, or through the ex-
ercise of the proxy published in this issue of Welding Jour-
nal on the page following these amendments. The present
wording is indicated with a strikethrough and the proposed
wording is shown in red boldface.
OCTOBER 2013 84
quorum at Annual Meetings. Proxies shall
not be counted for quorum purposes for
an Annual Meeting. Three hundred mem-
bers entitled to vote, including at least 20
members from each of two-thirds of the
Districts, shall constitute a quorum at any
special meeting of members. Proxies shall
be counted for quorum purposes for any
special meeting called by the Board of Di-
rectors. Unless otherwise specifically re-
quired by law, the affirmative vote of the
majority of members present in person or
by proxy shall be necessary for the taking
of any action.
Article V Board of Directors
Section 4. District Directors.
There shall be twenty-two District Di-
rectors, one from each of the Societys Dis-
tricts. District Directors shall be duly nom-
inated by their respective Districts for a
term of three years, as provided in these
Bylaws (Article III). One-third of the Dis-
tricts shall nominate their District Direc-
tors in successive years. An individual Dis-
trict Director shall be eligible for reelec-
tion for one term (for a total service of six
consecutive years). An individual shall not
be eligible for a third term until at least
three years have elapsed following his or
her term of service. To be eligible for elec-
tion as District Director, a candidate must
have served as Chair of a Section; as Chair
or Vice Chair of a standing, technical, com-
mittee, project committee reporting to a
standing committee, or special committee
of the Society, or as Director-at-Large.
A District Director shall supervise and
promote the affairs of the Society in his or
her District in accordance with these By-
laws and subject to the rules and direction
of the Board of Directors.
Section 6. Meetings.
Meetings of the Board of Directors
shall be held as may be determined from
time to time by the Directors. The Presi-
dent or any five Directors, by written no-
tice to the Executive Director and Secre-
tary, may call a special meeting of the
Board of Directors. Written Notice of the
time and place of each meeting of the
Board of Directors shall be given to each
Director by telephone, or other electronic
communication to an address provided by
the member personal delivery, telegram,
or cablegram at least two days before the
meeting date, or by first-class mail de-
posited in the United States mail at least
fifteen days before the meeting date.
Article VI Committees of Directors
Section 1. Executive Committee.
(d) The reversal of any action by the Board
of Directors, or by the members.
A majority of the Executive Commit-
tee, but no less than six Directors, shall
constitute a quorum. The Committee shall
act by the affirmative vote of a majority of
its members at a meeting at which a quo-
rum is present or by unanimous action by
a writing or writings signed by all of its
members. Any one or more members of
the Committee may participate in a meet-
ing thereof by means of a conference tele-
phone or similar communication equip-
ment allowing all persons participating in
the meeting to hear each other at the same
time.
Unless the meeting is called as a com-
munication meeting, each member of the
Committee participating by telephone or
similar communication equipment shall
pay the entire expense of his or her partic-
ipation by telephone or other similar com-
munication equipment. Meetings of the
Committee may be called by the Chair or
by any three members. Notice of the time
and place of each meeting of the Commit-
tee shall be given to each member by tele-
phone or other electronic communication
to an address provided by the member at
least twenty-four hours before the time of
the meeting, by personal delivery,
telegram, or cablegram at least two days
before the date of the meeting, or by first
class mail deposited in the United States
mail at least 15 days before the date of the
meeting.
Unless a separate Finance Committee
is appointed by the Board of Directors, the
Executive Committee shall perform the
duties of the Finance Committee.
Article VIII Officers
Section 4. Treasurer.
The Treasurer, after being duly nomi-
nated and elected by the members, shall
serve for a term of three years and be eli-
gible for reelection for one term (for a total
of six consecutive years). To be eligible to
hold the office of Treasurer, an individual
must be a member of the Society other
than Student Member, must have served
on the Board of Directors or Finance Com-
mittee for at least one year, must be fre-
quently available to the national office,
and should be of executive status in busi-
ness or industry with experience in finan-
cial affairs.
Article IX Nomination and Election
of National Officers and Directors
Section 1. Eligibility for National Office.
Only Sustaining Members, Members,
Honorary Members, Life Members, or Re-
tired Members other than Student Mem-
bers of the Society who have been mem-
bers for a period of at least three years shall
be eligible for election as a Director or Na-
tional Officer.
Section 2. National Nominating
Committee.
The term of service of the National
Nominating Committee shall be for 12
months beginning May 1. It shall consist
of a Chair, those Directors serving the
third year of their current term on May 1,
two added members and a Past President.
The Chair is the President whose term of
office expired at the end of the previous
fiscal year, or, if this Chair is unable to
serve, the President shall appoint another
Past President as Chair. The two added
members shall be appointed by the Presi-
dent from among those who hold or have
previously held position on the Board of
Directors or have served as Chair, Vice
Chair, or Secretary of a standing, techni-
cal, or special Committee. The Past Presi-
dent member shall be the President who
served as the previous Chair, if available.
In the event that the Chair is unable to
serve, the next most recent Past President
shall be appointed to this position by the
serving President or the immediate Past
President. If a Director shall appoint an
alternate if is unable to serve, an alternate
with the same qualifications as required
for the two additional members of the
Committee, will be appointed by the Pres-
ident. and notify the Chair in writing. If
the Past President is unable to serve, the
next most recent Past President shall be
appointed by the serving President as a re-
placement. If a member who serves on the
Committee is a candidate for office, the
person shall be automatically removed
from the Committee.
It is the duty of this Committee to nom-
inate candidates for national office. The
Committee shall hold an open meeting
preferably at the Annual Meeting, at which
members may appear to present and dis-
cuss the eligibility of all candidates. The
Committee shall deliver to the Executive
Director and Secretary, in writing, on or
before the first day of May of each year,
the names of its nominees for the various
offices next falling vacant, with the writ-
ten acceptance of each nominee. [Nomi-
nees for District Director shall be nomi-
nated by each District Nominating Com-
mittee. See Artide Article III, Section
2(c).] The nominees for other Directors
shall be selected by this Committee with
due consideration to geographical distri-
bution. The Committee shall also prepare
a brief biographical sketch of each nomi-
nee (except for the nominees for the Dis-
trict Directors) which shall be submitted
to the Executive Director and Secretary
for publication in the Welding Journal.
Article XI Publications, Awards,
and Research
Section 4. Welding Research.
(a) Procedures. The Society may pro-
vide for research in welding and related
processes directly, by contract, or by co-
operating with separate research organ-
izations. A separate section of the Weld-
ing Journal may be provided for research
publications.
87 WELDING JOURNAL
The following is a summary of the sig-
nificant changes that appear in the 2013
Edition of ASME Boiler and Pressure Ves-
sel Code (BPVC), Section IX. All of the
changes can be readily identified in the
Summary of Changes found in the front
matter of Section IX. Note the opinions
expressed in this article are those of the
author and not the official opinion of BPV
Standards Committee IX.
These changes become mandatory Jan.
1, 2014.
Administrative Changes
The 2013 Edition of Section IX is the
first in a new biennial publishing cycle for
the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. There
will be no 2014 addenda issued. The next
publication will be a new edition published
in July 2015.
The big change in Section IX 2013 is
the introduction of two new Parts: QG
General Requirements, and QF Plastic Fus-
ing. While QF is new (discussed later),
Part QG is nothing more than an extract
of the general and administrative require-
ments found in Parts QW Welding and QB
Brazing. These requirements would have
been repeated a third time in Part QF Fus-
ing had Part QG not been created. That
is, the statement, QW-100.1, A Welding
Procedure Specification (WPS), is a writ-
ten document that provides direction to
the welder or welding operator for mak-
ing production welds in accordance with
Code requirements, can also be found in
Part QB (except that it says brazing, not
welding) and would have been repeated
again in QF (except it would have said
fusing). This and other administrative
requirements have been removed from
QW and QB, creating:
QG-101, Procedure Specification. A
procedure specification is a written docu-
ment providing direction to the person ap-
plying the material joining process.
About three pages of common require-
ments were extracted to create Part QG
with no significant changes in those re-
quirements. One notable change, how-
ever, is replacement of the often repeated
phrase, manufacturer or contractor,
with organization. That definition is suf-
ficiently important that it is defined in
QG-109.2 as follows: Organization: as
used in this Section, an organization is a
manufacturer, contractor, assembler, in-
staller, or some other single or combined
entity having responsibility for opera-
tional control of the material joining
methods used in the construction of com-
ponents in accordance with the codes,
standards, and specifications which refer-
ence this Section.
While organization is now used
throughout Section IX in place of man-
ufacturer or contractor, this definition is
no different from the historical working
definition of a manufacturer or contrac-
tor the organization that has to comply
with the rules in Section IX is the organiza-
tion that has responsible operational con-
trol of joining of Code components.
Subjects Now Located in Part QG
Relationship of Section IX require-
ments to the Code, standard, or specifi-
cation that invoked Section IX.
Procedure and performance qualifica-
tions conducted under earlier editions of
Section IX and new qualifications.
Supervision and control by the organi-
zation having responsible operational
control during welding of test coupons.
Use of joining procedure specifications
and performance qualifications by com-
panies of different names when they are
part of the same corporate ownership.
Use of procedure specifications and
performance qualifications when owner-
ship changes.
Simultaneous performance qualifica-
tion by more than one organization.
Definitions for welding and brazing
formerly in QW-492; fusing definitions are
in Part QF.
While these requirements have been
relocated, there was no intention of
changing the administrative rules, so any
practices that were acceptable or prohib-
ited under the previous editions of Sec-
tion IX are intended to be acceptable or
prohibited in this edition.
The committee has also added guid-
ance for other standards developers and
engineers who want to invoke the require-
ments of Section IX on the proper way to
do so as a new Appendix K. Many stan-
dards and specification writers do not un-
derstand that Section IX only addresses
writing and qualifying welding, brazing,
and fusing procedures and those who will
apply them, nothing more. It also notes
that, when the referencing standard or
specification wants to impose impact test-
ing, it needs to specify the test tempera-
ture, extent of testing, and acceptance cri-
teria. Appendix K provides model words
to assist those invoking Section IX to help
them get it right.
Plastic Fusing Part QF
Part QF has four Articles that parallel
the organization of Parts QW and QB:
QF-100 General Requirements
QF-200 Procedure Qualifications
QF-300 Performance Qualifications
QF-400 Data (Variables)
While the present rules only cover hot
plate fusion of high-density polyethylene
(HDPE), Part QF has an open structure
to allow the addition of other plastic fus-
ing applications such as electro-fusion that
is currently on the BPV IX agenda.
As with the welding and brazing rules,
the plastic fusion rules do not cover pro-
duction-related issues such as nondestruc-
tive examination of production joints,
qualification of equipment, quality assur-
ance requirements for material, supple-
mentary written tests for operators, data
log evaluation, and preproduction testing.
Such requirements are found in the con-
struction codes.
QF-200 defines the requirements for
preparing a Fusing Procedure Specifica-
tion (FPS) and for fusing procedure qual-
ification. A table of essential and
nonessential variables for hot plate fusing
is given just like as is done for the weld-
ing and brazing processes. There are re-
quirements for recording and evaluating
data taken during fusing of the test
coupon; visual examination of the coupon;
elevated-temperature, sustained-pressure
testing of the coupon; full section bend
and side bend testing; and high-speed ten-
sile impact testing.
Although qualification rules are in-
cluded in QF-200, QF-221.1 provides a
Standard Fusing Procedure Specification
(SFPS) that, if followed, does not require
qualification.
QF-300 provides rules for qualifica-
tion of operators of fusing equipment.
The variables include position, diame-
ter, material, and the fusing equipment
manufacturer.
QF-400 lists all the variables for pro-
cedure and performance qualification,
and it shows diagrams of fusing positions,
ASME BPVC, Section IX
Changes in the 2013 Edition
BY WALTER J. SPERKO
WALTER J. SPERKO (sperko@asme.org), P.E., is president of Sperko Engineering Services, Inc., Greensboro, N.C.
OCTOBER 2013 88
test specimens, and test fixtures, and gives
acceptance standards for fusing procedure
and performance qualification. It also
contains definitions unique to fusing as
well as blank forms.
In short, if you know how to follow the
rules for qualification of welders and
welding procedures, you already know
how to follow the rules for fusion.
Welding Procedure (QW-200) Changes
Three new welding processes have
been added. Hybrid plasma-GMAW and
hybrid laser-GMAW use both welding
processes in a single weld pool, increas-
ing welding speed and reducing the
amount of weld metal required. Both will
be highly automated processes. Friction
stir welding has an immediate application
in aluminum plate heat exchanger fabri-
cation and will see wider application as
that technology develops.
The last line of QW-451 requires qual-
ification of WPSs for welding base metals
more than 8 in. (200 mm) thick to be qual-
ified using similarly thick test coupons.
While thin materials are forged heavily
and have fairly uniform grain structure
through the thickness, very thick materi-
als do not get as much forging and, as a
consequence, grains midplane are coarser
and the material is less uniform as com-
pared to thinner sections. These larger,
nonuniform grains do not exhibit the same
ductility and toughness that is found in
thinner sections.
In the 1970s, the Section IX commit-
tee drew the line at 8 in. and required or-
ganizations that will weld on thick mate-
rials gain experience with the nonuniform
properties of thick materials by welding
test coupons made from thick material.
As QW-451 currently reads, however,
nothing prevents a manufacturer from
procuring a 10-in.- (250-mm-) thick test
coupon and only depositing in. (19 mm)
of weld metal with a single welding process
without welding the full thickness of the
test coupon. Such a PQR supports weld-
ing on base metal up to 13.33 in. (338 mm)
thick and depositing the same thickness
of weld metal with that process. That ob-
viously does not achieve the objective of
gaining experience with welding of thick
materials. To preclude that, a note has
been added to QW-451 specifying that test
coupons more than 6 in. (150 mm) must
be welded for their full thickness.
Its well known that a groove weld qual-
ification qualifies a WPS for all sizes of
fillet welds, all thicknesses of base metal,
and all diameters of pipe and tube. This
is true except when impact testing is a
requirement.
Readers should note that supplemen-
tary essential variables, when applicable,
override the standard qualification limits,
including the above general rule. Specifi-
cally, QW-403.6 (The minimum thickness
qualified is the thickness of the test
coupon or
5
8 in. (16 mm), whichever is
less.) and QW-410.9 (single-pass qualifies
multipass welding, but not vice versa) re-
strict the above general rule for fillet weld
qualification by groove weld test. A note
has been added to QW-451.4 pointing out
that fillet welds qualified by groove weld
test are subject to restrictions imposed by
supplementary essential variables when
qualification of the WPS with impact test-
ing is a requirement.
When using turned (cylindrical) ten-
sion test specimens, there has always been
a tolerance on the diameter of the speci-
mens in QW-462.1(d). This is because the
dimensions in this figure are standard test
specimen dimensions taken from SA-370,
a common reference standard for me-
chanical testing.
Unknown to most, however, is that SA-
370 allows use of a nominal area instead
of requiring measurement of the speci-
men diameter (see SA-370, Fig. 4, Note
6). That is, when the specimen was a stan-
dard 0.505 specimen, instead of calcu-
lating the area based on diameter meas-
urement, you can just use 0.200 in.
2
or sim-
ply multiply the failure load by 5 to get the
tensile strength. As of this edition, speci-
mens that violate the machining toler-
ances in QW-462.1(d) may be accepted
provided the actual diameter is used to
calculate the area of the specimen.
In temper bead welding, users have
reported difficulties complying with the
0.010-in. spacing between Vickers hard-
ness impressions since the specified 10-
kg load creates a large impression in soft
materials. When hardness impressions
are too close together, the plastic defor-
mation from one impression can affect
subsequent hardness readings, so ASTM
E92 specifies a minimum spacing be-
tween impressions of 2.5 times the im-
pression maximum dimension of the
nearby impressions.
This revision of QW-290 specifies a
minimum number of readings in critical
locations rather than equally spaced hard-
ness traverses. Provisions were also added
to allow the use of instrumented indenta-
tion testing (IIT) per ASTM E2546 to per-
form hardness measurements. This is a
novel test method where an impression is
made by successively loading and unload-
ing an indenter with progressively higher
loads and measuring the spring back of
the material with each unloading cycle.
Not only can hardness data be obtained,
but some measure of tensile strength,
yield strength, toughness, and residual
stress can be extracted from these data.
If you weld to corrosion-resistant weld
metal overlay, a new paragraph QW-424.2
allows you to weld directly to the overlay
following a WPS in which the overlay is
represented by a P-number base material
that nominally matches the chemical
analysis of the buildup or overlay. No ad-
ditional qualifications are required.
In stud welding, there was a conflict
between QW-409.8, which allowed amper-
age to be changed at will, and QW-410.10
which limited amperage to 10% of that
used on the test coupon. The 10% tol-
erance was determined to be the correct
requirement, and QW-409.8 was deleted
from the table of variables.
Welder Qualification (QW-300) Changes
While there were no significant
changes in the rules for personnel quali-
fication, Code Case 2757 was issued for
qualifying welding operators by section-
ing and etching of mockups when the
welding equipment does not produce
parts that can be radiographed or bend
tested.
Base Metals and Filler Metals
Notably, 172 new line entries were
added to the P-number tables, including
20 new ASME material specifications con-
taining 39 grades, 12 new ASTM specifi-
cations containing 19 grades, an update
of API 5L containing 79 new grades, and
5 new foreign material specifications con-
taining 16 new grades.
Historically, only materials that were
permitted for construction by the ASME
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code were al-
lowed to be assigned P-numbers. In 2009,
materials listed in the B31 Codes were al-
lowed to be assigned P-numbers. As of the
2011 addenda, the rules changed to allow
any material to be assigned a P-number,
and the information required to be sub-
mitted to the Committee is given in Ap-
pendix J, which was added in this edition.
Further, QW/QB-422, the P-number
table, has not listed ASTM versions of a
specification if the ASME version was
listed; this has always caused confusion
since it meant that the ASTM version of
a specification was not obviously assigned
a P-number even though the ASTM spec-
ification was the basis for (and most of the
time is identical to) the ASME specifica-
tion. The 2013 edition has modified the
format of the table to A/SA-XXX and
B/SB-XXX so that both the ASTM and
ASME versions of specifications are
clearly assigned the same P-number.
The A-number table of weld metal
compositions has always contained el-
lipses (. . .) for some elements. While the
historical interpretation of these ellipses
has been that those elements are not sup-
posed to be purposely added to the weld
metal at more than tramp level, the 2013
table shows limits for all listed elements.
Fortunately, these limits are based on the
Section IX continued on page 93
89 WELDING JOURNAL
SECTIONNEWS SECTIONNEWS
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
Shown at the Connecticut Section presentation ceremony are (from left) Mike Knipple, District 1 Director Tom Ferri, awardee Evan Dawid-
owiez, Joe McGloin, Steve Goodrow, Walter Chojnacki, and Rick Munroe.
Attendees are shown at the Southwest Virginia Section program in July.
Shown at the Southwest Virginia Section program
are (from left) speaker Bob Campbell, District 4
Director Stewart Harris, and Treasurer David Cash.
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
(610) 820-9551
mike@wtti.com
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
(919) 824-0520
stewart.harris@altec.com
CONNECTICUT
JULY 30
Activity: Evan Dawidowiez received a Sec-
tion scholarship to further his studies at
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology.
He is the third generation in his family to
study at the school. The presentation was
held at Asnuntuck C. C. in Enfield, Conn.
SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA
JULY 18
Speaker: Bob Campbell
Affiliation: Banker Steel
Topic: Developing welding procedures
Activity: The program was held at Central
Virginia C. C. Stewart Harris, District 4
director, attended the event.
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director
(786) 473-9540
uwe@miamidiver.com
OCTOBER 2013 90
District 8
Joe Livesay, director
(931) 484-7502, ext. 143
joe.livesay@ttcc.edu
Columbus Section golfers are shown at the annual outing in July.
Mahoning Valley golf outing organizers are
(from left) Chair Chuck Moore, Nick Am-
brosini, and Carl Ford.
The Auburn-Opelika Section members are shown during their tour of the KIA plant.
COLUMBUS
JULY 25
Activity: The Section hosted its annual golf
outing at Cooks Creek Golf Club, South
Bloomfield, Ohio, with eleven teams par-
ticipating. Members of other local techni-
cal societies were invited to play in the
event that raised $1961 for the Sections
scholarship fund. The event sponsors in-
cluded American Engineering and Manu-
facturing, Lincoln Electric, Miller Weld-
ing, Mistras Group, HETEN Engineering,
EWI, Miami Valley Materials Test Center,
and Det Norske Veritas. Top honors went
to Rob Borahs team from Laserflex that
finished 13 under par.
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
ts@bellsouth.net
AUBURN-OPELIKA
JUNE 19
Activity: The Section members toured the
KIA manufacturing plant in Auburn, Ala.
MAHONING VALLEY
AUGUST 2
Activity: The Section hosted the 38th an-
nual Jim Best memorial golf outing for 53
participants. The organizers included Sec-
tion Chair Chuck Moore, Golf Committee
Chair Carl Ford, and Nick Ambrosini.
Brian Chin presented an overview of the
Sections activities. George Fairbanks,
District 9 director, attended the program.
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director
(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rmwilcox@wowway.com
91 WELDING JOURNAL
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director
(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.ncantieri.com
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
(765) 378-5378
bobrichwine@aol.com
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
Shown at the Chicago Section meeting are from left (seated) Eric Krauss, Bob Zimny, Eric
Purkey, Craig Tichelar, and Jim Greer. Standing are Lisa Moran, Pete Host, Jeff Stanczak,
and Cliff Iftimie.
Shown at the Northwest Section meeting in August are (from left) Mace Harris, Jay Gerdin,
Mark Carter, Pam Lesemann, Doug Juhl, Chair Ric Eckstein, and Dana Sorensen.
Posed for their mug shot are the winners of the Northwest Sections golf outing (from left)
John Adler, Randy Anderson, Jim Swanson, and Dave Erickson.
Mace Harris, Northwest Section treasurer, talks to visitors at the Oxygen Service Co. tech-
nology show in August.
Sara Anderson (left) and Thea Bunde rep-
resented hole sponsor Toll Gas and Welding
Supply at the Northwest Section golf event.
CHICAGO
AUGUST 4
Activity: The Section held a board meet-
ing at Papa Joes Restaurant in Orland
Park, Ill. Attending were past AWS Presi-
dent James Greer, Eric Krauss, Bob
Zimny, Eric Purkey, Craig Tichelar, Lisa
Moran, Pete Host, Jeff Stanczak, and Cliff
Iftimie.
NORTHWEST
JUNE 17
Activity: The Section hosted its 34th an-
nual golf outing at Sundance Golf and
Bowl in Dayton, Minn. The event raised
$3500 for the Sections scholarship fund
including a $1000 donation from Produc-
tion Engineering Corp. The hole sponsors
were Oxygen Service and Toll Gas and
Welding Supply. The putting green spon-
sors included Mace Harris, Mike Hanson,
Advantage Marketing, Chart Industries,
Lincoln Electric, Miller Electric, Min-
neapolis Oxygen, Ridgewater Technical
College, South St. Paul Steel Supply, and
Weld Safe Midwest. The first-place win-
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
OCTOBER 2013 92
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@att.net
District 17
J. Jones, director
(832) 506-5986
jjones6@lincolnelectric.com
District 18
John Bray, director
(281) 997-7273
sales@afliatedmachinery.com
ning team was John Adler, Randy Ander-
son, Jim Swanson, and Dave Erickson
from Oxygen Service.
AUGUST 7
Activity: The Northwest Section held its
first planning meeting of the year at
Wyoming Machine in Stacy, Minn. Partic-
ipating were Chair Ric Eckstein, Mace
Harris, Jay Gerdin, Mark Carter, Pam
Lesemann, Doug Juhl, Anna Wald, and
Dana Sorensen.
AUGUST 21, 22
Activity: The Northwest Section members
manned a booth and conducted a welding
contest at a metal fabrication and technol-
ogy show hosted by Oxygen Service Co. in
St. Paul, Minn. The $1041 proceeds from
the event went to support the Sections
scholarship fund.
Nanette Samanich, District 21 director, proudly stands amid the Boy Scouts, speakers, and trainers who participated in the Nevada Section-
sponsored welding merit badge project.
Shown at the Indianapolis Speedway are (from left) Wyatt Swaim, Seth Delmore, and Sjon
Delmore, Olympic Section chair.
District 19
Ken Johnson, director
(425) 957-3553
kenneth.johnson@vigorshipyards.com
District 20
William A. Komlos, director
(801) 560-2353
bkoz@arctechllc.com
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director
(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director
(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
OLYMPIC
AUGUST
Activity: Chair Sjon Delmore and Wyatt
Swaim, with Lincoln Motorsports, in-
structed Seth Delmore, 13, on the basics
of gas tungsten arc welding during the Red
Bull Grand Prix at the Indianapolis Speed-
way. Seth has been studying welding tech-
nology since he was nine years old.
NEVADA
JUNE 1
Activity: Forty-one Boy Scouts received
their welding merit badges at this cere-
mony, following a three-week training and
welding clinic. The speakers discussed
welding job opportunities as an Iron-
worker, inspector, nondestructive evalua-
tion technician, aircraft welder, and in the
teaching profession. Nanette Samanich,
District 21 Director, presided at the event.
93 WELDING JOURNAL
limits in the SFA specifications, so meet-
ing them should not be a problem. In ad-
dition, a column for aluminum has been
added. Readers should keep in mind that
A-numbers, F-numbers, and even P-num-
bers are optional if the WPS specifies the
same filler metal and base metal as was
used to prepare the PQR test coupon. The
A-numbers, F-numbers, and P-numbers
simply allow the WPS to specify filler met-
als and base metals that are different from
what was used on the test coupon without
performing additional testing.
Filler Metal Specifications Updated
SFA-5.21/SFA-5.21M, Electrogas Weld-
ing Filler Metals
SFA-5.14/SFA-5.14M, Nickel-Alloy
Welding Electrodes
SFA-5.23/SFA-5.23M:2011, Low-Alloy
Steel Submerged Arc Welding Fluxes and
Electrodes
SFA-5.8/SFA-5.8M:2011, Filler Metals
for Brazing and Braze Welding
SFA-5.36/SFA-5.36M:2012, Carbon
and Low-Alloy Steel Flux Cored Electrodes
and Metal Cored Electrodes for Gas Metal
Arc Welding, was also added and will re-
place SFA 5.20, Carbon Steel Flux Cored
Electrodes, and SFA-5.29, Low-Alloy Flux
Cored Electrodes, within the next five
years.
Other than revised formats for many
AWS classifications, the biggest change is
that metal cored electrodes are now in
SFA-5.36. While they will also remain in
SFA-5.18 and AWS 5.28 for the next sev-
eral years, they will eventually be re-
moved. This will allow us to update our
WPSs in an orderly fashion to the new
SFA-5.36 classifications since electrode
manufacturers will eventually stop mak-
ing product to the present specifications.
The Committee rejected a revision to
SFA-5.32, Shielding Gas, which was an
adoption of ISO 14175. The proposed ver-
sion allowed an increase in impurities in
the gas and an increase in the dew point.
The Committee rejected those changes
and notified AWS of its concerns.
Brazing (QB) Changes
No significant changes were made in
the brazing rules.
Inquiries
While most of Section IXs inquiries
were routine, an old question resurfaced:
When Section IX states that all the vari-
ables listed for a given process have to be
described, does that mean that the table
of variables should be blindly used as a
checklist when writing or reviewing a WPS
and PQR, or, perhaps, can a less-rigid ap-
proach be taken? A number of interpre-
tations were issued under IX-13-03 that
are worth reading; they essentially say that
some variables can be described indi-
rectly and that some variables are condi-
tional; however, the Committee went fur-
ther and prepared a white paper, Audit-
ing Welding under ASME Section IX, that
was used for training ASMEs consultants
who perform Code stamp audits so they
would know what to look for when audit-
ing welding activities. This white paper is
posted online on the Section IX Commit-
tees home page. It can be found by doing
a Web search for the paper by its title. In-
terpretations can be found at:
http://cstools.asme.org/Interpretations.cfm.
Coming Attractions
Electrofusion of plastic pipe will be
added in the 2015 revision. Also, given the
unpredictability of the number of combi-
nations of hybrid welding possibilities, the
Committee will develop a more generic
approach to qualification of hybrid
processes in which all the variables of each
process will have to be addressed plus
those that relate to interfacing between
processes such as spacing between
processes and process sequence.
All ASME Code Committee meetings
are open to the public. The schedule is
posted at www.asme.org, and www.sperko-
engineering.com. Errata and editorial cor-
rections will be posted at www.asme.org/
kb/standards/publications/bpvc-resources.
Section IX continued from page 88
AWS Member Counts
September 1, 2013
Sustaining ......................................603
Supporting.....................................339
Educational ...................................631
Affiliate..........................................529
Welding Distributor........................52
Total Corporate ..........................2,154
Individual .................................59,414
Student + Transitional .................8,471
Total Members.........................67,885
Looking for Work?
Jobfind is a free service for job seekers.
It is a meeting place for welders, CWIs,
engineers, technicians, welding managers,
supervisors, and consultants.
Companies can post, edit, and manage
job listings easily, have access to a rsum
database of qualified people, look for can-
didates who match employments needs for
full or part-time work, and use either 30-
day or unlimited monthly postings at rea-
sonable cost.
All job seekers enjoy free access to job
listings specific to the materials-joining in-
dustry. Check out Jobfind first, its online
at www.aws.org/jobfind.
William Irrgang
Memorial Award
This award is given to the individ-
ual who has done the most over the
past five years to enhance the Soci-
etys goal of advancing the science
and technology of welding. It in-
cludes a $2500 honorarium and a
certificate.
Honorary Membership Award
This award acknowledges emi-
nence in the welding profession, or
one who is credited with exceptional
accomplishments in the develop-
ment of the welding art. Honorary
Members have full rights of mem-
bership.
National Meritorious
Certificate Award
This award recognizes the recipi-
ents counsel, loyalty, and dedication
to AWS affairs, assistance in pro-
moting cordial relations with indus-
try and other organizations, and for
contributions of time and effort on
behalf of the Society.
George E. Willis Award
This award is given to an individ-
ual who promoted the advancement
of welding internationally by foster-
ing cooperative participation in
technology transfer, standards ra-
tionalization, and promotion of in-
dustrial goodwill. It includes a $2500
honorarium.
International Meritorious
Certificate Award
This honor recognizes recipients
significant contributions to the weld-
ing industry for service to the inter-
national welding community in the
broadest terms. The award consists
of a certificate and a one-year AWS
membership.
Name Your Candidates for
These AWS Awards
The deadline for nominating candidates for the following awards is December
31 prior to the year of the awards presentations. Contact Wendy Sue Reeve,
wreeve@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.
OCTOBER 2013 94
Guide to AWS Services
8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
T: (800/305) 443-9353; F: (305) 443-7559
Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
Nancy C. Cole
nccengr@yahoo.com
NCC Engineering
2735 Robert Oliver Ave.
Fernandina Beach, FL 32034
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Chief Financial Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
Chief Technology Officer
Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Executive Assistant for Board Services
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
Human Resources
Director, Compensation and Benefits
Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Director, Human Resources
Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of Welding
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors fed-
eral issues of importance to the industry.
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS
Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA International Thermal
Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
WEMCO Association of
Welding Manufacturers
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering
Manufacturers Committee
Stephen Borrero..sborrero@aws.org . . . . . .(334)
GAWDA Gases and Welding
Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving
certification, publication, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society and Section News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226)
Public Relations Manager
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Section Web Editor
Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWS
headquarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all inter-
national certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Certification Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification pro-
grams, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Director, Development and Systems
David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS
Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards and Fellow and Coun-
selor nominations.
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Coun-
cil of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
Director, Operations
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
Technical Activities Committee
Associate Director, Operations
Alex L. Diaz.... adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Air-
craft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plas-
tics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities Qual-
ification, Mechanical Testing of Welds
Program Managers II
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcommit-
tees on Bridge Welding, Stainless Steel, and Rein-
forcing Steel
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc
Welding and Cutting Processes, Computerization
of Welding Information
Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . .(311)
Structural Welding, Welding in Marine Construc-
tion, Piping and Tubing
Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Automotive, Resistance Welding, Machinery and
Equipment, Methods of Inspection
Chelsea Lewis.. clewis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(215)
Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cut-
ting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Weld-
ing, Welding in Sanitary Applications
Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . .(308)
Railroad Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron
Castings, Welding Qualification
Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards
may be obtained only by sending a request in writ-
ing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Tech-
nical Services, adavis@aws.org. Oral opinions on
AWS standards may be rendered, however, oral
opinions do not constitute official or unofficial
opinions or interpretations of AWS. In addition,
oral opinions are informal and should not be used
as a substitute for an official interpretation.
AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.
www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development
Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation
established to provide support for the educational
and scientific endeavors of the American Welding
Society. Promote the Foundations work with your fi-
nancial support. For information, call Vicki Pinsky,
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212; e-mail vpinsky@aws.org.
Education Services Education Services Education Services
PERSONNEL
Sherwood Valve Expands
Sales Team
Sherwood Valve,
Washington, Pa., a
supplier of system-
critical compressed
gas solutions, has ex-
panded its sales team
from three to eight
regional sales man-
agers, plus a key ac-
count executive, and
a new vice president.
Mike Palinkas was
named vice president, sales, and Tim
Madden was appointed key account man-
ager. The regional sales managers are
Gregg Carr (West), Dan Ellsworth
(Northeast), John Foster (Southeast),
Arnie Lockstein (Mid-Atlantic), Bill
Matson (Midwest), Johnny Musgrove
(Southwest), Rob Sufana (Lower Mid-
west), and Mark Vozar (Ohio Valley).
United Performance Metals
Names Two Directors
United Performance Metals, Hamil-
ton, Ohio, a supplier of stainless, nickel,
cobalt, aluminum, and titanium, has pro-
moted Brian Bick to director of sales and
named Brian Romans director of busi-
ness operations. Bick has been with the
company for 15 years. Romans joins the
company with experience in sales, pur-
chasing, production planning, and con-
tract management in the specialty met-
als market.
Laboratory Testing
Inspector Adds Credential
Laboratory Test-
ing, Inc., Hatfield,
Pa., a supplier of ma-
terials testing and
analysis services, an-
nounced Phil Trach,
NDT technical coor-
dinator, has been ap-
proved by the Naval
Sea Systems Com-
mand as a MIL-
STD-2132 Examiner in contact ultra-
sonic testing. The certification is re-
quired for performing tests on propul-
sion systems components for military
suppliers. Trach, with the laboratory
since 2005, also holds MIL-STD-2132
Examiner certification in immersion ul-
trasonic testing.
Adept Technology
Appoints Senior
Executives
Adept Technology, Inc., Pleasanton,
Calif., a provider of intelligent robots and
autonomous mobile services, has ap-
pointed Larry Anderson vice president
of mobile sales, Merrill Apter vice presi-
dent of North American sales, Terry
Hannon vice president business develop-
ment, and Hai Chang vice president of
Asia and strategic programs. Anderson
previously served Aehr Test Systems as
vice president of worldwide sales. Apter
previously was vice president of sales for
Americas at Telesis Technologies, Inc.
Hannon formerly served as president and
CEO of NP Photonics, Inc. Chang previ-
ously served the company as director of
sales for the Americas and was responsi-
ble for establishing the companys sub-
sidiary in China.
CRC-Evans Pipeline
Names Leadership Team
CRC-Evans Pipeline International,
Inc., Houston, Tex., has announced ex-
ecutives for its Offshore Channel opera-
tions. Adam Wynne Hughes was ap-
pointed president; Scott Black was pro-
moted to global operations managing di-
rector; and John Watson promoted to
global operations director. Hughes, with
the company since 2011, has 28 years of
experience in the industry and serves on
the board of International Pipeline and
Offshore Contractors Association. Black,
with 25 years of welding, fabrication, and
materials management experience, pre-
viously served as global operations direc-
tor; and Watson, with 29 years experi-
ence in the welding fabrication industry,
formerly served as operations manager.
Obituaries
David G. Howden
David Gordon Howden, 76, died Aug.
23 at his home in Sunbury, Ohio. A Life
Member of the American Welding Soci-
ety (AWS) and a past president
(19941995), he retired as an associate
professor in the Department of Indus-
trial, Welding and Systems Engineering
at The Ohio State University in 2002.
Howden received his PhD in industrial
metallurgy from the
University of Birm-
ingham, UK. In
1963, he joined the
Centro Tcnico de
Aeronutica in
Brazil where he per-
formed metallurgical
research and teach-
ing. He later worked
at the Department
Mike Palinkas Phil Trach
OCTOBER 2013 96
David G. Howden
www. aws. org/ f oundat i on
NATIONAL SCHOLARSHIPS
Earl C. Lipphardt Educators Scholarship

Elisa Ramsey
Pennsylvania State University
Teaching today for tomorrows industry!
William (Bill) Kielhorn Educators Scholarship

No recipient for 2013-2014
Timothy Turner Educators Scholarship

Darrel Waldbauer
Northern Alberta Institute of Technology
I am honored to receive the Timothy Turner
Educators Scholarship. This scholarship will aid
me in developing additional professional skills
for use in the welding industry and educational
realm. The superior administrative skills I
acquire in pursuit of my degree will assist me
with my duties in instructing and managing
welding students. I greatly appreciate being
selected to receive this award.
Recipients
We are happy to announce the 2013-2014
DISTRICT SCHOLARSHIPS
District 3 Educators Scholarship

Elisa Ramsey
Hagerstown Community College
Teaching today for tomorrows industry!

Anthony Blakeney
Southeastern Louisiana University
I would like to thank the American Welding
Society Foundation for awarding me the
2013-2014 District 9 Educators Scholarship. It is
an honor to receive this scholarship and it will be
used to further the pursuit of my doctoral degree.
It is through opportunities provided by the AWS
Foundation that many students are able to
financially continue their educational goals and
further their aspirations in the welding field.

Scott Poe
Ferris State University
"I would like to thank District 11 for the selection
of the Instructors scholarship. I also would like
to thank Jeff Grossman for showing me how
much fun teaching welding can be."

Robert Arendt
Indian Hills Community College
I am pleased that I was chosen for the
scholarship from District 16 Iowa chapter. I will be
using the money towards online training through
the AWS. Thanks again.

Robert Ulibarri
Central New Mexico Community College
It is an honor to be selected for the District #20
Educators Scholarship. I have been a welding
educator and have run my own welding business
for the past 13 years. This scholarship gives me
the opportunity to pursue my goal of becoming a
Certified Welding Inspector. Thank you to the
AWS for this wonderful opportunity.
Welding for the Strength of America
The Campaign for the American Welding Society Foundation

2014-2015 Educators Scholarships,
please contact the AWS Foundation
at vpinsky@aws.org.

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OCTOBER 2013 98
of Energy, Mines, and Resources, Ot-
tawa, Canada. In 1967, he became asso-
ciate manager of the Materials Joining
Technology section at Battelle Columbus
Laboratories, and in 1977, joined The
Ohio State University Department of
Welding Engineering. Dr. Howden was
an Honorary Member of the Japan Weld-
ing Society, a Life Member of ASM In-
ternational, and a member of the Amer-
ican Council of the International Insti-
tute of Welding (IIW). He served as a
vice president of IIW and chaired the In-
ternational Authorization Board. He also
chaired a number of committees of the
National Academy of Sciences Materials
Advisory Board, published widely in pro-
fessional and technical journals, and au-
thored two books. His numerous profes-
sional awards include the Oxigenio do
Brasil Award from Associao Brasileira
de Metais, and the Adams Memorial
Membership, George E. Willis, William
Irrgang, and Lincoln Gold Medal Awards
from AWS.
Mark B. Lovett
Mark Brian Lovett, 26, an AWS Cer-
tified Welding Inspector (CWI) and
member of the Nevada Section, died
Aug. 20 from a fall
sustained on the job
at a construction site
near Las Vegas, Nev.
A graduate of Coro-
nado High School in
Las Vegas, he be-
came a certified
ASNT ultrasonic
technician at 18 be-
fore becoming one of
the youngest CWIs in the country. He
partnered with his father, a CWI and
building inspector, for eight years.
Mark Lovett
panies have set new sales records
through June 2013.
A total of 10,854 robots valued at
$679.3 million were ordered from North
American robotics companies in the first
six months of 2013, an increase of 1.9%
in units over the same period in 2012 and
1.3% above the previous first-half record
set in 2005.
Shipments to North American cus-
tomers through June totaled 11,308 ro-
bots valued at $715.1 million, breaking
the previous first-half records set in 2012
by 11.0% in units and 10.4% in dollars.
In addition, activity was strong in nonau-
tomotive industries such as semiconduc-
tors, life sciences, and food/consumer
goods, all of which posted double-digit
growth through June.
Dominion Foundation
Awards $220,000
to Ohio Colleges
Twelve Ohio institutions recently re-
ceived $220,000 in Dominion Foundation
Higher Education Grants during a pres-
entation at the University of Akrons
Martin University Center. They focus on
programs that will help prepare students
for technical positions in Ohios energy-
production and other industries.
Among the recipients, each of which
received $20,000, are Apollo Career Cen-
ter, Lima, to support its virtual reality in-
tegrated weld training program; Belmont
College, St. Clairsville, for purchasing
welding machines to be installed in its re-
furbished welding lab; Eastern Gateway
Community College, Steubenville, to help
purchase and install a virtual reality arc
welding trainer; Stark State College,
North Canton, to add two welding sta-
tions for increasing training at its new
Barberton satellite center, which will en-
able the college to meet local demands
for welders certified by the American
Welding Society; and The University of
Akron Foundation to help expand a
welding center in its College of Engineer-
ing with a goal to increase hands-on
learning.
Navy Metalworking
Center Celebrates
25th Anniversary
Throughout 2013, the Navy Metal-
working Center (NMC), Johnstown, Pa.,
is celebrating 25 years as an Office of
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY PERSONNEL

Your research sent to more than 68,000 American Welding
Society members

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access worldwide (www.aws.org/w/a/research/index.html)

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No page charges

Your paper printed in full color

Electronic submission and tracking through Editorial Manager
(www.editorialmanager.com/wj)

Every research paper published in the Welding Journal since
1970 available FREE on the AWS Web site
(www.aws.org/wj/supplement/supplement-index.html)
Publish Your Research in the
and Youll Get
By far, the most people, at the least cost, will be exposed
to your research when you publish in the world-respected
Welding Journal


, the most people By far

elding Journal W
, at the least cost, will be exposed , the most people

, at the least cost, will be exposed
FABTECH represents every step of the metal manufacturing process
from start to nish. Its where new ideas, products and technology
are highlighted through interactive exhibits, education and
networking. Compare solutions from 1,500+ exhibitors, find tools
to improve quality and productivity, and learn ways to increase prot.
REGISTER NOW for the show with a degree of difference.
November 1821, 2013 | Chicago, IL | fabtechexpo.com
North Americas Largest Metal Forming,
Fabricating, Welding and Finishing Event
A 360 VIEW OF THE MOST INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY AND PROCESSES. FABTECH 2013.
METAL FORMING | FABRICATING | WELDING | FINISHING
Scan code to
watch video.
Follow us:
Cosponsors:
Founded in 1919 to advance the science, technology
and application of welding and allied joining and cutting
processes, including brazing, soldering and thermal spraying.
www.aws.org/conferences
Register at www.fabtechexpo.com
T
his conference covers
welding, examination,
and post-weld heat
treatment of dissimilar joints,
including carbon-steel, nickel-
base, stainless, chrome-moly
and other alloys. It also covers
topics such as explosive
welding and how standards
address the complicated nature
of dissimilar welds.
The traditional welding codes
are nearly silent on the issue of
joining dissimilar metals.
Many companies do not
haveor have lostexpertise
in this area.
The most difficult-to-weld
challengesincluding various
material combinations
involving aluminum, creep-
enhanced ferritic steels, nickel
alloys, and morewill be
covered.
AWS Welding Dissimilar Metals Conference
FABTECH Chicago Nov. 18, 2013
101 WELDING JOURNAL

Naval Research (ONR) Manufacturing Technology Program
(ManTech) Center of Excellence.
Since its inception in 1988, the organization, formerly known
as the National Center for Excellence in Metalworking Technol-
ogy, has adapted to Navy needs. It has also advanced and applied
metalworking technologies to defense-related manufacturing is-
sues. Among its vast technologies are friction stir and hybrid laser
arc welding with electron beam direct manufacturing.
We are very honored that ONR has trusted us to operate this
important program for the long term, said Edward J. Sheehan
Jr., president and CEO, Concurrent Technologies Corp., which
operates NMC.
It has supported metalworking manufacturing needs for Navy
ship/air platforms with other Department of Defense weapon
systems and today backs Navy ManTechs Investment Strategy.
As you might expect, NMCs achievements are the result of
the hard work, dedication, and talent of many people across a
wide area, said Daniel L. Winterscheidt, NMC senior program
director, who is marking his tenth year in that role.
Microtech Welding to Expand
Microtech Welding Corp., a provider of microscopic and laser
welding services, recently announced plans to invest in its Fort
Wayne, Ind., location. The 7500-sq-ft facility will be increased to
create an extra 4400-sq-ft of manufacturing space.
CEO Robert Christman mentioned the expansion will allow
better serving of its customers needs. Also, the company plans
to purchase a new CNC laser welding machine and workstation.
The $540,000 investment will require hiring at least one addi-
tional welder, bringing its total headcount to 19 people.
Industry Notes
The Department of Energy, Sandia National Laboratories, Na-
tional Wind Institute of Texas Tech University, and Group
NIRE commissioned the Scaled Wind Farm Technology test
facility in Lubbock, Tex. ABBs systems in the turbines included
three ACS800 wind converters and three matching Baldor in-
duction generators.
Jay-Cee Sales & Rivet, founded by Jack Clinton, is celebrating
65 years in business. The company started in Detroit, Mich.,
in 1948 selling shoes, socks, pants, and war supplies. Today, it
has expanded to all types of rivets, drive screws, and adhesives.
The Community College of Allegheny County, Pittsburgh, Pa.,
is partnering with Mon Valley Career and Technology Center
for a welding certificate program. According to Justin Tatar,
assistant dean at the colleges Washington County Center, the
18-credit course will be taught at the career center in Speers.
The initial class will begin Oct. 15.
Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, Ill., has been assigned a U.S.
patent (8,487,455) developed by Mike Trinkner, Kaukauna,
Wis., for a welding power generator having vertical shaft
arrangement.
Northrop Grumman Corp. and Roanes Rigging and Transfer
Co., Inc., Baltimore, Md., which performs services including
welding, have been approved by the Defense Contracts Man-
agement Agency to start a credit mentor-protege agreement.
Mistras Group, Inc., Princeton Junction, N.J., through its Power
Generation Group, has signed a contract with Babcock &
Wilcox to provide nondestructive evaluation inspection serv-
ices for replacement of the Unit No. 2 steam generators at the
Prairie Island Nuclear Generating Plant, Welch, Minn.
ThyssenKrupp Aerospace, via its UK subsidiary, has acquired
the business activities of The Waterjet Group, Darton, South
Yorkshire. Also, the sale of ThyssenKrupp Tailored Blanks to
Wuhan Iron and Steel Corp./China has been completed.
Abakan, Inc., Miami, Fla., has incorporated a new subsidiary,
MesoCoat Coating Services, Inc., to provide thermal spray
coating services using its nanocomposite PComP materials.
Hypertherm, Hanover, N.H., has expanded its support of sci-
ence, technology, engineering, and math initiatives. This in-
cludes a five-year commitment by the companys HOPE (Hy-
pertherm Owners Philanthropic Endeavors) Foundation to
fund Montshire Museums School Partnership Initiative.
Pennsylvania Governor Tom Corbett recently recognized com-
The Navy Metalworking Center (NMC) has advanced and applied
a variety of manufacturing processes through its 25 years. The welder
above uses flux cored arc welding to test an improved electrode tar-
geted for CVN 79 structural welds. (Photo courtesy of NMC.)
panies and entrepreneurs creating jobs with making positive
contributions to the states economy at the inaugural Gover-
nors ImPAct Awards ceremony. Bosch Rexroth Corp. was hon-
ored with the Jobs First Award for the Lehigh Valley region.
Osborn, a surface treatment systems and finishing tools sup-
plier, has expanded its facility in Santa Fe Springs, Calif., to
include all its product lines.
Matheson, Basking Ridge, N.J., started a Youth Reach Pro-
gram for welding education. Goals include drawing attention
to developing the next generation of welders; helping make
equipment/supplies more affordable for students; and reach-
ing out to welding instructors with safety information and bring-
ing a company expert into classrooms for a guest lecture.
Industrial Scientific Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa., has reached an
agreement with Industrial Safety Technologies for selling its
Oldham fixed-point gas detection business, encompassing the
HQ operations in Arras, France, with fixed systems support
operations in China, Germany, India, and the United States.
Graebener-Reika, Inc., now offers high-volume tube and pipe
processing capabilities. Work is conducted out of its Reading,
Pa., facility. For more details, visit www.gr-inc.com.
AT&F, an ISO 9001:2008 certified custom steel fabricator in
Cleveland, Ohio, has opened an extra location in Charleston,
S.C., specializing in serving the commercial marine industry.
The new division, AT&F Marine, is led by Chris van Raalten.
MagneGas Corp., the developer of a technology that converts
liquid waste into a hydrogen-based metalworking fuel, recently
announced GTW Welding Supplies, Inc., Greenville, Mich.,
has become a distributor selling its fuel to the western region
of Michigan.
SGS recently announced its NDT Training and Examination
Center passed the annual British Institute of Non-Destructive
Testing reassessment of an Authorized Qualifying Body and
surveillance of an Approved Training Organization audits with
zero noncompliance reports.
CryoGas International, Lexington, Mass., has been sold to gas-
world.com Ltd., the global industrial gas magazine publisher
and events company based in the United Kingdom.
OCTOBER 2013 102
and working lengths up to 56 ft. Standard
equipment includes the companys Vision
T5 touch-screen CNC. It is offered with
a choice of 60,000 lb/in.
2
waterjet intensi-
fier pumps up to 200 hp.
ESAB Cutting Systems
www.esab-cutting.com
(800) 372-2123
Reflow Soldering System
Yields Void-Free Results
The MaxiReflow HP offers technology
that combines convection heat and a hy-
perpneumatic module ensuring virtually
void-free solder connections. It is
equipped with an excess pressure cham-
ber allowing shorter cycle times and en-
abling gas convection to be used for heat-
ing assemblies. Each heating zone of the
system, as well as those integrated in the
hyperpneumatic chamber, has a tangen-
tial fan that ensures homogeneous heat
distribution with the large volume of ven-
tilated process gas. This enables compo-
nent-sensitive heating of the products
with set temperatures on a low level.
SEHO Systems GmbH
www.seho.de
(859) 371-7346
Nozzles Feature Composite
Tungsten Insert
The range of Tungsten EX- nozzles,
which are replacement parts for Hyper-
therms HPR 130/260, MAX200,
and HT4400 plasma cutting systems, has
been expanded. The nozzle design con-
sists of two parts a traditional copper
base and composite tungsten insert. In ad-
dition, these nozzles produce a high-qual-
ity cut.
Thermacut, Inc.
www.thermacut.com
(800) 932-8312
Safety Supplies Retailer
Launches New Web Site
The company, a retailer of welding and
safety supplies, protective clothing, and
welding gas, recently launched a new Web
site. Among the featured manufacturers
PRODUCT & PRINT
SPOTLIGHT
www.aws.org/conference
Are you outside your "comfort zone"
in dealing with welding in your operations?
A group of highly experienced welding engineers will hold a two-day AWS conference for
manufacturing professionals who have to make decisions about welding that are outside their
"comfort zone."
If you find yourself facing questions in the welding area that relate to...
0ost control
quallty lssues and defects
Automatlon optlons and capltal equlpment
Requlrements of codes and standards
...this conference will not give you ALL the answers, but it will tell you how to approach the
challenges of welding, and provide you with valuable take-home tools.
How to get up to speed quickly. How to ask the right questions.
How to get the results you need, save money, and stay out of trouble!
This two-day conference is for managers, engineers, designers, and others with welding responsibility but limited
exposure to or background in welding. The conference focuses on arc welding applications, but the principles have
universal applicability. Presentations and discussion are based on the Application Analysis Worksheet, which was
developed to teach a senior college course to engineers about to enter industry, with the objective of helping them
develop a path to understand and deal with the challenges they were about to face.
Register at www.fabtechexpo.com
Founded in 1919 to advance the science, technology and application of welding and allied joining
and cutting processes worldwide, including brazing, soldering and thermal spraying
SO YOURE THE NEW
WELDING ENGINEER
AWS Conference:
November 19-20, 2013
McCormick Place
Chicago, Illinois




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is Flexovit, a manufacturer of abrasive
products for portable power tools. The
site permits ordering of more than 3100
products from a variety of manufactur-
ers.
Eagle Safety Products
www.eaglesafetyproducts.com
(636) 583-4428
Soldering Alloy Provides
Drop Shock Performance
The SACM is a solder alloy that of-
fers drop shock performance without
compromising on thermal cycling. The
alloy is useful for the manufacture of con-
sumer electronics that experience fre-
quent handling, such as mobile devices.
The solder is doped with manganese for
increased strength, and contains less sil-
ver than other lead-free alloys, provid-
ing a more stable cost structure.
Indium Corp.
www.indium.com
(315) 853-4900
Cutting Devices Handle
2- to 42-in. Pipes
The RC42S Rotary cutting device is
designed for manual cuts on 40- to 42-in.
steel pipe and takes leverage advantage
from its long handle. An included wrench
is used to tighten the product, which
needs 11.8 in. of clearance. Pipe snaps
off squarely once the user works the cut-
ting tool manually around the cut zone.
The LCRC4 Low Clearance Rotary
cutting device is designed for 2- to 4-in.
steel, cast iron, or ductile iron pipe. The
junior-sized product requires a 4-in.
clearance around the pipe to make the
cut.
Reed Manufacturing Co.
www.reedmfgco.com
(800) 666-3691
Solder Wire Features
High Halide Content
The LF3237
solder wire is a
highly activated,
water-sol ubl e
flux formula-
tion. With a high
halide content
of 1.2%, the
wire is designed
to improve sol-
dering and wet-
ting performance on printed circuit board
finishes, while the residues are easily re-
moved with water. Product series wire is
available standard in the SN100C,
SAC305, and SAC387 alloys with a stan-
dard flux content of 2.2%. Lead-contain-
ing alloys may be requested in diameters
from 0.2 to 3.5 mm.
Cobar Solder Products, Inc.
www.cobar.com
(603) 432-7500
Plasma Cutting Systems
Come in Three Amperages
The Spirit II Series plasma system
features FineLine technology. The 150-
A, Model 150 has the ability to pierce
most metals up to 1 in. thick with a max-
imum capacity of 1.5 in. The 275-A,
Model 275 can pierce most metals up to
1.25 in. thick and has a maximum capac-
ity of 2.5 in. The 400-A, Model 400 is able
to pierce most metals up to 2 in. thick
with a maximum capacity of 3 in. All de-
liver square, dross-free cuts with 2 deg
or less cut-edge bevel. Benefits include
torch technology for a stable plasma col-
umn and gas flow; self diagnostics that
track pierces, pierce errors, and types of
errors for the last six electrodes; and sep-
arate gas control for plasma
cutting/marking through a CNC output,
serial link, or manual selection.
Burny Kaliburn, a Lincoln Electric Co.
www.lincolnelectric.com
(888) 355-3213
Solder Pastes Supplied
in Jars, Tubes, and
Syringes
Lead-free, lead- and halogen-free, plus
tin-and-lead solder pastes are available in
500-g jars, 600-g tubes, and 10-cc syringes.
Offering wetting, low voiding, high tack,
and good shelf with stencil life, the pastes
are manufactured to specifications in ISO
9001 and ISO 14001 certified facilities.
Formulated from high-purity ingredients,
these pastes ensure process consistency
even with ultrafine pitch printing require-
ments.
SMTSolderPaste.com
www.smtsolderpaste.com
(800) 745-6266
105 WELDING JOURNAL
PRODUCT & PRINT
SPOTLIGHT
JOE FULLER LLC
We manufacture tank turning rolls
3-ton through 120-ton rolls
www.joefuller.com
email: joe@joefuller.com
Phone: (979) 277-8343
Fax: (281) 290-6184
Our products are made in the USA
EQUIPMENT FOR SALE OR RENT
SERVICES
CLASSIFIEDS
CERTIFICATION
& TRAINING
MITROWSKI RENTS
Made in U.S.A.
Welding Positioners
1-Ton thru 60-Ton
Tank Turning Rolls
Used Equipment for Sale
www.mitrowskiwelding.com
sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
(800) 218-9620
(713) 943-8032
CWI PREPARATORY
Guarantee Pass or Repeat FREE!
80+ HOUR COURSE
MORE HANDSON/PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Houma, LA Nov. 1122
Ellijay, GA Dec. 213
Pascagoula, MS Oct. 21Nov. 1
56+ HOUR COURSE
EXTRA INSTRUCTION TO GET A HEAD START
Houma, LA Nov. 1422
40 HOUR COURSE
GET READY FAST PACED COURSE!
Houma, LA Nov. 1822
Test follows on Saturday at same facility &
includes additional self study for weekend
FOR DETAILS CALL OR E-MAIL:
(800) 489-2890
info@realeducational.com
Also offering: 9Year CWI Recertification,
RT Film Interpretation, MT/PT/UT Thickness,
Welding Procedure Fundamentals,
CWS, SCWI, Advanced Inspection Courses
2013
Place Your
Classified Ad Here!
Call the AWS sales team at:
(800) 443-9353
Rob Saltzstein at ext. 243
salty@aws.org
Lea Paneca at ext. 220
lea@aws.org
Sandra Jorgensen at ext. 254
sjorgensen@aws.org
OCTOBER 2013 106
Aimtek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
www.aimtek.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 772-0104
American Torch Tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
www.americantorchtip.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 342-8477
Arcos Industries, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IBC
www.arcos.us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 233-8460
Astaras Welding Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
www.e3tungsten.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .web contact only
Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
www.atlaswelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 962-9353
AWS Education Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50-51, 95, 100, 104
www.aws.org/education/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 455
AWS Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
www.aws.org/foundation/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 250
AWS Membership Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42, 103
www.aws.org/membership/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 480
AWS Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
www.aws.org/standards/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 935-3464
AWS Technical Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
www.aws.org/technical/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 340
Bellman-Melcor, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
www.channelflux.com/www.bellmanmelcor.com . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 367-6024
Camfil Air Pollution Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
www.camfilapc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 479-6801
Champion Welding Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
www.championwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 321-9353
Commercial Diving Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
www.commercialdivingacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 974-2232
Cor-Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19, 25
www.cor-met.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 848-2719
Diamond Ground Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
www.diamondground.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(805) 498-3837
Donaldson Torit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
www.donaldsontorit.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 365-1331
E. H. Wachs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
www.ehwachs.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(847) 537-8800
Electron Beam Technologies, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
www.electronbeam.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(815) 935-2211
FABTECH 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68, 99
www.fabtechexpo.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 297
Fischer Engineering Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
www.fischerengr.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 754-1750
Fronius USA, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
www.fronius-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 376-6487
Fusion, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54
www.fusion-inc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 626-9501
Gedik Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
www.gedikwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+90 216 378 50 00
Greiner Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
www.greinerindustries.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 782-2110
Gullco International, Inc. - U.S.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
www.gullco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(440) 439-8333
Harris Products Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
www.harrisproductsgroup.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 733-4043
HGG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
www.hgg-group.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(330) 461-6855
Hi Techmetal Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
www.htg.cc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(216) 426-6612
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
www.welding.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 332-9448
Hodgson Custom Rolling, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
www.hcrsteel.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(905) 356-6025
Intercon Enterprises, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
www.intercononline.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 665-6655
Kimberly Clark Professional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
www.kcprofessional.com/BalderPromo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 241-3146
K.I.W.O.T.O., Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
www.rodguard.net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(269) 944-1552
Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
www.koike.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 252-5232
LA-CO Industries, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
www.markal.com/www.tempil.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(847) 956-7600
Lincoln Electric Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OBC
www.lincolnelectric.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(216) 481-8100
Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
www.lucasmilhaupt.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(414) 679-6000
Magswitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
www.magswitch.com.au . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(303) 468-0662
Mathey Dearman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
www.matheycnc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(918) 447-1288
Midalloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
www.midalloy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 776-3300
National Bronze & Metals, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
www.nbmmetals.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(713) 869-9600
OTC Daihen, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
www.daihen-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 682-7626
Prince & Izant Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
www.princeizant.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 634-0437
RWMA/Resistance Welding Mfg. Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
www.aws.org/rwma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 444
Schaefer Ventilation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
www.schaeferfan.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 779-3267
Select Arc, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IFC
www.select-arc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 295-5215
Thermal Arc/Victor Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
www.victorthermaldynamics.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 426-1888
Thermo Calc Software AB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
www.thermocalc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(724) 731-0074
Tweco/Victor Technologies International, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
www.tweco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 426-1888
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107 WELDING JOURNAL
CWI/CWE Course and Exam. Troy, Ohio. A two-week prepara-
tion and exam program. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology;
(800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
CWI/CWE Prep Course and Exam and NDT Inspector Training
Courses. An AWS Accredited Testing Facility. Courses held year-
round at 1144 N. Graham St., Allentown, Pa., and at customers
facilities. Welder Training & Testing Institute; (800) 223-9884;
info@wtti.edu; www.wtti.edu.
CWI Preparatory and Visual Weld Inspection Courses. Classes
presented in Pascagoula, Miss., Houston, Tex., and Houma and
Sulphur, La. Real Educational Services, Inc. (800) 489-2890;
info@realeducational.com.
Consumables: Care and Optimization. Free online e-courses on
the basics of plasma consumables for plasma operators, sales,
and service personnel; www.hyperthermcuttinginstitute.com.
Crane and Hoist Training for Operators. Konecranes Training
Institute, Springfield, Ohio; (262) 821-4001; www.konecrane-
samericas.com.
Discontinuities and Defects E-Course Seminar. Five video seg-
ments with a total run time of 70 min concluding with a test, a
certificate of completion, and 1.0 continuing-education unit.
Intended for anyone involved in arc weld inspection, quality con-
trol, engineering, or supervision. Hobart Institute of Welding
Technology. www.welding.org/c-54-e-courses.aspx.
Dust Collection Seminars. Free, full-day training on industrial
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E-Courses in Welding. Welding Discontinuities and Defects,
Visual Inspection, and Symbols for Welding. Hobart Institute of
Welding Technology; www.welding.org/c-54-e-courses.aspx.
EPRI NDE Training Seminars. Training in visual and ultrasonic
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Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tutorials,
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INTEG Courses. Courses in NDE disciplines to meet certifica-
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Laser Safety Online Courses. Courses include Medical Laser
Safety Officer, Laser Safety Training for Physicians, Industrial
Laser Safety, and Laser Safety in Educational Institutions. Laser
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Safe Use of Lasers, Orlando, Fla., or customers site. Laser
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Laser Vision Seminars. Two-day classes, offered monthly and on
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NDE and CWI/CWE Courses and Exams. Allentown, Pa., and
customers locations. Welder Training and Testing Institute, (800)
223-9884; www.wtti.edu.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers locations.
Level I and II and refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, radiation
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Plastics Welding School. A two-day course for certification to
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OCTOBER 2013 108
COMING EVENTS
Introduction
Friction stir processing (FSP) is mech-
anistically similar to friction stir welding
(FSW); however, no weld is created in the
former. Friction stir processing utilizes the
microstructural changes resulting from se-
vere plastic deformation beneath a rotat-
ing tool to locally modify the properties
and performance of metals. Some appli-
cations for FSP have included crack repair
or microstructural modification of fusion
welds. Several studies have investigated
using FSP as a post-arc welding technique
to reduce weld discontinuities and im-
prove the weld mechanical properties of
various Al alloys (Refs. 1, 2) and NiAl
bronze (Ref. 3). However, very little at-
tention has been focused on the prospect
of using FSP to modify base material mi-
crostructure such that weldability issues
such as hot cracking are reduced or elimi-
nated for subsequent fusion welds. Fric-
tion stir processing pretreatment can be
used as an alternative conditioning
process for the rejuvenation of mi-
crostructures with deleterious features or
phases, thus enabling subsequent fusion
welding.
Naturally, welding in the solid state via
FSW is a simpler process than the combi-
nation of both FSP and fusion welding.
However, in some situations, using FSW
exclusively is not entirely practical, espe-
cially for high T
m
materials. By nature of
the FSW process, joint geometries are lim-
ited to primarily butt and lap configura-
tions. Other joint configurations require
complex fixturing and/or complex ma-
chine control schemes (Ref. 4). Addition-
ally, high process forces experienced dur-
ing FSW of high-T
m
materials, especially
for thick sections, limits welding to only
very robust FSW machines with large as-
sociated workspace footprints. Such prac-
tical limitations hinder FSW capabilities
in the field. One can envision FSP pre-
treatment performed remotely to only
modify the microstructure where neces-
sary, e.g., a portion of the workpiece that
is under high restraint, stress concentra-
tion, etc. The locally modified workpiece
can then be transported to the field after
FSP where final joining can be accom-
plished via conventional fusion welding
techniques.
To date, only a single study has investi-
gated the utility of using FSP as a pre-
treatment for microstructural modifica-
tion of subsequent fusion welds. The
unique work, by Mousavizade et al. (Ref.
5), focused on the effect of FSP pretreat-
ment prior to laser welding of cast IN738.
The top ~1.5 mm of 5-mm-thick IN738
plate was friction stir processed. Following
FSP, the stir zone (SZ) region was laser
surface remelted. Any cracking that oc-
curred during laser surface remelting was
the result of inherent mechanical re-
straint. The authors noted qualitative im-
provements in HAZ liquation cracking
susceptibility due to increased material
homogeneity and refinement of liquation-
inducing microconstituents from FSP. The
HAZ of non-FSP IN738 contained many
cracks transversely oriented to the fusion
boundary. In contrast, the FSP-treated
material exhibited no cracks in the near-
fusion boundary HAZ after laser surface
remelting. The authors suggest that con-
stitutional liquation of coarse primary
and interdendritic - eutectic in the cast
base material was circumvented as a result
of FSP from breakdown and refinement of
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, OCTOBER 2013
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Application of Friction Stir Processing as a
Pretreatment to Fusion Welding
The pretreating technique resulted in an improved weld heat-affected zone
and weld metal microstructure in several nickel-based alloys
BY J. R. RULE, J. M. RODELAS, AND J. C. LIPPOLD
KEYWORDS
Friction Stir Processing
Fusion Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Grain Refinement
Weldability
Nickel Alloy
J. R. RULE (James.r.rule@gmail.com), J. M.
RODELAS, and J. C. LIPPOLD are with Weld-
ing and Joining Metallurgy Group, The Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio.
ABSTRACT
Friction stir processing (FSP) was applied as a pretreatment technique to modify
the base metal microstructure of nickel-based alloys, including Inconel Alloy 600
(IN600), Alloy 625, Alloy 718, and Hastelloy X. Microstructural analysis of gas tung-
sten arc (GTA) welds placed on pretreated Ni alloys indicates simultaneous refine-
ment of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and weld metal (WM), which is otherwise not
achievable using conventional techniques. The grain refinement resulting from FSP
resulted in increased epitaxial growth sites for the WM as well as up to a threefold re-
duction in near-fusion boundary (FB) HAZ grain size for IN600. Augmented strain
weldabilty testing of Alloy 625, Alloy 718, and Hastelloy X suggests HAZ liquation
cracking susceptibility was reduced as a result of FSP pretreatment. Alloy 718 showed
the highest degree of HAZ refinement (1.9 times untreated base material) and also
showed the greatest reduction in maximum HAZ crack length and total crack length.
Weld heat input was also shown to have an effect on the near-FB HAZ of pretreated
alloys. It can be expected that fusion weld parameters will have an effect on the effi-
cacy of FSP pretreatment.
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interdendritic eutectic constituent.
Beneficial changes resulting from pre-
treatment are not limited to the HAZ and
may also occur in the weld metal (WM) of
pretreated material due to the refinement
obtained from FSP. The WM grain struc-
ture during arc welding is primarily con-
trolled by epitaxial and preferred growth
from the fusion boundary with competi-
tive growth dominating remote from the
fusion boundary (Ref. 6). Like a casting,
the WM grain structure can be directly in-
fluenced by altering
the extent of growth
(Ref. 7) with in-
creased growth site
density leading to de-
creased grain size.
Many studies have in-
vestigated the effects
of increasing the het-
erogeneous growth
site density to refine
WM grains by using
additions of inoculant
particles. Studies have
been performed in
several alloy systems
including ferritic
steels (Ref. 8), Al-Zn-
Mg alloys (Ref. 9), and
Al-Li alloys (Ref. 10).
However, a significant downside to the
practice of introducing inoculant particles
is the alloy-specific change in chemistry
required for the base material or filler ma-
terial. Additionally, the thermal stability
of the particles makes the inoculation ef-
fect somewhat dependent on the welding
parameters. For some applications where
WM refinement is sought, a change in
alloy composition is not feasible, e.g., au-
togenous welding. Noncompositional
methods such as arc manipulation tech-
niques can also be used to change the ex-
tent of growth in fusion welds via several
mechanisms including decreased weld
pool temperature (Ref. 7). Example meth-
ods include electromagnetic stirring
(Refs. 1113), mechanical vibration (Refs.
11, 14), and AC pulsed current (Refs. 15,
16). These techniques have demonstrated
effectiveness in altering WM grain mor-
phology. However, arc manipulation re-
quires direct implementation of addi-
tional equipment, and adds complexity to
the welding processes. Furthermore, addi-
tional parameters such as arc oscillation
and current pulse frequency must be de-
veloped and controlled for different mate-
rials. Increasing growth site density by
grain refinement using FSP prior to fusion
welding is a promising straightforward
technique that does not require composi-
tional or fusion welding process parame-
ter alternations.
The objective of this work is to evalu-
ate the effect of FSP pretreatment on the
microstructural evolution of subsequent
fusion welds. The effects of FSP pretreat-
ment on the HAZ liquation susceptibility
for three HAZ liquation-susceptible Ni-
based alloys was investigated. For alloys
that included Alloy 625 (Ref. 17), Hastel-
loy X (Ref. 18), and Inconel 718 (Refs.
19, 20) prior studies have identified mech-
OCTOBER 2013, VOL. 92 284-s
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Table 1 Chemical Compositions of Examined Alloys
Alloy Composition (wt-%)
Alloy Ni Cr Fe Mn Al Ti Si C P S Other
Alloy 600 bal. 16.07 9.00 0.24 0.20 0.20 0.18 0.05 0.12 0.002
Alloy 625 bal. 21.61 3.67 0.26 0.17 0.28 0.14 0.20 <0.007 <0.001 Nb: 3.5, Mo: 8.61
Hastelloy
X bal. 21.28 19.15 0.64 0.19 0.30 0.072 <0.015 <0.002 Mo: 8.33, Co: 1.03, W: 0.49
Alloy 718 53.2 18.10 bal. 0.22 0.48 1.02 0.08 0.051 <0.005 <0.002 Nb: 5.11
Fig. 1 Plan view photograph of FSP pretreated plate in as-tested condi-
tion. Placement of GTA spot weld is also indicated (red arrow). Note: Cen-
tral portion of plate was polished to 600 grit after FSP to aid in post-spot
Varestraint test crack detection and measurement.
Fig. 2 Schematic of spot Varestraint test.
Fig. 3 Example of crack measurement (20 magnification).
anisms by which solute and/or eutectic
constituents promote localized melting
and subsequent wetting and penetration
of grain boundaries in the partially melted
zone (PMZ) of the HAZ. Lastly, the ef-
fects of WM microstructural evolution in
FSP pretreated Inconel Alloy 600 was
also investigated.
Experimental Procedure
The nickel-alloy material utilized in
this study was in the form of plate nomi-
nally 0.25 in. (6.3 mm) thick. Table 1 lists
the chemical compositions for the investi-
gated alloys. Samples used for friction stir
pretreatment measured nominally 3 6 in.
(76 152 mm). Friction stir processing was
performed on a gantry-style machine (Ac-
custir, General Tool Corp., Cincinnati,
Ohio) that used a directly water-cooled
0.750-in. shoulder diameter W-25Re tool.
The tool pin was a featureless truncated
conical pin 0.125 in. in length. The partial
penetration nature of FSP resulted in a
stir-processed zone that was approxi-
mately half the thickness of the plate. The
length of the process region was approxi-
mately 80% of the sample length. High
process temperatures during FSP of Ni al-
loys necessitated the use of argon shield-
ing to prevent oxidation of the workpiece
and the FSP tool.
Friction stir processing parameters, in-
cluding the spindle rotation rate and tra-
verse rate, were adjusted such that defect-
free process zones were able to be
obtained. Table 2 shows the processing pa-
rameters used for FSP of the three HAZ
liquation-susceptible alloys. For Alloy
600, two process parameters were chosen
that represent the extremes of the pro-
cessing window with respect to heat input,
i.e., high and low heat input. Friction stir
processing parameters for Alloy 600 are
also listed in Table 2.
Following FSP, autogenous gas tungsten
arc (GTA) welds were placed atop the FSP
material. Prior to arc welding, the samples
were cleaned with acetone. Arc welds were
placed on the top plate surface entirely
within the stir zone and made in the same
direction as the FSP traverse. A program-
mable GTA welding machine (Jetline Engi-
neering, Inc., Model TKM-72-M, Irvine,
Calif.) was used with welding speed, cur-
rent, and voltage of 1.57 mm/s (3.7 in./min),
110 A, 11 V, respec-
tively.
The HAZ liqua-
tion susceptibility
of FSP pretreated
materials was eval-
uated using the
spot Varestraint
technique (Ref.
21). Prior to test-
ing, pretreated
plates were ground
flat to facilitate
crack detection
after testing Fig. 1. Figure 2 shows a
schematic of the spot Varestraint test. The
spot Varestraint test utilizes a GTA torch
to create a spot weld on the test specimen
(180 A, 20 s arc time) such that the circu-
lar spot weld was centered along the edge
of the FSP SZ. Using this method, both
base material and FSP pretreated material
are tested simultaneously. After the spot
weld pool is stabilized, the arc is extin-
guished and load is applied at a stroke rate
of 6 in./s (152 mm/s). The applied load de-
forms the sample around the die block
with a predetermined radius thus impos-
ing a known level of strain. Strain levels
ranging from 1 to 7% were evaluated.
After Varestraint testing, any oxidation
was removed using SiC grinding papers.
Heat-affected zone cracks orthogonal to
the fusion boundary were observed using
a stereo microscope at 20 magnification.
Both total crack length (TCL) and maxi-
mum crack length (MCL) values were
measured using stereo optical microscopy
at a 20 magnification. All crack lengths
were measured perpendicular to the spot
weld fusion boundary as shown in Fig. 3.
Metallographic analysis was per-
formed using a combination of techniques
including light optical microscopy (LOM),
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and
electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD).
Specimens examined using LOM were
electrolytically etched using an aqueous
solution of 10% oxalic acid with a current
density of 0.86 A/cm
2
to reveal general mi-
crostructure. A SEM (FEI, Model Quanta
200, Hillsboro, USA) equipped with an
EBSD camera was used for crystallo-
graphic orientation analyses. Electron
backscatter diffraction was used to gather
information regarding the distribution of
crystallographic orientations within the
FSP and arc weld regions. Samples for
LOM and SEM/EBSD were mechanically
polished with the final step consisting of
vibratory polishing using colloidal silica.
Maps generated from EBSD data were
used for measurements of grain size and
grain boundary length. The ASTM linear
intercept method was utilized for LOM
grain size measurements. EBSD grain size
was determined using an equivalent area
method that determines an equivalent
grain diameter based on the measured
area of the grain. A grain tolerance angle
of 5 deg was used to define a grain.
Results and Discussion
Characterization of Friction Stir
Processing Pretreatment of IN600
Extremes in the IN600 processing win-
dow were selected to represent the gamut
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Table 2 Friction Stir Processing Parameters for Investigated Alloys
Alloy Spindle Speed Tool Traverse
(rev/min) Speed (in./min)
Alloy 600 High Heat Input 150 2.0
Alloy 600 Low Heat Input 100 4.5
Alloy 625 100 2.5
Hastelloy
X 160 2.0
Alloy 718 100 2.0
Fig. 4 Light optical micrograph of transverse cross section of GTAW place
on top of low-heat-input FSP run.
Fig. 5 Inverse pole figure maps of IN600 along sample normal direction
(ND) for transverse cross sections of the following: A High-heat-input FSP;
B low-heat-input FSP; and C non-FSP base material. Dashed line de-
notes the fusion boundary.
A B C
of grain sizes obtainable via FSP. The high-
and low-heat input parameter combina-
tions of 150 rev/min; 2 in./min and 100
rev/min; and 4.5 in./min, respectively,
were selected. All resulting stir zones were
representative projections of the FSP tool
having a truncated shape with SZ width of
~0.75 in. and depth of nearly 0.125 in.,
which correlates to the shoulder diameter
and length of the pin. The resulting IN600
SZs for high- and low-heat-input FSP runs
exhibited average SZ grain sizes of 15 and
9 m, respectively. For comparison, the
grain size of nonpretreated base material
was significantly larger, 54 m.
Following FSP, autogenous GTA welds
created directly atop the FSP SZ such that
welds were contained entirely within the
SZ and in the same direction the FSP tra-
verse. Figure 4 shows a transverse cross
section of the autogenous GTA weld made
atop the FSP region. The size of the GTA
weld is such that the corresponding HAZ
still is located within the former SZ. For
both FSP heat inputs, coarsening of the
prior SZ is readily apparent. Compared to
the starting SZ grain size, the average
grain size in the HAZ along the fusion
boundary increased to the initial FSP
grain size by a factor of 4 to 5, depending
on the sample. The initial SZ grain differ-
ences resulting from the different param-
eter combinations did not have a signifi-
cant effect on the resultant near-fusion
boundary HAZ grain size. While prior SZ-
grains coarsened as a result of the autoge-
nous GTAW pass, near-fusion-boundary
grain size remained below 100 m, unlike
the untreated IN600 base material. Near-
fusion-boundary grains for untreated base
material are several hundred microns in
diameter. Figure 5 shows EBSD inverse
pole figure maps of transverse sections
near the fusion boundary. The pole figure
maps clearly illustrate the difference in
near-fusion-boundary microstructure for
FSP and nonprocessed material with re-
spect to grain size. Despite coarsening of
near-fusion-boundary grains from GTAW,
the FSP-pretreated samples exhibit grains
on average three times smaller than the
GTAW HAZ grains of the non-FSP pre-
treated BM. Clearly, FSP is a viable
method for inducing HAZ grain refine-
ment and thereby reduce the severity of
grain coarsening of a base material before
fusion welding.
The HAZ grain size reduction obtain-
able using FSP pretreatment has the po-
tential to improve fusion weldability issues
such as HAZ hot cracking. A number of
weldability studies have observed a rela-
tionship between near-fusion-boundary
HAZ grain size and liquation cracking
susceptibility. In a study by Thompson et
al., the HAZ liquation cracking suscepti-
bility of Inconel Alloy 718 was shown to be
linearly dependent on grain size (Ref. 22).
The benefit of reduced hot cracking sus-
ceptibility with finer grain size is attrib-
uted to the increased grain boundary area
associated with smaller grains. Provided
the liquid wets the grain boundary, the
larger grain boundary area promotes the
spreading of liquid (assuming a constant
volume of liquid), thereby reducing the
thickness of liquid films present on the
boundary. The increased boundary area
along with liquid spread across a larger
boundary area reduces the strain concen-
tration and crack susceptibility. Because
IN600 is not as susceptible to HAZ liqua-
tion cracking as other solid solution-
strengthened alloys with richer composi-
tions, weldability testing of FSP
pretreated IN600 was not performed.
As-Friction Stir Processed Microstructure
of Liquation Cracking-Susceptible Alloys
Examination of stir zone material re-
veals considerable grain refinement relative
to the base metal for Hastelloy X, Alloy 625,
and Alloy 718 Fig. 6. Hastelloy X grain
size was reduced from 88 m in the base ma-
terial to an average of 6 m. Similar grain
size refinement was also observed for both
Alloy 625 and 718 Fig. 6. Average base
metal grain size for Alloy 625 and Alloy 718
was 26 and 44 m, respectively. Compared
to the bimodal grain size distributions ob-
served in Alloy 625 and 718 base material,
the distribution of grain size in the SZ was
considerably more uniform. Lastly, NbC
particle size appeared to be unchanged fol-
lowing FSP, suggesting such carbide con-
stituents within the size range observed in
the base material (approximately 28 m)
are simply translated during stirring and are
not broken down mechanically.
Varestraint Testing of FSP
Pretreated Materials
The susceptibility to HAZ liquation
cracking was determined in terms of max-
imum crack length (MCL) and total crack
length (TCL) within the HAZ of the spot
weld created during Varestraint testing.
The MCL and TCL as a function of strain
for the three liquation-susceptible alloys
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Fig. 6 Optical micrograph showing grain size difference in the following: A Hastelloy X base metal;
B FSP stir zone (500 , 10% Oxalic); C Alloy 625 base metal; D FSP stir zone (500 , Lucass
reagent); E Alloy 718 base metal; F FSP stir zone (500, Oxalic).
are shown in Fig. 7A, B, respectively.
Cracking behavior during spot Varestraint
testing was found to exhibit a threshold
behavior. The threshold strain to induce
cracking was found to exist between 1 and
2% strain. For material tested in the as-
received condition, the MCL and TCL
measurements suggest that HAZ liqua-
tion cracking susceptibility is most severe
for Alloy 718 followed by Alloy 625 and
Hastelloy X. This observation is consistent
with thermodynamic predictions of the so-
lidification temperature range (STR).
Thermocalc was used to predict the STR
using equilibrium as well as the Scheil-
Gulliver model, which assumes complete
mixing of solute in the liquid and no diffu-
sion in the solid. Table 3 lists the predicted
STR for the three tested alloys. As with
the trends in observed magnitude of max-
imal crack length and frequency, thermo-
dynamic predictions show the largest STR
for Alloy 718 followed by Alloy 625 and,
lastly, Hastelloy X.
For all three tested alloys at all tested
levels of stain, FSP pretreatment de-
creased the MCL. The reduction in ob-
served MCL is attributed to the reduction
in near-FB HAZ grain size as a result of
FSP pretreatment. The long (20 s) dwell of
the spot weld created during the Vare-
straint test results in coarsening of the
original fine grains formed during FSP.
However, despite the expected coarsen-
ing, near-fusion-boundary grains in FSP
pretreated alloys remain 1.9, 1.6, and 1.5
times smaller than nonpretreated base
material for Alloy 718, Alloy 625, and
Hastelloy X, respectively. Interestingly,
large differences exist in the susceptibili-
ties as measured via spot Varestraint test-
ing for the tested alloys in spite of similar
near-fusion-boundary grain size after pre-
treatment. Such differences are related to
the inherent differences in alloy composi-
tion that lead to var-
ied inherent liqua-
tion susceptibility.
The largest decrease
in MCL was ob-
served for Alloy 718.
Pretreatment via
FSP decreased the
MCL by as much as
30%. The greatest
overall improve-
ment in MCL was
observed for Alloy
718, which is inher-
ently the most prone
to HAZ liquation
cracking. Reduction
in MCL was also ob-
served for Alloy 625;
however, to a lesser
degree than Alloy
718. Similar liquat-
ing constituents
(NbC and Ni3Nb (Ref. 23)) present in
Alloy 718 are also present in Alloy 625 al-
though present in smaller quantities due
to the leaner alloy composition of Alloy
625 with respect to Nb. Hastelloy X, which
contains liquating constituent phases in-
cluding (M
23
C
6
, M
6
C, Laves, and P Phase)
(Refs. 18, 24, 25) shows the smallest re-
duction in MCL after FSP pretreatment.
As with the measured MCL, values ob-
tained for TCL as a function of strain de-
creased as a result of the FSP pretreat-
ment. Like the value for MCL, the degree
of improvement was largely dependent
not only on the applied strain level, but
also the alloy system. The greatest im-
provement was realized with Alloy 718.
Total crack length for Alloy 718 was re-
duced by as much as 25%. For Alloy 625,
which has liquation cracking susceptibility
that lies between Alloy 718 and Hastelloy
X, only demonstrated a maximum im-
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Table 3 Computed Solidification Temperature Ranges for Examined Alloys
Alloy 100% Liquid 100% Solid Difference (C)
Temperature (C) Temperature (C)
Hastelloy
X 1387 1329 58
Alloy 625 1354 1267 87
Alloy 718 1355 1220 135
Fig. 7 Spot Varestraint results. A Maximum crack length; B total crack length as a function of applied strain for Hastelloy X, Alloy 625, and Alloy 718.
A
B
Fig. 8 Arc weld HAZ grain size response to heat input. Solid lines represent
FSP material and dashed lines represent base material.
provement in TCL of approximately 15%.
Interestingly, the measured TCL at inter-
mediate strains was actually higher for
FSP pretreated material vs. the base ma-
terial. Although in some instances the
TCL is higher for the FSP pretreated ma-
terial, the MCL for pretreated Hastelloy
X is lower for all tested strain levels. Such
a result suggests the refinement resulting
from the pretreatment leads to the pres-
ence of more numerous cracks albeit ones
with smaller dimensions.
The high heat input of the 180-A GTA
spot weld held for 20 s leads to significant
coarsening of the FSP pretreated mi-
crostructure. Linear GTA welds on pre-
treated materials were made using welding
heat input parameters that are more repre-
sentative of conditions used for actual join-
ing applications. Near-FB grain size was
measured for welds with heat input values
ranging from 19.2 to 28.8 kJ/in. (0.761.13
kJ/mm). For all examined heat inputs, the
near-FB HAZ grain size for all three liqua-
tion-susceptible alloys remained smaller
than nonpretreated base materials Fig. 8.
Consistent with Varestraint measurements,
Alloy 718 showed the greatest improve-
ment, especially when using a higher heat
input welding parameter, with up to a six-
fold reduction in near-FB HAZ using FSP
pretreatment. Microstructural examination
of linear GTA welds on pretreated Hastel-
loy X shows clearly the degree of grain re-
finement resulting from the autogenous lin-
ear GTA weld (28.8 kJ/in.) relative to the
comparatively higher heat input spot Vare-
straint test material (180-A arc for 20 s),
does not result in the same extent of de-
struction of FSP grain refinement. Inverse
pole figure maps demonstrating the grain
refinement resulting from a linear weld is
shown in Fig. 9A, B for FSP and untreated
Hastelloy X base materials, respectively. As
with the IN600 results discussed previously,
the prior SZ grains are coarsened signifi-
cantly (initial Hastelloy X FSP SZ grain size
was 6 m for material processed using 180
rev/min, 2 in./min). Although the SZ grains
have coarsened as a result of GTAW, they
remain smaller than the untreated base ma-
terial, which exhibits near-fusion-boundary
grains five times larger than the FSP-pre-
treated condition. For applications such as
repair welding of coarse-grained base ma-
terials, FSP pretreatment is a viable solu-
tion for local refinement of resulting fusion
weld microstructures.
Weld Metal Refinement Via
FSP Pretreatment
Also apparent in the orientation maps
shown in Fig. 5, the weld metal (WM) grain
size is reduced along with the HAZ grain
size as a result of the FSP pretreatment. Be-
cause the growth of solidification grains in
the WM occurs epitaxially (Refs. 26, 27), an
increase in growth sites associated with finer
grains along the fusion boundary will de-
crease the WM grain size. The effect of in-
creased epitaxial growth resulting from
finer grains is mechanistically analogous to
other techniques used to increase heteroge-
neous growth in welds (Ref. 27).
The effect of FSP processing parame-
ters (i.e., the effect of starting grain size)
was examined using EBSD orientation
maps of WM plan sections Fig. 10. The
extent of grain refinement within the WM
for the FSP pretreated base material is
readily apparent compared to the as-
received base material. Figure 11A shows
the difference in measured WM grain size
using EBSD for the low and high FSP heat
input parameters compared to the as-
received base material. Interestingly, de-
spite the differences in starting grain size
for the two different FSP heat input con-
ditions prior to arc welding, the average
WM grain size was quite similar for both
FSP parameter combinations. Due to the
relatively small EBSD scan area and the
highly columnar nature of WM grains,
measurements of total grain boundary
length using EBSD more clearly demon-
strates the extent of WM microstructural
modification by FSP. Neglecting solidifica-
tion subgrain (cell and dendrite) bound-
aries, WM microstructures examined
were almost entirely comprised of high
angle grain boundaries (> 10-deg misori-
entation). Total boundary length measure-
ments for the three conditions are shown
in Fig. 11B. The WM formed from the
low-heat-input FSP condition demon-
strated 455% higher total grain boundary
length compared to non-FSP base mate-
rial. Compared to the high-heat-input FSP
condition, the low-heat-input FSP condi-
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A
B
C
Fig. 9 Inverse pole figure maps along the fusion boundary for the following: A FSP pretreated; B
untreated Hastelloy X base material. Sample sectioned and examined along the ND-RD plane.
A B
Fig. 10 Inverse pole figure maps along sample normal direction (ND) for plan view sections of IN600.
A High-heat input FSP; B low-heat-input FSP; C non-FSP base material. Dashed line denotes
weld metal fusion boundary with fusion zone to the left of the line.
tion exhibited slightly higher total grain
boundary length (along with average grain
size) likely due to the difference in start-
ing SZ grain size. This refinement of WM
grains can be directly attributed to the
greater extent of epitaxial growth sites and
resulting competitive growth of WM
grains from refined fusion boundary
grains created by FSP pretreatment.
Face-centered cubic materials such as
IN600 do not exhibit strong grain size de-
pendence for Hall-Petch strengthening
(Ref. 28). Hardness measurements of the
low- and high-heat-input FSP conditions
were 73 and 70 HRB, respectively. With-
out FSP prior to arc welding, the meas-
ured WM hardness was 69 HRB. Al-
though large strength improvements are
not expected from the extent of weld
metal refinement obtained via FSP pre-
treatment, other mechanical properties
such as ductility are expected to improve
with increased weld metal grain refine-
ment. As with the HAZ, refinement of
WM microstructure has the potential to
more effectively accommodate liquid
present at grain boundaries as well as re-
duce grain boundary stress concentra-
tions (Ref. 24). As a result, numerous
weldability issues such as weld metal li-
quation (for multipass welds), ductility
dip cracking, and strain age or reheat
cracking (in multipass welds) can poten-
tially by minimized (Refs. 24, 29) via re-
ductions in WM grain size.
FSP Pretreatment in Other
Material Systems
Fiction stir processing pretreatment for
HAZ and WM refinement is not limited to
Ni-alloy systems. Other systems that are
prone to significant coarsening of HAZ and
WM microstructure resulting from fusion
welding are expected to have a similar ben-
efit. Titanium alloys, for example, are espe-
cially susceptible to severe coarsening of
weld metal grains (prior beta grain size).
For applications requiring good resistance
to fatigue crack initiation resistance, large
grains sizes are detrimental to performance
(Ref. 30). To reduce coarsening, solid-state
joining techniques such as FSW have an ad-
vantage with respect to preventing severe
grain growth. However, because FSW can-
not be applied universally, FSP pretreat-
ment before fusion welding may be advan-
tageous. Figure 12 shows a plan-view
section of FSP Ti-5111 (a near-alloy) with
a spot weld placed such that one half is con-
tained within the fine-grained SZ (Ti-5111
SZ grain size 12 m) and the other half is
contained within the HAZ, which is com-
prised of very coarse prior grains similar
to the parent -processed microstructure.
On the FSP side of the spot weld, the near-
fusion boundary prior grains are signifi-
cantly coarsened; however, the grains re-
main considerably smaller than those on the
non-FSP side. The smaller grains on the
FSP side resulted in increased epitaxial
growth sites and an increase in refinement
compared to the adjacent side of the spot
weld. Weld metal grains solidified from the
FSP-pretreated material were reduced in
size by nearly an order of magnitude larger
in average diameter.
Conclusions
Friction stir processing as a viable
method for the modification of fusion
weld microstructures was successfully
demonstrated. Refinement of both weld
metal and HAZ grain size was achieved by
friction stir processing of the base metal
prior to fusion welding by autogenous
GTAW. As a result of the HAZ thermal ex-
cursion from arc welding, fine grains of the
FSP stir zone were coarsened by a factor
as high as eight depending on location
within the HAZ. However, HAZ grains
near the fusion boundary for stir-
processed material still remained smaller
than the base material by a factor of three,
depending on alloy system. Heat-affected-
zone grain refinement can be expected to
have several practical benefits, especially
related to the weldability of hot-cracking-
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Fig. 11 A Average WM grain size as measured by EBSD; B average WM grain boundary length for untreated and FSP pretreated IN600.
Fig. 12 A Optical micrograph of plan view section of GTA spot weld along FSP SZ/BM boundary in Ti-5111; B higher magnification view near bound-
ary between FSP pretreated and untreated base material. Microstructure revealed using Krolls etchant.
A B
A B
susceptible materials. For liquation-prone
Ni-alloy systems examined (Alloy 625,
Hastelloy X, and Alloy 718), HAZ liqua-
tion cracking susceptibility was found to
be diminished as a result of the refinement
produced when base materials are FSP
pretreated prior to fusion welding. The
greatest reduction in MCL and TCL as de-
termined via Varestraint testing was ob-
served in Alloy 718, the alloy that retained
the finest grain size after welding.
Within the weld metal, grain size was
also reduced as a result of FSP. Average
grain size did not vary greatly with changes
in FSP heat input. The smaller grains
along the fusion boundary for stir
processed material increased the epitaxial
growth site density, resulting in more com-
petitive grain growth forming finer weld
metal grains. The total grain boundary
length (area) was increased significantly
(455%) for stir-processed material com-
pared to non-FSP base material. As with
the refined HAZ microstructure, weld-
ability and mechanical properties of the
weld metal are expected to be improved
provided heat input is sufficiently low to
prevent excessive coarsening. The appli-
cability of FSP pretreatment was also
demonstrated for other Ni-based alloys as
well as a titanium alloy.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Air
Force Research Lab through Universal
Technology Corp. Grant #09-S568-067-
01-C1. We wish to thank our project man-
ager at AFRL, Dr. Rollie Dutton, for his
support and encouragement. Friction stir
processing was conducted at EWI with the
help of Seth Shira.
References
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Introduction
Chromium-plated sheet has a high melt-
ing point for the coating and requires a high
welding speed. Due to high resistivity of the
chromium layer, conventional resistance
welding could not guarantee weld quality
and speed. Compared with traditional weld-
ing methods, laser welding is a high-energy-
density welding process with high welding
speed, high efficiency, small deformation,
and good weld quality.
Cao et al. (Ref. 1) found that the fusion
zone area and width decreased with in-
creasing welding speed, the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) width was very narrow ranging
from 0.2 to 0.5 mm and decreased with in-
creasing welding speed, and the loss of duc-
tility was mainly due to the presence of mi-
cropores and aluminum oxides.
Capello and Hong et al. (Refs. 2, 3)
found that preheat treatment before weld-
ing and postheat treatment after welding
showed a reduction of microfissures and im-
proved tensile and fatigue properties.
Png et al. (Ref. 4) studied Q-switch
Nd:YAG laser welding of 60 m thin foils of
AISI 304 stainless steel and found that im-
proved aesthetics, reduced porosity, im-
proved energy efficiency, and absence of
hot cracking/thermal distortion were the
chief benefits observed in laser welding over
resistance seam welding.
Sharma et al. (Ref. 5) evaluated the
size and shape variability of weld zones for
laser welded, advanced high-strength
steels with various combinations of types,
coatings, and thicknesses, as well as re-
searched laser welding for different thick-
ness sheets and studied weld shape by al-
tering laser parameters.
Tan et al. (Ref. 6) studied the effect of
laser parameters on the weld quality and
considered that surface roughness Ra had
an influence on the fraction of energy ab-
sorbed, therefore affecting penetration
depth, and also found the higher power
density produced a stronger weld joint.
Y. Zhao (Ref. 7) found that in a root
opening free, lap joint configuration of 0.4-
mm-thick, galvanized SAE1004 steel
sheets, severe spatter and porosity were
produced in the welds, and a prescribed
root opening was needed to vent the pres-
surized zinc vapor and then obtain an ac-
ceptable joint. Experiments validated that
the desired high-quality welds can be
achieved using the optimal parameters.
F. Kong (Ref. 8) found that the keyhole
dynamic behavior as well as liquid flow in
the molten pool depended directly on the
behavior of zinc vapor at the faying surface,
an increase in welding speed could cause a
slight reduction in the plasma spectrum in-
tensity and would decrease the depth of
weld penetration, plus the depth of weld
penetration would increase if the zinc coat-
ing was removed.
J. P. Coelho (Ref. 9) studied the influ-
ence of the dimensions of the laser beam
spot on weld strength and found that the
weld tensile strength could be increased by
defocusing the beam. Getting a line spot
by using a cylindrical lens could overcome
that the maximum laser power available had
a limit, while as the area of the laser spot on
the sample increased, more power was nec-
essary to achieve the critical specific energy
required for a good weld.
Y. Shi (Ref. 10) studied the lap welding
of JSC270CC steel and A6111-T4 alu-
minum alloys by a dual-beam YAG laser
with the continuous wave (CW) and pulse
wave (PW) modes, and found that the dual-
beam laser welding could effectively reduce
or avoid the formation of blowholes in the
welded joints.
As the requirement for welding speed
improved and laser power increased, some
weld defects, such as melt through and
concavity, would be experienced when
laser welding thin sheet, approximately 0.2
mm thick. It would have important, prom-
ising applications to carry out research on
high-speed laser welding for thin sheet.
However, at the present time, research in
Influences of Laser Spot on High-Speed
Welding for Cr-Plated Sheet
Both 0.19- and 0.21-mm-thick samples were tested with
a combination of focus and cylindrical lenses at different speeds
BY J. ZHAN AND M. J. YANG
KEYWORDS
Laser Welding
Chromium-Plated Sheet
Elongated Spot
Welding Speed
J. ZHAN (zhanjian@imech.ac.cn) and M. J.
YANG are with the Institute of Mechanics, Chi-
nese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
ABSTRACT
Focusing on thin sheet high-speed laser welding, this study used 0.19- and 0.21-
mm-thick, chromium-plated sheet as the research object and studied influences of
the elongated spot length on the thin sheet laser welding speed when adopting butt
joint welding by different focus elongated spot patterns from both theoretical and ex-
perimental points of view. It showed from the test result that compared with the nor-
mal spot pattern, the welding speed was increased by 41.6% for 0.19-mm-thick,
chromium-plated sheet when the laser power was 1.5 kW and elongated spot length
was 4.3 mm, while the welding speed was increased by 30.5% for 0.21-mm-thick,
chromium-plated sheet upon elongated spot butt joint welding. Furthermore, com-
pared with the normal spot pattern, sagging of the weld joint end face resulted by the
elongated spot would be greatly reduced. Thus, it was clear that the welding speed
for the thin sheet could be increased with the weld joint quality improved when the
suitable elongated spot pattern was adopted.
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such field is insufficient.
Based on the characteristics of welding
for thin sheet, this research analyzed and
studied how the quality of the weld joint-
would be influenced by the laser space dis-
tribution during high-power laser welding.
It did this through adjustment and control
of the laser parameters in the course of a
welding test where the elongated spot pat-
tern was realized, through a combination of
cylindrical and focusing lenses.
Working Principle of
Elongated Spot
Since 0.19- and 0.21-mm-thick sheets
were adopted as the test subjects, some de-
fects, such as humping, might occur in the
weld where the density of the laser power
was too high (refer to Fig. 1). With regard
to 0.20-mm-thick sheet, the laser welding
was mainly realized through the adjustment
of input power density and action time of
the laser.
Assume that laser action time was t
1
= 2
r/v, wherein r was the laser spot radius and v
was the welding speed, and the thermal con-
ductivity depth of laser was h
1
= t
1
wherein was the thermal diffusivity coeffi-
cient with the laser focusing spot to be 2r
b elongated spot, the power density would
be F
2
= P/(r
2
+ 2r (b 2r)).
The laser action time was t
2
= b/v and
thermal conductivity depth h
2
= t
2
,
wherein b was the length of the major axis
of the columnar spot. Assume the major
axis b = 4r, and the ratio of the laser power
density was F
2
/F
1
= /(4 + ) = 0.44, the
laser action time ratio t
2
/t
1
= 2, and the heat
conduction depth ratio h
2
/h
1
= 1.414. The
purpose for focusing the laser beams into an
elongated spot was to increase the laser ac-
tion time and laser penetration rate under
the premise of maintaining the material
melting and welding speeds. Here, the
columnar spot b needed to meet two condi-
tions. One was that the material should be
melted under the laser action when the
value of b had an upper limit, i.e., reached
the maximum value. The other was that the
material did not strongly vaporize under the
action of the laser when b had a lower limit,
i.e., a minimum value.
The Formation Mechanism of
Columnar Spot
Based on the characteristics of cylindri-
cal lens focuses only in one direction, a
cylindrical lens and focusing mirror were
used in combination to change the focal
length of the two lenses as well as their rel-
ative positions to generate focused colum-
nar spots of different sizes. The schematic
diagram is shown in Fig. 2.
D
0
was the diameter of the incident light
beam after passing the collimator lens, f
1
the focal length of the focusing lens, f
2
the
focal length of the cylindrical lens, and a the
spacing of the two lenses. If the focusing
lens was in front of the cylindrical lens, as
shown in Fig. 2A, then in the x direction, the
combined focal length of the two lenses
could be obtained from equation 1:
f = f
1
f
2
/ (f
1
+ f
2
a) (1)
The distance from the focus to the cylin-
drical lens was given by 2:
EFL = f (1 a/f
1
) (2)
Put 1 into 2, and we get:
EFL = (f
1
a) f
2
/ (f
1
+ f
2
a) (3)
In the y direction, the cylindrical lens did
not have focusing effect, and the spot size b
could be obtained according to the triangle
similar relationship by 4:
b = (f
1
a)
2
D
0
/ [(f
1
+ f
2
a) f
1
] (4)
As shown in Fig. 2B, when the focusing
mirror was behind the cylindrical lens, EFL,
the distance from the focal point to the fo-
cusing mirror, and the elongated spot
length b could be obtained from 5 and 6, re-
spectively:
EFL =(f
2
a) f
1
/ (f
1
+ f
2
a) (5)
b = f
1
D
0
/ (f
1
+ f
2
a) (6)
The value of the minor axis of the elon-
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Fig. 1 Laser welding surface appearance. A Front side; B the back. Laser power density is 6.97 10
5
W/cm
2
, welding speed is 45 m/min.
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of columnar laser spot welding. A Cylindrical lens behind focusing
mirror; B cylindrical mirror in front of focusing mirror.
Table 1 Laser Parameters
Laser Power Fiber Diameter Focal Length of Focal Length of
(kW) (mm) Collimating Lens (mm Focusing Lensmm
1.5 0.6 86 100
A
A
B
B
gated focus spot was calculated by the fol-
lowing equation:
d = d
0
f / f
3
(7)
Where d
0
was the diameter of the fiber,
f
3
was the focal length of the collimating
lens, and if the laser spot was a circular focus
spot, f was the focal length of the focus lens.
In this test, the following values were given:
d
0
= 0.6, f
1
= 100 mm, f
2
= 200 mm, f
3
= 86
mm, and a = 40 mm, so the diameter of the
elongated focus spot was 0.54 mm, if only
using f
1
= 100 mm without the cylindrical
lens, the diameter of the circular focus spot
was 0.70 mm.
Adjustment of b, the value of the
columnar spot length, could be realized by
changing the value of f
1
, f
2
, and a. Figure
3 shows the size of a focused spot formed
on the workpiece after going through the
focusing lens/cylindrical lens with the
curve reflecting the change of working dis-
tance with the spacing between lenses in
the combination and focal length of the
cylindrical lens. Figure 4 shows the size of
a focused spot formed on the workpiece
after going through the cylindrical lens/fo-
cusing lens with the curve reflecting the
change of working distance with the spac-
ing between lenses in the combination and
focal length of the cylindrical lens,
wherein, D
0
= 30 mm.
When the focal length of the cylindrical
lens was increased, the focused spot length
of combination lens was decreased, while
the working distance of the laser butt joint
welding was increased. As shown in Fig. 3,
when the laser beams first went through the
focusing lens and then the cylindrical lens,
the lengths of the focusing spot and welding
working distance were reduced as the spac-
ing of the two lenses increased. As shown in
Fig. 4, when the laser beams first passed
through a cylindrical lens and then the fo-
cusing lens, the length of the focusing spot
was increased as the spacing of the two
lenses increased, while the welding working
distance was reduced. Compared to Fig. 3,
the change was not significant. In this ex-
periment, a combination consisting of a
cylindrical lens with focal length 200 mm
and focusing lens with focal length 100 mm,
plus the 0.19- and 0.21-mm-thick, chrome-
plated sheets, were used to study the im-
provement of laser energy distribution with
columnar spot and speed increase of the
laser butt joint welding by prolonging the
time of laser action.
Laser Welding Experiments
Laser Welding Equipment
Figure 5 shows the laser welding equip-
ment. For the laser, a continuous YAG
semiconductor laser was used with a maxi-
mum power of 2 kW, wavelength of 1064
nm, in addition to a focus lens with a focal
length of 100 mm.
Laser Welding Experiments
A 1.5-kW laser was used for butt joint
welding a 0.19-mm, Cr-plated sheet of a cer-
tain base material. The combined cylindri-
cal lens with a focal length of 200 mm and a
focusing lens with focal length of 100 mm
adjusted the spatial distribution of the fo-
cusing spot to implement laser welding with
a spot of a different length b Fig. 2. The
parameters of the laser are shown in Table
1 and that of the focusing mirror set in Table
2. The first parameter applied to a focusing
laser beam through cylindrical lens/focusing
lens on the workpiece, and the second pa-
rameter applied to focusing a laser beam
through the focusing lens/cylindrical lens on
the workpiece.
Three different focusing crafts were
used. First was a focusing lens with a focal
length of 100 mm to directly focus the
laser beam on the workpiece surface. The
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Fig. 3 Laser focused on the workpiece through focusing lens/cylindrical lens.
Fig. 4 Laser focused through cylindrical lens/focusing lens onto the workpiece.
Table 2 Parameters of the Combination of Lens
No. a (mm) f (mm) EFL (mm) b (mm)
1 20 71 64 10.7
2 40 77 46 4.3
Fig. 5 Laser welding equipment used in the
study.
maximum speed of butt joint welding was
18.5 m/min and a weld width of 1 mm.
The appearance of the weld surface is
shown in Fig. 6A and B, wherein A is the
front side of the weld and B the back. Sec-
ond was a cylindrical lens/focus lens to
aim the laser beam onto the workpiece.
The parameters of the combination lens
is shown in No. 1, Table 2. The maximum
speed of butt joint welding was 23.1
m/min, weld width 0.85 mm, and the
width of HAZ 0.25 mm. The weld surface
appearance is shown in Fig. 6C and D,
wherein C was the front side and D the
back. Third was the focusing lens/cylin-
drical lens to aim the laser beam on the
workpiece. The parameters for the com-
bination lens is shown in No. 2, Table 2.
The maximum butt joint welding speed
was 26.2 m/min with weld width 0.65 mm.
The weld surface appearance is shown in
Fig. 6E and F, where E was the front side
and F the back.
With respect to no application of cylin-
drical lens, the welding speed could be in-
creased by 41.6% when the columnar spot
length was 5.4 mm, while the columnar spot
length was 10.7 mm, the welding speed
could be increased by 24.8%. Therefore,
compared to the ordinary laser spot weld-
ing, the columnar spot could have a higher
welding speed.
Results and Analysis
Influence of Columnar Spot on
Welding Speed when Cylindrical Lens
with Various Focal Lengths is
Combined with a Focusing Mirror
Welding a chrome-plated sheet was
carried out the same as in the laser weld-
ing experiments section using a laser with
a power of 1.5 kW. Laser parameters are
shown in Table 1. The focal length of the
focusing lens with f
1
= 100 mm, plus cylin-
drical lens with focal lengths of 200, 500,
and 1000 mm, were combined with a 100-
mm focusing lens, respectively, and the
parameters as well as welding test results
are shown in Table 3.
Just like in that sections experiment,
when only 100-mm focusing lens was used,
the 1.5-kW laser welding speed was 18.5
m/min, indicating that the welding speed
could be increased through a cylindrical
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Fig. 6 Surface appearance of weld from laser butt joint welding.
Table 3 Parameters and Experimental Results for Combination of Lens
No. f
2
a b Welding Speed Remarks
(mm) (mm) (mm) (m/min)
1 1000 30 2.2 19.3 Focusing mirror close to the welding workpiece
2 500 30 2.6 20.8 Cylindrical lens close to the welding workpiece
5 200 20 10.7 23.1 Focusing mirror close to the welding workpiece
A
F
E
B
D
C
lens. Maximum welding speed was ob-
tained with a columnar spot of 4.3 mm.
Laser Welding Experiment on the
0.21-mm Sheet
Butt joint welding experiments were
made using a 200-mm cylindrical lens and
a 100-mm focusing lens, respectively,
welding base material 0.21 mm in thick-
ness, and laser power of 1.5 kW. The rela-
tionship between welding speed and pa-
rameters of the lens combination were
obtained, as shown in Table 4.
When a cylindrical lens was not used,
after focusing at a focal length of 100 mm,
the maximal speed of laser welding was
16.918.5 m/min, averaged at 17.7 m/min.
When a cylindrical lens with a focal length
of 200 mm was used, if parameter 1 in
Table 4 was used, the columnar spot was
4.3 mm, and the maximum welding speed
was 23.1 m/min. Compared to a circular
spot, which was not used, the welding
speed was increased by 30.5%. If parame-
ter 2 was used, the maximum welding
speed was 20.0 m/min. Compared to the
circular spot, the welding speed was in-
creased by 13.0%.
In the working principle of elongated
spot and formation mechanism of columnar
spot sections, the effect of cylindrical lens
increasing butt joint welding speed (41.6%)
for 0.19-mm sheet through a test was made.
It was found that without increasing laser
power, the thinner the welded base mate-
rial, the more obvious the effect of the
columnar spot.
In Fig. 7, laser parameters for No. 14
were as follows:
1. Focusing mirror with focal length of
100 mm, workpiece thickness of 0.21 mm
100 mm was put close to the workpiece
and combined with a cylindrical lens with
focal length of 200 mm, workpiece with
thickness of 0.21 mm
100 mm, workpiece thickness of 0.19 mm
100 mm was put close to the workpiece and
combined with a cylindrical lens with focal
length of 200 mm, workpiece with thickness
of 0.19 mm.
After etching the weld structure, it was
observed after laser welding that the de-
pression value of parameters 1 and 3 in Fig.
7 was about 10% of the sheet thickness (in
Fig. 7, thickness of specimens 1 and 2 was
0.21 mm; that of 3 and 4 was 0.19 mm). With
columnar spot mode, the degree of protu-
berance or recesses on the weld (see 2 and
4 in Fig. 7) was significantly smaller than
that on the weld without using a cylindrical
lens (see 1 and 3 in Fig. 7). This was because
with columnar spot mode, the beam energy
became uniform and the formation of weld
pool during the welding process became
stable without material strongly vaporizing
or impact, improving the weld quality. It
could be seen that columnar spot reduced
the projections and recesses of the welds,
reducing weld defects, as also reported by
A. Haboudou (Ref. 11), who found that
dual spot welding would significantly re-
duce the porosity rate because dual spot
welding had a stabilizing effect on the weld
pool.
Weld End-Face Experiment
When comparing the end surface de-
pression by ordinary light and columnar
light spots, it was found that the depres-
sion by ordinary spot laser welding meas-
ures 0.8 mm in length, as shown in Fig.
8A, while the depression left by columnar
spot laser welding was almost invisible.
Use of a columnar spot in laser welding
could reduce or eliminate the depression
on the end face of the weld and improve
weld quality.
Tensile Test and Cupping Test
A tensile test was carried out on the
welded 0.19- and 0.21-mm-thick, chrome-
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Fig. 7 A cross-sectional view of the weld.
Fig. 8 The end face depression contrast. A Ordinary spot; B columnar spot.
Table 4 Columnar Spot Contrast Test on 0.21-mm-Thick Chrome Plate
No. f
2
(mm) a (mm) Welding Speed (m/min) Remarks
1 200 40 23.1 Cylindrical lens close to the welding workpiece
2 200 30 20.0 Focusing mirror close to the welding workpiece
A
B
1 2
4 3
plated sheets under different laser parame-
ters for laser butt joint welding to test the
yield strength of the weld joints. The tensile
test rig (5 kN) is shown in Fig. 9 and the ten-
sile specimens in Fig. 10. All the fractures
were plastic fractures at locations other
than the welds.
The tensile test in Fig. 10 indicated the
tensile strength of the weld exceeded that of
the base material. An Erichsen cup test was
used for reflecting the plastic properties of
the weld. Table 5 shows the cupping test re-
sults of various laser parameters with weld
test blocks of which No. 14 was defined in
Fig. 7 of the laser welding experiment on the
0.21-mm sheet section. From the cupping
test results, it could be seen that the cupping
values of welds were greater after using
columnar spot. Compared with laser welds
using an ordinary spot, in the cases of 0.19
and 0.21 mm, the cupping values of laser
welds resultant from using a columnar spot
were found to have increased by 12.7 and
3.7%, respectively. The cupping value was
the pressed depth value of a spherical punch
when the first crack appeared on the speci-
men by pressing the test specimen with the
weld, which reflected the plastic properties
of the material. After going through a cylin-
drical lens, the beam pattern of the colum-
nar spot was improved, and the laser energy
concentrated at the center of the weld was
reduced, thus reducing weld defects and en-
hancing weld quality.
Conclusion
In previous work, the relationship be-
tween laser spot mode and welding speed in
high-speed welding was investigated. By
metallographic analysis of the shape of the
molten weld pool, tensile test, and cupping
test, the influence of laser parameters on
weld quality was studied. The following con-
clusions were reached:
1. For 0.19-mm-thick, chrome-plated
sheet, the laser beam was passed through
the focus lens/cylindrical lens (speed 26.2
m/min) and cylindrical lens/focus lens
(speed 23.1 m/min). Compared to not using
a cylindrical lens (speed 18.5 m/min), the
welding speed was increased by 41.6 and
24.8%, respectively.
2. In the case of 0.19-mm-thick, chrome-
plated sheet, maximum welding speed (26.2
m/min) was obtained when the columnar
spot was 4.3 mm, at laser input of 1.5 kW.
3. For butt joint welding experiments on
0.21-mm-thick, chrome-plated sheet, with
the laser power at 1.5 kW, the maximum
welding speed was 17.7 m/min when the
cylindrical lens was not used and 23.1 m/min
when a combination of cylindrical lenses
were used, reflecting an increase of 30.5%.
4. When the laser input power remained
the same, the thinner the welding base ma-
terial, the greater the contribution of
columnar spot to welding speed.
5. Through cross-section corrosion of
the weld, it was found that after improving
the beam mode of the columnar spot, raised
or sunken welds were significantly reduced.
Compare the result with weld ports depres-
sion, and we found that welding with cylin-
drical lens basically eliminates end face de-
pression and improves weld quality.
6. Through a weld tensile test, none of
the breaks found occurred in the weld
area, indicating that the weld strength was
higher than the base material. Compared
to the result with a cupping test, it was
found that use of the cylindrical lens im-
proved the cupping value, i.e., the quality
of welds.
References
1. Cao, X., and Jahazi, M. 2009. Effect of
welding speed on butt joint quality of Ti6Al4V
alloy welded using a high-power Nd:YAG laser.
Optics and Lasers Engineering 47: 12311241.
2. Capello, E., Chiarello, P., Previtali, B., et
al. 2003. Laser welding and surface treatment of
a 22Cr-5Ni-3MO duplex stainless steel. Materi-
als Science and Engineering A 351: 334343.
3. Hong, J. K., Pak, J. H., Park, N. K., et al.
2008. Microstructures and mechanical proper-
ties of Inconel 718 weld by CO
2
laser welding.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology 201:
515520.
4. Png, D., and Molian, P. 2008. Q-switch
Nd:YAG laser welding of AISI 304 stainless steel
foils. Materials Science and Engineering A 486:
680685.
5. Sharma, R., Molian, P., and Peters, F.
2010. Geometric variability and surface finish
of weld zones in Yb:YAG laser welded ad-
vanced high strength steels. Journal of Manu-
facturing Processes 12: 7384.
6. Tan, C. W., Chan, Y. C., Leung, B. N. W., et
al. 2005. Characterization of Kovar-to-Kovar
laser weld and its mechanical strength. Optics and
Lasers Engineering 43: 151162.
7. Zhao, Y., Zhang, Y., Hu, W., and Lai, X.
2012. Optimization of laser welding thin-gage
galvanized steel via response surface methodol-
ogy. Optics and Lasers in Engineering 50(9):
12671273.
8. Kong, F., Ma, J., Carlson, B., and Ko-
vacevic, R. 2012. Real-time monitoring of laser
welding of galvanized high strength steel in lap
joint configuration. Optics & Laser Technology
44(7): 21862196.
9. Coelho, J. P., Abreu, M. A., and Pires, M.
C. 2000. High-speed laser welding of plastic
films. Optics and Lasers in Engineering 34(46):
385395.
10. Shi, Y., Zhang, H., Takehiro, W., and
Tang, J. 2010. CW/PW dual-beam YAG laser
welding of steel/aluminum alloy sheets. Optics
and Lasers in Engineering 48(78): 732736.
11. Haboudou, A., Peyre, P., Vannes, A. B.,
and Peix, G. 2003. Reduction of porosity con-
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Table 5 Cupping Test Results
No. Welding Speed Weld Cupping Value Thickness
m/min (mm) mm
1 17.7 5.39 0.21
2 23.1 5.59 0.21
3 18.5 5.11 0.19
4 21.6 5.76 0.19
Fig. 9 Tensile test rig. Fig. 10 Tensile test results in blocks.
Introduction
Over the years, 13% Cr steel has been
widely accepted in the oil country tubular
goods (OCTG) segment because of its
good corrosion resistance. The use of
13% Cr steel is recognized as a standard
countermeasure to corrosion attack initi-
ated by carbon dioxide in oil and gas
welds. However, conventional type 12
13% Cr steel has not been utilized so
much in line pipe because of its relatively
bad weldability, which requires preheat-
ing prior to welding and postweld heat
treatment (PWHT) (Ref. 1).
Recently, supermartensitic stainless
steels (SMSS) have been developed as an
attractive technical alternative to high-
strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels mainly
in applications related to the oil and gas
industry (Refs. 2, 3). Welding these mate-
rials plays a crucial role in structural com-
ponents, influencing their weldability,
toughness, and resistance to sulfide stress
cracking. The SMSS were developed
based on classic martensitic stainless steels
(1114% Cr), reducing C content to en-
hance weldability, toughness, and corro-
sion resistance, plus adding Ni to promote
a free ferrite structure and Mo (Refs. 4, 5),
which also improves corrosion resistance
(Refs. 6, 7).
For welding these materials, gas metal
arc welding (GMAW) using SMSS metal-
cored wires has been recognized as a suit-
able technological option, and its use has
recently been improved (Ref. 5). This type
of consumable presents several advan-
tages such as low slag generation and high
deposition rate (Ref. 8). Shielding gases
employed for welding this type of material
usually are inert gas mixes (Ar-He) or Ar-
rich mixtures. The type of shielding gas
can affect the chemical composition of the
weld metal, principally O, N, and C con-
tents (Ref. 9).
Usually, PWHT is necessary to adjust
the properties of weldments in SMSS. In
these cases, the heat treatment times typ-
ically vary between 5 and 30 min. In this
respect, it has been reported that the
aforementioned short PWHT provides an
improvement in sulfide stress cracking
(SSC) resistance (Ref. 7). In certain grades
of SMSS, these treatments provide a de-
crease of hardness and residual stress
along with increased toughness, while
grades with higher Mo content are less
sensitive to PWHT (Refs. 7, 10).
Different PWHTs lead to microstruc-
tural modifications producing different
combinations of phases present in SMSS
weld deposits (tempered and untempered
martensite, austenite, carbides, etc.) with
each microstructural pattern affecting
toughness in a specific way.
The objective of this work was to sys-
tematically study the effects of different
shielding gas mixtures and PWHT (650C
15 min) on the all-weld-metal properties ob-
Supermartensitic Stainless Steel Deposits:
Effects of Shielding Gas and
Postweld Heat Treatment
Detailed are the results as CO
2
content in the shielding gas increased,
plus the postweld heat treatment utilized in this work
BY S. ZAPPA, H. G. SVOBODA, AND E. S. SURIAN
KEYWORDS
Supermartensitic Stainless
Steel
Shielding Gas
Postweld Heat Treatment
(PWHT)
Mechanical Properties
S. ZAPPA (zappasebastian@hotmail.com) is
with the Research Secretariat, Faculty of Engi-
neering, University of Lomas de Zamora, Buenos
Aires, Argentina. H. G. SVOBODA is with the
Materials and Structures Laboratory, Faculty of
Engineering, Intecin, University of Buenos Aires,
Conicet, Buenos Aires, Argentina. E. S. SURIAN
is with the Research Secretariat, Faculty of Engi-
neering, University of Lomas de Zamora, Buenos
Aires and Deytema, Regional Faculty of San
Nicols, National Technological University, San
Nicols, Argentina.
ABSTRACT
Welding supermartensitic stainless steel plays a crucial role in structural com-
ponents, influencing their toughness and resistance to sulfide stress cracking. Post-
weld heat treatment (PWHT) adjusts the final properties of the weldments, bearing
on microstructural evolution. The objective of this work was to study the effects of
different shielding gas mixtures and PWHT on supermartensitic stainless steel all-
weld-metal properties. Three all-weld-metal test coupons were prepared according
to standard ANSI/AWS A5.22:95, Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Flux
Cored Arc Welding and Stainless Steel Flux Cored Rods for Gas Tungsten Arc Weld-
ing, using a 1.2-mm-diameter tubular, metal-cored wire under Ar-5% He, Ar-2%
CO
2
, and Ar-18% CO
2
gas shielding mixtures in the flat position with a nominal
heat input of 1 kJ mm
1
. The PWHT used was 650C for 15 min. All-weld metal
chemical composition analysis, metallurgical characterization, hardness and ten-
sile property measurements, and Charpy V-notch tests were carried out. It was
found that as CO
2
increased in the shielding gas C, O, and N contents increased as
well as mechanical properties varied; hardness and ultimate tensile strength in-
creased, and toughness decreased. The PWHT improved toughness. Technological
property of the consumable was also studied.
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tained with a SMSS metal-cored wire used
with the semiautomatic welding process.
Experimental Procedure
The oxidation potential (OP) of a
shielding gas is related to O
2
and CO
2
con-
tents of the mentioned gas, according to
the following equation (Ref. 11):
OP = O
2
+ 0.5 CO
2
Table 1 shows the chemical composi-
tion of shielding gases used and their re-
spective OP, the samples identification,
and welding parameters utilized. Three
all-weld-metal coupons were welded ac-
cording to the standard ANSI/AWS
A5.22-95, Specification for Stainless Steel
Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding and
Stainless Steel Flux Cored Rods for Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding, using a tubular
metal-core wire of 1.2 mm diameter with
three different shielding gases. In all
cases, the welding position was flat, and
the preheating and interpass tempera-
tures were 100C. Gas flow was 18 L/min
and stickout 20 mm. After welding, the
three coupons were X-rayed following
ANSI B31.3-96, Chemical Plant and Pe-
troleum Refinery Piping.
A PWHT at 650C for 15 min was ap-
plied to the different samples in an in-
duction heating furnace. This PWHT
condition was chosen according to the
recommendations of the consumable
manufacturer and previous studies (Refs.
12, 13). From each welded coupon, trans-
versal sections for macro and microstruc-
ture studies, chemical composition
determination, and hardness measure-
ments were extracted. To study the oper-
ability of the consumable, width and
penetration of the last bead were meas-
ured as well as the spatter level as a func-
tion of the shielding gas used.
On the cross sections of each coupon,
chemical composition by optical emission
spectrometry (OES) was determined, ex-
cept the C, O, N, and S contents, which
were analyzed using a Leco
TM
. The inclu-
sionary levels and critical temperatures
were determined. The microstructural
characterization was performed by light
microscopy (LM), scanning electron mi-
croscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction
(XRD). The delta ferrite fraction present
in each deposit was measured through
quantitative metallography according to
ASTM E562-99, Standard Test Method for
Determining Volume Fraction by Systematic
Manual Point Count, and the retained
austenite contents were determined using
a peak comparison method from the XRD
patterns (Ref. 14).
In addition, Vickers hardness HV1 was
measured. From each coupon, 1 longitu-
dinal tensile specimen was machined ac-
cording to (Ref. 15), and 15 Charpy
V-notch (CVN) impact specimens were
machined according to ASTM E23-05,
Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Im-
pact Testing of Metallic Materials. Tensile
and impact CVN samples were tested in
the as-welded (AW) and PWHT condi-
tions. Tensile property was measured at
room temperature, and CVN impact tests
were performed at 20, 0, 20, 40,
and 60C.
According to ANSI B31.3-96, all
coupons were approved as they presented
very low defect levels.
Figure 1 shows the surface appearance
of samples HA, CA, and AA welded under
each shielding gas used. It can be seen that
there was a clear increase in the amount
of spatter as the CO
2
content in the shield-
ing gas increased. This could be associated
with an increased partial pressure of CO
2
in the arc atmosphere.
For the welding parameters used, the
metal transfer occurred in a mixed glob-
ular/spray mode. The change from a
transfer mode to another one is charac-
terized by a transition current, which de-
pends on the shielding gas and increases
with its CO
2
content. In the gas atmos-
phere, the presence of this gas limits the
electromagnetic forces that control spray
transfer mode (Ref. 16). In this sense,
when using a gas mixture with higher
amounts of CO
2
, the globular to spray
transfer mode transition current in-
creases, then increasing the level of spat-
ter associated with the globular transfer
mode.
Figure 2 shows the images of the last
bead for HA, CA, and AA specimens. In
these figures, it can be seen that as CO
2
content increased in the shielding gas, the
geometry of the bead changed, decreasing
the ratio width/penetration as is shown in
Table 2.
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Fig. 1 Surface appearance of welded samples for the three gases.
Fig. 2 Last weld bead for the different shielding gases.
Fig. 3 Inclusions volume fraction vs. oxidation
potential of the shielding gas.
Table 1 Chemical Composition of Shielding Gases Used, Samples Identification and Welding Parameters
As Heat Shielding CO
2
Ar He OP Tension Current Welding Rate Heat Input
Welded Treated Gas (%) (%) (%) (V) (A) (mm/s) (kJ/mm)
HA HP Ar + 5% He 0 70 5 0 25 226 5 1.1
CA CP Ar + 2% CO
2
2 98 0 1 25 230 6 1.0
AA AP Ar + 18% CO
2
18 82 0 9 26 232 6 1.0
Table 3 shows the results of the chemical
composition of all-weld-metal coupons.
Carbon contents, fluctuating between 140
and 180 ppm, were higher than expected for
this consumable. The value reported by the
manufacturer was less than 100 ppm (Refs.
13, 17).
In general, the measured values of the
rest of the analyzed elements were below
the nominal values with the exception of
Si and Mo, according to the product data
sheet (Ref. 13). In the SMSS, to achieve
good toughness and appropriate hardness
values, it is necessary to have low C, N, O,
and S contents (Refs. 18, 19). The C con-
tent controls the martensite hardness and
toughness; it is the more influential ele-
ment on M
S
temperature. The precipi-
tated carbides influence corrosion
resistance and hydrogen damage (Ref. 20),
among others. Also, the presence of N and
Mo has a great influence on the sequence
of carbides and carbides/nitrides precipi-
tation (Ref. 21).
Regarding the O content present in the
weld metal, in all cases it exceeded 300 ppm,
the limit beyond which, according to the lit-
erature (Ref. 17), the absorbed energy falls
brusquely. The variation observed in the
chemical composition of the all-weld metal
corresponds, among other things, to the
metallic elements oxidation process occur-
ring in the electric arc. The greater O con-
tent in the shielding gas, the higher
oxidation potential of the gaseous atmos-
phere, and the greater the effect of oxida-
tion mentioned above (Ref. 22). The high
interstitial elements contents in the deposits
are associated with a high content of O and
C in the atmosphere of the arc from the de-
composition of CO
2
in the shielding gas
(Ref. 23). These variations were small but
could have affected certain properties. In
this sense, Ni, Cu, and Mn are elements that
stabilize the austenite, so that higher con-
tents of these elements could result in an in-
crease of retained austenite in the
microstructure (Refs. 16, 24).
Also, Mo and Cr could affect the delta
ferrite fraction as they both stabilize this
phase. Toughness and, to a lesser extent,
tensile property and corrosion resistance,
could be affected by these small varia-
tions in chemical composition, mainly in
the coupons welded under a high OP gas
mixture.
The increase of CO
2
content in the
shielding gas produced a higher O content
in the deposits. One way to demonstrate
the increase of this last element is through
the determination of inclusionary levels.
Some authors (Ref. 25) reported that the
sizes of the inclusions are the order of mi-
crons. Table 4 shows that quantity, average
diameter, and volume fraction of inclu-
sions in the AW sample increased with the
CO
2
content in the shielding gas.
Figure 3 presents the effect of the
shielding gas on the inclusion volume frac-
tion (IVF) of the deposits, showing the
tendency mentioned. These differences in
the inclusionary level may affect, among
other properties, the toughness and cor-
rosion resistance of the deposits (Refs. 17,
18, 25, 26).
In all cases, in the AW samples, the mi-
crostructure consisted of a martensitic ma-
trix with small amounts of delta ferrite and
retained austenite. The literature (Refs. 6,
7, 27) reports for this type of steel that re-
tained austenite contents in the AW con-
dition may vary between 2 and 30%, and
that this phase cannot be identified
through the microscopy techniques used
in this work (Refs. 12, 17, 26). Samples
submitted to PWHT presented a darken-
ing of the martensitic structure associated
with the carbide and/or carbonitride pre-
cipitates mainly in the grain boundary.
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Fig. 4 LM and SEM in the coupon AP.
Table 2 Relationships Width/Penetration
for the HA, CA, and AA Samples
Sample Relationship
Width/Penetration
HA 2.7
CA 2.2
AA 1.9
Table 3 Chemical Composition
Sample C Mn Si S Cr Ni Mo Cu V O N
(ppm) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (ppm) (ppm)
HA 140 1.72 0.44 0.015 11.8 6.2 2.69 0.48 0.09 380 50
CA 150 1.75 0.45 0.014 11.7 6.2 2.66 0.48 0.09 440 60
AA 180 1.57 0.42 0.016 11.7 6.1 2.47 0.41 0.09 710 140
Specif. <100 1.8 0.4 NI 12.5 6.7 2.5 0.5 NI NI <100
NI: not informed
Figure 4 shows the microstructure of
the coupon AP obtained by LM and SEM,
respectively. In this figure the following
identification was used: M, martensite; F,
ferrite; and Pr, precipitates. Similar mi-
crostructures were found in the rest of the
coupons.
In the literature (Ref. 17), there are re-
ported several ferrite morphologies found
in SMSS deposits. Two types of ferrite
could be identified based on their location
and morphology. Most common was fer-
rite with morphology very similar to that
of ferrite found in duplex stainless steel
weld metals. The presence of this ferrite is
a consequence of incomplete ferrite-to-
austenite transformation in weld metals
solidifying as ferrite and was most com-
mon for more highly alloyed weld metals
(Ref. 17). Another ferrite morphology,
similar to that seen in austenitic stainless
steel weld metals, was found in weld met-
als higher in Ni, solidifying as a mixture of
ferrite and austenite (Ref. 17). This ferrite
was located in the last solidifying inter-
dendritic regions.
Figure 5 shows the different ferrite
morphology for the HA coupon. These
different morphologies of ferrite in the mi-
crostructure show different solidification
modes generated simultaneously in the
deposits.
The critical temperatures A
C1
, A
C3
,
and M
S
were determined by dilatometry
with a heating rate of 1C/min in the HA
and AA coupons. Table 5 shows the results
obtained. The coupon welded with high
CO
2
content in the shielding gas (AA) had
a higher austenite transformation starting
temperature regarding the coupon welded
under Ar + 5% He (HA). Marshall and
Farrar (Ref. 28) indicated that the actual
A
C1
temperature for a low-grade stainless
steel is around 650C while high-grade al-
loys are around 630C.
The use of equations for the selection
of PWHT temperature should be carefully
considered and the results be verified ex-
perimentally to prevent undesired hard-
ening of the structure due to the fact that
partial austenitizing can generate fresh
martensite (Ref. 5). The PWHT is usually
recommended in SMSS deposits for im-
proving both toughness and ductility; ten-
sile strength is reduced by only 10 to 20%
(Ref. 29). Ni has a strong effect on de-
creasing A
C1
and Mo the contrary effect.
In this sense, the small variations of cer-
tain elements observed in the chemical
composition of these samples could have
led to changes in critical temperatures.
The different types of ferrite were
quantified for the three coupons in AW
conditions through 20 measurements on a
grid of 660 points. Table 6 shows these re-
sults. There were no significant variations
in the measured ferrite contents, indicat-
ing no shielding gas important influence
on these values. Table 7 shows the retained
austenite content.
From a microstructural point of view,
the objective of PWHT is to temper the
martensite and increase the stable re-
tained austenite at room temperature re-
sulting in softening and improving both
toughness and corrosion resistance of the
deposit (Refs. 2, 3, 19, 30, 31). The litera-
ture reports (Refs. 5, 32) that a PWHT at
650C for 5 min is the heat treatment com-
monly used in manufacturing SMSS pipe
when using duplex and superduplex stain-
less steel consumables; longer heat treat-
ment can cause sigma phase to form in
these weld metals. During the PWHT, in
these steels, the tempering of martensite
is generally followed by a softening asso-
ciated with incoherent carbide precipita-
tion, achieving the maximum softening
with the M
23
C
6
carbide precipitation at
about 500C (Ref. 32).
In alloys without Ni, the PWHT is per-
formed at about 700C to obtain a high re-
action rate and maximum softening (Ref.
32). The presence of Ni reduces the criti-
cal transformation temperature A
C1
. This
temperature, for a given steel, depends on
the chemical composition, heating rate,
and in alloys with high Ni contents can be
as low as 500550C (Refs. 32, 33). In this
work, heat treatment was carried out at
650C for 15 min, which seemed to be ad-
equate for matching filler metals but not
appropriate for duplex or superduplex
ones. This temperature/time parameter
did not generate changes that could have
been observed by LM and SEM. Only dif-
ferences in the austenite content in the mi-
crostructure could be established by X-ray
diffraction.
As mentioned above, in alloys with
high contents of Ni, the A
C1
temperature
may be around 550C. At this tempera-
ture, the kinetics of carbide formation is
very slow and, it is normal that austenite
precipitates (Ref. 32). In this way, through
a diffusion mechanism, the austenite
formed during PWHT will have a differ-
ent chemical composition from the austen-
ite retained during the welding process
(Refs. 32, 34). In this instance, the marten-
sitic matrix and retained austenite pro-
duced during welding will have identical
chemical composition while the new
austenite formed during PWHT will be
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Fig. 5 Different morphologies of ferrite in the HA coupon.
Fig. 6 Relationship between the austenite con-
tent and oxidation potential of the shielding gas.
Table 4 Inclusionary Analysis
Sample IT Area ID IAD IVF OP O Content
(m
2
) (incl/ m
2
) (m) (incl/m
3
)
HA 5 1695 0.003 1.14 0.002 0 380
CA 14 1695 0.008 1.26 0.007 1 440
AA 32 1695 0.019 1.40 0.019 9 710
IT: inclusions total; ID: inclusions density; IAD: inclusions average diameter; IVF: inclusions volume
fraction; OP (oxygen potential) = O
2
+ 0.5 CO
2
richer in N, C, and Ni. This degree of en-
richment determines the stability of
austenite formed during the heat
treatment.
If PWHT is performed at temperatures
slightly above A
C1
, the enriched austenite
is stable at room temperature (Refs. 32,
34). If PWHT is carried out at tempera-
tures well above A
C1
, the austenite formed
during PWHT will be transformed to
fresh martensite during cooling (Ref.
32). If PWHT is carried out below A
C1
temperature, the austenite content will de-
crease with respect to that of the AW sam-
ple because part of it will transform to
fresh martensite after cooling to room
temperature.
Figure 6 shows the relationship be-
tween austenite content and OP of the
shielding gas for both AW and PWHT
conditions. The contents of retained
austenite increased with increasing CO
2
in
the shielding gas in AW samples. This in-
crease could be related to higher C and N
content generated using higher amounts
of CO
2
in the shielding gas as both ele-
ments are strong promoters of austenite.
Also, it has been reported (Ref. 35)
that the austenite contents are strongly
controlled by the M
S
temperature. Re-
tained austenite levels, at room tempera-
ture, are higher when M
S
decreases (Ref.
35). As seen previously, increasing the OP
in the shielding gas slightly decreased the
transformation temperature of austenite
to martensite during cooling. This slight
decrease in the M
S
temperature generated
a higher retained austenite content at
room temperature, in accord with what
was reported elsewhere (Ref. 35).
When applying PWHT, retained
austenite content increased for low OP,
while for high OP retained austenite val-
ues decreased. The higher OP, the higher
critical temperature measured. The HA
coupon (A
C1
= 590C) showed low
austenite values in the AW condition and
application of PWHT, at a temperature
slightly above A
C1
, then generated higher
amounts of retained austenite. On the
other hand, the AA coupon (A
C1
=
660C) had a higher content of austenite
in the AW condition and applying PWHT,
which was slightly below the critical tem-
perature, generated lower retained
austenite content regarding the AW sam-
ple. In conclusion, applying a PWHT at
650C for 15 min to this type of material,
austenite content can decrease or increase
depending on the PWHT temperature lo-
cation regarding the A
C1
critical tempera-
ture of the material.
Table 8 presents the values of hardness,
tension property, and toughness deter-
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Fig. 7 Influence of OP on hardness, ultimate tensile, and yield strengths.
Fig. 9 The CVN at 20C vs. austenite content.
Fig. 8 Effect of O content on the CVN absorbed energy in AW and
PWHT conditions.
Fig. 10 Hardness vs. CVN in AW and PWHT conditions at 20C.
Table 5 Critical Temperatures for Samples H and A
Sample Heating Rate A
C1
A
C3
MS
(C/min) (C) (C) (C)
HA 1 590 670 125
AA 1 660 710 115
mined on the all-weld-metal coupon for
the different conditions studied. Figure 7
shows the influence of OP on hardness, ul-
timate tensile strength, and yield strength
for the AW and PWHT samples. It can be
seen that as the gas OP increased, hard-
ness increased; this fact can be related to
the augmentation of C and N in the de-
posits as the OP increased (Ref. 18).
It is known (Refs. 3638) that C content
controls the martensite hardness. The
higher C content the higher measured hard-
ness. The literature also reports (Refs. 39,
40) that N is a promoter of carbonitrides
that generates a hardening of the structure
in these materials. Then, higher both C and
N contents will produce higher hardness.
The tensile and yield strengths showed the
same behavior that hardness did. The ap-
plication of PWHT resulted in lower values
of hardness, tensile strength, and yield
strength in all cases. As mentioned above,
the PWHT employed generated martensite
tempering and in some cases higher austen-
ite content at room temperature; these two
facts produced lower values of mechanical
properties.
It was not possible to establish a rela-
tionship between austenite contents and the
tensile properties and hardness. The ab-
sorbed energy values obtained were in the
order of these reported in the literature
(Refs. 17, 37, 41, 42). In the AW samples,
the biggest value was achieved in sample
HA (no CO
2
in the shielding gas) with 41 J
at 20C. The effect of OP on the toughness
of these materials was clearly seen: The
higher CO
2
in the shielding gas, the lower
toughness for both AW and heat-treated
samples. According to the literature (Ref.
17), O content strongly influences the
toughness values of the SMSS.
Figure 8 shows the relationship between
toughness results at 20C and the O content
in all welded metal coupon in both AW and
PWHT samples. This figure shows clearly
that the toughness decreased when the O
content increased for all coupons. The same
trends could be determined for all test tem-
perature. In all cases, the absorbed energy
values achieved after PWHT improved for
all temperatures, resulting over 50% higher
to those obtained in AW samples. The
PWHT applied, as discussed above, pro-
duced martensite tempering and, according
to the location of PWHT temperature with
respect to A
C1
temperature, generated
lower or higher austenite content in the mi-
crostructure (Ref. 43) regarding the mi-
crostructure in AW condition. The
microstructure of PWHT samples consisted
of tempered martensite, delta ferrite, and
austenite fractions.
It is known (Ref. 43) that higher stable
austenite content at room temperature in-
creases the absorbed energy in the CVN im-
pact test. It was not possible to establish a
direct relationship between austenite con-
tent and toughness. However, according to
Fig. 9, it can be seen that as the austenite
content increased, toughness tended to in-
crease. A low R
2
could be indicating that
austenite content is not the only factor in-
fluencing toughness.
Figure 10 shows the relationship be-
tween the hardness and toughness in AW
and PWHT conditions at 20C.
Conclusions
As CO
2
content in the shielding gas in-
creased, the following occurred:
1) Higher spatter and a lower width-
penetration relationship in the last bead
were obtained.
2) In the all-weld metal, C, O, and N
contents increased. Mn, Si, Cr, Ni, and Mo
contents decreased.
3) Inclusionary levels increased.
4) The microstructure, in all cases, was
constituted by a martensitic matrix with
delta ferrite and retained austenite. The
austenite content increased.
5) Hardness and tensile property
slightly augmented.
6) Toughness decreased.
Regarding the PWHT used in this
work, the following took place:
1) The microstructure did not show dif-
ferences with the PWHT.
2) Hardness and tensile properties de-
creased slightly in comparison to the AW
values.
3) Toughness was improved in all sam-
ples. In most cases, the absorbed energy
increased in more than 50% compared to
the AW samples.
4) The best toughness was achieved for
those samples welded under inert gas pro-
tection and submitted to heat treatment.
In those cases where toughness is not a
requirement, it is possible to use CO
2
gas
shielding, especially lower cost Ar/20 CO
2
.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their grat-
itude to ESAB-Sweden for the consum-
able donation and Leco chemical analysis;
Conarco-ESAB Argentina for performing
chemical analysis; Air Liquide Argentina
for donating welding gases; the Latin
American Welding Foundation, Ar-
gentina, for welding and mechanical test-
ing facilities; the Scanning Electron
Microscopy Laboratory of Inti-Mechanics,
Argentina, for SEM analysis facilities; and
APUEMFI, Argentina, along with AN-
PCyT, Argentina, for financial support.
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Table 6 Ferrite Content
Sample HA CA AA
Ferrite 8.5 10.8 9.3
Measured (%)
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V1
) (MPa) (MPa) (%) (%) 20 0 20 40 60
HA 339 1134 920 17 45 41 33 31 29 28
CA 345 1174 955 15 40 37 36 34 33 32
AA 357 1189 980 12 33 26 24 21 19 18
HP 318 1052 875 19 53 63 51 45 43 43
CP 331 1142 925 15 40 59 48 45 43 38
AP 337 1159 950 13 37 40 35 34 32 32
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31. Bilmes, P. D., Llorente, C. L., and Solari,
M. 1998. Effect of postweld heat treatment on
the microstructure and mechanical behavior of
13Cr-4NiMoL and 13Cr-6NiMoL weld metals.
The 18th ASM Heat Treating Society Conference
and Exposition. Chicago, Ill.
32. Gooch, T. G., Wolling, P., and Haynes,
A. G. 1999. Welding metallurgy of low carbon
13% chromium martensitic steels. Super-
martensitic Stainless Steel. Brussels, Belgium.
33. Arwidson, S., Baggastrom, G., and Hell-
ner, L. 1968. New steels for the power industry.
Proc. Conf. Stainless Steels. Birmingham: ISI
publication, 117.
34. Folkhard, H. 1988. Welding metallurgy
of stainless steels. Springer-Verlag Wien: 1280.
New York.
35. Wu, W., et al. 2000. The relationship be-
tween alloying elements and retained austenite
in martensitic stainless steel welds. Scripta Ma-
teriala 42: 10711076.
36. Ramirez, J. E. 2007. Weldability evalua-
tion of supermartensitic stainless steels. Weld-
ing Journal 86(5): 125-s to 134-s.
37. Perteneder, E., and Tosch, J. 1999. Im-
portant metallurgical aspects in the manual
welding of soft martensitic 13% chrome steels.
Brussels, Belgium.
38. Deleu, E., Dhooge, A., and Dufrane, J.
J. 1999. Weldability and hot deformability of
different supermartensitic stainless steel grades
by weld simulation testing. Supermartensitic
Stainless Steels 99. Brussels, Belgium.
39. Bilmes, P. D., Solari, M., and Llorente,
C. L. 2001. Characteristics and effect of austen-
ite resulting from tempering of 13Cr-NiMo
martensitic steel weld metals. Materials Charac-
terization 46: 285296.
40. Bilmes, P. D., Llorente, C. L., and Solari,
M. 2000. Role of the retained austenite on the
mechanical properties of 13Cr-4NiMo weld
metals. The 20th ASM Heat Treating Society.
Americas Center, St. Louis, Mo.
41. Heuser, H., et al. 1999. GMAW and
SAW matching filler metals for supermarten-
sitic stainless steels. Supermartensitic Stainless
Steel 99. Brussels, Belgium.
42. Bonnel, J .M., and Butter, D. J. 1999. Su-
permartensitic 13% Cr stainless steel welding
consumables for girth welding line pipe. Super-
martensitic Stainless Steels 99. Brussels, Bel-
gium.
43. Zappa, S., et al. 2008. Effect of PWHT
on supermartensitic stainless steel all weld
metal toughness. Trends in Welding Research
Proceedings of the 8th International Conference.
Pine Mountain, Ga.
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Introduction
Microalloyed steels of high strength
and low alloy (HSLA) have an excellent
combination of properties (high yield
strength, toughness, and weldability) due
to their unique characteristics of small
grain sizes achieved through very low con-
tents of alloy elements and thermome-
chanical treatment. Thus, Almeida et al.
(Ref. 1), who is also supported by other
authors such as Jing-Hong et al. (Ref. 2),
refers to the tendency of increasing appli-
cation of HSLA steels where weight re-
duction is required (through wall thick-
ness reduction), while ensuring high
weldability, which is required for field
welding. The trend in the development of
these steels for piping (API 5L X-60, X-80,
X-100 steel, according to the classification
of the American Petroleum Institute) is
closely linked to industrial demand for in-
creasing the diameters and work pressure
in pipelines.
The continuous improvement in the
properties of the HSLA steels has been
achieved by the presence of a very low con-
tent of alloying elements, such as Nb, Ti,
and V, and a thermomechanically con-
trolled treatment during rolling, which
(both) contributes to a decrease in grain
size. Other important factors, as reported
by Jing-Hong et al. (Ref. 2), are the for-
mation of desired microstructures and
precipitates (acicular ferrite and bainite,
which may also appear with retained
martensite/austenite (MA) constituents).
On the other hand, since welding
processes are employed in applications
using steels from the API 5L class, it is evi-
dent that the influence of the thermal cycles
on the heat-affected zone (HAZ) mi-
crostructures is of vital importance, espe-
cially in the region of coarsened grains. This
has resulted in a large number of papers fo-
cused on the study of this area. Das (Ref. 3)
suggested that the refinement of the mi-
crostructure near the weld interface is very
effective in improving the HAZ toughness
of microalloyed steels, which is achieved by
delaying the austenite grain growth, with
the transformation to acicular ferrite and
formation of precipitates or inclusions
within the austenite grains. For his part,
Moeinifar et al. (Ref. 4) addressed the ef-
fect of thermal cycling in X-80 steel, show-
ing that the heat input in the submerged arc
welding (SAW) process (leading to differ-
ent thermal cycles) has a significant influ-
ence on the microstructure and hardness of
the coarse-grain HAZ. With similar results,
Mohandas et al. (Ref. 5) provided a com-
parative study of the behavior of HAZ mi-
crostructure and properties for three steels
of different compositions with the shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW), gas tungsten
arc welding (GTAW), and gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) processes, relating the
process energy input to the microstructure
and properties of the HAZ.
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) obtained, in a com-
parative study of two HSLA steels with and
without niobium, based on the physical sim-
ulation of thermal cycles in a Gleeble simu-
lator, a microstructure with grain boundary
ferrite, acicular ferrite, and degenerate
pearlite at low cooling rates applied in the
no Nb steel specimens, while bainite is
formed at fast cooling rates. For the speci-
mens of the Nb-bearing steel, the referred
authors obtained granular bainite as a dom-
inant microstructure over a wide range of
cooling rates, with martensite appearing at
very fast cooling rates. Although for cooling
rates slower than 32C/s, the initial trans-
formation temperature decreases by about
20C in the presence of niobium. Zhang et
al. (Ref. 7), in another article, addressed the
Effect of Tempering Pass on HSLA-80
Steel HAZ Microstructures
Continuous cooling transformation diagrams devised from a simulated thermal
cycle were applied over a high-temperature, modified Nb-bearing
steel microstructure
BY A. CRUZ-CRESPO, D. BEZERRA DE ARAUJO, AND A. SCOTTI
ABSTRACT
The alloying system and thermal history of the hot rolling process applied to high-
strength low-alloy steels (HSLA) leads to a very particular behavior of these materi-
als under welding thermal cycles. In this work, microstructures and hardness of a grain-
coarsened heat-affected zone (HAZ) were analyzed from API 5L X80 Nb
microalloyed steel specimens after undergoing simulated thermal cycles to represent
both first and tempering passes. The first thermal cycle for each sample reached the
peak temperature of 1350C, while the second was of 950C. Using the different cool-
ing curves imposed by the simulator, a continuous cooling transformation (CCT) dia-
gram was raised for both conditions. The predominant microstructure for the first
thermal cycle was granular bainitic ferrite at low cooling rates, but it changed into
bainitic ferrite as cooling rate increases, reaching some presence of martensite at the
highest cooling rates. The microstructure in the second thermal cycle is quasi-polygo-
nal ferrite at low cooling rates and bainitic ferrite at the fastest cooling rates. How-
ever, the hardness did not exceed 300 HV in any case and the hardness measured was
even lower in the simulated tempering pass specimens. These results indicate that this
steel has high weldability and no special techniques, such as preheating, need to be
employed to prevent cold cracking. However, the study suggests the need for future
work on aging of precipitates in this grain-refined region due to the tempering pass.
A. CRUZ-CRESPO, D. BEZERRA DE
ARAUJO, and A. SCOTTI
(ascotti@mecanica.ufu.br) are with the Center
for Research and Development of Welding
Processes, Federal University of Uberlandia,
Brazil.
KEYWORDS
High-Strength Low-Alloy
(HSLA)
Nb-Microalloyed Steel
Thermal Cycle
Simulation
Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ)
Tempering Pass
OCTOBER 2013, VOL. 92
effect of niobium on the microstructure, on
the coarse-grained HAZ properties, and on
the starting transformation temperature
under the effect of different energy inputs.
Shome (Ref. 8), while also using simulation,
established that the peak temperature
makes the austenitic grain size increase lin-
early, influencing the HAZ structure and
properties.
While it is true that the effects of the
chemical composition and welding energy
on the resulting microstructure of the
coarse region of the microalloyed steel
HAZ have been relatively well studied,
specialized literature shows little or no
data regarding the effect of the temper-
ing pass on the coarse region. The main
reason for this is that the coarse-grained
region is always of concern in studies on
weldability of structural steels, as a region
susceptible to loss of toughness and as
being a facilitator of hydrogen cracking.
The microstructure refined by the tem-
pering pass technique is usually quite
beneficial for reducing hardenability and
increasing toughness. In addition to not
being known in detail, the microstructure
resulting in the refined region can be ex-
pected for steels with higher contents of
Nb to present aging of the precipitates.
Therefore, the objective of this study was
to evaluate the microstructural formation
of a tempering pass on the coarse-grained
region of the HAZ of Nb microalloyed
HSLA-80 steel, through simulating weld-
ing thermal cycles from a first pass fol-
lowed by a tempering pass.
Materials and Methods
The methodology approach of this work
was the imposition of thermal cycles repre-
senting welding with
different energies
through simulation on
samples of a microal-
loyed steel of high
strength (HSLA), Type
API 5L X80, composi-
tion being reported in
Table 1. The coarse-
grained region of the
HAZ was initially simu-
lated, assuming a peak
temperature of 1350C
and cooling rates rang-
ing from 3 to 130C/s.
Half of the specimens
that underwent this
simulation were heated
again to 950C to simu-
late the effect of heat
treatment that is car-
ried out by a second
bead over the region of
the coarse-grained
HAZ (CGHAZ) of a
precedent bead (tem-
pering pass).
As shown in Fig. 1, the base metal has a
microstructure with high prevalence of
polygonal ferrite. Alongside the polygonal
ferrite, dark-etching regions are present, re-
sulting from transformations of the residual
austenite at relatively low temperatures
(probably composed of bainite and MA mi-
croconstituent). This microstructure pat-
tern coincides with that reported by Jing-
Hong et al. (Ref. 2), Cizek et al. (Ref. 9), and
Bott et al. (Ref. 10), who deal with the char-
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Fig. 1 HSLA microstructure of the Nb microalloyed steel (API 5L X-80). Fig. 2 Cooling and heating curves experienced by the specimens to simu-
late the various thermal cycles of the first pass in the region of the coarse grain
HAZ (peak temperature = 1350C) for different diameters of the central part
of the specimens: d = 10 mm (
8/5
= 3.4C/s); d = 9 mm (
8/5
= 3.8C/s); d
= 8 mm (
8/5
= 5.4C/s); d = 7 mm (
8/5
= 13.9C/s); d = 6 mm (
8/5
=
51C/s); d = 5 mm (
8/5
= 126.6C/s).
Table 1 Chemical Composition of the Nb Microalloyed Steel (API 5L X-80), in % Mass
C Mn Si P S Mo Ni Cr Cu
0.04 1.71 0.25 0.009 0.004 0.006 0.156 0.202 0.214
V Nb Ti Al N B V + Nb + Ti
0.003 0.100 0.009 0.018 0.005 0.0001 0.112
Fig. 3 Cooling and heating curves experienced by the specimens to simu-
late the various thermal cycles imposed by the second bead on the region of
the coarse-grain HAZ of the precedent bead (peak temperature = 950C) for
different diameters of the central part of the specimens: d = 10 mm (
8/5
=
3.7C/s); d = 9 mm (
8/5
= 5.3C/s); d = 8 mm (
8/5
= 15.5C/s); d = 7 mm
(
8/5
= 52.2C/s); d = 6 mm (
8/5
= 95.2C/s); d = 5 mm (
8/5
= 151.5C/s).
acterization of steels of similar composition
to the present work. Those authors stated
the existence of MA microconstituent asso-
ciated with the ferritic grain boundaries,
which were revealed only under electron
microscopy. Other authors, such as
Almeida et al. (Ref. 1), Gorni and Mei (Ref.
11), and Shanmugam et al. (Ref. 12), report
having found, by means of electron mi-
croscopy, some presence of bainite together
with ferrite in steels with compositions rel-
atively similar to those shown in Table 1.
These authors associate this fact with
the synergistic effect that presents itself
for particular relations of microalloying
elements. An important group of authors,
such as Mishra (Pathak) et al. (Ref. 13)
and Moon et al. (Ref. 14), also confirmed
the phases and microconstituents already
mentioned in the microstructure of steels
of similar composition to that in the pres-
ent study, together with the presence of
niobium-rich precipitates associated with
the grain boundaries, which undoubtedly
contribute to the high mechanical resist-
ance of these steels.
The simulating of the thermal cycling
was performed using a simple equipment
design (described in Vilarinho and Araujo
(Ref. 15)) based on the Joule effect, which
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Fig. 4 Corresponding microstructures for the first cycle (A1, B1, C1, D1, E1, F1 ) and second cycle (A2, B2, C2, D2, E2, F2) with different cooling rates (dif-
ferent specimen diameters), where
q
= quasi-polygonal ferrite,
B
= granular bainitic ferrite,
B
o
= bainitic ferrite,
W
= Widmanstatten ferrite, M =
martensite [microconstituent nomenclatures based on Krauss and Thompson (Ref. 18)].
E2 peak = 950 and
8/5
= 95.2 C/s F1 peak = 1350 and
8/5
= 126.6 C/s F2 peak = 950 and
8/5
= 151.1 C/s
D1 peak = 1350 and
8/5
= 13.9 C/s D2 peak = 950 and
8/5
= 52.2 C/s E1 peak = 1350 and
8/5
= 51.0 C/s
B2 peak = 950 and
8/5
= 5.3 C/s C1 peak = 1350 and
8/5
= 5.4 C/s C2 peak = 950 and
8/5
= 15.5 C/s
A1 peak = 1350 and
8/5
=3.4 C/s A2 peak = 950 and
8/5
=3.7 C/s B1 peak = 1350 and
8/5
= 3.8 C/s)
enables rapid heating of specimens and al-
lows for natural cooling of the specimens
with the aid of aluminum heat sinks that
also function as support and electrical
contact. An electronic controlling device
disconnects the power source when the
preregulated temperature at the center of
the test pieces is reached. The thermo-
couple placed in the center of the sample
also records the cooling, which due to the
small dimensions of the sensor (Type K,
diameter 0.5 mm) and the characteristics
of continuous natural cooling can detect
the starting and finishing points of the
metallurgical transformations.
The specimens were cylindrical, 150
mm long, with 10 mm diameter at the ex-
tremes. In the central part, along a 10-mm
length, different diameters (510 mm)
were machined, allowing for variances in
the cooling rate over a wide range. These
geometric measures were determined by
the finite element method (Ansys) for the
desired cooling rates. One disadvantage of
this technique is that in order to obtain
very fast cooling rates, the specimen di-
ameter has to be small, and likewise the
material volume from which the thermal
cycle is measured. This characteristic
makes the sensitivity of the method lower
to detect activation energy for the starting
and finishing of transformations. Cross-
sections of the specimens under different
cooling rates were cut in the central region
for metallographic analysis (2% Nital
etching) and microhardness (10 indenta-
tions with a load of 500 g and a load appli-
cation time of 10 s).
To determine the starting and finishing
points of the transformations, a differen-
tial analysis has been used, as described by
Zachrisson (Ref. 16). This analysis con-
sists of performing a regression of a part
of the experimental cooling curves (the
curve that best fits is the exponential type
T
reg
= ae
bt
+ ce
dt
, where a, b, c, and d are
coefficients obtained by regression analy-
sis and where t is the time) and extrap-
olate it so as to include temperatures
below transformation. The difference be-
tween the thermal cycle experimental
curve (T = f(t)) and the regression curve
in the region where deviation is perceived
(D(T)
i
= T
i
T
regi
) is plotted in relation
to temperature, thereby obtaining the
temperatures of the transformations. A
similar technique was successfully applied
by Alexandrov and Lippold (Ref. 17), but
rather than using determined exponential
equations as reference thermal cycles,
they used calculated (analytic formulas or
numerical modeling) ones for generating
the references.
Thermal Cycles of the Coarse-Grain
Region of the HAZ during the First and
Tempering Passes
The curves of thermal cycles to simu-
late the effect of the first bead (peak tem-
peratures 1350C) are shown in Fig. 2.
Analogously, the thermal cycles to simu-
late the effect of a second weld pass (peak
temperature of 950C), that is, the over-
heating of a region affected by the heat of
the precedent pass (coarse-grain region
of the HAZ, in this case), are shown in
Fig. 3. Inflections in the curves shown in
Figs. 2 and 3 are observed (more distinct
307-s
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WELDING JOURNAL
Table 2 Resulting Cooling Rates between 800 and 500C (
8/5
) that the Specimens Experienced after Heating up to 1350 and 950C, to
Simulate a First Pass and the Subsequent Effect of a Tempering Pass, Respectively, under Different Simulated Heat Inputs
Specimen center diameters (mm) Cooling rate (
8/5
) from first Cooling rate (
8/5
) from tempering
pass CGHAZ simulation pass simulation on the CGHAZ
5 126.6C/s 151.5C/s
6 51C/s 92.2C/s
7 13.9C/s 52.2C/s
8 5.4C/s 15.5C/s
9 3.8C/s 5.3C/s
10 3.4C/s 3.7C/s
Note: Cooling rates after heating up to 1350C to simulate a first pass and then heating the same specimen to 950C to simulate the effect of a subsequent tempering
pass.
Fig. 5 Microhardness after both the first and sec-
ond thermal cycles as a function of the cooling rate
between 800 and 500C.
Fig. 6 CCT diagrams resulting from the first ther-
mal cycle (simulating the coarse-grain HAZ region):
The martensite starting temperature (Ms 465C) is
a predicted value, calculated from Andrewss equa-
tion Ms(C) = 539 423 C 30.4 Mn 17.7 Ni
12.1 Cr 7.5 Mo, employed by Zhang et al. (Ref. 7).
Fig. 7 CCT diagrams resulting from the second
thermal cycle (simulating the refinement of the coars-
ened-grain region of the HAZ-tempering pass): The
martensite starting temperature (Ms 465C) is a
predicted value, calculated from Andrewss equation
Ms(C) = 539 423 C 30.4 Mn 17.7 Ni 12.1
Cr 7.5 Mo, employed by Zhang et al. (Ref. 7).
for slower cooling rates, justified mainly
because of a larger metal volume in the
region of temperature measurements
and a not high enough dynamic response
from the thermocouple 0.5-mm wires).
These are characteristics of the activation
energy for the start and finish of the
transformation in ferritic steels. The
cooling rates (
8/5
) in the range of tem-
peratures from 800 to 500C are summa-
rized in Table 2 and also reported in the
captions of the thermal cycle plots.
As seen, the cooling rates become
proportionately faster for the thermal
cycle with peak temperature of 950C
compared to the first cycle with peak
temperature of 1350C. Such behavior is
typical of simulations as in the present
work (less heat to dissipate), but that
should also be observed in an actual
welding setting.
Influence of the First and Second
Thermal Cycles on the Microstructure of
the Coarse Region HAZ
The difference in behavior of the trans-
formations during cooling of the speci-
mens with different cooling rates leads to
variations in the microstructure of some
with regard to others. (The microstructure
identification in this work was based on a
nomenclature for ferritic microcon-
stituents taken from the Atlas for Bainitic
Microstructures, developed by the Iron and
Steel Institute of Japan Bainite Commit-
tee and described by Krauss and Thomp-
son (Ref. 18).) It is important to mention
that microconstituent nomenclature for
carbon steel HAZ is still not standardized,
but a discussion in this direction or any
proposal of microstructure nomenclature
is out of focus for this paper. Figure 4
shows, side by side, the microstructures of
the specimens under different thermal cy-
cles, at 1350C (simulating the first pass)
on the left, and 950C (simulating the tem-
pering pass) on the right. In relation to the
original microstructure of steel (Fig. 1),
one perceives greater grain sizes in the re-
gion heated to 1350C (Fig. 4, left). The
grain growth for this type of steel resulting
from a range of peak temperatures has
been studied by Kuziak et al. (Ref. 19) and
Shome (Ref. 8), for whom up to a temper-
ature of about 1100C the austenite grain
practically does not grow, but then in-
creases almost linearly at a high rate. This
phenomenon could be motivated by the
dissolution of the precipitates rich in Nb as
a function of the elapsed time at tempera-
tures above 1100C. In contrast, Ivanov et
al. (Ref. 20) show a gradual growth of the
grain at peak temperature.
Figure 4A1 and Fig. 4B1 show the mi-
crostructure of the coarse-region HAZ
with slow cooling (3.4 and 3.8C/s), char-
acterized by the predominant presence of
granular bainitic ferrite (
B
). This result is
consistent with those reported by Zhang et
al. (Refs. 6, 7), Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11),
and Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20), who obtained
CCT diagrams for steels with relatively
similar compositions to that of the present
work, where the transformation from
austenite to bainite is predominant. And
for the cooling rate of 5.4C/s, shown on
the microstructure (Fig. 4C1), alongside
the granular bainitic ferrite (
B
) there is
the presence of bainitic ferrite of type
B
o
and Widmansttten ferrite (
W
). For even
faster cooling rates (13.9 to 51.0C/s), the
presence of bainitic ferrite of type
B
o
is
even more visible (Fig. 4D1 and E1). In
the case of 4D1, there is still some granu-
lar bainitic ferrite
B
. Whenever a peak
temperature above the dissolution of the
niobium-rich precipitates is reached,
which, according to Zhang et al. (Ref. 6)
and Moeinifar et al. (Ref. 4), is less than
1200C, this element (Nb), in solid solu-
tion for such cooling rates, obstructs the
kinetics of ferrite grain formation. This
happens because solute drags at the
austenite grain boundary, thereby pro-
moting the formation of bainitic ferrite
type
B
o
. In the particular case of the cool-
ing rate of 126.6C/s, Fig. 4F1 shows the
presence of martensite (M) mixed with
bainitic ferrite type
B
o
. The presence of
bainitic ferrite (
B
o
) with martensite
(M) in the microstructure at faster cool-
ing rates is consistent with that reported by
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) and Ivanov et al. (Ref.
20), who show a CCT diagram (obtained
for a steel composition relatively similar to
the present study) with martensitic trans-
formation at lower temperatures when the
cooling rate exceeds 50C/s.
According to the manifestation of a
large number of authors, among them Shi
and Han (Ref. 21), transformation of
austenite to bainite takes place during the
cooling process experienced by the differ-
ent specimens (different cooling rates).
This occurs through a migration of carbon
into the interior of the austenite grains,
thereby stabilizing the austenite and fa-
voring martensite transformation at lower
temperatures, which leads to the appear-
ance of MA microconstituent. These au-
thors show that to the extent that t
8/5
in-
creases (with decreasing cooling rate) the
MA fraction increases.
The microstructures corresponding to
the coarse region HAZ after undergoing a
second thermal cycle with different cooling
rates are shown to the right in Fig. 4. The
peak temperature reached the normaliza-
tion temperature (grain refinement) for the
steel under study, considering the high heat-
ing rates. In all cases, there is a tendency to-
ward the formation of a finer microstruc-
ture as compared to the first heat cycle, as
would be expected by the thermal history
imposed (even considering starting the
transformation from coarse grains, the
comparison with Fig. 1 shows the grains will
be as fine as those of the base metal, sug-
gesting the action of restriction to grain
growth of Nb carbonitrides).
If one compares the microstructure of
Fig. 4A2, corresponding to the slowest
cooling rate of the second thermal cycle,
with that of Fig. 1, corresponding to the
base metal, a high similarity is noted. This
microstructure is characterized by a high
predominance of quasi-polygonal ferrite
(
q
). In such cases, the most notable dif-
ference is that, in the base metal (Fig. 1),
the grains have a certain orientation due
to the effect of the controlled thermome-
chanical rolling process and the ferrite
grain boundaries are smooth and continu-
ous, in that for the lowest cooling rate in
the second cycle (Fig. 4A2) the grains
present irregular grain boundaries.
The presence of quasipolygonal ferrite
(
q
) is noted in the microstructure after
the second cycle at low cooling rates
Fig. 4A2, B2, and C2. In the particular
case of 4C2 (cooling rates of 15.5C/s)
alongside the quasipolygonal ferrite (
q
)
is the presence of granular bainitic ferrite
(
B
). For faster cooling rates (52.2C/s),
the microstructure is granular bainitic fer-
rite (
B
) mixed with bainitic ferrite type
B
o
Fig. 4D2. And for cooling rates of
95.2 and 151.2C/s, the microstructure is
predominantly bainitic ferrite (
B
o
)
Fig. 4E2 and 4F2. The fact that no marten-
site appears in the microstructure (Fig.
4F2), despite a faster cooling rate
(151.5C/s) than in the first cycle
(126.6C/s), is explained, according to
Shome and Mohanty (Ref. 22), as the re-
duction of austenite grain size in the sam-
ple under the second thermal cycle, which
reduces the hardenability.
The Influence of the First and Second
Thermal Cycles on the Microhardness of
the Coarse-Region HAZ
The microhardness values obtained for
the HAZ grain-coarsened region, corre-
sponding to different cooling rates be-
tween 800 and 500C during the thermal
cycles simulating the first bead and the
tempering pass, are shown in Fig. 5. It be-
comes evident that, in general, the micro-
hardness tends to increase with an in-
crease in the cooling rate, which is
explained mainly by the modifications un-
dergone in the microstructure, which are
covered in detail in the previous section.
(The effect of grain sizes on hardness, i.e.,
a faster cooling rate would lead to smaller
grains, which, in turn, usually present
greater hardness, cannot be neglected in
this analysis, yet with less significance,
considering the fact that the found hard-
ness for the tempering pass is lower than
that of the first pass, although the temper-
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ing grain size is smaller.) Such behavior
has been reported by a large number of au-
thors for steels of similar composition to
that used in the present work, including
such authors as Zhang et al. (Ref. 6),
Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11), Cizek et al. (Ref.
9), and Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20), which is ob-
viously also justified based on the changes
in the microstructure. In the particular
case of Gorni and Meis work, one obtains
the behavior of the Vickers hardness as a
function of cooling rate on a logarithmic
scale, showing that a steel of lower carbon
content (0.04%) hardness is practically
constant for low values of cooling rate,
growing for faster cooling rates, acquiring
a parabolic character, similar to that
shown in Fig. 5 of this work.
The microhardness of the base metal
(218 5 HV
0.5
) is slightly superior to that
obtained after the thermal cycles simulat-
ing the first pass with slow cooling rate
(208 3 HV
0.5
, 211 3 HV
0.5
, 206 4
HV
0.5
, 213 3 HV
0.5
, corresponding to
3.4, 3.8, 5.4, and 13.9C/s, respectively
Fig. 5). This fact is more associated with
the elapsed time at high temperatures,
above the dissolution temperature of the
Nb-rich precipitates, than with the cooling
rates between 800 and 500C. After a suf-
ficient elapsed time at high temperatures
for dissolution to occur, the cooling rate is
such that it prevents the diffusive process
and the reprecipitation on the grain
boundary, which make a significant hard-
ening effect. The loss of the hardening ef-
fect of the precipitates is not fully com-
pensated for by the hardening effect of the
transformation, which takes place upon
cooling due to the thermal cycle.
Interestingly, the particular case of
specimen microhardness under the cool-
ing rate of 5.4C/s during the first thermal
cycle, which although statistically similar
to the specimens with slower rates, is
slightly lower in terms of its average value.
If observed in detail in the microstructure
of Fig. 4A1, B1, and C1, one can perceive
that, alongside the granular bainitic ferrite
(
B
), bainitic ferrite (
B
o
), and Wid-
mansttten ferrite (
W
) microstructures
appeared in the form of coarse plates for
the lowest cooling rate (5.4C/s), causing a
softening. However, it is appropriate to re-
iterate that the softening of the metal is
not significant from the point of view of
the statistical value variability.
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) suggest that the
hardness of the granular bainitic ferrite
(
B
) ranges between 210 and 240 HV, so
the microhardness values obtained for
specimens with slower cooling rates (3.4,
3.8, 5.4, and 13.9C/s) in the first heat
cycle (Fig. 5) fully correspond to the pres-
ence of granular bainitic ferrite (
B
) ob-
served for these specimens in Fig. 4A1,
B1, C1, and D1. For their part, Moeinifar
et al. (Ref. 4), who reported the predomi-
nance of granular bainitic ferrite (
B
) in
the microstructure of the coarse-grained
region of the HAZ, obtained microhard-
ness values near the maximum range for
this already mentioned microconstituent
(around 240 HV). The difference between
the microhardness values for granular
bainitic ferrite (
B
) obtained by these au-
thors and those obtained in the present
work is related to the higher carbon con-
tent in the steel for the aforementioned
work.
For the highest cooling rates (51.0C/s
and 126.6C/s) during the first thermal
cycle, the growth of the microhardness
(Fig. 5) is undoubtedly linked to the high
presence of bainitic ferrite (
B
o
) (Fig.
4E1), bainitic ferrite (
B
o
), and martensite
(M) Fig. 4F1. Such an increase in the
microhardness together with an increase
in the cooling rate could also be related to
increasing the volume fraction of the MA
microconstituent. As such, Moeinifar et
al. (Ref. 4) concluded that increasing the
cooling rate increases the fraction of the
MA microconstituent, which, in this case,
plays a governing role on the hardness
progress in the region of the coarse grain
in the HAZ.
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) state that marten-
site (M) presents microhardness values
of 320 to 340 HV, which were not reached
in this work, even for the highest cooling
rate (126.6C/s) during the first thermal
cycle Fig. 5. Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20) de-
clared the presence of martensite for high
cooling rates, obtaining a microhardness
value of around 325 HV at 50C/s, when
the peak temperature is 1350C. Such a
high value in microhardness obtained by
the above authors, in relation to this work,
is primarily related to the higher carbon
content (0.06%) compared to that re-
ported in Table 1.
From Fig. 5, the second thermal cycle
(simulated tempering pass) also leads to
an increased microhardness as the cooling
rate is faster, consistent with the modifi-
cations undergone in the microstructure
(Fig. 4A2F2). Such an increase in the mi-
crohardness could also be related to the
possible increase in the volume fraction of
the MA microconstituent. When compar-
ing microhardness as a function of cooling
rate between conditions after the first
cycle and after the second cycle, it is clear
that there is regularity in behavior be-
tween the two conditions, but lower values
for the second thermal cycle (the differ-
ence becomes more evident as the cooling
rate increases). The parabolic character
obtained for the microhardness, both after
the first thermal cycle and the second, is
completely coincident with results ob-
tained by Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11). The
decrease in microhardness is a general in-
dication that the second thermal cycle has
a positive effect on the coarse-grained
HAZ region. This confirms the reduction
of hardenability due to the finer granular-
ity achieved in the recrystallization zone of
the coarse HAZ under the second cycle.
Obtaining Continuous Cooling
Transformation (CCT) Curves for the First
and Second Thermal Cycles of the
Coarse-Region HAZ
After thermal cycling of Figs. 2 and 3,
the continuous cooling transformation di-
agrams referring to the first and the sec-
ond thermal cycles were obtained, as seen
in Figs. 6 and 7. In Fig. 6, it can be seen
that the changes during the first thermal
cycle occur at temperatures lower than
those reported by several authors for API
X80 steels, amongst them Zhang and Far-
rar (Ref. 23), Zhao et al. (Ref. 24), Stal-
heim et al. (Ref. 25), Cizek et al. (Ref. 26),
Jing-Hong et al. (Ref. 2), and Liu et al.
(Ref. 27). However, these authors have
worked with diagrams related to thermal
treatment processes, from which it follows
that the heating is slower and with longer
elapsed time in the austenitic region. This
drop in temperature of phase transforma-
tion in the case of thermal cycles of the
HAZ has been reported by Zhang et al.
(Ref. 6). Zhang et al. also showed that as
one increases the cooling rate there is a
further decrease in the transformation
temperature, due to lower elapsed times
above 900C, limiting the diffusive
processes of phase transformation. Ac-
cording to Zhang et al. (Ref. 6), and Gorni
and Mei (Ref. 11), as the cooling rate be-
tween 800 and 500C grows there is also
an improvement in the stability of the
austenite, which lowers the transforma-
tion temperature.
In total agreement with the CCT dia-
gram of Fig. 6, the curves of Fig. 2 suggest
that diffusional transformations (austen-
ite to bainite) take place for any cooling
rate (manifested by sensitive variation of
latent heat, causing deflection in the
recorded thermal cycle). As observed in
Fig. 2, deflections were not observed only
in the curve of the fastest cooling rate.
Latent heat of austenite to martensite
transformation is not well divulged in
current literature. Radaj (Ref. 28, p. 292)
cites other sources to say that the latent
heat of the austenite-pearlite transfor-
mation is 92 J/g and the latent heat of the
austenite-martensite transformation is
83 J/g for a 1.2% C. Even considering the
higher content of C and no data provided
for austenite-bainite transformation, the
differences in the figure are not remark-
able to eliminate the deflection. In addi-
tion, Alexandrov and Lippold (Ref. 17)
detected this transformation measuring
in-situ weld metal continuous cooling
transformation. Thus, the main reason
for not detecting the latent heat of an
austenite to martensite transformation in
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the cooling curves might be the limitation
of the simulation (low metal volume in
the region of temperature measurements
and not too fast dynamic response from
the thermocouple).
Upon analysis of microstructure re-
sulting from transformations (Fig.
4A1F1), the presence of bainite is de-
clared in all specimens (coarse HAZ dur-
ing the first thermal cycle). This result is
also coincident with those reported by
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6), Gorni and Mei
(Ref. 11), and Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20), who
obtained CCT diagrams for steels of rel-
atively similar composition to the pres-
ent work, where the transformation from
austenite to bainite was predominant.
The presence of martensite (M), (Fig.
4F1) evidenced by hardness close to 300
HV and by the martensite starting tem-
perature line in Fig. 6, may be possible if
together with bainitic ferrite (
B
o
) in the
microstructure, the curve deflection is
still present. This is consistent with that
reported by Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11) and
Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) for steels similar to
the one in this work. From these authors,
the martensitic transformation defined is
based either on the microstructure and
hardness, in the case of Zhang et al. (Ref.
6), or established in calculated (pre-
dicted) CCT diagrams, as in the case of
Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11) at a constant
temperature. For their part, Ivanov et al.
(Ref. 20) also obtained a CCT diagram
that shows the martensitic transforma-
tion temperature for high cooling rates,
without declaring how they define this
temperature. Zhang et al. (Ref. 6) and
Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20) show the marten-
sitic transformation as being possible
when the cooling rate exceeds 50C/s,
which is in line with the present work. If
one compares the CCT diagram repre-
senting the coarse-grain HAZ as for the
first pass (Fig. 6) with that obtained ac-
cording to the second thermal tempering
pass cycle (Fig. 7), one can see that in this
last mentioned there also appears a
transformation of austenite to ferrite
curve at low cooling rates, which obvi-
ously occurs with a higher level of diffu-
sion. Data from Gorni and Mei (Ref. 11)
coincide with this result, which states the
ferrite transformation at low cooling
rates, below 0.5C/s. The difference in
cooling rates at which this transforma-
tion occurred in the referred work and in
this present work may be linked to a high
retention in the austenite region, which
undoubtedly increases the stability of
this phase. Also, Ivanov et al. (Ref. 20)
agree with the possible occurrence of
ferrite transformation, while reporting a
CCT diagram where this transformation
is reflected even at cooling rates above
50C/s, which could be associated prima-
rily with higher carbon content (0.06%)
in relation to that of the present work
(0.04%).
Bainitic transformation for the second
thermal cycle (tempering pass) (Fig. 7) oc-
curs at higher temperatures than in the
first Fig. 6. The foregoing is also related
to the elapsed time in the austenitic re-
gion. In the first cycle, there is more time
spent in the austenitic region than in the
second due to a higher peak temperature
(1350C for the first cycle and 950C for
the second) leading to increased solubility
and slow transformation temperatures
during cooling. The presence of marten-
site in the tempering pass would not be
possible within the cooling range under in-
vestigation (Fig. 7), which agrees with the
microstructures obtained Fig. 4.
It is important to point out that An-
drewss equation for MS temperature pre-
diction used in Figs. 6 and 7 was not de-
veloped for steels with such a low-C
content. However, Capdevila (Ref. 29)
points out that although the relationship
between the martensite start transforma-
tion temperature and steel composition
has been investigated previously by sev-
eral researchers (for instance, Grange and
Stewart, 1946; Payson and Savage, 1944;
and Kung and Rayment, 1978), it was the
study by Andrews (1965) that has proved
to be the most reliable, because it consid-
ered the largest number of samples. Sour-
maila and Garcia-Mateo (Ref. 30) show a
comparison between their proposed neu-
tral network model results and the predic-
tions from Andrews and concluded that
the neural network model performs at
least equally as well as the thermodynamic
approach. Applying Sourmaila and Gar-
cia-Mateos model for the steel of this
work, a very similar MS temperature was
found, i.e., 460C.
General Discussion
Considering the different behaviors
between metallurgical characteristics (mi-
crostructure and hardness) when applied
to a first cycle peak temperature of 1350C
and a second cycle on the coarse-grained
zone formed (peak temperature of
900C), this can be explained by the theory
and supported by results from other au-
thors, demonstrating the validity of the ap-
plied simulation. The possibility of work-
ing with natural cooling in the region of
study and application of the technique of
differential analysis made it possible to
draw up CCT diagrams for different ther-
mal experiences undergone by the steel,
similar to what happens in welding.
The CCT diagrams show that for the
microstructure of the coarse-grained
HAZ zone, either the primary formation
(simulating the first pass) or recrystalliza-
tion (simulating a second pass or temper-
ing pass) are mainly granular bainitic fer-
rite (
B
) or bainitic ferrite (
B
o
). There is
a perceived improvement in properties of
the coarse HAZ region when tempered by
reducing the grain size and decrease in
hardness (the hardenability is lower),
showing that the steel in question also has
high weldability. From the standpoint of
hardness, which according to Ivanov et al.
(Ref. 20) has a direct relationship with the
mechanical properties for HSLA steels,
only a very high cooling rate, greater than
100C/s, puts the union at risk due to hy-
drogen-assisted cold cracking initiated in
the HAZ. That is, the material could be
welded by a very large range of processes
and parameters, and no preheating proce-
dure is needed.
Continuous cooling transformation
diagrams could be obtained for other re-
gions of the HAZ (including HAZ in the
bead metal recrystallized by precedent
passes), facilitating the programming of
sequences of passes to optimize the joint
properties. On the other hand, although
it was not verified in the work, carboni-
tride precipitates or the forming of mi-
croconstituent MA could happen, espe-
cially in HAZ regions in which the
temperature was below the dissolution
temperatures for Nb-bearing precipi-
tates. These microconstituents can dete-
riorate properties of the HAZ, especially
concerning toughness. This means that,
despite the high weldability demon-
strated by this study for this steel, further
investigation on all regions of the HAZ is
advised and possible with the same ex-
perimental approach.
Conclusions
1. The system used to evaluate the effect
of thermal cycling on the microstructure
formation of the HAZ of a HSLA steel
(simulator and method of differential analy-
sis of cooling curve) was effective and prac-
tical, sensitive enough to produce CCT dia-
grams of different regions of the HAZ.
2. For the CCT diagrams of the original
HAZ (the first heat cycle) of the steel under
study, the microstructure is predominantly
granular bainitic ferrite (
B
) at low cooling
rates, but is transformed into bainitic ferrite
(
B
o
), to the extent that increases in the
cooling rate made it finer. Even for very
high cooling rates, the microstructure is pre-
dominantly bainitic ferrite (
B
o
) with the
presence of martensite. In all cases, the mi-
crohardness is less than 300 HV, qualifying
the steel studied as of good weldability.
3. From the point of view of the basic mi-
crostructure, the CCT diagram shows that
the recrystallized region (simulating the
temperature for a second pass) further im-
proved the weldability of the material under
study, by refining the grain while reducing
the hardness, even though not significantly
altering the type of microstructure.
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Acknowledgments
The authors thank engineers Lucia
Basilio P. de Souza and Ivy Jorge Franco
for their support in performing the ther-
mal simulation of the specimens. They
also are pleased to thank the Brazilian
agency CAPES, which, by means of proj-
ect No. 059/2009, financially supported
the experimental work and enabled inter-
action between the researchers involved.
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niques. Edited by Elena Pereloma and David V.
Edmonds, Woodhead Publishing Ltd., pp.
464500, ISBN 978-1-84569-971-0 (print)/
ISBN 978-0-85709-611-1 (online).
30. Sourmaila, T., and Garcia-Mateo, C.
2005. Critical assessment of models for predict-
ing the Ms temperature of steels. Computa-
tional Materials Science 34(4): 323334,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.com-
matsci.2005.01.002.
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PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING

. 2013 Victor Technologies International, Inc.

ran approx. 50 linear ft

to have your next lter replacement.

flux cored products,

is the most requested

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