University of Jordan

Department of Chemical Engineering Dr. Ali Al-Shawabkeh Lecture Notes -1-

Introduction to Transport Phenomena

What is Transport Phenomena: Study of the principles of momentum, heat and mass transport (text book chapters: 17) and their applications to unit operations (text book chapters: 7-14): Momentum (moving media): Fluid flow, sedimentation, mixing, etc. Heat: Drying, evaporation, distillation, etc. Mass: Distillation, absorption, liquid-solid leaching, liquid-liquid extraction, etc. General Molecular Transport Equations: Molecular (diffusive) transport: Momentum, heat and mass are ultimately transported via interaction at a molecular level. Convective (bulk) transport: In fluids via many thousands of molecules move temporarily as aggregates (e.g., in eddies ) or may be defined as the gross motion of these clumps (bucket) of fluid. Molecular Momentum Eq. (Newtons Law of Viscosity): d F yz = = z A dy where yz is the z-directed shear stress (N/m2) in a plane perpendicular to the y axis and parallel to the x axis (action of shear stress on the xz plane), is the dynamic (absolute) viscosity of the fluid (Ns/m2 = Pas), and d z is the velocity gradient, shear rate or strain rate (s1). dy Molecular Heat Eq. (Fouriers Law): d ( c p T ) qz dT k d ( c p T ) = k = = q z = A dz c p dz dz where 2 q z is the z-directed heat flux (W/m ), is the density of the medium through which the heat flows (kg/m3), c p is the specific heat of the medium through which the heat flows (J/kgK),
k is the thermal conductivity of the medium through which the heat flows (W/mK),

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 is the thermal diffusion coefficient (m2/s), and dT is the temperature gradient (K/m). dz
Molecular Mass Eq. (Ficks Law): dC A J Az = D AB dz where is the z-directed molal diffusion flux of component A through component B (mol J Az 2 A/m s), D AB is the mass diffusion coefficient of component A in component B (m2/s), and dC A is the concentration gradient of component A (mol A/m4). dz Molecular Momentum Eq. (Newtons Law of Viscosity): If a glycerin (viscous liquid) is confined between two horizontal large flat plate, where the spacing (the Upper flat plate Glycerine (viscous liquid) gap) (UP) o = constant between the x plates is small (H). yo H When the x ( y) y upper plate (UP) is dragged (by Lower flat plate applying a (LP) uniform and continuous shearing force F on it) so that the UP is now moving at constant velocity o in the x direction as illustrated in the figure. Then a streamline flow (laminar) of linear velocity profile x ( y ) Glycerin C3H5(OH)3: will be established. Sweet, syrupy viscous liquid (1494 cP at 20C). The shear stress (Pa) Colorless when pure. acting on the first upper fluid lamina by the UP Hygroscopic or humectant (agent that attracts can be determined as: moisture and retains it). Used as solvents in textile industries and for d x yx = drugs, polishes, printer ink, leather, plastics, dy paper, as moisturing and flavoring agent into F = constant, tobacco, as preservative agent in food stuff, as A moisturing agent in cosmetics, as softening yx is constant agent in polymer manufacturing, lubricants, d x x 2 x 1 rubbers. = dy y 2 y1

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 d x 0 o = = o dy H 0 H d x = o dy H
yx = = constant H if the fluid is Newtonian; f (shear rate)

The velocity profile can be derived as: x ( y ) = o (1 y / H ) dP The flow when it is purely sheared (no pressure gradient: = 0 ) is called Couette dx , and the shear stress yx is, therefore, constant. The laminar flow in the above flow between two large horizontal plates can be obtained if the plates are large, the spacing between them is small and if the flow velocity profile is small and the surfaces in contact with the flowing fluid are smooth. Viscosity: The viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow (resistance of fluid's laminar molecules to the applied external shearing (tangential) force. When a real fluid moves (deforms), internal shear forces opposing the direction of its motion come into being (called fluid friction or viscosity). Ideal fluid has no resistance to shear deformation (inviscid fluid; = 0 ). Its flow is called frictionless flow. Gases: In gases, the intermolecular forces are negligible, so as the temperature increases, the molecular activity (random motion) increases and the relative motion of molecules from one laminae to another decreases increases. T , f ( P ) up to about 10 atm (for P 10 atm, P , ) Liquids: In liquids, the intermolecular forces (cohesion forces) are strong since the molecules are closely spaced. As the temperature increases, the cohesive forces decreases; the resistance to the relative motion of molecules from one laminae to another decreases decreases. Viscosity Units: has the unit of Ns/m2 or Pas or kg/ms 1 poise (Jean Loius Poiseuille: 1799-1869) = 1 g/cms 1 cP (centipoise) = 0.01 poise = 0.001 Pas

= is called kinematic viscosity and has the units of m2/s

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1 st (Sir George Stokes: 1819-1903) = 1 cm2/s Viscosity of liquids are 2 order of magnitudes larger than that of gases. Table 1 lists values of viscosity of various gases and liquids: He 1.96 H2 2.08 Gases O2 1.91 10 5 at 20C (Pas) N2 1.67 CO2 1.38 Air 1.71 Mercury (25C) 1.53 Benzene (25C) 0.601 Benzene (50C) 0.898 Liquids CO2 (0C) 0.098 3 10 (Pas) Water (25C) 0.890 Glycerin (20C) 1500 Ethanol (20C) 1.21 Gasoline 0.29 Benzene 0.65 Fresh water 1 Liquids Sea water 1.07 at 20C (cP) Mercury 1.56 Kerosene 1.92 Crude oil 7.2 Glycerin 1494 Salts (such as NaCl or SLES: sodium lauryl ether sulfates) used in detergent manufacturing such as liquid dish washing increases the viscosity (called viscosity builder or thickening agents).
Newtonian Fluids: A Newtonian fluid is a fluid that obeys Newton's d law of viscosity yx = x ; that is, its viscosity dy is constant (does not depend on the applied shear rate: d d yx = x = x = dy dy

yx

= constant

All gases and most liquids of simple chemical formula (water, benzene, ethyl alcohol, carbon tetrachloride, hexane, etc.) are Newtonian.

NonNewtonian Fluids: A nonNewtonian fluid is a fluid that has a viscosity which is dependent on the applied shear rate: = , such as slurries, gels, pastes, molten high molecular

weight polymers (polyethelene), emulsions, colloidal suspensions, clay suspensions,

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greases, concrete mixes, toothpaste, food stuff (milk shakes, ketchup, mayonnaise), multigrade motor oils. The nonNewtonian substance has Bingham plastic = both rubber (solid)-like behavior Pseudoplas tic (elastic (elastic) and fluid-like behavior solid) (viscous). Thus it is called Newtonian viscoelastic or elascoviscous. NonNewtonian is a subdivision of yx rheology (science of deformation Dilatant and flow: study of the mechanical properties of gases, liquids, pastes, = 0 (invicid) glases, plastics, asphalts and crystalline materials).the NonNewtonian fluids maybe divided into bingham plastics, pseuodoplastics and dilatant.

RHEOLOGY SPECTRUM
Viscosity
(Newtonian fluids)
gases, most simple liquids

Deformation and flow of gunky ( ) and gooey material (nonNewtonian)

Elacticity
(solids)
steel, copper, wood

144244 3

1 2 3

Bingham Plastics: Such as bread dough, toothpaste, jellies, soap, paper pulp, margarine, sludge (), chocolate, grease, paint, sewage ( ) . The two-parameter model: yx = o + o { {
Yield stress (threshold) Plastic viscosity

If yx o (solid behavior): fluid remains rigid; no motion). Toothpaste inside the can or when on the brush. If yx o (fluid behavior; viscous): fluid flows like a Newtonian with o viscosity). Any nonNewtonian fluid may be represented by: yx = a {
Apparent viscosity

a o

very small

very

large

For a bingham plastic fluid:

a = o +

a o for large , a for small

Pseudoplastics: Such as detergent slurries, polymers solutions (melts), dispersion media in some pharmaceuticals, and paints.
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Dilatants: Such as wet beach sand, corn flour- sugar solutions, starch in water, and potassium silicate solutions. Ostwald de Waele Model (Power Law Model):
Flow - behavior index (power law index) ()

The two-parameter model: yx =

Consistency coefficient (Pa s n )

m {

} n

n = 1: the fluid is Newtonian with constant m = . n1 : the viscosity increases with increasing the shear rate, i.e., shear-thickening fluid (dilatant). n1 : the viscosity decreases with increasing the shear rate, i.e., shear-thinning fluid (pseudoplastic).
Viscosity Measuring Devices (Viscometers): Parallel-Plate Viscometer: A possible design for a parallel plate viscometer consists of a vertical, rectangular box with a centrally located plate x inside. The fluid to be tested is o = constant placed in the box and the force F necessary to remove the plate at a fixed speed ( o ) is measured. The A weight of the plate is negligible; the plate is located equidistant x ( y) between the walls; clearance between the plate and each wall is L; the total area of plate immersed y at instant of reading is A on a side. Test fluid End effects are usually negligible. =? d F L yx = = x = constant A dy L ( F 2 A) L =

Concentric-Cylinder Viscometer: The fluid to be tested is placed between the two concentric cylinders to a depth H. One cylinder is kept stationary while the other one is to be rotated at an angular velocity (called Stormer viscometer if the outer cylinder is stationary; and CouetteHatschek viscometer if the inner one is stationary). The torque T necessary to rotate the cylinder at a certain velocity in radians per second is measured. T1 = F r1 r1 T1 = r r A(r1 ) r1
1

T1 = r

r1

2r1 H r1

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} 4 r12 r22 H T1 = r22 r12

rad/s

Stormer

Couette - Hatscheck

(r )
r1 r1

(r )

Test fluid =?

r2

r2

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